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Communications

Space System Design, MAE 342, Princeton University Robert Stengel Antenna characteristics Power transmission and reception Signals, information, and noise Analog and digital modulation Communication link budgets
"S % C (bits /s) = W log 2 $ + 1' #N &
Copyright 2008 by Robert Stengel. All rights reserved. For educational use only. http://www.princeton.edu/~stengel/MAE342.html

Antenna Gain
Isotropic (uniform) radiation of power, P, from the center of a sphere of radius, r Power per unit area (power density) of the sphere!s surface

p = P 4 "r 2
Power received from isotropic radiator over area, S

PS = Sp
Power received over area, S, if all power is focused uniformly on that area by antenna with gain, G

PS = GSpS = P
Power density in S with idealized focused antenna

pS = P GS
!
Idealized antenna gain

" = beamwidth half # angle

G=

P 4 "r = SpS S

!
!

Typical Antenna Pattern

Communications Geometry
Ground station communication and tracking limited by its minimum elevation angle, ! Fixed (non-steerable) antenna must have sufcient beamwidth to transmit or receive Antenna gains and radiated power must be adequate, given slant range and noise environment

Gain vs. angle from boresight axis (2-D)


Geff is average gain over beamwidth Beamwidth variously dened as 3 dB cone angle or half-angle

Beamwidth Coverage
Broad or narrow coverage may be desired

Relationship of Antenna Area and Signal Wavelength to Antenna Gain


Effective antenna gain (transmitting or receiving)

Geff

4 "Aeff = #2
Gt Pt Ar 4 "r 2

Aeff = effective antenna area,m 2

" = carrier signal wavelength,m =c/ f


c = speed of light # 3 $10 8 m /s f = carrier signal frequency,Hz

Power received from the transmitter

Pr = pr Ar =
Beamwidth of reector antenna

21 " (cone) # ,deg fd f = carrier signal frequency,GHz d = reflector diameter,m


!

pr = power density at receiving antenna Ar = effective area of receiving antenna Gt = gain of transmitting antenna Pt = transmitted power r = distance between transmitting antenna and receiving antenna

Power ratio

Pr (watts) Gt Ar = Pt (watts) 4 "r 2

Antenna Characteristics

Characteristics of Typical Spacecraft Antennas

Gain(dBi) = 10log
Conical log spiral antenna

Antenna Gain Isotropic Antenna Gain

DSCS-3

Communications Carrier Frequencies

Alternative Expressions for Power Ratio


Pr (watts) Gt Ar At Ar At Ar f 2 Gt Gr #2 Gr At = = = = = 2 Pt (watts) 4 "r 2 ( #r) 2 4 "r 2 4 "r 2 (cr)
Power ratio in decibels

"P % 10log10 $ r '(dB) = Gt (dB) + 10log10 Ar (dB) (10log10 4 ) (dB) ( 20log10 r(dB) # Pt &

Atmospheric Attenuation, Multipath, and Ionospheric Effects on Space-Earth Communication


"P % Pr (dB) = $ r ' (dB) ( Absorbtion(dB) ( Rainfall(dB) Pt # Pt & ideal Multipath(dB) ( Cross Polarization(dB)

Linear and Circular Polarization of Waves


Transmit and receive antennas must be aligned for best communication Left or right helical rotation of signal

Detected Power and Noise


"P % Pr (dB) = $ r ' (dB) ( Absorbtion(dB) ( Rainfall(dB) Pt # Pt & ideal Multipath(dB) ( Cross Polarization(dB)

Receiver Noise
Noise power and temperature Pn = kTW (watts)
T = 290(10 NF(dB )/10 "1) = 290( F "1)

Pr = Pcarrier + Pinformation " Pcarrier


!

Pd = Pr + Pn

Receiver!s detected power includes components from


transmitter!s carrier signal ! information signal noise

Noise power density


!

N o = Pn /W = kT(watts /Hz)
k = Boltzmann' s constant = 1.38 "10#23 w # s /K T = effective receiver temperature,K W = bandwidth,Hz NF = receiver noise figure F = receiver noise factor

Noise sources
Receiver thermal and front end noise Atmospheric, cosmic, solar, and man-made noise

Pn = Pn receiver + Pn atmosphere + Pn solar + Pn cosmic + Pn man"made


!

Other Noise Sources


Pn " #n
Solar Noise

or 1 f n
Cosmic and Atmospheric Noise

Signal-to-Noise Ratio and Information Content


S Pr (watts) = N Pn (watts)

S (dB) = Pr (dB) " Pn (dB) N


# P (watts) & Pr (dB) " 10log% r ( $ 1 watt '

!
!
Channel capacity "! + N % S C (bits /s) = W log 2 $ ' # N & "S % = W log 2 $ + 1' #N &
W = bandwidth,Hz
!

Information Bandwidth
Low-frequency information signal superimposed on (i.e., modulates) high-frequency carrier radio signal for transmission
Power spectral density of transmitted signal

Analog Amplitude, Frequency, and Phase Modulation of Carrier Signal

Information signal formats


Analog (continuous) Digital (discrete) Digitized analog (i.e., A/D conversion)
f c = carrier frequency,Hz W = "f = f 2 # f1 = information signal bandwidth,Hz

Digital Amplitude-, Frequency-, and PhaseShift Modulation of Carrier Signal

Digital Modulation vs. Analog Modulation


Analog
Amplitude modulation conserves bandwidth Frequency modulation spreads information bandwidth over larger RF bandwidth

Digital
Pulse-code modulation (particularly phase-shift keying) uses RF power most efciently

PCM: FM: AM:

pulse-code modulation frequency modulation amplitude modulation

Signal-to-Noise Ratio per Bit, Eb/No


Eb S W = No N R
E b : energy per bit N o : noise power spectral density

Link Budget for a Digital Data Link


! E b Pt Ll Gt LsLa Gr = No kTsR
Pt = transmitter power Ll = transmitter " to " antenna line loss Gt = transmit antenna gain Ls = space loss La = transmission path loss Gr = receive antenna gain k = Boltzmann' s constant Ts = system noise temperature

Eb S W = No N R

Link budget design goal is to achieve satisfactory Eb/No by choice of link parameters

S = received signal power

!
!

N = received noise power W = bandwidth of receiver R = data bit rate

Typical Spacecraft System Noise Temperature

Bit Error Rate vs. Eb/No


Goal is to achieve lowest bit error rate (BER) with lowest Eb/No Implementation losses increase required Eb/No Link margin is the difference between the minimum and actual Eb/No BER can be reduced by error-correcting codes
Number of bits transmitted is increased Additional check bits allow errors to be detected and corrected

Some Natural Numbering Systems


Natural numbers: non-negative, whole numbers
Denary (Base 10) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Digits Binary (Base 2) 0 1 10 11 100 101 110 111 1000 1001 1010 1011 Unary (Base 1) ? 1 11 111 1111 11111 111111 1111111 11111111 111111111 1111111111 11111111111 Marks Chalk and a rock Abacus "Chisenbop"

American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) Code


7 data bits plus parity bit Widely used in computers
Binary 100 0000 100 0001 100 0010 100 0011 100 0100 100 0101 100 0110 100 0111 100 1000 100 1001 100 1010 100 1011 100 1100 100 1101 100 1110 100 1111 Oct 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 Dec 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 Hex 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 4A 4B 4C 4D 4E 4F Glyph @ A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O

94 printable characters

Other number systems


Octal (Base 8) Hexadecimal (Base 16) DNA (Base 4) [ATCG]

Binary Digits "Bits" (John Tukey) Two 5-finger hands True-False One 10-finger hand Yes-No Present-Absent

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascii

Manchester Code for Telecommunication


Each data bit has one transition and occupies the same amount of time Self-clocking Widely used on Ethernet

Error Detection and Correction


Parity check (simple)
Transmitter
n Data bits added up Parity bit added to make sum even n+1 bits transmitted

Receiver
Check to determine if word is odd or even If odd, odd number of errors has been detected (but not corrected)

Column-wise parity check of m words determines where bits are corrupted


Additional bits must be transmitted

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchester_code

Turbo code (complex): see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbo_code

Typical Command and Telemetry Characteristics


TDRS

Typical Communication Satellite Transponder Characteristics

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