City of glasgow college

Contents:

Page:
3.0 Electrical Power Systems
4.0 Types of Distribution Systems
5.1 The Earthing Arrangements
5.2 Earthing Standards
5.3 Ground Rise Potential
5.4 International Standards
6.0 TN-Networks
Schematic of Primary Substation
8.0 Energy Sources
8.1 Wind Power
8.2 Coal
8.3 Nuclear
8.4 Natural Gas
9.0 Load Matching
9.1 Maximum Demand (Peak Load)
9.2 Demand Factor
9.3 Diversity Factor
10.0 The Reasons and Applications of Energy Monitoring
10.1 Power Quality
10.2 Problems Harmonics Create
11.0 What a Filter is and How it Operates
2
3. Electrical Power Systems
　

Electricity is one of the most convenient and friendly forms of energy available today for our day to
day needs. Electrical power is used for domestic lighting, heating and motive power for driving various
types of loads in industries etc. Electrical power & energy is produced (or converted from one form of
energy to electrical energy) at power stations. These stations are located at various places in our
country and most of them are far and remote from consumer loads. The sets of equipments installed,
from sources up to the consumer loads, performing the processes of generation,
transmission/transformation and distribution of electrical energy, is known as an electrical power
systems.
This means that the generated energy has to be transferred from the sources up to the consumer
loads commonly through large distances. All of the generating stations are interconnected to each
other through transmission lines. Most generating plants (especially if they are hydroelectric) are
located in remote places with respect to the load centre. To deliver this generated energy to the load
centres, a transmission system is required. The transmission system should be able to carry this
energy reliably, and with a minimum loss, at a virtually stable voltage and frequency. A transmission
system can be broken down into three sub systems.

 Primary Transmission System (generating points to bulk power receiving points)

 Sub Transmission System (bulk power receiving points to area substations)

 Distribution System (area substations to distribution substations)

We know the generated electrical energy is transmitted over long distances to reach the load centres.
Generator voltages are in the range of 11 to 33 kV; higher generator voltages are difficult to achieve
owing to insulation problems in the narrow confines of the generator stator. Long distance
transmission cannot be done at generator voltage levels (11-33 kV) because of the huge material
requirement and the associated high Copper Loss (sometimes we call it I2R loss). Therefore, the
voltage is first stepped up at the generating point using transformers, depending upon the power
system and the amount of power that has to be transmitted through transmission lines. Then this
power flows through the high voltage transmission lines to the load centres. Transmission voltages
worldwide range from 110 to 1000 kV. One reason for using higher transmission voltages is to
improve transmission efficiency. Basically, transmission of a given amount of power (at a specified
power factor) requires a fixed product of voltage and line current. Thus, the higher the voltage, the
lower is the current required. Lower line currents cause lower resistive losses (I2R) in the line.
For example the present UK Transmission System consists of a network of 400 kV, 275 kV and 132
kV transmission lines feeding several 400/132 kV and 132/33 kV bulk power receiving stations. These
receiving stations are also known as grid substations. The voltage of a 3-phase line is the voltage
between any two wires. At these receiving points, the voltage is stepped down to 33 kV (or 11 kV in a
few cases) and fed to the Sub Transmission System for shorter transmission runs. For example, The
Sri Lanka sub transmission system comprises a 33 kV network, but there are a few 11 kV sub
transmission lines, mainly in urban and suburban areas. Thereafter, the voltage is further reduced to
440 V by means of distribution transformers at distribution substations located in the residential and
commercial areas for distribution purposes.

3
4. Types of distribution systems
Imagine that several consumer loads (fed through distribution substations) are connected to a single
source (main grid substation) located in one area. The simplest method is to connect each consumer
load to the grid substation through feeder lines. Such a network will need a large number of feeder
lines to be installed between the grid substation and the consumer loads and therefore is not
recommended. Instead of connecting a single consumer to a dedicated feeder, it is recommended to
connect a group of consumers to each of these feeder lines thus minimizing the overall distribution
cost. However, care should be taken to avoid violation of any technical constraints such as over
loading of distribution lines, voltage drops etc. Since all the lines are radially emanating from the
source in this case, this type of distribution system is known as a radial main system. The radial main
distribution system is the cheapest because it requires the least amount of conductors and simple line
protection methods compared to the other systems available for power distribution. If one of these
radial lines goes out of service the consumer (or group of consumers), connected to the feeder line
will not get any electrical power. This is the main disadvantage of radial systems. Mostly, these
systems are used in rural areas. If we can find a way to connect the consumers and the source in a
ring, then the consumers will receive supply from both sides and even if a portion of the line is on
forced outage, the system still receives supply from either side. This type of distribution system is
called a ring main system. Normally, ring main systems receive supply from multiple sources. Usually
this type of system is used or recommended in areas where the higher reliability for the consumers is
a requirement. As of today, most of the distribution systems are interconnected to each other, in which
the ring main systems have additional interconnections between nodes.

4
5.1 The Earthing Arrangements

The two primary functions of a safe earthing system are:

 To ensure that a person who is in the vicinity of earthed facilities during a fault is not exposed to
the possibility of a fatal electric shock
 To provide a low impedance path to earth for currents occuring under normal and fault
conditions.

5.2 Earthing Standards

There are a variety of national and international standards available, which provide empirical formulae
for the calculation of earthing design, parameters and shock potential safety limits. There is some
variation in formulae between different standards. Three standards, which are widely referred to are:

 BS 7354 - 1990: Code of Practice for design of High-Voltage Open-Terminal Stations.

 IEEE Std 20-2000: IEEE Guide for Safety in AC Substations Grounding.
 Electricity Association Technical Specification 41-24: Guidelines for the Design, Installation,
Testing and Maintenance of Main Earthing Systems in Substations.

5.3 Ground Rise Potential (GPR)

The substation earth grid is used as an electrical connection to earth at zero potential reference. This
connection, however, is not ideal due to the resistivity of the soil within which the earth grid is buried.
Burying typical earth fault conditins, the flow of current via the grid to earth will therefore result in the
grid rising in potential relative to remote earth to which other system neutrals are connected. This
produced potential gradients within and around the substation and ground area. This is defined as
ground potential rise of QPR. GPR of a substation under earth fault conditions must be limited so that
step and touch potential limits are not exceeded, and is controlled by keeping the earthing grid
resistance as low as possible.

5.4 The international standard for earthing classification is TN TT and IT where:

T > Direct connection of a point with earth (Latin: terra);

I > No point is connected with earth (isolation), except perhaps via a high impedance. The second
letter indicates the connection between earth and the electrical device being supplied:

T > Direct connection of a point with earth

N > Direct connection to neutral at the origin of installation, which is connected to the earth

5
6. TN networks

In a TN earthing system, one of the points in the generator or transformer is connected with earth,
usually the star point in a three-phase system. The body of the electrical device is connected with
earth via this earth connection at the transformer.

The conductor that connects the exposed metallic parts of the consumer is called protective
earth (PE). The conductor that connects to the star point in a three-phase system, or that
carries the return current in a single-phase system, is called neutral (N). Three variants of TN
systems are distinguished:

TN−S
PE and N are separate conductors that are connected together only near the power source.

TN−C
A combined PEN conductor fulfills the functions of both a PE and an N conductor. Rarely
used.

TN−C−S
Part of the system uses a combined PEN conductor, which is at some point split up into
separate PE and N lines. The combined PEN conductor typically occurs between the
substation and the entry point into the building, and separated in the service head.

6
TN-S: separate protective earth (PE) TN-C: combined PE and N TN-C-S earthing system: combined
and neutral (N) conductors from conductor all the way from the PEN conductor from transformer to
transformer to consuming device, transformer to the consuming device. building distribution point, but
which are not connected together at separate PE and N conductors in
any point after the building fixed indoor wiring and flexible
distribution point. power cords.

Schematic of a Primary Substation (with two in-feeds and three feeders):

7
8. Energy sources

8.1 Wind Power

Wind power is the world’s fastest growing electricity generation technology. Wind is a renewable
resource because it is inexhaustible.

They use large spinning blades to capture the kinetic energy of the moving wind and this is
transferred to rotors that produce electricity. The best wind farm sites today are nearly competitive
with the conventional natural gas fired plants.

Regions where average wind speed exceeds 12 miles per hour are currently the best sites.

Wind power is the lowest cost renewable energy. The costs of wind power are expected to fall and
may rank the cheapest energy source of all by 2020.

Wind often skips the high voltage national grid and connects to the system locally. This is know as
embedded generation.

Coal, gas and nuclear connect the power they generate to the HV national grid

8.2 Coal

Coal is the cheapest fossil fuel for making electricity. Coal is burned to produce steam. The steam
propels turbine blades at high speed. A generator is mounted at one end of the turbine shaft and
consists of carefully wound wire coils. Electricity is generated when these are rapidly rotated in a
strong magnetic field. The electricity generated is transformed into the higher voltages (up to 400,000
volts) used for economic, efficient transmission via power line grids. When it nears the point of
consumption, such as our homes, the electricity is transformed down to the safer 240 voltage system
used in the domestic market.

8.3 Nuclear
A nuclear reactor produces and controls the release of energy from splitting the atoms of elements
such as uranium and plutonium. In a nuclear power reactor the energy released from continuous
fission of the atoms in the fuel as heat is used to make steam. The steam is used to drive turbines
which produce electricity – but without the combustion of fossil fuels and resultant greenhouse gas
emissions.

Most reactors need to be shut down for refuelling so this is a downside of nuclear. Another danger of
nuclear is if the radiation escapes from the protective reactor this would be very damaging to the
environment.

8.4 Natural Gas

Gas has become a very popular fuel for the generation of electricity. In the 1970s and 80s most 8
electricity was generated by burning coal or nuclear powered plants. Due to economic, environmental
and technological changes, natural gas has become the fuel of choice for new power plants. Natural
gas fired electricity generation is expected to increase dramatically over the next 20 years.
9.0 Load matching
This is a technique of electric circuit design in which one of the components provides power to
another, and the output circuit of the first component has the same impedance as the input circuit of
the second component. Maximum power transfer is achieved when the impedances in both circuits
are exactly the same. Load matching is important wherever power needs to be transmitted efficiently,
as in the design of power lines, transformers and signal processing devices such as audio and
computer circuits.

9.1 Maximum Demand (peak load)

The transmission system provides for base load and peak load with safety and fault tolerance
margins. The peak load times vary by region largely due to the industrial mix. In very hot and very
cold climates air conditioning and heating loads have an effect on the overall load. They are typically
highest in the late afternoon in the hottest part of the year and in mid-mornings and mid-evenings in
the coldest. This makes the power requirements vary by season and the time of the day.

Distribution systems designs always take the base load into consideration. The transmission system
usually does not have a large buffering capability to match loads with the generation. Thus generation
has to be kept matched to the loads to prevent overloading failures of the generation equipment.
Multiple sources and loads can be connected to the transmission system and they must be controlled
to provide transfer of power. In centralised power generation , only the local control of generation is
necessary and it involves synchronization of the generation units to prevent large transients and
overload condition.

9.2 Demand Factor

Demand factor is the ration of the maximum demand of a system or part of a system to the total
connected load on the system, or part of the system under consideration. Demand factor is always
less than one.

9.3 Diversity Factor

Diversity factor is the ration of the sum of individual maximum demands of the various subdivisions of
a system, or part of a system, to the maximum demand of the whole system or part of the system,
under consideration. Diversity factor is usually more than one.

The sum of the connected loads supplied by a feeder-circuit can be multiplied by the demand factor to
determine the load used to size the components of the system. The sumof the maximum demand
loads for two or more feeders is divided by the diversity factor for the feeders to derive the maximum
demand load.

9
10.1 The Reasons and Application of Energy Monitoring
Benefits:

 Facilitate the management of energy usage in buildings, facilities or the high voltage
infrastructure of the grid.
 Trending and monitoring energy consumption
 Automatic and consistent reaction to events allowing the frequency of supply to be monitored
 Provide a means to gather and view information quickly and provide enough supply online to
meet demand at all times
 A comfortable and safe environment for the high voltage transmission network at the lowest
possible cost.

The thermal stress on large power transformers can be monitored in the national grid. Monitoring
loads and stress on these transformers at any given time is crucial to the service of the national grid.

10.2 Power Quality

Harmonics are currents or voltages with frequencies that are integer multiples of the fundamental
power frequency being 50Hz. The second harmonic is at 100Hz, the third at 150 Hz and so on. In
modern test equipment harmonics can be measures up to the 63 rd harmonic. When harmonics exist
electrical systems and transformers become mechanically resonant to the magnetic fields in the
distribution systems.

Harmonics are caused by and are the by-product of modern electronic equipment. There are two
types of non-linear loads: single-phase and three-phase. Single phase are prevalent in modern homes
and office buildings. Three phase loads are widespread in factories and industrial plants and high
voltage transmission systems operating in the national grid.

10.3 Problems harmonics create

 Large load currents in the neutral wires of a 3 phase system. Since only the phase wires are
protected by circuit breakers and fuses this can result in a potential fire hazard.
 Overheating transformers which shortens their live.
 High Current and Voltage Distortion
 High neutral to ground voltage
 Poor power factor conditions that result in monthly utility penalty fees for major users (factories,
manufacturing and industrial) with a power factor less than 0.9
 Resonance that produces over-current surges. This is equivalent to continuous audio feedback
through a PA system. This results in destroyed capacitors and their fuses and damaged surge
suppressors which will cause electrical system shutdown.
 False tripping of branch circuit breakers

10
11.0 What a filter is and how it operates
Harmonics can be treated by cancellation and filtering. A harmonic filter consists of a capacitor bank
and an inductor coil. The filter is designed or tuned to the predetermined non-linear load and to filter a
predetermined harmonic frequency range. Usually this frequency range only accounts for one
harmonic frequency.

Harmonic cancellation is performed with harmonic cancelling transformers also known as phase-
shifting transformers. This transformer has patented built in electromagnetic technology designed to
remove high neutral current and the most harmful harmonics from the 3 rd through 21st.

11
References:

Distribution networks

 http://hubpages.com/hub/Distribution-Networks
 
Grid Operation
 
http://uk.answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20100311112902AAis0A1
 
The National Grid and Power
 
http://www.nationalgrid.com/uk/Electricity/MajorProjects/faqs.htm
 
Geomagnetically induced currents in the Scottish Power Grid
 
 http://www.geomag.bgs.ac.uk/documents/estec_gic_171201.pdf
 
Wind Turbines
 
http://makelectricalsupply.com/Documents/Lesson%202%20-%20Electrical
%20supply%20systems.pdf
 
Electrical Supplies
 
http://makelectricalsupply.com/Documents/Lesson%202%20-%20Electrical
%20supply%20systems.pdf
 
 
Introduction to Low Voltage Power Systems
 
http://makelectricalsupply.com/Documents/Lesson%202%20-%20Electrical
%20supply%20systems.pdf
 
 
The Effects of Harmonics
 
http://literature.rockwellautomation.com/idc/groups/literature/documents/wp/mvb-
wp011_-en-p.pdf
 
Electrical Supply Substation
 
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_substation
 
 
Load Matching
12
 
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impedance_matching
 
 Earthing Arrangements
 
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthing_system

Substation Design
 
 
http://www.scribd.com/doc/25059713/Calculation-of-the-Fault-Level-Contribution-Of
 
Ring Mains
 
http://www.dh.gov.uk/prod_consum_dh/groups/dh_digitalassets/@dh/@en/document
s/digitalasset/dh_4119451.pdf
 
The UK Grid
 
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_grid

Load Demand in UK
 
http://www.nationalgrid.com/uk/Electricity/Data/Realtime/Demand/demand24.htm
 

http://www.nfpa.org/assets/files//PDF/necdigest/CodeIssues072704.pdf
 
 http://www.scribd.com/doc/8411593/Electrical-Power-Supply-and-Distribution

Wind Power
http://www.bwea.com/onshore/index.html
 
 Load Matching
 
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impedance_matching
 
http://www.iea-shc.org/publications/downloads/Task40a-
Load_Matching_and_Grid_Interaction_of_Net_Zero_Energy_Buildings.pdf
 
http://www.thefreedictionary.com/impedance+matching
 
<a href="http://www.thefreedictionary.com/impedance+matching">impedance
matching</a>
 
Impedance Matching
 
http://www.maxim-ic.com/app-notes/index.mvp/id/742
 
13
  Max demand, Load factor, Diversity factor
 
http://cr4.globalspec.com/thread/28459/Max-demand-Load-factor-Diversity-factor
 
http://www.nfpa.org/assets/files//PDF/necdigest/CodeIssues072704.pdf
 
http://www.jec.co.uk/userfiles/files/Tariff%20Leaflets/Maximum_kW.pdf
 
Energy Monitoring
 
http://www.onsetcomp.com/products/energy_logging_systems
 
Harmonics
 
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmonics_(electrical_power)

 http://www.cpccorp.com/harmonic.htm
 
http://www.cpccorp.com/harmonic.htm#How can we treat harmonics?
 
 

14