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2. November 1943: the Big Three leaders met in Tehran (Iran), currently
controlled by Britain.
• USA agreed to open a second front against Germany in the
Summer.
Katyn Massacre:
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• 1940 – NKVD (Soviet secret police) was responsible for murdering
11,000 Polish POWs – taken into the forest in Katyn and shot.
• Only discovered in 1943, and used as Nazi propaganda.
• Cause of great tension between USSR and USA / Britain.
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Warsaw Uprising:
• London Poles realised they could only control Poland if they got there
before Stalin.
• August 1944 – Polish resistance fighters (loyal to London Poles)
attacked German forces occupying Warsaw.
• Stalin did not help even though USSR troops were nearby (wanted
Lublin Poles to take over after war).
• Uprising easily smashed by Germans. 300,000 Poles killed. Surviving
people of Warsaw sent to concentration camps.
• UK and USA appalled by Soviet attitude (another cause of tension).
Yalta in Practice:
• Stalin did not allow many non-Communists into Polish government, and
Molotov (foreign secretary) refused to let London Poles play a
significant role. Led by Gomulka, although agreed at Yalta led by
Mikolajczyk (head of London Poles).
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• Agreement was interpreted differently (e.g. 'democracy').
• Polish opponents of Communism dealt with ruthlessly: in March 1945,
16 leaders went, at Stalin's invitation, to have talks with Soviet
authorities near Warsaw – they were promised personal safety but
were arrested and never seen again.
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Potsdam – July / August 1945:
Agreement at Potsdam:
Disagreement at Potsdam:
• USSR wanted to play a part in running the Ruhr (rich industrial area).
USA rejected idea.
• USSR wanted to share occupation of Japan. USA rejected.
• USA and Britain asked for greater say in events in Eastern Europe.
Stalin rejected.
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Soviet Take-over of Eastern Europe
Soviet power gradually spread across Eastern Europe to the point that
countries could be regarded as 'satellite powers' or 'puppet states', under
the domination of Moscow. This was a clear violation of the Declaration on
Liberated Europe – Stalin was betraying the Yalta agreement (to allow the
development of democratic governments in states liberated from Nazi
oppression) by 'liberating' them from freedom!
Poland:
Romania:
Bulgaria:
Hungary:
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Czechoslovakia.
- August 1947 – rigged elections and Communist Party won. All
non-Communist parties banned.
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Germany:
Within the Eastern zone, Soviets had a free hand in implementing their
policies, as did the British and American in the Western zones.
Situation was different, as it had strong Communist support (no need to rig
elections). Czech people had been angered by their 'betrayal' by Britain and
France in the Munich agreement of 1938 (gave Czechoslovakia to Germany),
and they viewed the Soviet Army, by comparison, as 'liberators'.
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Why did Stalin Take Control of Eastern Europe?
To ensure Soviet security. Russia had been invaded twice in the past 50
years by Germany. In June 1941, Operation Barbarossa (the Nazi invasion of
Russia) had come as a complete surprise to Stalin, who had been responsible
for the Nazi-Soviet Pact. Russia was almost defeated in Winter 1941, which
would have lost him his leadership, and so Stalin is therefore determined to
ensure his country's security:
• German blitzkrieg (lightning war involving overwhelming force with
tanks and armoured vehicles) advance in Summer 1941 proved
Russian vulnerability and the need for defence in depth – German
tanks advanced to the point where they were in sight of Moscow.
• Russia suffered 22m dead in WW2. Future security was inevitably a top
concern.
THIS IS THE MOTIVE STRESSED BY SOME HISTORIANS WHO ARE
SYMPATHETIC TO SOVIET FOREIGN POLICY.
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(Communists). This showed capitalist interference in Russia's internal
affairs. Churchill had also been the leader most in favour of
intervention.
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The Cominform:
Yugoslavia:
NB – this is an exception to Soviet control, but the story also illustrates the
extent to which Stalin expected to dominate the Communist governments of
Eastern Europe:
In June 1948, the second meeting of the Cominform took place in Poland.
Members voted to expel Yugoslavia.
• Violent campaign of anti-Tito propaganda launched by Moscow.
• Thousands of 'Titoists' (independently-minded Communists) identified
by secret police forces across Europe and imprisoned / executed for
fictional plots against Stalin.
• In late 1948-1949, with Soviet troops massing in Bulgaria, there were
serious fears that Stalin was about to launch an attack on Yugoslavia
to overthrow Tito. USA made it clear that an attack would not be
tolerated and Stalin ultimately took no action. In fact, Yugoslavia even
became a recipient of American Marshall Aid (received $60m of
military equipment).
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According to some sources, Stalin was making plans to have Tito poisoned
when he died himself in 1953. After Stalin's death, his successor,
Khrushchev, ended the dispute with Yugoslavia in 1955 (a foreign policy
victory for Tito).
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The Creation of Tensions between USA and USSR
Initial US priority in 1945 was to bring their troops home from Germany
(demobilisation) – there is no appetite within US public opinion for an
interventionist US policy in Europe:
• US forces reduced from 12 million in June 1945 to 1.5 million in June
1947. Huge pressure at home for this; even riots at some military
bases overseas where demobilisation was delayed.
• 1945 – the Office of Strategic Services (OSS), America's foreign
intelligence service, which had been created during WW2, was
disbanded. Truman did not see the purpose of such a body in the
peaceful post-war world, and feared the creation of some kind of
'American Gestapo'.
This standpoint was also reflected in the initial US policy towards Germany,
which was very much based on a fear of German military revival (no need to
develop Germany as an ally against the Soviet Union.
• 1944 – Secretary of State Hans Morgenthau revealed the
Morgenthau Plan which was very harsh on Germany (he was Jewish):
- partition of Germany.
- reduce Germany's industrial potential to the point that it could
never again threaten peace in Europe. Included complete
dismantling of industrial plants and mines of Ruhr region within 6
months.
- huge amounts of reparations.
NB – British policy towards Russia in these very early post-war months was
subtly different. British troops were responsible for the occupation of the
Ruhr region and much more sensitive to the damage that the Morgenthau
Plan could do to European post-war trade. In the face of huge Russian
military presence on Western Europe's doorstep (175 Soviet divisions
remained mobilised as late as 1947 and it was estimated by British
intelligence that, if they wished, it would only take a matter of weeks to
conquer Western Europe and reach the channel) the British Labour
government (led by Attlee) were concerned about the pace of American
withdrawal from Europe.
To some extent, this was the result of Roosevelt's death in April 1945 and his
replacement by Harry Truman (former Vice-President). Truman was much
less experienced in foreign affairs, a less effective diplomat, hated
Communism, and desired a tougher stance on USSR.
• April 1945 (when Roosevelt died) – Soviet Foreign Minister, Molotov,
visited Washington to pay his respects to Roosevelt. Truman privately
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lectured Molotov on Soviet conduct in Poland, telling him Russia should
keep its Yalta promises, and he would not listen to Molotov's
responses. Molotov told Truman, "I have never been talked to like this
in my life." (NB – this was private; there was not yet any public
criticism of USSR).
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Indicative of the growing tension was the failure of he Allied representatives
to agree peace treaties for some of the defeated powers, despite a series of
diplomatic conferences in London, Moscow and Paris. In particular, no
agreement was ever reached on a peace treaty for Germany at the end of
WW2 (Russian demands were too harsh for British and American liking as
they had learnt from the Treaty of Versailles). Signature of a formal peace
treaty between the Allies and Germany had to wait until the end of the Cold
War in 1989!
• Russian diplomats were perceived in the West as being so
uncooperative and unhelpful that British newspapers in 1946 started
referring to Molotov as "Mr. Nyet" ('No').
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- General George Marshall (head of US forces) estimated that, if
they invaded Japanese mainland, 1 million US lives would be
lost (and lots of Japanese).
- over the previous 6 months, American bombings had killed
over 500,000 in 67 Japanese cities – in this context, atomic
bomb was not so bad.
• Stalin saw it as a deliberate attempt to threaten the Soviet
Union.
• USA refused to share the atomic secret (the technology),
creating tension.
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How did the USA React to Soviet Expansionism?
George Kennan had been an American diplomat in Moscow since 1933 (when
American first gave Russia diplomatic recognition), and so he had seen the
brutality of Stalin's regime. The document's purpose was to convince his
audience (high-ranking members of the US government – it was a secret
internal document) of the need to adopt a tough anti-Communist policy of
containment. Key points were:
• Russian foreign policy was aggressive and expansionist.
• This was partly because Stalin had a desire to export Communism and
because of old-fashioned imperialism.
• The dictatorial nature of the Soviet regime was internally justified by
the presence of a threatening capitalist world outside. Soviet 'security
worries' about the USA or Britain were not genuine; the threat was
manufactured.
• USSR would use the Communist parties of Western Europe to help
infiltrate and undermine Western democracy.
• US policy must be to contain Soviet aggression through an anti-Soviet
policy and by supporting Western democracies.
NB – THE (PUBLICLY SECRET) DOCUMENT WAS HIGHLY INFLUENTIAL WITHIN
THE HIGHEST RANKS OF TRUMAN'S CABINET AND THE STATE DEPARTMENT.
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An extremely cold European Winter in 1946 was accompanied by a poor
harvest, so people were cold and hungry; in Britain, rationing was worse than
during the war. Furthermore, after WW2, there was an economic crisis, with
extremely high unemployment. Britain had fought itself to exhaustion and
the financial cost to the British government was huge. In 1945, the USA had
provided loans to Britain but, particularly in the aftermath of the freezing
Winter, Britain was on its knees economically (as was the whole of Europe); it
could not afford to maintain its expensive foreign policy commitments (this
led to the decision to rush through Indian independence).
• It was clear that Britain could no longer afford to give financial and
military support to the governments of Greece and Turkey in their
struggles against Communism. In February 1947, a British diplomat in
Washington handed the US government a note to this effect.
• Truman was faced with a choice: America could either take over
Britain's commitments in the Mediterranean, or he could allow a power
vacuum to develop in which Soviet influence was bound to grow ('Long
Telegram' advised the former - containment).
March 12th 1947 – Truman addressed a joint session of Congress and called
for the grant of $400m aid to Greece and Turkey. He painted a vivid picture
of a developing clash between "two ways of life"; between the "free peoples"
and "totalitarian" regimes (an obvious comparison between American
democracy and Stalin's Russia, which in turn was compared to Hitler's
Germany). He said that "it must be the policy of the United States" to
support free peoples in their battle for freedom. The purpose of Truman's
speech was to mobilise the support of the US Congress for his policy of aid to
Greece and Turkey (where the Doctrine was successful). Congress was
controlled by the Republican Party (Truman was a Democrat) and the
Republicans were opposed to large-scale government spending. Therefore,
Truman needed to frighten his audience so that they would vote for a large
grant of money for Europe (NB – Truman succeeded in mobilising Congress's
support for his foreign policy, even though Woodrow Wilson failed in getting
their support for the League of Nations).
MANY VIEW THE TRUMAN DOCTRINE AS THE MOMENT WHEN THE COLD WAR
WAS DECLARED. CERTAINLY, THIS WOULD BE THE SOVIET VIEW AND THE
VIEW OF HISTORIANS WHO BELIEVE THAT AMERICAN WARMONGERING WAS
THE MAIN CAUSE OF THE COLD WAR. THEY WOULD, SIMILARLY POINT TO
TRUMAN'S AGGRESSIVE TREATMENT OF MOLOTOV IN APRIL 1945 AND
AMERICAN INTERFERENCE IN THE ITALIAN ELECTIONS OF 1947.
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conference, it became clear that American aid came with some strings
attached. In particular, America insisted that countries would have to work
together in administering the aid within Europe. For Stalin, this condition was
unacceptable, as he believed it was a US attempt to interfere with Soviet
sovereignty.
The Soviet delegation (of 100 diplomats and economists) stormed out of the
Paris conference and other countries of Eastern Europe followed suit. The
Czechs remained at the conference, hoping the benefit from the US offers of
aid, but President Benes and Foreign Minister Masaryk were summoned
for an urgent meeting in Moscow with Stalin; the were forced to withdraw
Czech participation (this rapidly decreased Communist support in
Czechoslovakia – led to the Coup). This meant that Marshall aid would go to
Western European countries alone in the end.
The USSR not only forbade Eastern European countries from accepting
Marshall Aid, it also, established COMECON in 1949 – a trading bloc of
Communist countries (not as effective as Marshall Plan). It was argued that
this was an example of American imperialist interference in the sovereignty
of other countries (NB – this view can be supported by US involvement in
Italian elections in 1948, but it can also be opposed by the rapid American
demobilisation in 1945-47). Across Europe, particularly in France and Italy,
Communist parties remained strong and Communist-dominated trade unions
launched strikes in protest against Marshall Aid.
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Europe (including US mules – offspring of male donkey and female horse –
exported to Italy and Greece to help recover agriculture).
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US Involvement in Italian Elections of April 1948:
Marshall Aid was a great success. The programme finally ended in 1952
(started in 1948) by which stage the economy of every recipient state had
surpassed its pre-war level (1948-52 was the fastest period of economic
growth in European history with industrial production up by 35%). The
largest recipients were France, Britain, the Western sectors of Germany and
Italy, but almost every country in Western Europe (except Spain) benefited.
Although Marshall Aid was not strictly a gift to all European countries (some
countries, especially Germany, would have to repay a debt), in practice it
was known from the start that almost all money would never be returned.
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Berlin Blockade and Airlift
There was an armistice (end to the fighting) but a peace treaty was never
agreed (until end of Cold War in 1989):
• At Potsdam the leaders disagreed on the terms for a treaty.
• After Potsdam, the new Conference of Foreign Ministers (CFM) met 5
times between 1945 and 1947. They agreed on treaties for Hungary
and other countries, but not Germany.
• USSR wanted a really harsh treaty (22m dead) but UK and USA had
learnt from Versailles.
• British newspapers in 1946 started referring to Molotov as "Mr. Nyet"
(always said 'no'). Saw USSR as simply obstructive.
Matters were made much worse when Soviet officials suspended shipments
of grain from the agricultural Eastern zone of Germany (under Soviet control)
to the more industrial Western zones. Food shortages made much worse.
1st January 1947 – Britain and America responded with the creation of
Bizone (a merger of US and British occupied zones of Germany):
• Britain was under huge financial stress and needed US support.
• USSR was angry as their permission had not been requested and felt
as if they were being ganged-up on.
20th June 1948 – the Western powers introduced the new Deutsch Mark (new
currency) in Trizone (France's zone had now merged with Bizone):
• New currency required to prevent economic collapse.
• Currency is seen as the main symbol of a country's sovereignty and so
this was extremely provocative to the USSR (felt like they were
creating a new country).
Berlin Blockade:
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24th June 1948 – blaming 'technical difficulties', Stalin ordered the severing
(breaking) of all road, canal and rail links between Western and Eastern
zones, even though they were allowed to be there!
The initial American response was to send US tanks to force their way up
the autobahns. However, this military confrontation would have likely caused
war.
The British response was more sensible – came up with the idea of keeping
Berlin supplied from the air (all other access was blocked). Britain had learnt
with Hitler that appeasement does not work and so, if they gave-in to Stalin,
more would follow.
Berlin Airlift:
Soviet response:
• The Communist press in Eastern Berlin ridiculed the exercise as
impossible and futile.
• Stalin ordered Soviet fighter aircraft to interfere in these missions,
deliberately 'buzzing' British and American aircraft (pretend to crash
into aircraft, moving away at the last second).
July 1948 – 60 B29 'atomic capable' US bombers were moved from their
bases in the US to Britain (larger than the one used in Japan). This was well
publicised = atomic blackmail.
12th May 1949 – the blockade was ended ('technical difficulties' were
resolved).
Trivial consequences:
• Huge propaganda boost for USA and UK – they had acted morally and
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the USSR had backed-down.
• Morale boost for anti-Communist Germans.
• Gail Halvorsen, an American Lieutenant, was so impressed by the
positive reactions of German children that he dropped chocolate bars
in mini parachutes – became known as the 'Candy Bomber'.
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More serious consequences:
• May 1949 – UK, USA and France created the new independent state of
Western Germany (separate country).
• USSR responded with the creation of the German Democratic Republic
(East Germany).
• Neither German state formally 'recognised' the existence of the other,
as the governments of both states claimed control of the whole of
Germany.
NATO:
4th April 1949 – the North Atlantic Treaty (Organisation) was signed, which
became the NATO alliance (mutual assistance pact):
• 12 founding member states, including Western Germany.
• Article 5 of the treaty effectively bound the USA and other member
states to come to the aid of other member states were they to be
attacked ("including the use of armed force").
• USA firmly turned its back on isolationism (agreed to defend Europe),
which was very surprising.
• USSR was not mentioned in the treaty but it was clear that it was
directed against Communist expansion.
• American troops remained in Berlin.
The USSR responded with the creation of the Warsaw Pact in 1955 – it was
made with the satellite states who were forced to join.
NB – in April 1949 (same time as the creation of NATO), the USSR tested its
first atomic bomb, which was a direct copy of the American bomb dropped
on Nagasaki (Russian spies had stolen the technology from the Manhattan
Project).
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Who was to Blame for the Outbreak of the Cold War?
2. Berlin blockade:
• Attempted to starve 2m Berliners into submission.
• Pushed the world to the brink of war.
4. Stalin's imperialism:
• Demanded the Black Straits in Turkey in 1945.
• Delayed withdrawing troops from Iran in 1945-46.
• Aggressive treatment of Tito in Yugoslavia in 1948.
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USA was to Blame:
3. Truman:
• Extremely anti-Communist (unlike Roosevelt).
• Little experience in foreign affairs (unlike Roosevelt).
• Confrontation with Molotov as soon as he became President.
• Insensitive towards legitimate Soviet security concerns.
• Truman Doctrine compared Stalin to Hitler (talked about
'totalitarian regimes').
• Atomic diplomacy provoked USSR, making them feel threatened:
- dropped on Japan before USSR could share victory.
- USSR threatened with nuclear retaliation during Berlin
Blockade (60 bombers moved from USA to England).
- failure to share the atomic secret (technology) with allies.
• USSR and USA had vast differences in their beliefs and ideologies
– they were uneasy allies, only as a result of a common enemy
(Hitler) during WW2. Communism and capitalism are completely
different; American Capitalism desired equal rights and freedom,
whereas Soviet Communism wanted a dictatorship with no
individual rights or freedoms. It was not their fault that they had
opposing ideologies; it just happened to be, and this created all the
underlying tensions that caused the Cold War.
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