Getting set up

C++ is a programming language of many different dialects, similar to the way that each spoken
language has many different dialects. In C++, dialects are not because the speakers live in the
North or South. Instead, it is because there are many different compilers that support slightly
different features. There are several common compilers: in particular, Borland C++, Microsoft C++,
and GNU C++. There are also many front-end environments for the different compilers--the most
common is Dev-C++ around GNU's G++ compiler. Some, such as G++, are free, while others are
not. Please see the compiler listing for more information on how to get a compiler and set it up.

Each of these compilers is slightly different. Each one should support the ANSI/ISO standard C++
functions, but each compiler will also have nonstandard functions (these functions are similar to
slang spoken in different parts of a country). Sometimes the use of nonstandard functions will cause
problems when you attempt to compile source code (the actual C++ written by a programmer and
saved as a text file) with a different compiler. These tutorials use ANSI/ISO standard C++ and
should not suffer from this problem (with sufficiently modern compilers). Note that if you are using
an older compiler, such as TCLite, you should read check out some compatability issues.

If you don't have a compiler, I strongly suggest that you get one. A simple compiler is sufficient for
our use, but make sure that you do get one in order to get the most from these tutorials. The page
linked above, compilers, lists compilers by operating system.

C++ is a different breed of programming language. A C++ program begins with a function, a
collection of commands that do "something". The function that begins a C++ program is called
main; this function is always called when the program first executes. From main, we can also call
other functions whether they be written by us or by others. To access a standard function that
comes with the compiler, you include a header with the #include directive. What this does is
effectively take everything in the header and paste it into your program. Let's look at a working
program:

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main()
{
cout<<"HEY, you, I'm alive! Oh, and Hello World!\n";
cin.get();
}
Let's look at the elements of the program. The #include is a "preprocessor" directive that tells the
compiler to put code from the header called iostream into our program before actually creating the
executable. By including header files, you an gain access to many different functions. For example,
the cout function requires iostream. Following the include is the statement, "using namespace std;".
This line tells the compiler to use a group of functions that are part of the standard library (std). By
including this line at the top of a file, you allow the program to use functions such as cout. The
semicolon is part of the syntax of C and C++. It tells the compiler that you're at the end of a
command. You will see later that the semicolon is used to end most commands in C++.

The next imporant line is int main(). This line tells the compiler that there is a function named main,
and that the function returns an integer, hence int. The "curly braces" ({ and }) signal the
beginning and end of functions and other code blocks. If you have programmed in Pascal, you will
know them as BEGIN and END. Even if you haven't programmed in Pascal, this is a good way to
think about their meaning.

The next line of the program may seem strange. If you have programmed in another language, you
might expect that print would be the function used to display text. In C++, however, the cout
object is used to display text. It uses the << symbols, known as "insertion operators", to indicate
what to output. cout<< results in a function call with the ensuing text as an argument to the
function. The quotes tell the compiler that you want to output the literal string as-is. The '\n'
sequence is actually treated as a single character that stands for a newline (we'll talk about this

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later in more detail). It moves the cursor on your screen to the next line. Again, notice the
semicolon: it is added onto the end of all, such as function calls, in C++.

The next command is cin.get(). This is another function call: it reads in input and expects the user
to hit the return key. Many compiler environments will open a new console window, run the
program, and then close the window. This command keeps that window from closing because the
program is not done yet because it waits for you to hit enter. Including that line gives you time to
see the program run.

Upon reaching the end of main, the closing brace, our program will return the value of 0 (and
integer, hence why we told main to return an int) to the operating system. This return value is
important as it can be used to tell the OS whether our program succeeded or not. A return value of
0 means success and is returned automatically (but only for main, other functions require you to
manually return a value), but if we wanted to return something else, such as 1, we would have to
do it with a return statement:

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main()
{
cout<<"HEY, you, I'm alive! Oh, and Hello World!\n";
cin.get();

return 1;
}
The final brace closes off the function. You should try compiling this program and running it. You
can cut and paste the code into a file, save it as a .cpp (or whatever extension your compiler
requires) file. If you are using a command-line compiler, such as Borland C++ 5.5, you should read
the compiler instructions for information on how to compile. Otherwise compiling and running
should be as simple as clicking a button with your mouse.

You might start playing around with the cout function and get used to writing C++.

Comments are critical for all but the most trivial programs and this tutorial will often use them to
explain sections of code. When you tell the compiler a section of text is a comment, it will ignore it
when running the code, allowing you to use any text you want to describe the real code. To create a
comment use either //, which tells the compiler that the rest of the line is a comment, or /* and
then */ to block off everything between as a comment. Certain compiler environments will change
the color of a commented area, but some will not. Be certain not to accidentally comment out code
(that is, to tell the compiler part of your code is a comment) you need for the program. When you
are learning to program, it is useful to be able to comment out sections of code in order to see how
the output is affected.

So far you should be able to write a simple program to display information typed in by you, the
programmer and to describe your program with comments. That's great, but what about interacting
with your user? Fortunately, it is also possible for your program to accept input. The function you
use is known as cin, and is followed by the insertion operator >>.

Of course, before you try to receive input, you must have a place to store that input. In
programming, input and data are stored in variables. There are several different types of variables;
when you tell the compiler you are declaring a variable, you must include the data type along with
the name of the variable. Several basic types include char, int, and float.

A variable of type char stores a single character, variables of type int store integers (numbers
without decimal places), and variables of type float store numbers with decimal places. Each of
these variable types - char, int, and float - is each a keyword that you use when you declare a
variable.

Sometimes it can be confusing to have multiple variable types when it seems like some variable

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types are redundant. Using the right variable size can be important for making your code readable
and for efficiency--some variables require more memory than others. For now, suffice it to say that
the different variable types will almost all be used!

To declare a variable you use the syntax type <name>. It is permissible to declare multiple
variables of the same type on the same line; each one should be separated by a comma. The
declaration of a variable or set of variables should be followed by a semicolon (Note that this is the
same procedure used when you call a function). If you attempt to use an undefined variable, your
program will not run, and you will receive an error message informing you that you have made a
mistake.

Here are some variable declaration examples:

int x;
int a, b, c, d;
char letter;
float the_float;
While you can have multiple variables of the same type, you cannot have multiple variables with the
same name. Moreover, you cannot have variables and functions with the same name.

Here is a sample program demonstrating the use a a variable:

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main()
{
int thisisanumber;

cout<<"Please enter a number: ";

cin>> thisisanumber;
cin.ignore();
cout<<"You entered: "<< thisisanumber <<"\n";
cin.get();
}
Let's break apart this program and examine it line by line. The keyword int declares thisisanumber
to be an integer. The function cin>> reads a value into thisisanumber; the user must press enter
before the number is read by the program. cin.ignore() is another function that reads and discards a
character. Remember that when you type intput into a program, it takes the enter key too. We
don't need this, so we throw it away. Keep in mind that the variable was declared an integer; if the
user attempts to type in a decimal number, it will be truncated (that is, the decimal component of
the number will be ignored). Try typing in a sequence of characters or a decimal number when you
run the example program; the response will vary from input to input, but in no case is it particularly
pretty. Notice that when printing out a variable quotation marks are not used. Were there quotation
marks, the output would be "You Entered: thisisanumber." The lack of quotation marks informs the
compiler that there is a variable, and therefore that the program should check the value of the
variable in order to replace the variable name with the variable when executing the output function.
Do not be confused by the inclusion of two separate insertion operators on one line. Including
multiple insertion operators on one line is perfectly acceptable and all of the output will go to the
same place. In fact, you must separate string literals (strings enclosed in quotation marks) and
variables by giving each its own insertion operators (<<). Trying to put two variables together with
only one << will give you an error message, do not try it. Do not forget to end functions and
declarations with a semicolon. If you forget the semicolon, the compiler will give you an error
message when you attempt to compile the program.

Of course, no matter what type you use, variables are uninteresting without the ability to modify
them. Several operators used with variables include the following: *, -, +, /, =, ==, >, <. The *
multiplies, the - subtracts, and the + adds. It is of course important to realize that to modify the
value of a variable inside the program it is rather important to use the equal sign. In some

3
languages, the equal sign compares the value of the left and right values, but in C++ == is used for
that task. The equal sign is still extremely useful. It sets the left input to the equal sign, which must
be one, and only one, variable equal to the value on the right side of the equal sign. The operators
that perform mathematical functions should be used on the right side of an equal sign in order to
assign the result to a variable on the left side.

Here are a few examples:

a = 4 * 6; // (Note use of comments and of semicolon) a is 24

a = a + 5; // a equals the original value of a with five added to it
a == 5 // Does NOT assign five to a. Rather, it checks to see if a equals 5.
The other form of equal, ==, is not a way to assign a value to a variable. Rather, it checks to see if
the variables are equal. It is useful in other areas of C++; for example, you will often use == in
such constructions as conditional statements and loops. You can probably guess how < and >
function. They are greater than and less than operators.

For example:

a < 5 // Checks to see if a is less than five

a > 5 // Checks to see if a is greater than five
a == 5 // Checks to see if a equals five, for good measure

4
Lesson 2: If statements(Printable Version)
The ability to control the flow of your program, letting it make decisions on what code to execute, is
valuable to the programmer. The if statement allows you to control if a program enters a section of
code or not based on whether a given condition is true or false. One of the important functions of
the if statement is that it allows the program to select an action based upon the user's input. For
example, by using an if statement to check a user entered password, your program can decide
whether a user is allowed access to the program.

Without a conditional statement such as the if statement, programs would run almost the exact
same way every time. If statements allow the flow of the program to be changed, and so they allow
algorithms and more interesting code.

Before discussing the actual structure of the if statement, let us examine the meaning of TRUE and
FALSE in computer terminology. A true statement is one that evaluates to a nonzero number. A
false statement evaluates to zero. When you perform comparison with the relational operators, the
operator will return 1 if the comparison is true, or 0 if the comparison is false. For example, the
check 0 == 2 evaluates to 0. The check 2 == 2 evaluates to a 1. If this confuses you, try to use a
cout statement to output the result of those various comparisons (for example cout<< ( 2 == 1 );)

When programming, the aim of the program will often require the checking of one value stored by a
variable against another value to determine whether one is larger, smaller, or equal to the other.

There are a number of operators that allow these checks.

Here are the relational operators, as they are known, along with examples:

> greater than 5 > 4 is TRUE

< less than 4 < 5 is TRUE
>= greater than or equal 4 >= 4 is TRUE
<= less than or equal 3 <= 4 is TRUE
== equal to 5 == 5 is TRUE
!= not equal to 5 != 4 is TRUE
It is highly probable that you have seen these before, probably with slightly different symbols. They
should not present any hindrance to understanding. Now that you understand TRUE and FALSE in
computer terminology as well as the comparison operators, let us look at the actual structure of if
statements.

The structure of an if statement is as follows:

if ( TRUE )
Execute the next statement
To have more than one statement execute after an if statement that evaluates to true, use braces,
like we did with the body of a function. Anything inside braces is called a compound statement, or a
block.

For example:

if ( TRUE ) {
Execute all statements inside the braces
}
There is also the else statement. The code after it (whether a single line or code between brackets)
is executed if the if statement is FALSE.

It can look like this:

5
if ( TRUE ) {
// Execute these statements if TRUE
}
else {
// Execute these statements if FALSE
}
One use for else is if there are two conditional statements that may both evaluate to true, yet you
wish only one of the two to have the code block following it to be executed. You can use an else if
after the if statement; that way, if the first statement is true, the else if will be ignored, but if the if
statement is false, it will then check the condition for the else if statement. If the if statement was
true the else statement will not be checked. It is possible to use numerous else if statements.

Let's look at a simple program for you to try out on your own.

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main() // Most important part of the program!

{
int age; // Need a variable...

cout<<"Please input your age: "; // Asks for age

cin>> age; // The input is put in age
cin.ignore(); // Throw away enter
if ( age < 100 ) { // If the age is less than 100
cout<<"You are pretty young!\n"; // Just to show you it works...
}
else if ( age == 100 ) { // I use else just to show an example
cout<<"You are old\n"; // Just to show you it works...
}
else {
cout<<"You are really old\n"; // Executed if no other statement is
}
cin.get();
}
Boolean operators allow you to create more complex conditional statements. For example, if you
wish to check if a variable is both greater than five and less than ten, you could use the boolean
AND to ensure both var > 5 and var < 10 are true. In the following discussion of boolean operators,
I will capitalize the boolean operators in order to distinguish them from normal english. The actual
C++ operators of equivalent function will be described further into the tutorial - the C++ symbols
are not: OR, AND, NOT, although they are of equivalent function.

When using if statements, you will often wish to check multiple different conditions. You must
understand the Boolean operators OR, NOT, and AND. The boolean operators function in a similar
way to the comparison operators: each returns 0 if evaluates to FALSE or 1 if it evaluates to TRUE.

NOT: The NOT operator accepts one input. If that input is TRUE, it returns FALSE, and if that input
is FALSE, it returns TRUE. For example, NOT (1) evalutes to 0, and NOT (0) evalutes to 1. NOT (any
number but zero) evaluates to 0. In C and C++ NOT is written as !. NOT is evaluated prior to both
AND and OR.

AND: This is another important command. AND returns TRUE if both inputs are TRUE (if 'this' AND
'that' are true). (1) AND (0) would evaluate to zero because one of the inputs is false (both must be
TRUE for it to evaluate to TRUE). (1) AND (1) evaluates to 1. (any number but 0) AND (0) evaluates
to 0. The AND operator is written && in C++. Do not be confused by thinking it checks equality
between numbers: it does not. Keep in mind that the AND operator is evaluated before the OR
operator.

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OR: Very useful is the OR statement! If either (or both) of the two values it checks are TRUE then it
returns TRUE. For example, (1) OR (0) evaluates to 1. (0) OR (0) evaluates to 0. The OR is written
as || in C++. Those are the pipe characters. On your keyboard, they may look like a stretched
colon. On my computer the pipe shares its key with \. Keep in mind that OR will be evaluated after
AND.

It is possible to combine several boolean operators in a single statement; often you will find doing
so to be of great value when creating complex expressions for if statements. What is !(1 && 0)? Of
course, it would be TRUE. It is true is because 1 && 0 evaluates to 0 and !0 evaluates to TRUE (ie,
1).

Try some of these - they're not too hard. If you have questions about them, feel free to stop by our
forums.

A. !( 1 || 0 ) ANSWER: 0
B. !( 1 || 1 && 0 ) ANSWER: 0 (AND is evaluated before OR)
C. !( ( 1 || 0 ) && 0 ) ANSWER: 1 (Parenthesis are useful)

7
Lesson 3: Loops
(Printable Version)

Loops are used to repeat a block of code. Being able to have your program repeatedly execute a
block of code is one of the most basic but useful tasks in programming -- many programs or
websites that produce extremely complex output (such as a message board) are really only
executing a single task many times. (They may be executing a small number of tasks, but in
principle, to produce a list of messages only requires repeating the operation of reading in some
data and displaying it.) Now, think about what this means: a loop lets you write a very simple
statement to produce a significantly greater result simply by repetition.

One Caveat: before going further, you should understand the concept of C++'s true and false,
because it will be necessary when working with loops (the conditions are the same as with if
statements). There are three types of loops: for, while, and do..while. Each of them has their
specific uses. They are all outlined below.

FOR - for loops are the most useful type. The syntax for a for loop is

for ( variable initialization; condition; variable update ) {

Code to execute while the condition is true
}
The variable initialization allows you to either declare a variable and give it a value or give a value
to an already existing variable. Second, the condition tells the program that while the conditional
expression is true the loop should continue to repeat itself. The variable update section is the
easiest way for a for loop to handle changing of the variable. It is possible to do things like x++, x
= x + 10, or even x = random ( 5 ), and if you really wanted to, you could call other functions that
do nothing to the variable but still have a useful effect on the code. Notice that a semicolon
separates each of these sections, that is important. Also note that every single one of the sections
may be empty, though the semicolons still have to be there. If the condition is empty, it is
evaluated as true and the loop will repeat until something else stops it.

Example:

#include <iostream>

using namespace std; // So the program can see cout and endl

int main()
{
// The loop goes while x < 10, and x increases by one every loop
for ( int x = 0; x < 10; x++ ) {
// Keep in mind that the loop condition checks
// the conditional statement before it loops again.
// consequently, when x equals 10 the loop breaks.
// x is updated before the condition is checked.
cout<< x <<endl;
}
cin.get();
}

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This program is a very simple example of a for loop. x is set to zero, while x is less than 10 it calls
cout<< x <<endl; and it adds 1 to x until the condition is met. Keep in mind also that the variable
is incremented after the code in the loop is run for the first time.

WHILE - WHILE loops are very simple. The basic structure is

while ( condition ) { Code to execute while the condition is true }

The true represents a boolean expression which could be x == 1 or while ( x != 7 ) (x does not
equal 7). It can be any combination of boolean statements that are legal. Even, (while x ==5 || v
== 7) which says execute the code while x equals five or while v equals 7. Notice that a while loop
is the same as a for loop without the initialization and update sections. However, an empty
condition is not legal for a while loop as it is with a for loop.

Example:

#include <iostream>

using namespace std; // So we can see cout and endl

int main()
{
int x = 0; // Don't forget to declare variables

while ( x < 10 ) { // While x is less than 10

cout<< x <<endl;
x++; // Update x so the condition can be met eventually
}
cin.get();
}
This was another simple example, but it is longer than the above FOR loop. The easiest way to think
of the loop is that when it reaches the brace at the end it jumps back up to the beginning of the
loop, which checks the condition again and decides whether to repeat the block another time, or
stop and move to the next statement after the block.

DO..WHILE - DO..WHILE loops are useful for things that want to loop at least once. The structure is

do {
} while ( condition );
Notice that the condition is tested at the end of the block instead of the beginning, so the block will
be executed at least once. If the condition is true, we jump back to the beginning of the block and
execute it again. A do..while loop is basically a reversed while loop. A while loop says "Loop while
the condition is true, and execute this block of code", a do..while loop says "Execute this block of
code, and loop while the condition is true".

Example:

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main()
{
int x;

x = 0;
do {
// "Hello, world!" is printed at least one time
// even though the condition is false
cout<<"Hello, world!\n";

9
 } while ( x != 0 );
cin.get();
}
Keep in mind that you must include a trailing semi-colon after the while in the above example. A
common error is to forget that a do..while loop must be terminated with a semicolon (the other
loops should not be terminated with a semicolon, adding to the confusion). Notice that this loop will
execute once, because it automatically executes before checking the condition.

10
Lesson 4: Functions
(Printable Version)

Now that you should have learned about variables, loops, and conditional statements it is time to
learn about functions. You should have an idea of their uses as we have already used them and
defined one in the guise of main. cin.get() is an example of a function. In general, functions are
blocks of code that perform a number of pre-defined commands to accomplish something
productive.

Functions that a programmer writes will generally require a prototype. Just like a blueprint, the
prototype tells the compiler what the function will return, what the function will be called, as well as
what arguments the function can be passed. When I say that the function returns a value, I mean
that the function can be used in the same manner as a variable would be. For example, a variable
can be set equal to a function that returns a value between zero and four.

For example:

#include <cstdlib> // Include rand()

using namespace std; // Make rand() visible

int a = rand(); // rand is a standard function that all compilers have

Do not think that 'a' will change at random, it will be set to the value returned when the function is
called, but it will not change again.

The general format for a prototype is simple:

return-type function_name ( arg_type arg1, ..., arg_type argN );

arg_type just means the type for each argument -- for instance, an int, a float, or a char. It's
exactly the same thing as what you would put if you were declaring a variable.

There can be more than one argument passed to a function or none at all (where the parentheses
are empty), and it does not have to return a value. Functions that do not return values have a
return type of void. Lets look at a function prototype:

int mult ( int x, int y );

This prototype specifies that the function mult will accept two arguments, both integers, and that it
will return an integer. Do not forget the trailing semi-colon. Without it, the compiler will probably
think that you are trying to write the actual definition of the function.

When the programmer actually defines the function, it will begin with the prototype, minus the
semi-colon. Then there should always be a block with the code that the function is to execute, just
as you would write it for the main function. Any of the arguments passed to the function can be
used as if they were declared in the block. Finally, end it all with a cherry and a closing brace. Okay,
maybe not a cherry.

Lets look at an example program:

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

11
int mult ( int x, int y );

int main()
{
int x;
int y;

cout<<"Please input two numbers to be multiplied: ";

cin>> x >> y;
cin.ignore();
cout<<"The product of your two numbers is "<< mult ( x, y ) <<"\n";
cin.get();
}

int mult ( int x, int y )

{
return x * y;
}
This program begins with the only necessary include file and a directive to make the std namespace
visible. Everything in the standard headers is inside of the std namespace and not visible to our
programs unless we make them so. Next is the prototype of the function. Notice that it has the final
semi-colon! The main function returns an integer, which you should always have to conform to the
standard. You should not have trouble understanding the input and output functions. It is fine to
use cin to input to variables as the program does. But when typing in the numbers, be sure to
separate them by a space so that cin can tell them apart and put them in the right variables.

Notice how cout actually outputs what appears to be the mult function. What is really happening is
cout is printing the value returned by mult, not mult itself. The result would be the same as if we
had use this print instead

cout<<"The product of your two numbers is "<< x * y <<"\n";

The mult function is actually defined below main. Due to its prototype being above main, the
compiler still recognizes it as being defined, and so the compiler will not give an error about mult
being undefined. As long as the prototype is present, a function can be used even if there is no
definition. However, the code cannot be run without a definition even though it will compile. The
prototype and definition can be combined into one also. If mult were defined before it is used, we
could do away with the prototype because the definition can act as a prototype as well.

Return is the keyword used to force the function to return a value. Note that it is possible to have a
function that returns no value. If a function returns void, the retun statement is valid, but only if it
does not have an expression. In otherwords, for a function that returns void, the statement
"return;" is legal, but redundant.

The most important functional (Pun semi-intended) question is why do we need a function?
Functions have many uses. For example, a programmer may have a block of code that he has
repeated forty times throughout the program. A function to execute that code would save a great
deal of space, and it would also make the program more readable. Also, having only one copy of the
code makes it easier to make changes. Would you rather make forty little changes scattered all
throughout a potentially large program, or one change to the function body? So would I.

Another reason for functions is to break down a complex program into logical parts. For example,
take a menu program that runs complex code when a menu choice is selected. The program would
probably best be served by making functions for each of the actual menu choices, and then
breaking down the complex tasks into smaller, more manageable tasks, which could be in their own
functions. In this way, a program can be designed that makes sense when read. And has a structure
that is easier to understand quickly. The worst programs usually only have the required function,
main, and fill it with pages of jumbled code.

12
Lesson 5: switch case (Printable Version)
Switch case statements are a substitute for long if statements that compare a variable to several
"integral" values ("integral" values are simply values that can be expressed as an integer, such as
the value of a char). The basic format for using switch case is outlined below. The value of the
variable given into switch is compared to the value following each of the cases, and when one value
matches the value of the variable, the computer continues executing the program from that point.

switch ( <variable> ) {
case this-value:
Code to execute if <variable> == this-value
break;
case that-value:
Code to execute if <variable> == that-value
break;
...
default:
Code to execute if <variable> does not equal the value following any of the
cases
break;
}

The condition of a switch statement is a value. The case says that if it has the value of whatever is
after that case then do whatever follows the colon. The break is used to break out of the case
statements. Break is a keyword that breaks out of the code block, usually surrounded by braces,
which it is in. In this case, break prevents the program from falling through and executing the code
in all the other case statements. An important thing to note about the switch statement is that the
case values may only be constant integral expressions. Sadly, it isn't legal to use case like this:

int a = 10;
int b = 10;
int c = 20;

switch ( a ) {
case b:
// Code
break;
case c:
// Code
break;
default:
// Code
break;
}
The default case is optional, but it is wise to include it as it handles any unexpected cases. Switch
statements serves as a simple way to write long if statements when the requirements are met.
Often it can be used to process input from a user.

Below is a sample program, in which not all of the proper functions are actually declared, but which
shows how one would use switch in a program.

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

13
void playgame();
void loadgame();
void playmultiplayer();

int main()
{
int input;

cout<<"1. Play game\n";

cout<<"2. Load game\n";
cout<<"3. Play multiplayer\n";
cout<<"4. Exit\n";
cout<<"Selection: ";
cin>> input;
switch ( input ) {
case 1: // Note the colon, not a semicolon
playgame();
break;
case 2: // Note the colon, not a semicolon
loadgame();
break;
case 3: // Note the colon, not a semicolon
playmultiplayer();
break;
case 4: // Note the colon, not a semicolon
cout<<"Thank you for playing!\n";
break;
default: // Note the colon, not a semicolon
cout<<"Error, bad input, quitting\n";
break;
}
cin.get();
}
This program will compile, but cannot be run until the undefined functions are given bodies, but it
serves as a model (albeit simple) for processing input. If you do not understand this then try
mentally putting in if statements for the case statements. Default simply skips out of the switch
case construction and allows the program to terminate naturally. If you do not like that, then you
can make a loop around the whole thing to have it wait for valid input. You could easily make a few
small functions if you wish to test the code.

14
Lesson 6: An introduction to
pointers
(Printable Version)

Pointers are an extremely powerful programming tool. They can make some things much easier,
help improve your program's efficiency, and even allow you to handle unlimited amounts of data.
For example, using pointers is one way to have a function modify a variable passed to it. It is also
possible to use pointers to dynamically allocate memory, which means that you can write programs
that can handle nearly unlimited amounts of data on the fly--you don't need to know, when you
write the program, how much memory you need. Wow, that's kind of cool. Actually, it's very cool,
as we'll see in some of the next tutorials. For now, let's just get a basic handle on what pointers are
and how you use them.

What are pointers? Why should you care?

Pointers are aptly named: they "point" to locations in memory. Think of a row of safety deposit
boxes of various sizes at a local bank. Each safety deposit box will have a number associated with it
so that the teller can quickly look it up. These numbers are like the memory addresses of variables.
A pointer in the world of safety deposit box would simply be anything that stored the number of
another safety deposit box. Perhaps you have a rich uncle who stored valuables in his safety deposit
box, but decided to put the real location in another, smaller, safety deposit box that only stored a
card with the number of the large box with the real jewelery. The safety deposit box with the card
would be storing the location of another box; it would be equivalent to a pointer. In the computer,
pointers are just variables that store memory addresses, usually the addresses of other variables.

The cool thing is that once you can talk about the address of a variable, you'll then be able to go to
that address and retrieve the data stored in it. If you happen to have a huge piece of data that you
want to pass into a function, it's a lot easier to pass its location to the function than to copy every
element of the data! Moreover, if you need more memory for your program, you can request more
memory from the system--how do you get "back" that memory? The system tells you where it is
located in memory; that is to say, you get a memory address back. And you need pointers to store
the memory address.

A note about terms: the word pointer can refer either to a memory address itself, or to a variable
that stores a memory address. Usually, the distinction isn't really that important: if you pass a
pointer variable into a function, you're passing the value stored in the pointer--the memory
address. When I want to talk about a memory address, I'll refer to it as a memory address; when I
want a variable that stores a memory address, I'll call it a pointer. When a variable stores the
address of another variable, I'll say that it is "pointing to" that variable.

Pointer Syntax
Pointers require a bit of new syntax because when you have a pointer, you need the ability to
request both the memory location it stores and the value stored at that memory location. Moreover,
since pointers are somewhat special, you need to tell the compiler when you declare your pointer
variable that the variable is a pointer, and tell the compiler what type of memory it points to.

The pointer declaration looks like this:

<variable_type> *<name>;
For example, you could declare a pointer that stores the address of an integer with the following
syntax:

15
int *points_to_integer;
Notice the use of the *. This is the key to declaring a pointer; if you add it directly before the
variable name, it will declare the variable to be a pointer. Minor gotcha: if you declare multiple
pointers on the same line, you must precede each of them with an asterisk:

// one pointer, one regular int

int *pointer1, nonpointer1;

// two pointers
int *pointer1, *pointer2;
As I mentioned, there are two ways to use the pointer to access information: it is possible to have it
give the actual address to another variable. To do so, simply use the name of the pointer without
the *. However, to access the actual memory location, use the *. The technical name for this doing
this is dereferencing the pointer; in essence, you're taking the reference to some memory address
and following it, to retrieve the actual value. It can be tricky to keep track of when you should add
the asterisk. Remember that the pointer's natural use is to store a memory address; so when you
use the pointer:

call_to_function_expecting_memory_address(pointer);
then it evaluates to the address. You have to add something extra, the asterisk, in order to retrieve
the value stored at the address. You'll probably do that an awful lot. Nevertheless, the pointer itself
is supposed to store an address, so when you use the bare pointer, you get that address back.

Pointing to Something: Retrieving an

Address
In order to have a pointer actually point to another variable it is necessary to have the memory
address of that variable also. To get the memory address of a variable (its location in memory), put
the & sign in front of the variable name. This makes it give its address. This is called the address-of
operator, because it returns the memory address. Conveniently, both ampersand and address-of
start with a; that's a useful way to remember that you use & to get the address of a variable.

For example:

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main()
{
int x; // A normal integer
int *p; // A pointer to an integer

p = &x; // Read it, "assign the address of x to p"

cin>> x; // Put a value in x, we could also use *p here
cin.ignore();
cout<< *p <<"\n"; // Note the use of the * to get the value
cin.get();
}
The cout outputs the value stored in x. Why is that? Well, let's look at the code. The integer is called
x. A pointer to an integer is then defined as p. Then it stores the memory location of x in pointer by
using the address-of operator (&) to get the address of the variable. Using the ampersand is a bit
like looking at the label on the safety deposit box to see its number rather than looking inside the
box, to get what it stores. The user then inputs a number that is stored in the variable x;

16
remember, this is the same location that is pointed to by p.

The next line then passes *p into cout. *p performs the "dereferencing" operation on p; it looks at
the address stored in p, and goes to that address and returns the value. This is akin to looking
inside a safety deposit box only to find the number of (and, presumably, the key to ) another box,
which you then open.

Notice that in the above example, pointer is initialized to point to a specific memory address before
it is used. If this was not the case, it could be pointing to anything. This can lead to extremely
unpleasant consequences to the program. For instance, the operating system will probably prevent
you from accessing memory that it knows your program doesn't own: this will cause your program
to crash. If it let you use the memory, you could mess with the memory of any running program--
for instance, if you had a document opened in Word, you could change the text! Fortunately,
Windows and other modern operating systems will stop you from accessing that memory and cause
your program to crash. To avoid crashing your program, you should always initialize pointers before
you use them.

It is also possible to initialize pointers using free memory. This allows dynamic allocation of array
memory. It is most useful for setting up structures called linked lists. This difficult topic is too
complex for this text. An understanding of the keywords new and delete will, however, be
tremendously helpful in the future.

The keyword new is used to initialize pointers with memory from free store (a section of memory
available to all programs). The syntax looks like the example:

int *ptr = new int;

It initializes ptr to point to a memory address of size int (because variables have different sizes,
number of bytes, this is necessary). The memory that is pointed to becomes unavailable to other
programs. This means that the careful coder should free this memory at the end of its usage.

The delete operator frees up the memory allocated through new. To do so, the syntax is as in the
example.

delete ptr;
After deleting a pointer, it is a good idea to reset it to point to 0. When 0 is assigned to a pointer,
the pointer becomes a null pointer, in other words, it points to nothing. By doing this, when you do
something foolish with the pointer (it happens a lot, even with experienced programmers), you find
out immediately instead of later, when you have done considerable damage.

In fact, the concept of the null pointer is frequently used as a way of indicating a problem--for
instance, some functions left over from C return 0 if they cannot correctly allocate memory
(notably, the malloc function). You want to be sure to handle this correctly if you ever use malloc or
other C functions that return a "NULL pointer" on failure.

In C++, if a call to new fails because the system is out of memory, then it will "throw an exception".
For the time being, you need not worry too much about this case, but you can read more about
what happens when new fails.

Taking Stock of Pointers

Pointers may feel like a very confusing topic at first but I think anyone can come to appreciate and
understand them. If you didn't feel like you absorbed everything about them, just take a few deep
breaths and re-read the lesson. You shouldn't feel like you've fully grasped every nuance of when
and why you need to use pointers, though you should have some idea of some of their basic uses.

17
Lesson 7: Structures (Printable Version)
Before discussing classes, this lesson will be an introduction to data structures similar to classes.
Structures are a way of storing many different values in variables of potentially different types
under the same name. This makes it a more modular program, which is easier to modify because its
design makes things more compact. Structs are generally useful whenever a lot of data needs to be
grouped together--for instance, they can be used to hold records from a database or to store
information about contacts in an address book. In the contacts example, a struct could be used that
would hold all of the information about a single contact--name, address, phone number, and so
forth.

The format for defining a structure is

struct Tag {
Members
};
Where Tag is the name of the entire type of structure and Members are the variables within the
struct. To actually create a single structure the syntax is

Tag name_of_single_structure;
To access a variable of the structure it goes

name_of_single_structure.name_of_variable;
For example:

struct example {
int x;
};
example an_example; //Treating it like a normal variable type
an_example.x = 33; //How to access it's members
Here is an example program:

struct database {
int id_number;
int age;
float salary;
};

int main()
{
database employee; //There is now an employee variable that has modifiable
// variables inside it.
employee.age = 22;
employee.id_number = 1;
employee.salary = 12000.21;
}
The struct database declares that database has three variables in it, age, id_number, and salary.
You can use database like a variable type like int. You can create an employee with the database
type as I did above. Then, to modify it you call everything with the 'employee.' in front of it. You
can also return structures from functions by defining their return type as a structure type. For
instance:

18
database fn();
I will talk only a little bit about unions as well. Unions are like structures except that all the
variables share the same memory. When a union is declared the compiler allocates enough memory
for the largest data-type in the union. Its like a giant storage chest where you can store one large
item, or a small item, but never the both at the same time.

The '.' operator is used to access different variables inside a union also.

As a final note, if you wish to have a pointer to a structure, to actually access the information stored
inside the structure that is pointed to, you use the -> operator in place of the . operator. All points
about pointers still apply.

A quick example:

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

struct xampl {
int x;
};

int main()
{
xampl structure;
xampl *ptr;

structure.x = 12;
ptr = &structure; // Yes, you need the & when dealing with structures
// and using pointers to them
cout<< ptr->x; // The -> acts somewhat like the * when used with pointers
// It says, get whatever is at that memory address
// Not "get what that memory address is"
cin.get();
}

19
Lesson 8: Array basics (Printable Version)
Arrays are useful critters because they can be used in many ways. For example, a tic-tac-toe board
can be held in an array. Arrays are essentially a way to store many values under the same name.
You can make an array out of any data-type including structures and classes.

Think about arrays like this:

[][][][][][]
Each of the bracket pairs is a slot(element) in the array, and you can put information into each one
of them. It is almost like having a group of variables side by side.

Lets look at the syntax for declaring an array.

int examplearray[100]; // This declares an array

This would make an integer array with 100 slots, or places to store values(also called elements). To
access a specific part element of the array, you merely put the array name and, in brackets, an
index number. This corresponds to a specific element of the array. The one trick is that the first
index number, and thus the first element, is zero, and the last is the number of elements minus
one. 0-99 in a 100 element array, for example.

What can you do with this simple knowledge? Lets say you want to store a string, because C had no
built-in datatype for strings, it was common to use arrays of characters to simulate strings. (C++
now has a string type as part of the standard library.)

For example:

char astring[100];
will allow you to declare a char array of 100 elements, or slots. Then you can receive input into it it
from the user, and if the user types in a long string, it will go in the array. The neat thing is that it
is very easy to work with strings in this way, and there is even a header file called cstring. There is
another lesson on the uses of strings, so its not necessary to discuss here.

The most useful aspect of arrays is multidimensional arrays. How I think about multi-dimensional
arrays:

[][][][][]
[][][][][]
[][][][][]
[][][][][]
[][][][][]
This is a graphic of what a two-dimensional array looks like when I visualize it.

For example:

int twodimensionalarray[8][8];
declares an array that has two dimensions. Think of it as a chessboard. You can easily use this to
store information about some kind of game or to write something like tic-tac-toe. To access it, all

20
you need are two variables, one that goes in the first slot and one that goes in the second slot. You
can even make a three dimensional array, though you probably won't need to. In fact, you could
make a four-hundred dimensional array. It would be confusing to visualize, however. Arrays are
treated like any other variable in most ways. You can modify one value in it by putting:

arrayname[arrayindexnumber] = whatever;
or, for two dimensional arrays

arrayname[arrayindexnumber1][arrayindexnumber2] = whatever;
However, you should never attempt to write data past the last element of the array, such as when
you have a 10 element array, and you try to write to the [10] element. The memory for the array
that was allocated for it will only be ten locations in memory, but the next location could be
anything, which could crash your computer.

You will find lots of useful things to do with arrays, from storing information about certain things
under one name, to making games like tic-tac-toe. One suggestion I have is to use for loops when
access arrays.

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main()
{
int x;
int y;
int array[8][8]; // Declares an array like a chessboard

for ( x = 0; x < 8; x++ ) {

for ( y = 0; y < 8; y++ )
array[x][y] = x * y; // Set each element to a value
}
cout<<"Array Indices:\n";
for ( x = 0; x < 8;x++ ) {
for ( y = 0; y < 8; y++ )
cout<<"["<<x<<"]["<<y<<"]="<< array[x][y] <<" ";
cout<<"\n";
}
cin.get();
}
Here you see that the loops work well because they increment the variable for you, and you only
need to increment by one. Its the easiest loop to read, and you access the entire array.

One thing that arrays don't require that other variables do, is a reference operator when you want
to have a pointer to the string. For example:

char *ptr;
char str[40];
ptr = str; // Gives the memory address without a reference operator(&)
As opposed to

int *ptr;
int num;
ptr = &num; // Requires & to give the memory address to the ptr

21
The reason for this is that when an array name is used as an expression, it refers to a pointer to the
first element, not the entire array. This rule causes a great deal of confusion, for more information
please see our Frequently Asked Questions.

Lesson 9: C Strings
(Printable Version)

In C++ there are two types of strings, C-style strings, and C++-style strings. This lesson will
discuss C-style strings. C-style strings are really arrays, but there are some different functions that
are used for strings, like adding to strings, finding the length of strings, and also of checking to see
if strings match. The definition of a string would be anything that contains more than one character
strung together. For example, "This" is a string. However, single characters will not be strings,
though they can be used as strings.

Strings are arrays of chars. String literals are words surrounded by double quotation marks.

"This is a static string"

To declare a string of 49 letters, you would want to say:

char string[50];
This would declare a string with a length of 50 characters. Do not forget that arrays begin at zero,
not 1 for the index number. In addition, a string ends with a null character, literally a '\0' character.
However, just remember that there will be an extra character on the end on a string. It is like a
period at the end of a sentence, it is not counted as a letter, but it still takes up a space.
Technically, in a fifty char array you could only hold 49 letters and one null character at the end to
terminate the string.

TAKE NOTE: char *arry; Can also be used as a string. If you have read the tutorial on pointers, you
can do something such as:

arry = new char[256];

which allows you to access arry just as if it were an array. Keep in mind that to use delete you must
put [] between delete and arry to tell it to free all 256 bytes of memory allocated.

For example:

delete [] arry.
Strings are useful for holding all types of long input. If you want the user to input his or her name,
you must use a string. Using cin>> to input a string works, but it will terminate the string after it
reads the first space. The best way to handle this situation is to use the function cin.getline.
Technically cin is a class (a beast similar to a structure), and you are calling one of its member
functions. The most important thing is to understand how to use the function however.

The prototype for that function is:

istream& getline(char *buffer, int length, char terminal_char);

The char *buffer is a pointer to the first element of the character array, so that it can actually be
used to access the array. The int length is simply how long the string to be input can be at its
maximum (how big the array is). The char terminal_char means that the string will terminate if the
user inputs whatever that character is. Keep in mind that it will discard whatever the terminal

22
character is.

It is possible to make a function call of cin.getline(arry, 50); without the terminal character. Note
that '\n' is the way of actually telling the compiler you mean a new line, i.e. someone hitting the
enter key.

For a example:

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main()
{
char string[256]; // A nice long string

cout<<"Please enter a long string: ";

cin.getline ( string, 256, '\n' ); // Input goes into string
cout<<"Your long string was: "<< string <<endl;
cin.get();
}
Remember that you are actually passing the address of the array when you pass string because
arrays do not require an address operator (&) to be used to pass their address. Other than that, you
could make '\n' any character you want (make sure to enclose it with single quotes to inform the
compiler of its character status) to have the getline terminate on that character.

cstring is a header file that contains many functions for manipulating strings. One of these is the
string comparison function.

int strcmp ( const char *s1, const char *s2 );

strcmp will accept two strings. It will return an integer. This integer will either be:

Negative if s1 is less than s2.

Zero if s1 and s2 are equal.
Positive if s1 is greater than s2.
Strcmp is case sensitive. Strcmp also passes the address of the character array to the function to
allow it to be accessed.

char *strcat ( char *dest, const char *src );

strcat is short for string concatenate, which means to add to the end, or append. It adds the second
string to the first string. It returns a pointer to the concatenated string. Beware this function, it
assumes that dest is large enough to hold the entire contents of src as well as its own contents.

char *strcpy ( char *dest, const char *src );

strcpy is short for string copy, which means it copies the entire contents of src into dest. The
contents of dest after strcpy will be exactly the same as src such that strcmp ( dest, src ) will return
0.

size_t strlen ( const char *s );

strlen will return the length of a string, minus the termating character ('\0'). The size_t is nothing to
worry about. Just treat it as an integer that cannot be negative, which it is.

Here is a small program using many of the previously described functions:

23
#include <iostream> //For cout
#include <cstring> //For the string functions

using namespace std;

int main()
{
char name[50];
char lastname[50];
char fullname[100]; // Big enough to hold both name and lastname

cout<<"Please enter your name: ";

cin.getline ( name, 50 );
if ( strcmp ( name, "Julienne" ) == 0 ) // Equal strings
cout<<"That's my name too.\n";
else // Not equal
cout<<"That's not my name.\n";
// Find the length of your name
cout<<"Your name is "<< strlen ( name ) <<" letters long\n";
cout<<"Enter your last name: ";
cin.getline ( lastname, 50 );
fullname[0] = '\0'; // strcat searches for '\0' to cat after
strcat ( fullname, name ); // Copy name into full name
strcat ( fullname, " " ); // We want to separate the names by a space
strcat ( fullname, lastname ); // Copy lastname onto the end of fullname
cout<<"Your full name is "<< fullname <<"\n";
cin.get();
}

Safe Programming
The above string functions all rely on the existence of a null terminator at the end of a string. This
isn't always a safe bet. Moreover, some of them, noticeably strcat, rely on the fact that the
destination string can hold the entire string being appended onto the end. Although it might seem
like you'll never make that sort of mistake, historically, problems based on accidentally writing off
the end of an array in a function like strcat, have been a major problem.

Fortunately, in their infinite wisdom, the designers of C have included functions designed to help
you avoid these issues. Similar to the way that fgets takes the maximum number of characters that
fit into the buffer, there are string functions that take an additional argument to indicate the length
of the destination buffer. For instance, the strcpy function has an analogous strncpy function

char *strncpy ( char *dest, const char *src, size_t len );

which will only copy len bytes from src to dest (len should be less than the size of dest or the write
could still go beyond the bounds of the array). Unfortunately, strncpy can lead to one niggling issue:
it doesn't guarantee that dest will have a null terminator attached to it (this might happen if the
string src is longer than dest). You can avoid this problem by using strlen to get the length of src
and make sure it will fit in dest. Of course, if you were going to do that, then you probably don't
need strncpy in the first place, right? Wrong. Now it forces you to pay attention to this issue, which
is a big part of the battle.

24
Lesson 10: C++ File I/O (Printable Version)
This is a slightly more advanced topic than what I have covered so far, but I think that it is useful.
File I/O is reading from and writing to files. This lesson will only cover text files, that is, files that
are composed only of ASCII text.

C++ has two basic classes to handle files, ifstream and ofstream. To use them, include the header
file fstream. Ifstream handles file input (reading from files), and ofstream handles file output
(writing to files). The way to declare an instance of the ifstream or ofstream class is:

ifstream a_file;
or
ifstream a_file ( "filename" );
The constructor for both classes will actually open the file if you pass the name as an argument. As
well, both classes have an open command (a_file.open()) and a close command (a_file.close()). You
aren't required to use the close command as it will automatically be called when the program
terminates, but if you need to close the file long before the program ends, it is useful.

The beauty of the C++ method of handling files rests in the simplicity of the actual functions used in
basic input and output operations. Because C++ supports overloading operators, it is possible to
use << and >> in front of the instance of the class as if it were cout or cin. In fact, file streams can
be used exactly the same as cout and cin after they are opened.

For example:

#include <fstream>
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main()
{
char str[10];

//Creates an instance of ofstream, and opens example.txt

ofstream a_file ( "example.txt" );
// Outputs to example.txt through a_file
a_file<<"This text will now be inside of example.txt";
// Close the file stream explicitly
a_file.close();
//Opens for reading the file
ifstream b_file ( "example.txt" );
//Reads one string from the file
b_file>> str;
//Should output 'this'
cout<< str <<"\n";
cin.get(); // wait for a keypress
// b_file is closed implicitly here
}
The default mode for opening a file with ofstream's constructor is to create it if it does not exist, or
delete everything in it if something does exist in it. If necessary, you can give a second argument
that specifies how the file should be handled. They are listed below:

25
ios::app -- Append to the file
ios::ate -- Set the current position to the end
ios::trunc -- Delete everything in the file
For example:

ofstream a_file ( "test.txt", ios::app );

This will open the file without destroying the current contents and allow you to append new data.
When opening files, be very careful not to use them if the file could not be opened. This can be
tested for very easily:

ifstream a_file ( "example.txt" );

if ( !a_file.is_open() ) {
// The file could not be opened
}
else {
// Safely use the file stream
}

26
Lesson 11: Typecasting (Printable Version)
Typecasting is making a variable of one type, such as an int, act like another type, a char, for one
single operation. To typecast something, simply put the type of variable you want the actual
variable to act as inside parentheses in front of the actual variable. (char)a will make 'a' function as
a char.

For example:

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main()
{
cout<< (char)65 <<"\n";
// The (char) is a typecast, telling the computer to interpret the 65 as a
// character, not as a number. It is going to give the character output of
// the equivalent of the number 65 (It should be the letter A for ASCII).
cin.get();
}
One use for typecasting for is when you want to use the ASCII characters. For example, what if you
want to create your own chart of all 256 ASCII characters. To do this, you will need to use to
typecast to allow you to print out the integer as its character equivalent.

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main()
{
for ( int x = 0; x < 256; x++ ) {
cout<< x <<". "<< (char)x <<" ";
//Note the use of the int version of x to
// output a number and the use of (char) to
// typecast the x into a character
// which outputs the ASCII character that
// corresponds to the current number
}
cin.get();
}
The typecast described above is a C-style cast, C++ supports two other types. First is the function-
style cast:

int main()
{
cout<< char ( 65 ) <<"\n";
cin.get();
}
This is more like a function call than a cast as the type to be cast to is like the name of the function
and the value to be cast is like the argument to the function. Next is the named cast, of which there
are four:

27
int main()
{
cout<< static_cast<char> ( 65 ) <<"\n";
cin.get();
}
static_cast is similar in function to the other casts described above, but the name makes it easier to
spot and less tempting to use since it tends to be ugly. Typecasting should be avoided whenever
possible. The other three types of named casts are const_cast, reinterpret_cast, and dynamic_cast.
They are of no use to us at this time.

Typecasts in practice
So when exactly would a typecast come in handy? One use of typecasts is to force the correct type
of mathematical operation to take place. It turns out that in C and C++ (and other programming
languages), the result of the division of integers is itself treated as an integer: for instance, 3/5
becomes 0! Why? Well, 3/5 is less than 1, and integer division ignores the remainder.

On the other hand, it turns out that division between floating point numbers, or even between one
floating point number and an integer, is sufficient to keep the result as a floating point number. So
if we were performing some kind of fancy division where we didn't want truncated values, we'd have
to cast one of the variables to a floating point type. For instance, static_cast<float>(3)/5 comes out
to .6, as you would expect!

When might this come up? It's often reasonable to store two values in integers. For instance, if you
were tracking heart patients, you might have a function to compute their age in years and the
number of heart times they'd come in for heart pain. One operation you might conceivably want to
perform is to compute the number of times per year of life someone has come in to see their
physician about heart pain. What would this look like?

/* magical function returns the age in years */

int age = getAge();
/* magical function returns the number of visits */
int pain_visits = getVisits();

float visits_per_year = pain_visits / age;

The problem is that when this program is run, visits_per_year will be zero unless the patient had an
awful lot of visits to the doc. The way to get around this problem is to cast one of the values being
divided so it gets treated as a floating point number, which will cause the compiler to treat the
expression as if it were to result in a floating point number:

float visits_per_year = pain_visits / static_cast<float>(age);

/* or */
float visits_per_year = static_cast<float>(pain_visits) / age;
This would cause the correct values to be stored in visits_per_year. Can you think of another
solution to this problem (in this case)?

28
Lesson 12: Introduction to Classes (Printable Version)
C++ is a bunch of small additions to C, with a few major additions. One major addition is the
object-oriented approach (the other addition is support for generic programming, which we'll cover
later). As the name object-oriented programming suggests, this approach deals with objects. Of
course, these are not real-life objects themselves. Instead, these objects are the essential
definitions of real world objects. Classes are collections of data related to a single object type.
Classes not only include information regarding the real world object, but also functions to access the
data, and classes possess the ability to inherit from other classes. (Inheritance is covered in a later
lesson.)

If a class is a house, then the functions will be the doors and the variables will be the items inside
the house. The functions usually will be the only way to modify the variables in this structure, and
they are usually the only way even to access the variables in this structure. This might seem silly at
first, but the idea to make programs more modular - the principle itself is called "encapsulation".
The key idea is that the outside world doesn't need to know exactly what data is stored inside the
class--it just needs to know which functions it can use to access that data. This allows the
implementation to change more easily because nobody should have to rely on it except the class
itself.

The syntax for these classes is simple. First, you put the keyword 'class' then the name of the class.
Our example will use the name Computer. Then you put an open bracket. Before putting down the
different variables, it is necessary to put the degree of restriction on the variable. There are three
levels of restriction. The first is public, the second protected, and the third private. For now, all you
need to know is that the public restriction allows any part of the program, including parts outside
the class, to access the functions and variables specified as public. The protected restriction
prevents functions outside the class to access the variable. The private restriction is similar to
protected (we'll see the difference later when we look at inheritance. The syntax for declaring these
access restrictions is merely the restriction keyword (public, private, protected) and then a colon.
Finally, you put the different variables and functions (You usually will only put the function
prototype[s]) you want to be part of the class. Then you put a closing bracket and semicolon. Keep
in mind that you still must end the function prototype(s) with a semi-colon.

Let's look at these different access restrictions for a moment. Why would you want to declare
something private instead of public? The idea is that some parts of the class are intended to be
internal to the class--only for the purpose of implementing features. On the other hand, some parts
of the class are supposed to be available to anyone using the class--these are the public class
functions. Think of a class as though it were an appliance like a microwave: the public parts of the
class correspond to the parts of the microwave that you can use on an everyday basis--the keypad,
the start button, and so forth. On the other hand, some parts of the microwave are not easily
accessible, but they are no less important--it would be hard to get at the microwave generator.
These would correspond to the protected or private parts of the class--the things that are necessary
for the class to function, but that nobody who uses the class should need to know about. The great
thing about this separation is that it makes the class easier to use (who would want to use a
microwave where you had to know exactly how it works in order to use it?) The key idea is to
separate the interface you use from the way the interface is supported and implemented.

Classes must always contain two functions: a constructor and a destructor. The syntax for them is
simple: the class name denotes a constructor, a ~ before the class name is a destructor. The basic
idea is to have the constructor initialize variables, and to have the destructor clean up after the
class, which includes freeing any memory allocated. If it turns out that you don't need to actually
perform any initialization, then you can allow the compiler to create a "default constructor" for you.
Similarly, if you don't need to do anything special in the destructor, the compiler can write it for you
too!

When the programmer declares an instance of the class, the constructor will be automatically called.
The only time the destructor is called is when the instance of the class is no longer needed--either

29
when the program ends, the class reaches the end of scope, or when its memory is deallocated
using delete (if you don't understand all of that, don't worry; the key idea is that destructors are
always called when the class is no longer usable). Keep in mind that neither constructors nor
destructors return arguments! This means you do not want to (and cannot) return a value in them.

Note that you generally want your constructor and destructor to be made public so that your class
can be created! The constructor is called when an object is created, but if the constructor is private,
it cannot be called so the object cannot be constructed. This will cause the compiler to complain.

The syntax for defining a function that is a member of a class outside of the actual class definition is
to put the return type, then put the class name, two colons, and then the function name. This tells
the compiler that the function is a member of that class.

For example:

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

class Computer // Standard way of defining the class

{
public:
// This means that all of the functions below this(and any variables)
// are accessible to the rest of the program.
// NOTE: That is a colon, NOT a semicolon...
Computer();
// Constructor
~Computer();
// Destructor
void setspeed ( int p );
int readspeed();
protected:
// This means that all the variables under this, until a new type of
// restriction is placed, will only be accessible to other functions in the
// class. NOTE: That is a colon, NOT a semicolon...
int processorspeed;
};
// Do Not forget the trailing semi-colon

Computer::Computer()
{
//Constructors can accept arguments, but this one does not
processorspeed = 0;
}

Computer::~Computer()
{
//Destructors do not accept arguments
}

void Computer::setspeed ( int p )

{
// To define a function outside put the name of the class
// after the return type and then two colons, and then the name
// of the function.
processorspeed = p;
}
int Computer::readspeed()
{
// The two colons simply tell the compiler that the function is part
// of the class
return processorspeed;

30
}

int main()
{
Computer compute;
// To create an 'instance' of the class, simply treat it like you would
// a structure. (An instance is simply when you create an actual object
// from the class, as opposed to having the definition of the class)
compute.setspeed ( 100 );
// To call functions in the class, you put the name of the instance,
// a period, and then the function name.
cout<< compute.readspeed();
// See above note.
}
This introduction is far from exhaustive and, for the sake of simplicity, recommends practices that
are not always the best option. For more detail, I suggest asking questions on our forums and
getting a book recommended by our book reviews.

31
Lesson 13: More on Functions (Printable Version)

In lesson 4 you were given the basic information on functions. However, I left out one item of
interest. That item is the inline function. Inline functions are not very important, but it is good to
understand them. The basic idea is to save time at a cost in space. Inline functions are a lot like a
placeholder. Once you define an inline function, using the 'inline' keyword, whenever you call that
function the compiler will replace the function call with the actual code from the function.

How does this make the program go faster? Simple, function calls are simply more time consuming
than writing all of the code without functions. To go through your program and replace a function
you have used 100 times with the code from the function would be time consuming not too bright.
Of course, by using the inline function to replace the function calls with code you will also greatly
increase the size of your program.

Using the inline keyword is simple, just put it before the name of a function. Then, when you use
that function, pretend it is a non-inline function.

For example:

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

inline void hello()

{
cout<<"hello";
}
int main()
{
hello(); //Call it like a normal function...
cin.get();
}
However, once the program is compiled, the call to hello(); will be replaced by the code making up
the function.

A WORD OF WARNING: Inline functions are very good for saving time, but if you use them too often
or with large functions you will have a tremendously large program. Sometimes large programs are
actually less efficient, and therefore they will run more slowly than before. Inline functions are best
for small functions that are called often.

Finally, note that the compiler may choose, in its infinite wisdom, to ignore your attempt to inline a
function. So if you do make a mistake and inline a moster fifty-line function that gets called
thousands of times, the compiler may ignore you.

In the future, we will discuss inline functions in terms of C++ classes. Now that you understand the
concept I will feel more comfortable using inline functions in later tutorials.

32
Lesson 14: Accepting command line arguments (Printable
Version)

In C++ it is possible to accept command line arguments. Command-line arguments are given after
the name of a program in command-line operating systems like DOS or Linux, and are passed in to
the program from the operating system. To use command line arguments in your program, you
must first understand the full declaration of the main function, which previously has accepted no
arguments. In fact, main can actually accept two arguments: one argument is number of command
line arguments, and the other argument is a full list of all of the command line arguments.

The full declaration of main looks like this:

int main ( int argc, char *argv[] )

The integer, argc is the ARGument Count (hence argc). It is the number of arguments passed into
the program from the command line, including the name of the program.

The array of character pointers is the listing of all the arguments. argv[0] is the name of the
program, or an empty string if the name is not available. After that, every element number less
than argc are command line arguments. You can use each argv element just like a string, or use
argv as a two dimensional array. argv[argc] is a null pointer.

How could this be used? Almost any program that wants its parameters to be set when it is
executed would use this. One common use is to write a function that takes the name of a file and
outputs the entire text of it onto the screen.

#include <fstream>
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main ( int argc, char *argv[] )

{
if ( argc != 2 ) // argc should be 2 for correct execution
// We print argv[0] assuming it is the program name
cout<<"usage: "<< argv[0] <<" <filename>\n";
else {
// We assume argv[1] is a filename to open
ifstream the_file ( argv[1] );
// Always check to see if file opening succeeded
if ( !the_file.is_open() )
cout<<"Could not open file\n";
else {
char x;
// the_file.get ( x ) returns false if the end of the file
// is reached or an error occurs
while ( the_file.get ( x ) )
cout<< x;
}
// the_file is closed implicitly here
}
}
This program is fairly simple. It incorporates the full version of main. Then it first checks to ensure
the user added the second argument, theoretically a file name. The program then checks to see if
the file is valid by trying to open it. This is a standard operation that is effective and easy. If the file
is valid, it gets opened in the process. The code is self-explanatory, but is littered with comments,
you should have no trouble understanding its operation this far into the tutorial. :-)

33
Lesson 15: Singly linked lists (Printable Version)
Linked lists are a way to store data with structures so that the programmer can automatically create
a new place to store data whenever necessary. Specifically, the programmer writes a struct or class
definition that contains variables holding information about something, and then has a pointer to a
struct of its type. Each of these individual struct or classes in the list is commonly known as a node.

Think of it like a train. The programmer always stores the first node of the list. This would be the
engine of the train. The pointer is the connector between cars of the train. Every time the train adds
a car, it uses the connectors to add a new car. This is like a programmer using the keyword new to
create a pointer to a new struct or class.

In memory it is often described as looking like this:

---------- ----------
- Data - - Data -
---------- ----------
- Pointer- - - -> - Pointer-
---------- ----------
The representation isn't completely accurate, but it will suffice for our purposes. Each of the big
blocks is a struct (or class) that has a pointer to another one. Remember that the pointer only
stores the memory location of something, it is not that thing, so the arrow goes to the next one. At
the end, there is nothing for the pointer to point to, so it does not point to anything, it should be a
null pointer or a dummy node to prevent it from accidentally pointing to a totally arbitrary and
random location in memory (which is very bad).

So far we know what the node struct should look like:

struct node {
int x;
node *next;
};

int main()
{
node *root; // This will be the unchanging first node

root = new node; // Now root points to a node struct

root->next = 0; // The node root points to has its next pointer
// set equal to a null pointer
root->x = 5; // By using the -> operator, you can modify the node
// a pointer (root in this case) points to.
}
This so far is not very useful for doing anything. It is necessary to understand how to traverse (go
through) the linked list before going further.

Think back to the train. Lets imagine a conductor who can only enter the train through the engine,
and can walk through the train down the line as long as the connector connects to another car. This
is how the program will traverse the linked list. The conductor will be a pointer to node, and it will
first point to root, and then, if the root's pointer to the next node is pointing to something, the
"conductor" (not a technical term) will be set to point to the next node. In this fashion, the list can
be traversed. Now, as long as there is a pointer to something, the traversal will continue. Once it
reaches a null pointer (or dummy node), meaning there are no more nodes (train cars) then it will
be at the end of the list, and a new node can subsequently be added if so desired.

Here's what that looks like:

34
struct node {
int x;
node *next;
};

int main()
{
node *root; // This won't change, or we would lose the list in memory
node *conductor; // This will point to each node as it traverses the list

root = new node; // Sets it to actually point to something

root->next = 0; // Otherwise it would not work well
root->x = 12;
conductor = root; // The conductor points to the first node
if ( conductor != 0 ) {
while ( conductor->next != 0)
conductor = conductor->next;
}
conductor->next = new node; // Creates a node at the end of the list
conductor = conductor->next; // Points to that node
conductor->next = 0; // Prevents it from going any further
conductor->x = 42;
}
That is the basic code for traversing a list. The if statement ensures that there is something to begin
with (a first node). In the example it will always be so, but if it was changed, it might not be true. If
the if statement is true, then it is okay to try and access the node pointed to by conductor. The
while loop will continue as long as there is another pointer in the next. The conductor simply moves
along. It changes what it points to by getting the address of conductor->next.

Finally, the code at the end can be used to add a new node to the end. Once the while loop as
finished, the conductor will point to the last node in the array. (Remember the conductor of the
train will move on until there is nothing to move on to? It works the same way in the while loop.)
Therefore, conductor->next is set to null, so it is okay to allocate a new area of memory for it to
point to. Then the conductor traverses one more element (like a train conductor moving on the the
newly added car) and makes sure that it has its pointer to next set to 0 so that the list has an end.
The 0 functions like a period, it means there is no more beyond. Finally, the new node has its x
value set. (It can be set through user input. I simply wrote in the '=42' as an example.)

To print a linked list, the traversal function is almost the same. It is necessary to ensure that the
last element is printed after the while loop terminates.

For example:

conductor = root;
if ( conductor != 0 ) { //Makes sure there is a place to start
while ( conductor->next != 0 ) {
cout<< conductor->x;
conductor = conductor->next;
}
cout<< conductor->x;
}
The final output is necessary because the while loop will not run once it reaches the last node, but it
will still be necessary to output the contents of the next node. Consequently, the last output deals
with this. Because we have a pointer to the beginning of the list (root), we can avoid this
redundancy by allowing the conductor to walk off of the back of the train. Bad for the conductor (if
it were a real person), but the code is simpler as it also allows us to remove the initial check for null
(if root is null, then conductor will be immediately set to null and the loop will never begin):

35
conductor = root;
while ( conductor != NULL ) {
cout<< conductor->x;
conductor = conductor->next;
}

Lesson 16: Recursion (Printable Version)

Recursion is a programming technique that allows the programmer to express operations in terms
of themselves. In C++, this takes the form of a function that calls itself. A useful way to think of
recursive functions is to imagine them as a process being performed where one of the instructions is
to "repeat the process". This makes it sound very similar to a loop because it repeats the same
code, and in some ways it is similar to looping. On the other hand, recursion makes it easier to
express ideas in which the result of the recursive call is necessary to complete the task. Of course,
it must be possible for the "process" to sometimes be completed without the recursive call. One
simple example is the idea of building a wall that is ten feet high; if I want to build a ten foot high
wall, then I will first build a 9 foot high wall, and then add an extra foot of bricks. Conceptually, this
is like saying the "build wall" function takes a height and if that height is greater than one, first calls
itself to build a lower wall, and then adds one a foot of bricks.

A simple example of recursion would be:

void recurse()
{
recurse(); //Function calls itself
}

int main()
{
recurse(); //Sets off the recursion
}
This program will not continue forever, however. The computer keeps function calls on a stack and
once too many are called without ending, the program will crash. Why not write a program to see
how many times the function is called before the program terminates?

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

void recurse ( int count ) // Each call gets its own count
{
cout<< count <<"\n";
// It is not necessary to increment count sinceeach function's
// variables are separate (so each count will be initialized one greater)
recurse ( count + 1 );
}

int main()
{
recurse ( 1 ); //First function call, so it starts at one
}
This simple program will show the number of times the recurse function has been called by
initializing each individual function call's count variable one greater than it was previous by passing
in count + 1. Keep in mind, it is not a function restarting itself, it is hundreds of functions that are
each unfinished with the last one calling a new recurse function.

36
It can be thought of like the Russian dolls that always have a smaller doll inside. Each doll calls
another doll, and you can think of the size being a counter variable that is being decremented by
one.

Think of a really tiny doll, the size of a few atoms. You can't get any smaller than that, so there are
no more dolls. Normally, a recursive function will have a variable that performs a similar action; one
that controls when the function will finally exit. The condition where the functin will not call itself is
termed the base case of the function. Basically, it is an if-statement that checks some variable for a
condition (such as a number being less than zero, or greater than some other number) and if that
condition is true, it will not allow the function to call itself again. (Or, it could check if a certain
condition is true and only then allow the function to call itself).

A quick example:

void doll ( int size )

{
if ( size == 0 ) // No doll can be smaller than 1 atom (10^0==1) so doesn't
call itself
return; // Return does not have to return something, it can be used
// to exit a function
doll ( size - 1 ); // Decrements the size variable so the next doll will be
smaller.
}
int main()
{
doll ( 10 ); //Starts off with a large doll (its a logarithmic scale)
}
This program ends when size equals one. This is a good base case, but if it is not properly set up, it
is possible to have an base case that is always true (or always false).

Once a function has called itself, it will be ready to go to the next line after the call. It can still
perform operations. One function you could write could print out the numbers
123456789987654321. How can you use recursion to write a function to do this? Simply have it
keep incrementing a variable passed in, and then output the variable...twice, once before the
function recurses, and once after...

void printnum ( int begin )

{
cout<< begin;
if ( begin < 9 ) // The base case is when begin is greater than 9
{ // for it will not recurse after the if-statement
printnum ( begin + 1 );
}
cout<< begin; // Outputs the second begin, after the program has
// gone through and output
}
This function works because it will go through and print the numbers begin to 9, and then as each
printnum function terminates it will continue printing the value of begin in each function from 9 to
begin.

This is just the beginning of the usefulness of recursion. Heres a little challenge, use recursion to
write a program that returns the factorial of any number greater than 0. (Factorial is
number*number-1*number-2...*1).

Hint: Recursively find the factorial of the smaller numbers first, ie, it takes a number, finds the
factorial of the previous number, and multiplies the number times that factorial...have fun. :-)

37
Lesson 17: Functions with variable-length argument
lists (Printable Version)
Perhaps you would like to have a function that will accept any number of values and then return the
average. You don't know how many arguments will be passed in to the function. One way you could
make the function would be to accept a pointer to an array. Another way would be to write a
function that can take any number of arguments. So you could write avg(4, 12.2, 23.3, 33.3, 12.1);
or you could write avg(2, 2.3, 34.4); Some library functions can accept a variable list of arguments
(such as the venerable printf).

To use a function with variable number of arguments, or more precisely, a function without a set
number of arguments, you would use the cstdarg header file. There are four parts needed: va_list,
which stores the list of arguments, va_start, which initializes the list, va_arg, which returns the next
argument in the list, and va_end, which cleans up the variable argument list. Whenever a function
is declared to have an indeterminate number of arguments, in place of the last argument you
should place an ellipsis (which looks like '...'), so, int a_function ( int x, ... ); would tell the compiler
the function should accept however many arguments that the programmer uses, as long as it is
equal to at least one, the one being the first, x.

va_list is like any other variable. For example,

va_list a_list;
va_start is a macro which accepts two arguments, a va_list and the name of the variable that
directly precedes the ellipsis (...). So, in the function a_function, to initialize a_list with va_start,
you would write va_start ( a_list, x );

va_arg takes a va_list and a variable type, and returns the next argument in the list in the form of
whatever variable type it is told. It then moves down the list to the next argument. For example,
va_arg ( a_list, double ) will return the next argument, assuming it exists, in the form of a double.
The next time it is called, it will return the argument following the last returned number, if one
exists.

To show how each of the parts works, take an example function:

#include <cstdarg>
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

double average ( int num, ... )

{
va_list arguments; // A place to store the list of
arguments
double sum = 0;

va_start ( arguments, num ); // Initializing arguments to store all

values after num
for ( int x = 0; x < num; x++ ) // Loop until all numbers are added
sum += va_arg ( arguments, double ); // Adds the next value in argument
list to sum.
va_end ( arguments ); // Cleans up the list

return sum / num; // Returns some number (typecast

prevents truncation)
}
int main()
{
cout<< average ( 3, 12.2, 22.3, 4.5 ) <<endl;

38
 cout<< average ( 5, 3.3, 2.2, 1.1, 5.5, 3.3 ) <<endl;
}
It isn't necessarily a good idea to use a variable argument list at all times, because the potential
exists for assuming a value is of one type, while it is in fact another, such as a null pointer being
assumed to be an integer. Consequently, variable argument lists should be used sparingly.

Binary Trees: Part 1(Printable Version)

The binary tree is a fundamental data structure used in computer science. The binary tree is a
useful data structure for rapidly storing sorted data and rapidly retrieving stored data. A binary tree
is composed of parent nodes, or leaves, each of which stores data and also links to up to two other
child nodes (leaves) which can be visualized spatially as below the first node with one placed to the
left and with one placed to the right. It is the relationship between the leaves linked to and the
linking leaf, also known as the parent node, which makes the binary tree such an efficient data
structure. It is the leaf on the left which has a lesser key value (ie, the value used to search for a
leaf in the tree), and it is the leaf on the right which has an equal or greater key value. As a result,
the leaves on the farthest left of the tree have the lowest values, whereas the leaves on the right of
the tree have the greatest values. More importantly, as each leaf connects to two other leaves, it is
the beginning of a new, smaller, binary tree. Due to this nature, it is possible to easily access and
insert data in a binary tree using search and insert functions recursively called on successive leaves.

The typical graphical representation of a binary tree is essentially that of an upside down tree. It
begins with a root node, which contains the original key value. The root node has two child nodes;
each child node might have its own child nodes. Ideally, the tree would be structured so that it is a
perfectly balanced tree, with each node having the same number of child nodes to its left and to its
right. A perfectly balanced tree allows for the fastest average insertion of data or retrieval of data.
The worst case scenario is a tree in which each node only has one child node, so it becomes as if it
were a linked list in terms of speed. The typical representation of a binary tree looks like the
following:

10
/ \
6 14
/ \ / \
5 8 11 18
The node storing the 10, represented here merely as 10, is the root node, linking to the left and
right child nodes, with the left node storing a lower value than the parent node, and the node on the
right storing a greater value than the parent node. Notice that if one removed the root node and the
right child nodes, that the node storing the value 6 would be the equivalent a new, smaller, binary
tree.
The structure of a binary tree makes the insertion and search functions simple to implement using
recursion. In fact, the two insertion and search functions are also both very similar. To insert data
into a binary tree involves a function searching for an unused node in the proper position in the tree
in which to insert the key value. The insert function is generally a recursive function that continues
moving down the levels of a binary tree until there is an unused leaf in a position which follows the
rules of placing nodes. The rules are that a lower value should be to the left of the node, and a
greater or equal value should be to the right. Following the rules, an insert function should check
each node to see if it is empty, if so, it would insert the data to be stored along with the key value
(in most implementations, an empty node will simply be a NULL pointer from a parent node, so the
function would also have to create the node). If the node is filled already, the insert function should
check to see if the key value to be inserted is less than the key value of the current node, and if so,
the insert function should be recursively called on the left child node, or if the key value to be
inserted is greater than or equal to the key value of the current node the insert function should be
recursively called on the right child node. The search function works along a similar fashion. It
should check to see if the key value of the current node is the value to be searched. If not, it should
check to see if the value to be searched for is less than the value of the node, in which case it
should be recursively called on the left child node, or if it is greater than the value of the node, it
should be recursively called on the right child node. Of course, it is also necessary to check to
ensure that the left or right child node actually exists before calling the function on the node.

39
Because binary trees have log (base 2) n layers, the average search time for a binary tree is log
(base 2) n. To fill an entire binary tree, sorted, takes roughly log (base 2) n * n. Lets take a look at
the necessary code for a simple implementation of a binary tree. First, it is necessary to have a
struct, or class, defined as a node.
struct node
{
int key_value;
node *left;
node *right;
};
The struct has the ability to store the key_value and contains the two child nodes which define the
node as part of a tree. In fact, the node itself is very similar to the node in a linked list. A basic
knowledge of the code for a linked list will be very helpful in understanding the techniques of binary
trees. Essentially, pointers are necessary to allow the arbitrary creation of new nodes in the tree.
It is most logical to create a binary tree class to encapsulate the workings of the tree into a single
area, and also making it reusable. The class will contain functions to insert data into the tree and to
search for data. Due to the use of pointers, it will be necessary to include a function to delete the
tree in order to conserve memory after the program has finished.

class btree
{
public:
btree();
~btree();

void insert(int key);

node *search(int key);
void destroy_tree();

private:
void destroy_tree(node *leaf);
void insert(int key, node *leaf);
node *search(int key, node *leaf);

node *root;
};
The insert and search functions that are public members of the class are designed to allow the user
of the class to use the class without dealing with the underlying design. The insert and search
functions which will be called recursively are the ones which contain two parameters, allowing them
to travel down the tree. The destroy_tree function without arguments is a front for the destroy_tree
function which will recursively destroy the tree, node by node, from the bottom up.
The code for the class would look similar to the following:
btree::btree()
{
root=NULL;
}
It is necessary to initialize root to NULL for the later functions to be able to recognize that it does
not exist.
btree::~btree()
{
destroy_tree();
}
The destroy_tree function will set off the recursive function destroy_tree shown below which will
actually delete all nodes of the tree.
void btree::destroy_tree(node *leaf)
{
if(leaf!=NULL)

40
 {
destroy_tree(leaf->left);
destroy_tree(leaf->right);
delete leaf;
}
}
The function destroy_tree goes to the bottom of each part of the tree, that is, searching while there
is a non-null node, deletes that leaf, and then it works its way back up. The function deletes the
leftmost node, then the right child node from the leftmost node's parent node, then it deletes the
parent node, then works its way back to deleting the other child node of the parent of the node it
just deleted, and it continues this deletion working its way up to the node of the tree upon which
delete_tree was originally called. In the example tree above, the order of deletion of nodes would
be 5 8 6 11 18 14 10. Note that it is necessary to delete all the child nodes to avoid wasting
memory.
void btree::insert(int key, node *leaf)
{
if(key< leaf->key_value)
{
if(leaf->left!=NULL)
insert(key, leaf->left);
else
{
leaf->left=new node;
leaf->left->key_value=key;
leaf->left->left=NULL; //Sets the left child of the child node to null
leaf->left->right=NULL; //Sets the right child of the child node to null
}
}
else if(key>=leaf->key_value)
{
if(leaf->right!=NULL)
insert(key, leaf->right);
else
{
leaf->right=new node;
leaf->right->key_value=key;
leaf->right->left=NULL; //Sets the left child of the child node to null
leaf->right->right=NULL; //Sets the right child of the child node to null
}
}
}
The case where the root node is still NULL will be taken care of by the insert function that is
nonrecursive and available to non-members of the class. The insert function searches, moving down
the tree of children nodes, following the prescribed rules, left for a lower value to be inserted and
right for a greater value, until it finds an empty node which it creates using the 'new' keyword and
initializes with the key value while setting the new node's child node pointers to NULL. After creating
the new node, the insert function will no longer call itself.
node *btree::search(int key, node *leaf)
{
if(leaf!=NULL)
{
if(key==leaf->key_value)
return leaf;
if(key<leaf->key_value)
return search(key, leaf->left);
else
return search(key, leaf->right);
}
else return NULL;

41
}
The search function shown above recursively moves down the tree until it either reaches a node
with a key value equal to the value for which the function is searching or until the function reaches
an uninitialized node, meaning that the value being searched for is not stored in the binary tree. It
returns a pointer to the node to the previous instance of the function which called it, handing the
pointer back up to the search function accessible outside the class.
void btree::insert(int key)
{
if(root!=NULL)
insert(key, root);
else
{
root=new node;
root->key_value=key;
root->left=NULL;
root->right=NULL;
}
}
The public version of the insert function takes care of the case where the root has not been
initialized by allocating the memory for it and setting both child nodes to NULL and setting the
key_value to the value to be inserted. If the root node already exists, insert is called with the root
node as the initial node of the function, and the recursive insert function takes over.
node *btree::search(int key)
{
return search(key, root);
}
The public version of the search function is used to set off the search recursion at the root node,
keeping it from being necessary for the user to have access to the root node.
void btree::destroy_tree()
{
destroy_tree(root);
}
The public version of the destroy tree function is merely used to initialize the recursive destroy_tree
function which then deletes all the nodes of the tree.

42
Lesson 19: Inheritance - An Overview (Printable Version)
The ability to use the object-oriented programming is an important feature of C++. Lesson 12
introduced the idea of the class; if you have not read it and do not know the basic details of classes,
you should read it before continuing this tutorial. This tutorial is n Inheritance is an important
feature of classes; in fact, it is integral to the idea of object oriented programming. Inheritance
allows you to create a hierarchy of classes, with various classes of more specific natures inheriting
the general aspects of more generalized classes. In this way, it is possible to structure a program
starting with abstract ideas that are then implemented by specific classes. For example, you might
have a class Animal from which class dog and cat inherent the traits that are general to all animals;
at the same time, each of those classes will have attributes specific to the animal dog or cat.

Inheritence offers many useful features to programmers. The ability, for example, of a variable of a
more general class to function as any of the more specific classes which inherit from it, called
polymorphism, is handy. For now, we will concentrate on the basic syntax of inheritance.
Polymorphism will be covered in its own tutorial.

Any class can inherit from any other class, but it is not necessarily good practice to use inheritance
(put it in the bank rather than go on a vacation). Inheritance should be used when you have a more
general class of objects that describes a set of objects. The features of every element of that set (of
every object that is also of the more general type) should be reflected in the more general class.
This class is called the base class. base classes usually contain functions that all the classes
inheriting from it, known as derived classes, will need. base classes should also have all the
variables that every derived class would otherwise contain.

Let us look at an example of how to structure a program with several classes. Take a program used
to simulate the interaction between types of organisms, trees, birds, bears, and other creatures
coinhabiting a forest. There would likely be several base classes that would then have derived
classes specific to individual animal types. In fact, if you know anything about biology, you might
wish to structure your classes to take advantage of the biological classification from Kingdom to
species, although it would probably be overly complex. Instead, you might have base classes for the
animals and the plants. If you wanted to use more base classes (a class can be both a derived of
one class and a base of another), you might have classes for flying animals and land animals, and
perhaps trees and scrub. Then you would want classes for specific types of animals: pigeons and
vultures, bears and lions, and specific types of plants: oak and pine, grass and flower. These are
unlikely to live together in the same area, but the idea is essentially there: more specific classes
ought to inherit from less specific classes.

Classes, of course, share data. A derived class has access to most of the functions and variables of
the base class. There are, however, ways to keep a derived class from accessing some attributes of
its base class. The keywords public, protected, and private are used to control access to information
within a class. It is important to remember that public, protected, and private control information
both for specific instances of classes and for classes as general data types. Variables and functions
designated public are both inheritable by derived classes and accessible to outside functions and
code when they are elements of a specific instance of a class. Protected variables are not accessible
by functions and code outside the class, but derived classes inherit these functions and variables as
part of their own class. Private variables are neither accessible outside the class when it is a specific
class nor are available to derived classes. Private variables are useful when you have variables that
make sense in the context of large idea.

43
Lesson 20: Inheritance - Syntax (Printable Version)

Before beginning this lesson, you should have an understanding of the idea of inheritance. If you do
not, please read lesson 19. This lesson will consist of an overview of the syntax of inheritance, the
use of the keywords public, private, and protected, and then an example program following to
demonstrate each.

The syntax to denote one class as inheriting from another is simple. It looks like the following: class
Bear : public Animal, in place of simply the keyword class and then the class name. The ": public
base_class_name" is the essential syntax of inheritance; the function of this syntax is that the class
will contain all public and protected variables of the base class. Do not confuse the idea of a derived
class having access to data members of a base class and specific instances of the derived class
possessing data. The data members - variables and functions - possessed by the derived class are
specific to the type of class, not to each individual object of that type. So, two different Bear
objects, while having the same member variables and functions, may have different information
stored in their variables; furthermore, if there is a class Animal with an object, say object
BigAnimal, of that type, and not of a more specific type inherited from that class, those two bears
will not have access to the data within BigAnimal. They will simply possess variables and functions
with the same name and of the same type.

A quick example of inheritance:

class Animal
{
public:
Animal();
~Animal();
void eat();
void sleep();
void drink();

private:
int legs;
int arms;
int age;
};
//The class Animal contains information and functions
//related to all animals (at least, all animals this lesson uses)
class Cat : public Animal
{
public:
int fur_color;
void purr();
void fish();
void markTerritory();
};
//each of the above operations is unique
//to your friendly furry friends
//(or enemies, as the case may be)
A discussion of the keywords public, private, and protected is useful when discussing inheritance.
The three keywords are used to control access to functions and variables stored within a class.

public:

44
The most open level of data hiding is public. Anything that is public is available to all derived classes
of a base class, and the public variables and data for each object of both the base and derived class
is accessible by code outside the class. Functions marked public are generally those the class uses
to give information to and take information from the outside world; they are typically the interface
with the class. The rest of the class should be hidden from the user using private or protected data
(This hidden nature and the highly focused nature of classes is known collectively as encapsulation).
The syntax for public is:
public:
Everything following is public until the end of the class or another data hiding keyword is used.

In general, a well-designed class will have no public fields--everything should go through the class's
functions. Functions that retrieve variables are known as 'getters' and those that change values are
known as 'setters'. Since the public part of the class is intended for use by others, it is often
sensible to put the public section at the top of the class.

protected:

Variables and functions marked protected are inherited by derived classes; however, these derived
classes hide the data from code outside of any instance of the object. Keep in mind, even if you
have another object of the same type as your first object, the second object cannot access a
protected variable in the first object. Instead, the second object will have its own variable with the
same name - but not necessarily the same data. Protected is a useful level of access control for
important aspects to a class that must be passed on without allowing it to be accessed. The syntax
is the same as that of public. specifically,
protected:

private:

Private is the highest level of data-hiding. Not only are the functions and variables marked private
not accessible by code outside the specific object in which that data appears, but private variables
and functions are not inherited (in the sense that the derived class cannot directly access these
variables or functions). The level of data protection afforded by protected is generally more flexible
than that of the private level. On the other hand, if you do not wish derived classes to access a
method, declaring it pivate is sensible.
private:

Class Design in C++

Understanding Interfaces
When you're designing a class in C++, the first thing you should decide is the public interface for
the class. The public interface determines how your class will be used by other programmers (or
you), and once designed and implemented it should generally stay pretty constant. You may decide
to add to the interface, but once you've started using the class, it will be hard to remove functions
from the public interface (unless they aren't used and weren't necessary in the first place).

But that doesn't mean that you should include more functionality in your class than necessary just
so that you can later decide what to remove from the interface. If you do this, you'll just make the
class harder to use. People will ask questions like, "why are there four ways of doing this? Which

45
one is better? How can I choose between them?" It's usually easier to keep things simple and
provide one way of doing each thing unless there's a compelling reason why your class should offer
multiple methods with the same basic functionality.

At the same time, just because adding methods to the public interface (probably) won't break
anything that doesn't mean that you should start off with a tiny interface. First of all, if anybody
decides to inherit from your class and you then choose a function with the same name, you're in for
a boatload of confusion. First, if you don't declare the function virtual, then an object of the subclass
will have the function chosen depending on the static type of the pointer. This can be messy.
Moreover, if you do declare it virtual, then you have the issue that it might provide a different type
of functionality than was intended by the original implementation of that function. Finally, you just
can't add a pure virtual function to a class that's already in use because nobody who has inherited
from it will have implemented that function.

The public interface, then, should remain as constant as possible. In fact, a good approach to
designing classes is to write the interface before the implementation because it's what determines
how your class interacts with the rest of the world (which is more important for the program as a
whole than how the class is actually implemented). Moreover, if you write the interface first, you
can get a feel for how the class will work with other classes before you actually dive into the
implementation details.

Inheritance and Class Design

The second issue of your class design is what should be available to programmers who wish to
create subclasses. This interface is primarily determined by virtual functions, but you can also
include protected methods that are designed for use by the class or its subclasses (remember that
protected methods are visible to subclasses while private methods are not).

A key consideration is whether it makes sense for a function to be virtual. A function should be
virtual when the implementation is likely to differ from subclass to subclass. Vice-versa, whenever a
function should not change, then it should be made non-virtual. The key idea is to think about
whether to make a function virtual by asking if the function should always be the same for every
class.

For example, if you have a class is designed to allow users to monitor network traffic and you want
to allow subclasses that implement different ways of analyzing the traffic, you might use the
following interface:
class TrafficWatch
{
public:
// Packet is some class that implements information about network
// packets
void addPacket (const Packet& network_packet);

int getAveragePacketSize ();

int getMaxPacket ();

virtual bool isOverloaded ();

};
In this class, some methods will not change from implementation to implementation; adding a
packet should always be handled the same way, and the average packet size isn't going to change
either. On the other hand, someone might have a very different idea of what it means to have an
overloaded network. This will change from situation to situation and we don't want to prevent
someone from changing how this is computed--for some, anything over 10 Mbits/sec of traffic might
be an overloaded network, and for others, it would require 100 Mbits/sec on some specific network
cables.

Finally, when publicly inheriting from any class or designing for inheritance, remember that you

46
should strive for it to be clear that inheritance models is-a. At heart, the is-a relationship means
that the subclass should be able to appear anywhere the parent class could appear. From the
standpoint of the user of the class, it should not matter whether a class is the parent class or a
subclass.

To design an is-a relationship, make sure that it makes sense for the class to include certain
functions to be sure that it doesn't include that subclasses might not actually need. One example of
having an extra function is that of a Bird class that implements a fly function. The problem is that
not all birds can fly--penguins and emus, for instance. This suggests that a more prudent design
choice might be to have two subclasses of birds, one for birds that can fly and one for flightless
birds. Of course, it might be overkill to have two subclasses of bird depending on how complex your
class hierarchy will be. If you know that nobody would ever expect use your class for a flightless
bird, then it's not so bad. Of course, you won't always know what someone will use your class for
and it's much easier to think carefully before you start to implement an entire class hierachy than it
will be to go back and change it once people are using it.

Enumerated Types - enums

Sometimes as programmers we want to express the idea that a variable will be used for a specific
purpose and should only be able to have a small number of values--for instance, a variable that
stores the current direction of the wind might only need to store values corresponding to north,
south, east, and west. One solution to this problem might be to use an int and some #define'd
values:
#define NORTH_WIND 0
#define SOUTH_WIND 1
#define EAST_WIND 2
#define WEST_WIND 3
#define NO_WIND 4

int wind_direction = NO_WIND;

The problem with this approach is that it doesn't really prevent someone from assigning a
nonsensical value to wind_direction; for instance, I could set wind_direction to 453 without any
complaints from my compiler. And if I looked at the type of wind_direction, i would see that it's just
a plain old integer. there's just no way to know that something is wrong.

The idea behind enumerated types is to create new data types that can take on only a restricted
range of values. Moreover, these values are all expressed as constants rather than magic numbers--
in fact, there should be no need to know the underlying values. The names of the constants should
be sufficient for the purposes of comparing values.

When you declare an enumerated type, you specify the name of the new type, and the possible
values it can take on:
enum wind_directions_t {NO_WIND, NORTH_WIND, SOUTH_WIND, EAST_WIND, WEST_WIND};
Note the _t at the end of the name of the type: this stands for "type" and is a way to visually
distinguish the name of the type from the name of variables. Your text editor may also have the
ability to use syntax highlighting to make the new type look like other built-in types, such as int, for
you.

Now we can declare a wind_directions_t variable that can only take on five values:
wind_directions_t wind_direction = NO_WIND;

wind_direction = 453; // doesn't work, we get a compiler error!

47
Note to C Programmers: If you're planning on using enums in C, however, you don't get this type
safety. The above assignment will compile without giving you an error. By the way, if you're using
enums in C, you will also need to prefix the declaration with the keyword enum: enum
wind_directions_t wind_direction = NO_WIND;

You might be wondering exactly what values the constants take on--what if you wanted to compare
then using < or >? You actually have a choice: if you want to set the values yourself, you may, or
you can choose to use default values, which start at zero for the first constant and increase by one.
In our example, NO_WIND has the value 0, and WEST_WIND has the value 4 (just like our
#define'd constants).

On the other hand, we could reverse this by giving explicit values:

enum wind_directions_t {NO_WIND = 4, NORTH_WIND = 3, SOUTH_WIND = 2, EAST_WIND
= 1, WEST_WIND = 0};
Why would you ever want to give explicit values to elements of an enumerated type? Isn't the
whole point of constants so that you don't need to know what the values are? The answer is that if
the values of the costant are never used outside of comparisons between elements of the
enumeration, then there's almost no reason to define the values to be anything in particular (on
exception is if you want one value to have multiple names, you'd have to set at least one value
explicitly). But if you need the values for communicating with the outside world, you might need to
give specific values. For example, if you decided to use an enum to store all of the possible text
colors you could pass into a function to set the text colors, you'd probably need to make sure that
the enum names, such a RED or BLUE, matched up to the values corresponding to those colors.

Printing Enums
You might wonder what happens when you print out an enum: by default, you'll get the integer
value of the enum. If you want to do something fancier than that, you'll have to handle it specially.

Naming Enums
One issue with enums is that the name of the enumerated type doesn't show up along with the
enum. When you use the enum constant, it could really mean anything. The problem is that if you
give your enums names that are too general, you can run into problems. First, it becomes hard to
tell which enumeration a constant belongs to if you have several enumerated lists of values. A
related problem is that sometimes you really want to use the same name. For instance, what if you
had two color schemes, each of which included the color red, but for which the value of the RED
constant needed to be different?

The solution to both of these problems is to include part of the name of the enum in the names of
the constants. Notice that in the above example, I included "WIND" in the name of each
enumerated constant. (Perhaps this wasn't entirely necessary--why not just have an enum for each
ordinal direction? The answer is that it depends on whether someone else is already using the
name. In this case, we avoid the problem by making the names specific enough that it's unlikely
someone else will have a WEST_WIND constant.

Type Correctness
Because enums are "integer-like" types, they can safely be assigned into an integer without a cast.
For instance, both of the following assignments are totally valid:
int my_wind = EAST_WIND;
or
wind_directions_t wind_direction = NO_WIND;

48
int my_wind = wind_direction;
As already mentioned, you can't make the reverse assignment in C++ without using a typecast.
There might be times when you do need to do this, but you'd like to avoid it as best you can. For
instance, if you need to convert a user's input into an enumerated type, it would be a bad idea to
just typecast the variable to an int:
wind_directions_t wind_direction = NO_WIND;

std::cin >> static_cast( wind_direction );

This would let the user input any value at all and, almost as bad, force the user to know the range
of values that the enum could take on. A much better solution would be to shield the user from the
enumeration by asking for a string and then validating the input by comparing it to the possible
input strings to choose which constant to assign the enum. For instance,
std::cout << "Please enter NORTH, SOUTH, EAST, WEST, or NONE for our wind
direction";
std::cout << std::endl;

string input_wind_dir;
cin >>

wind_directions_t wind_dir;

if ( user_wind_dir == "NORTH" )
{
wind_dir = NORTH_WIND;
}
else if ( user_wind_dir == "SOUTH" )
{
wind_dir = SOUTH_WIND;
}
else if ( user_wind_dir == "EAST" )
{
wind_dir = EAST_WIND;
}
else if ( user_wind_dir == "WEST" )
{
wind_dir = WEST_WIND;
}
else if ( user_wind_dir == "NONE" )
{
wind_dir = NO_WIND;
}
else
{
std::cout << "That's not a valid direction!" << std::endl;
}

Polymorphic Enums?
In C++, we often use polymorphism to allow old code to handle new code--for instance, as long as
we subclass the interface expected by a function, we can pass in the new class and expect it to
work correctly with the code that was written before the new class ever existed. Unfortunately, with
enums, you can't really do this, even though there are occasional times you'd like to. (For instance,
if you were managing the settings for your program and you stored all of them as enum values,
then it might be nice to have an enum, settings_t, from which all of your other enums inherited so
that you could store every new enum in the settings list. Note that since the list contains values of
different types, you can't use templates.)

49
If you need this kind of behavior, you're forced to store the enums as integers and then retrieve
them using typecasts to assign the particular value to the setting of interest. And you won't even
get the benefit of dynamic_cast to help you ensure that the cast is safe--you'll have to rely on the
fact that incorrect values cannot be stored in the list.

Summary
The Good

• Enums allow you to constrain the values a variable takes on

• Enums can be used to make your program more readable by eliminating magic numbers
are specifying exact what range of values a variable expects to take on
• Enums can be used to quickly declare a range of constant values without using #define

The Gotchas

• Enum constants must be carefully named to avoid name collisions

• Enums don't work "polymorphically" except from the int type, which can be inconvenient

Formatting Cout Output in C++

using iomanip
Creating cleanly formatted output is a common programming requirement--it improves your user
interface and makes it easier to read any debugging messages that you might print to the screen.
In C, formatted output works via the printf statement, but in C++, you can create nicely formatted
output to streams such as cout. This tutorial covers a set of basic I/O manipulations possible in C++
from the iomanip header file. Note that all of the functions in the iomanip header are inside the std
namespace, so you will need to either prefix your calls with "std::" or put "using namespace std;"
before using the functions

Dealing with Spacing Issues using

iomanip
A principle aspect of nicely formatted output is that the spacing looks right. There aren't columns of
text that are too long or too short, and everything is appropriately aligned. This section deals with
ways of spacing output correctly.

Setting the field width with setw

The std::setw function allows you to set the minimum width of the next output via the insertion
operator. setw takes, one argument, the width of the next output (insertion), an integer. if the next
output is too short, then spaces will be used for padding. There is no effect if the output is longer
than the width--note that the output won't be truncated. The only strange thing about setw is that
its return value must be inserted into the stream. The setw function has no effect if it is called
without reference to a stream. A simple example is

50
using namespace std;
cout<<setw(10)<<"ten"<<"four"<<"four";
The output from the above would look like this:
ten fourfour
Note that since setw takes an argument, at runtime it would be possible to specify the width of a
column of output so that it is slightly wider than the longest element of the column.

You might wonder whether it is possible to change the padding character. It turns out that yes, you
can, by using the setfill function, which takes a character to use for the padding. Note that setfill
should also be used as a stream manipulator only, so it must be inserted into the stream:
cout<<setfill('-')<<setw(80)<<"-"<<endl;
The above code sets the padding character to a dash, the width of the next output to be at least 80
characters, and then outputs a dash. This results in the rest of the line being filled with dashes too.
The output would look like this:
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Note that the pad character is changed until the next time you call setfill to change it again.

Aligning text with iomanip

It's possible to specify whether output is left or right aligned by using the manipulator flags that are
part of ios_bas. In particular, it is possible to specify that output should be either left or right
aligned by passing in the stream manipulators std::left and std::right.

Putting Your Knowledge of iomanip

Together
Now that we know how to space and align text, we can correctly print formatted data in columns.
For instance, if you had a struct containing the names of individuals:
using namespace std;

struct person
{
string firstname;
string lastname;
};
If you then had a vector of persons, then you could output them in a nice way with evenly spaced
columns for the first and last name as follows:
// given the above code, we could write this
vector<person> people;
// fill the vector somehow

int field_one_width = 0, field_two_width = 0;

// get the max widths

for ( vector<person>::iterator iter = people.begin();

iter != people.end();
++iter )
{
if ( iter->firstname.length() > field_one_width )
{

51
 field_one_width = iter->firstname.length();
}
if ( iter->lastname.length() > field_two_width )
{
field_two_width = iter->lastname.length();
}
}

// print the elements of the vector

for ( vector<person>::iterator iter = people.begin();
iter != people.end();
++iter )
{
cout<<setw(field_one_width)<<left<<iter->firstname;
cout<<" ";
cout<<setw(field_two_width)<<left<<iter->lastname;
}
Note that the space output between the two fields wasn't strictly necessary because we could have
added it by changing the first call to setw to set the width to one more than the longest first name
(since it would use a space as the padding for the extra character).

Printing Numbers
Another challenge in creating nice output is correctly formatting numbers; for instance, when
printing out a hexadecimal value, it would be nice if it were preceded by the "0x" prefix. More
generally, it's nice to correctly set the number of trailing zeros after a decimal place.

Setting the precision of numerical output with

setprecision
The setprecision function can be used to set the maximum number of digits that are displayed for a
number. Like setw, it should be inserted into the stream. In fact, its usage is very similar to setw in
all respects. For instance, to print the number 2.71828 to 3 decimal places:
std::cout << setprecision(3) << 2.71828;
Note that setprecision will change the precision until the next time it is passed into a given stream.
So changing the above example to also print out 1.412 would result in the output of
2.71 1.41

Output in different bases

In computer science, frequently numbers need to be printed in octal or hexadecimal. The setbase
function returns a value that can be passed into a stream to set the base of numbers to either base
8, 10, or 16. The input number is still read as a number in base ten, but it is printed in the given
base. For instance,
std::cout << setbase(16) << 32;
will print out "20", which is 32 written in base 16. Note that you can use dec, oct, and hex as
shorthand for setbase(10), setbase(8), and setbase(16) respectively when inserting into a stream.
If you wish to include an indication of the base along with the printed number, you can use the
setiosflags function, again passed into a stream, with an input of ios_base::showbase. Using the
ios_base::showbase flag will append a "0x" in front of hexadecimal numbers and a 0 in front of
octal numbers. Decimal numbers will be printed as normal.
std::cout <<

52
std::cout<< setbase(16) << 32;
This should get you started with the ability to create nicely formatted output in C++ without having
to resort to returning to printf!

Getting Random Values in C

and C++ with Rand

Written by RoD

At some point in any programmer's life, he or she must learn how to get a random value, or values,
in their program. To some this seems involved, difficult, or even beyond their personal ability. This,
however, is simply not the case.

Randomizing of values is, at its most basic form, one of the easier things a programmer can do with
the C++ language. I have created this short tutorial for Cprogramming.com to aid you in learning,
constructing, and using the functions available to you to randomize values.

I will first start with an introduction to the idea of randomizing values, followed by a simple example
program that will output three random values. Once a secure understanding of these concepts is in
place (hopefully it will be), I will include a short program that uses a range of values from which the
random values can be taken.

Ok, now that you know why this tutorial was written, and what it includes, you are ready to learn
how to randomize values! So without further ado, lets get started, shall we?

Many programs that you will write require the use of random numbers. For example, a game such
as backgammon requires a roll of two dice on each move. Since there are 6 numbers on each die,
you could calculate each roll by finding a random number from 1 to 6 for each die.

To make this task a little easier, C++ provides us with a library function, called rand that returns an
integer between 0 and RAND_MAX. LetÕs take a break to explain what RAND_MAX is. RAND_MAX is
a compiler-dependent constant, and it is inclusive. Inclusive means that the value of RAND_MAX is
included in the range of values. The function, rand, and the constant, RAND_MAX, are included in
the library header file stdlib.h.

The number returned by function rand is dependent on the initial value, called a seed that remains
the same for each run of a program. This means that the sequence of random numbers that is
generated by the program will be exactly the same on each run of the program.

How do you solve this problem you ask? Well I'll tell you! To help us combat this problem we will
use another function, srand(seed), which is also declared in the stdlib.h header file. This function
allows an application to specify the initial value used by rand at program startup.

Using this method of randomization, the program will use a different seed value on every run,
causing a different set of random values every run, which is what we want in this case. The problem
posed to us now, of course, is how to get an arbitrary seed value. Forcing the user or programmer
to enter this value every time the program was run wouldnÕt be very efficient at all, so we need
another way to do it.

53
So we turn to the perfect source for our always-changing value, the system clock. The C++ data
type time_t and the function time, both declared in time.h, can be used to easily retrieve the time
on the computers clock.

When converted to an unsigned integer, a positive whole number, the program time (at execution
of program) can make a very nice seed value. This works nicely because no two program executions
will occur at the same instant of the computers clock.

As promised, here is a very basic example program. The following code was written in Visual C++
6.0, but should compile fine on most computers (given u have a compiler, which if your reading this
I assume you do). The program outputs three random values.

/*Steven Billington
January 17, 2003
Ranexample.cpp
Program displays three random integers.
*/
/*
Header: iostream
Reason: Input/Output stream
Header: cstdlib
Reason: For functions rand and srand
Header: time.h
Reason: For function time, and for data type time_t
*/
#include <iostream>
#include <cstdlib>
#include <time.h>
int main()
{
/*
Declare variable to hold seconds on clock.
*/
time_t seconds;
/*
Get value from system clock and
place in seconds variable.
*/
time(&seconds);
/*
Convert seconds to a unsigned
integer.
*/
srand((unsigned int) seconds);
/*
Output random values.
*/
cout<< rand() << endl;
cout<< rand() << endl;
cout<< rand() << endl;
return 0;
}

Users of a random number generator might wish to have a narrower or a wider range of numbers
than provided by the rand function. Ideally, to solve this problem a user would specify the range
with integer values representing the lower and the upper bounds. To understand how we might
accomplish this with the rand function, consider how to generate a number between 0 and an
arbitrary upper bound, referrred to as high, inclusive.

54
For any two integers, say a and b, a % b is between 0 and b - 1, inclusive. With this in mind, the
expression rand() % high + 1 would generate a number between 1 and high, inclusive, where high
is less than or equal to RAND_MAX, a constant defined by the compiler. To place a lower bound in
replacement of 1 on that result, we can have the program generate a random number between 0
and (high - low + 1) + low.

I realize how confused you might be right now, so take a look at the next sample program I
promised, run it, toy with it, and alternate it to give you different values. It has been a pleasure to
teach you another chapter in the world of C++, and you may feel free to email me at
Silent_Death17@hotmail.com or to contact me on the message boards of this fine website, where I
use the name RoD.

Enjoy, and happy programming!

/*
Steven Billington
January 17, 2003
exDice.cpp
Program rolls two dice with random
results.
*/
/*
Header: iostream
Reason: Input/Output stream
Header: stdlib
Reason: For functions rand and srand
Header: time.h
Reason: For function time, and for data type time_t
*/
#include <iostream>
#include <cstdlib>
#include <time.h>
/*
These constants define our upper
and our lower bounds. The random numbers
will always be between 1 and 6, inclusive.
*/
const int LOW = 1;
const int HIGH = 6;
int main()
{
/*
Variables to hold random values
for the first and the second die on
each roll.
*/
int first_die, sec_die;
/*
Declare variable to hold seconds on clock.
*/
time_t seconds;
/*
Get value from system clock and
place in seconds variable.
*/
time(&seconds);
/*
Convert seconds to a unsigned
integer.
*/
srand((unsigned int) seconds);
/*

55
Get first and second random numbers.
*/
first_die = rand() % (HIGH - LOW + 1) + LOW;
sec_die = rand() % (HIGH - LOW + 1) + LOW;
/*
Output first roll results.
*/
cout<< "Your roll is (" << first_die << ", "
<< sec_die << "}" << endl << endl;
/*
Get two new random values.
*/
first_die = rand() % (HIGH - LOW + 1) + LOW;
sec_die = rand() % (HIGH - LOW + 1) + LOW;
/*
Output second roll results.
*/
cout<< "My roll is (" << first_die << ", "
<< sec_die << "}" << endl << endl;
return 0;
}

The C++ Modulus Operator

Written by RoD

Modulus is a C/C++ operator with many uses. One common use is finding whether or not a variable
is odd or even. Modulus can also be used to find factors of a number. Modulus works by dividing
and returning a remainder, if any, of the calculation. This may seem a little confusing to you at the
moment, and that's perfectly normal.

Modulus is represented in C++ by the '%' symbol. IÕm going to show you a sample program that
uses the modulus operator, and then explain it piece by piece.

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
int some_value;
std::cout << "Enter a value: ";
std::cin >> some_value;
if ( some_value % 2 == 0 )
{
std::cout << some_value << " is an even number" << endl;
}
else
{
std::cout<< val << " is an odd number" <<<< endl;
}
}

56
Everything up to the if statement should make plenty of sense to you by now, and if it doesn't you
need to consult another tutorial. I'm going to explain this if statement and what its doing because
that's the chunk of this program that pertains to the subject as hand.

if ( some_value % 2 == 0 ) : This line may look a bit confusing at first, but in a moment its going to
make plenty of sense! If the user given value modulus two gives no remainder, then the user given
value is even. What this means is that the value given to us by the user, divided by two, had no
remainder, which makes it even.

Example:
some_value = 4
4 / 2 == 2
2 is an even number, there is no remainder. Now consider this:
some_value = 3
3 / 2 == 1.5

1.5 contains a decimal; the division operation results in a remainder (of 1). Does it make more
sense now? Hopefully it does and you have benefit from this lesson.

Templates and Templated

Classes in C++
What's better than having several classes that do the same thing to different datatypes? One class
that lets you choose which datatype it acts on.

Templates are a way of making your classes more abstract by letting you define the behavior of the
class without actually knowing what datatype will be handled by the operations of the class. In
essence, this is what is known as generic programming; this term is a useful way to think about
templates because it helps remind the programmer that a templated class does not depend on the
datatype (or types) it deals with. To a large degree, a templated class is more focused on the
algorithmic thought rather than the specific nuances of a single datatype. Templates can be used in
conjunction with abstract datatypes in order to allow them to handle any type of data. For example,
you could make a templated stack class that can handle a stack of any datatype, rather than having
to create a stack class for every different datatype for which you want the stack to function. The
ability to have a single class that can handle several different datatypes means the code is easier to
maintain, and it makes classes more reusable.

The basic syntax for declaring a templated class is as follows:

template <class a_type> class a_class {...};

The keyword 'class' above simply means that the identifier a_type will stand for a datatype. NB:
a_type is not a keyword; it is an identifier that during the execution of the program will represent a
single datatype. For example, you could, when defining variables in the class, use the following line:

a_type a_var;

and when the programmer defines which datatype 'a_type' is to be when the program instantiates a
particular instance of a_class, a_var will be of that type.

57
When defining a function as a member of a templated class, it is necessary to define it as a
templated function:

template<class a_type> void a_class<a_type>::a_function(){...}

When declaring an instance of a templated class, the syntax is as follows:

a_class<int> an_example_class;

An instantiated object of a templated class is called a specialization; the term specialization is useful
to remember because it reminds us that the original class is a generic class, whereas a specific
instantiation of a class is specialized for a single datatype (although it is possible to template
multiple types).

Usually when writing code it is easiest to precede from concrete to abstract; therefore, it is easier to
write a class for a specific datatype and then proceed to a templated - generic - class. For that
brevity is the soul of wit, this example will be brief and therefore of little practical application.

We will define the first class to act only on integers.

class calc
{
public:
int multiply(int x, int y);
int add(int x, int y);
};
int calc::multiply(int x, int y)
{
return x*y;
}
int calc::add(int x, int y)
{
return x+y;
}

We now have a perfectly harmless little class that functions perfectly well for integers; but what if
we decided we wanted a generic class that would work equally well for floating point numbers? We
would use a template.

template <class A_Type> class calc

{
public:
A_Type multiply(A_Type x, A_Type y);
A_Type add(A_Type x, A_Type y);
};
template <class A_Type> A_Type calc<A_Type>::multiply(A_Type x,A_Type y)
{
return x*y;
}
template <class A_Type> A_Type calc<A_Type>::add(A_Type x, A_Type y)
{
return x+y;

58
}

To understand the templated class, just think about replacing the identifier A_Type everywhere it
appears, except as part of the template or class definition, with the keyword int. It would be the
same as the above class; now when you instantiate an
object of class calc you can choose which datatype the class will handle.

calc <double> a_calc_class;

Templates are handy for making your programs more generic and allowing your code to be reused
later.

Templated Functions
C++ templates can be used both for classes and for functions in C++. Templated functions are
actually a bit easier to use than templated classes, as the compiler can often deduce the desired
type from the function's argument list.

The syntax for declaring a templated function is similar to that for a templated class:
template <class type> type func_name(type arg1, ...);
For instance, to declare a templated function to add two values together, you could use the
following syntax:
template <class type> type add(type a, type b)
{
return a + b;
}
Now, when you actually use the add function, you can simply treat it like any other function
because the desired type is also the type given for the arguments. This means that upon compiling
the code, the compiler will know what type is desired:
int x = add(1, 2);
will correctly deduce that "type" should be int. This would be the equivalent of saying:
int x = add<int>(1, 2);
where the template is explicitly instantiated by giving the type as a template parameter.

On the other hand, type inference of this sort isn't always possible because it's not always feasible
to guess the desired types from the arguments to the function. For instance, if you wanted a
function that performed some kind of cast on the arguments, you might have a template with
multiple parameters:
template <class type1, class type2> type2 cast(type1 x)
{
return (type2)x;
}
Using this function without specifying the correct type for type2 would be impossible. On the other
hand, it is possible to take advantage of some type inference if the template parameters are
correctly ordered. In particular, if the first argument must be specified and the second deduced, it is
only necessary to specify the first, and the second parameter can be deduced.

59
For instance, given the following declaration
template <class rettype, class argtype> rettype cast(argtype x)
{
return (rettype)x;
}
this function call specifies everything that is necessary to allow the compiler deduce the correct
type:
cast<double>(10);
which will cast an int to a double. Note that arguments to be deduced must always follow
arguments to be specified. (This is similar to the way that default arguments to functions work.)

You might wonder why you cannot use type inference for classes in C++. The problem is that it
would be a much more complex process with classes, especially as constructors may have multiple
versions that take different numbers of parameters, and not all of the necessary template
parameters may be used in any given constructor.

Templated Classes with Templated Functions

It is also possible to have a templated class that has a member function that is itself a template,
separate from the class template. For instance,
template <class type> class TClass
{
// constructors, etc

template <class type2> type2 myFunc(type2 arg);

};
The function myFunc is a templated function inside of a templated class, and when you actually
define the function, you must respect this by using the template keyword twice:
template <class type> // For the class
template <class type2> // For the funtion
type2 TClass<type>::myFunc(type2 arg)
{
// code
}
The following attempt to combine the two is wrong and will not work:
// bad code!
template <class type, class type2> type2 TClass<type>::myFunc(type2 arg)
{
// ...
}
because it suggests that the template is entirely the class template and not a function template at
all.

Template Specialization and

Partial Template
Specialization

60
Template Specialization
In many cases when working with templates, you'll write one generic version for all possible data
types and leave it at that--every vector may be implemented in exactly the same way. The idea of
template specialization is to override the default template implementation to handle a particular
type in a different way.

For instance, while most vectors might be implemented as arrays of the given type, you might
decide to save some memory and implement vectors of bools as a vector of integers with each bit
corresponding to one entry in the vector. So you might have two separate vector classes. The first
class would look like this.
template <typename T>
class vector
{
// accessor functions and so forth
private:
T* vec_data; // we'll store the data as block of dynamically allocated
// memory
int length; // number of elements used
int vec_size; // actual size of vec_data
};
But when it comes to bools, you might not really want to do this because most systems are going to
use 16 or 32 bits for each boolean type even though all that's required is a single bit. So we might
make our boolean vector look a little bit different by representing the data as an array of integers
whose bits we manually manipulate. (For more on manipulating bits directly, see bitwise operators
and bit manipulations in C and C++.)

To do this, we still need to specify that we're working with something akin to a template, but this
time the list of template parameters will be empty:
template <>
and the class name is followed by the specialized type: class className<type>. In this case, the
template would look like this:
template <>
class vector <bool>
{
// interface

private:
unsigned int *vector_data;
int length;
int size;
};
Note that it would be perfectly reasonable if the specialized version of the vector class had a
different interface (set of public methods) than the generic vector class--although they're both
vector templates, they don't share any interface or any code.

It's worth pointing out that the salient reason for the specialization in this case was to allow for a
more space-efficient implementation, but you could think of other reasons why this might come in
handy--for instance, if you wanted to add extra methods to one templated class based on its type,
but not to other templates. For instance, you might have a vector of doubles with a method that
returns the non-integer component of each element although you might think prefer inheritance in
this case. There isn't a particular reason to prevent the existence of a vector of doubles without
those extra features. If, however, you felt strongly about the issue and wanted to prevent it, you
could do so using template specialization.

Another time when you might want to specialize certain templates could be if you have a template
type that relies on some behavior that was not implemented in a collection of classes you'd like to

61
store in that template. For example, if you had a templated sortedVector type that required the >
operator to be defined, and a set of classes written by someone else that didn't include any
overloaded operators but did include a function for comparison, you might specialize your template
to handle these classes separately.

Template Partial Specialization

Partial template specialization stems from similar motives as full specialization as described above.
This time, however, instead of implementing a class for one specific type, you end up implementing
a template that still allows some parameterization. That is, you write a template that specializes on
one feature but still lets the class user choose other features as part of the template. Let's make
this more concrete with an example.

Going back to the idea of extending the concept of vectors so that we can have a sortedVector, let's
think about how this might look: we'll need a way of making comparisons. Fine; we can just use > if
it's been implemented, or specialize if it hasn't. But now let's say that we wanted to have pointers
to objects in our sorted vector. We could sort them by the value of the pointers, just doing a
standard > comparison (we'll have a vector sorted from low to high):
template <typename T>
class sortedVector
{
public:
void insert (T val)
{
if ( length == vec_size ) // length is the number of elements
{
vec_size *= 2; // we'll just ignore overflow possibility!
vec_data = new T[vec_size];
}
++length; // we are about to add an element

// we'll start at the end, sliding elements back until we find the
// place to insert the new element
int pos;
for( pos = length; pos > 0 && val > vec_data[pos - 1]; --pos )
{
vec_data[pos] = vec_data[pos - 1];
}
vec_data[pos] = val;
}
// other functions...
private:
T *vec_data;
int length;
int size;
};
Now, notice that in the above for loop, we're making a direct comparison between elements of type
T. That's OK for most things, but it would probably make more sense to have sorted on the actual
object type instead of the pointer address. To do that, we'd need to write code that had this line:
for( pos = length; pos > 0 && *val > *vec_data[pos - 1]; --pos )
Of course, that would break for any non-pointer type. What we want to do here is use a partial
specialization based on whether the type is a pointer or a non-pointer (you could get fancy and
have multiple levels of pointers, but we'll stay simple).

To declare a partially specialized template that handles any pointer types, we'd add this class
declaration:
template <typename T>

62
class sortedVector<T *>
{
public:
// same functions as before. Now the insert function looks like this:
insert( T *val )
{
if ( length == vec_size ) // length is the number of elements
{
vec_size *= 2; // we'll just ignore overflow possibility!
vec_data = new T[vec_size];
}
++length; // we are about to add an element

// we'll start at the end, sliding elements back until we find the
// place to insert the new element
int pos;
for( pos = length; pos > 0 && *val > *vec_data[pos - 1]; --pos )
{
vec_data[pos] = vec_data[pos - 1];
}
vec_data[pos] = val;
}

private:
T** vec_data;
int length;
int size;
};
There are a couple of syntax points to notice here. First, our template parameter list still names T
as the parameter, but the declaration now has a T * after the name of the class; this tells the
compiler to match a pointer of any type with this template instead of the more general template.
The second thing to note is that T is now the type pointed to; it is not itself a pointer. For instance,
when you declare a sortedVector<int *>, T will refer to the int type! This makes some sense if you
think of it as a form of pattern matching where T matches the type if that type is followed by an
asterisk. This does mean that you have to be a tad bit more careful in your implementation: note
that vec_data is a T** because we need a dynamically sized array made up of of pointers.

You might wonder if you really want your sortedVector type to work like this--after all, if you're
putting them in an array of pointers, you'd expect them to be sorted by pointer type. But there's a
practical reason for doing this: when you allocate memory for an array of objects, the default
constructor must be called to construct each object. If no default constructor exists (for instance, if
every object needs some data to be created), you're stuck needing a list of pointers to objects, but
you probably want them to be sorted the same way the actual objects themselves would be!

Note, by the way, that you can also partially specialize on template arguments--for instance, if you
had a fixedVector type that allowed the user of the class to specify both a type to store and the
length of the vector (possibly to avoid the cost of dynamic memory allocations), it might look
something like this:
template <typename T, unsigned length>
class fixedVector { ... };
Then you could partially specialize for booleans with the following syntax
template <unsigned length>
class fixedVector<bool, length> {...}
Note that since T is no longer a template parameter, it's left out of the template parameter list,
leaving only length. Also note that length now shows up as part of of fixedVector's name (unlike
when you have a generic template declaration, where you specify nothing after the name). (By the
way, don't be surprised to see a template parameter that's a non-type: it's perfectly valid, and
sometimes useful, to have template arguments that are integer types such as unsigned.)

63
A final implementation detail comes up with partial specializations: how does the compiler pick
which specialization to use if there are a combination of completely generic types, some partial
specializations, and maybe even some full specializations? The general rule of thumb is that the
compiler will pick the most specific template specialization--the most specific template specialization
is the one whose template arguments would be accepted by the other template declarations, but
which would not accept all possible arguments that other templates with the same name would
accept.

For instance, if you decided that you wanted a sortedVector<int *> that sorted by memory location,
you could create a full specialization of sortedVector and if you declared a sortedVector<int *>,
then the compiler would pick that implementation over the less-specific partial specialization for
pointers. It's the most specialized since only an int * matches the full specialization, not any other
pointer type such as a double *, whereas int * certainly could be a parameter to either of the other
templates.

The C Preprocessor
The C preprocessor modifies a source code file before handing it over to the compiler. You're most
likely used to using the preprocessor to include files directly into other files, or #define constants,
but the preprocessor can also be used to create "inlined" code using macros expanded at compile
time and to prevent code from being compiled twice.

There are essentially three uses of the preprocessor--directives, constants, and macros. Directives
are commands that tell the preprocessor to skip part of a file, include another file, or define a
constant or macro. Directives always begin with a sharp sign (#) and for readability should be
placed flush to the left of the page. All other uses of the preprocessor involve processing #define'd
constants or macros. Typically, constants and macros are written in ALL CAPS to indicate they are
special (as we will see).

Header Files
The #include directive tells the preprocessor to grab the text of a file and place it directly into the
current file. Typically, such statements are placed at the top of a program--hence the name "header
file" for files thus included.

Constants
If we write
#define [identifier name] [value]
whenever [identifier name] shows up in the file, it will be replaced by [value]. Note that anything
following [identifier name] will be part of the replacement. This can come as a bit of a surprise, and
it's a bad idea to use C++ style comments on #define lines:
#define PI 3.14 // This is pi

x = PI + 1; // oops!
In the above, PI will be replaced by "3.14 // This is pi", which will comment out the " + 1;" and
cause a hard-to-find syntax error.

Along similar lines, if you are defining a constant in terms of a mathematical expression, it is wise to
surround the entire value in parentheses:
#define PI_PLUS_ONE (3.14 + 1)

64
By doing so, you avoid the possiblity that an order of operations issue will destroy the meaning of
your constant:
x = PI_PLUS_ONE * 5;
Without parentheses, the above would be converted to
x = 3.14 + 1 * 5;
which would result in 1 * 5 being evaluated before the addition, not after. Oops!

It is also possible to write simply

#define [indentifier name]
which defines [identifier name] without giving it a value. This can be useful in conjunction with
another set of directives that allow conditional compilation.

Conditional Compilation
There are a whole set of options that can be used to determine whether the preprocessor will
remove lines of code before handing the file to the compiler. They include #if, #elif, #else, #ifdef,
and #ifndef. An #if or #if/#elif/#else block or a #ifdef or #ifndef block must be terminated with a
closing #endif.

The #if directive takes a numerical argument that evaluates to true if it's non-zero. If its argument
is false, then code until the closing #else, #elif, of #endif will be excluded.

Commenting out Code

Conditional compilation is a particulary useful way to comment out a block of code that contains
multi-line comments (which cannot be nested).
#if 0
/* comment ...
*/

// code

/* comment */
#endif

Avoiding Including Files Multiple Times (idempotency)

Another common problem is that a header file is required in multiple other header files that are later
included into a source code file, with the result often being that variables, structs, classes or
functions appear to be defined multiple times (once for each time the header file is included). This
can result in a lot of compile-time headaches. Fortunately, the preprocessor provides an easy
technique for ensuring that any given file is included once and only once.

By using the #ifndef directive, you can include a block of text only if a particular expression is
undefined; then, within the header file, you can define the expression. This ensures that the code in
the #ifndef is included only the first time the file is loaded.
#ifndef _FILE_NAME_H_
#define _FILE_NAME_H_

/* code */

#endif // #ifndef _FILE_NAME_H_

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Notice that it's not necessary to actually give a value to the expression _FILE_NAME_H_. It's
sufficient to include the line "#define _FILE_NAME_H_" to make it "defined". (Note that there is an
n in #ifndef--it stands for "if not defined").

A similar tactic can be used for defining specific constants, such as NULL:
#ifndef NULL
#define NULL (void *)0
#endif // #ifndef NULL
Notice that it's useful to comment which conditional statement a particular #endif terminates. This
is particularly true because preprocessor directives are rarely indented, so it can be hard to follow
the flow of execution.

Macros
The other major use of the preprocessor is to define macros. The advantage of a macro is that it
can be type-neutral (this can also be a disadvantage, of course), and it's inlined directly into the
code, so there isn't any function call overhead. (Note that in C++, it's possible to get around both of
these issues with templated functions and the inline keyword.)

A macro definition is usually of the following form:

#define MACRO_NAME(arg1, arg2, ...) [code to expand to]
For instance, a simple increment macro might look like this:
#define INCREMENT(x) x++
They look a lot like function calls, but they're not so simple. There are actually a couple of tricky
points when it comes to working with macros. First, remember that the exact text of the macro
argument is "pasted in" to the macro. For instance, if you wrote something like this:
#define MULT(x, y) x * y
and then wrote
int z = MULT(3 + 2, 4 + 2);
what value do you expect z to end up with? The obvious answer, 30, is wrong! That's because what
happens when the macro MULT expands is that it looks like this:
int z = 3 + 2 * 4 + 2; // 2 * 4 will be evaluated first!
So z would end up with the value 13! This is almost certainly not what you want to happen. The
way to avoid it is to force the arguments themselves to be evaluated before the rest of the macro
body. You can do this by surrounding them by parentheses in the macro definition:
#define MULT(x, y) (x) * (y)
// now MULT(3 + 2, 4 + 2) will expand to (3 + 2) * (4 + 2)
But this isn't the only gotcha! It is also generally a good idea to surround the macro's code in
parentheses if you expect it to return a value. Otherwise, you can get similar problems as when you
define a constant. For instance, the following macro, which adds 5 to a given argument, has
problems when embedded within a larger statement:
#define ADD_FIVE(a) (a) + 5

int x = ADD_FIVE(3) * 3;
// this expands to (3) + 5 * 3, so 5 * 3 is evaluated first
// Now x is 18, not 24!
To fix this, you generally want to surround the whole macro body with parentheses to prevent the
surrounding context from affecting the macro body.
#define ADD_FIVE(a) ((a) + 5)

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int x = ADD_FIVE(3) * 3;
On the other hand, if you have a multiline macro that you are using for its side effects, rather than
to compute a value, you probably want to wrap it within curly braces so you don't have problems
when using it following an if statement.
// We use a trick involving exclusive-or to swap two variables
#define SWAP(a, b) a ^= b; b ^= a; a ^= b;

int x = 10;
int y = 5;

// works OK
SWAP(x, y);

// What happens now?

if(x < 0)
SWAP(x, y);
When SWAP is expanded in the second example, only the first statement, a ^= b, is governed by
the conditional; the other two statements will always execute. What we really meant was that all of
the statements should be grouped together, which we can enforce using curly braces:
#define SWAP(a, b) {a ^= b; b ^= a; a ^= b;}
By the way, note that we didn't surround the arguments in parentheses because we don't expect
anyone to pass an expression into swap!

More Gotchas
By now, you've probably realized why people don't really like using macros. They're dangerous,
they're picky, and they're just not that safe. Perhaps the most irritating problem with macros is that
you don't want to pass arguments with "side effects" to macros. By side effects, I mean any
expression that does something besides evaluate to a value. For instance, ++x evalutes to x+1, but
it also increments x. This increment operation is a side effect.

The problem with side effects is that macros don't evaluate their arguments; they just paste them
into the macro text when performing the substitution. So something like
#define MAX(a, b) ((a) < (b) ? (b) : (a))
int x = 5, y = 10;
int z = MAX(x++, y++);
will end up looking like this:
int x = (x++ < y++ ? y++ : x++)
The problem here is that y++ ends up being evaluated twice! The nasty consequence is that after
this expression, y will have a value of 12 rather than the expected 11. This can be a real pain to
debug!

Multiline macros
Until now, we've seen only short, one line macros (possibly taking advantage of the semicolon to
put multiple statements on one line.) It turns out that by using a the "\" to indicate a line
continuation, we can write our macros across multiple lines to make them a bit more readable.

For instance, we could rewrite swap as

#define SWAP(a, b) { \
a ^= b; \

67
 b ^= a; \
a ^= b; \
}
Notice that you do not need a slash at the end of the last line! The slash tells the preprocessor that
the macro continues to the next line, not that the line is a continuation from a previous line.

Aside from readability, writing multi-line macros may make it more obvious that you need to use
curly braces to surround the body because it's more clear that multiple effects are happening at
once.

Advanced Macro Tricks

In addition to simple substitution, the preprocessor can also perform a bit of extra work on macro
arguments, such as turning them into strings or pasting them together.

Pasting Tokens
Each argument passed to a macro is a token, and sometimes it might be expedient to paste
arguments together to form a new token. This could come in handy if you have a complicated
structure and you'd like to debug your program by printing out different fields. Instead of writing
out the whole structure each time, you might use a macro to pass in the field of the structure to
print.

To paste tokens in a macro, use ## between the two things to paste together.

For instance
#define BUILD_FIELD(field) my_struct.inner_struct.union_a.##field
Now, when used with a particular field name, it will expand to something like
my_struct.inner_struct.union_a.field1
The tokens are literally pasted together.

String-izing Tokens
Another potentially useful macro option is to turn a token into a string containing the literal text of
the token. This might be useful for printing out the token. The syntax is simple--simply prefix the
token with a pound sign (#).
#define PRINT_TOKEN(token) printf(#token " is %d", token)
For instance, PRINT_TOKEN(foo) would expand to
printf("<foo>" " is %d" <foo>)
(Note that in C, string literals next to each other are concatenated, so something like "token" " is " "
this " will effectively become "token is this". This can be useful for formatting printf statements.)

For instance, you might use it to print the value of an expression as well as the expression itself (for
debugging purposes).
PRINT_TOKEN(x + y);

Avoiding Macros in C++

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In C++, you should generally avoid macros when possible. You won't be able to avoid them entirely
if you need the ability to paste tokens together, but with templated classes and type inference for
templated functions, you shouldn't need to use macros to create type-neutral code. Inline functions
should also get rid of the need for macros for efficiency reasons. (Though you aren't guaranteed
that the compiler will inline your code.)

Moreover, you should use const to declare typed constants rather than #define to create untyped
(and therefore less safe) constants. Const should work in pretty much all contexts where you would
want to use a #define, including declaring static sized arrays or as template parameters.

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