Contents

Biological Level of Analysis ........................................................................................................................... 2 Explain how principles that define the biological level of analysis may be demonstrated in research. .. 2 Discuss how and why particular research methods are used at the biological level of analysis. ............ 4 Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the biological level of analysis ................. 5 Explain one study related to localization of function in the brain............................................................ 6 Examine one interaction between cognition and physiology in terms of behaviour. Evaluate two relevant studies......................................................................................................................................... 7 Discuss the use of brain imaging technologies in investigating the relationship between biological factors and behaviour ............................................................................................................................... 9 Discuss two effects of the environment on physiological processes ..................................................... 10 Using one or more examples, explain effects of neurotransmission on human behaviour ................... 12 Using one or more examples, explain functions of two hormones in human behaviour ...................... 12 With reference to relevant research studies, to what extent does genetic inheritance influence behaviour? .............................................................................................................................................. 13 Examine one evolutionary explanation of behaviour ............................................................................. 14 Discuss ethical considerations in research into genetic influences on behaviour ................................. 15 Cognitive level of analysis ........................................................................................................................... 16 Outline principles that define the cognitive level of analysis ................................................................. 16 Explain how biological factors may affect memory ................................................................................ 16 Describe schema theory ......................................................................................................................... 16 Outline one model of one cognitive process .......................................................................................... 17 Describe one theory of how emotion may affect one cognitive process ............................................... 17 Explain how technology can be used to investigate cognitive processes .............................................. 17 Analyze how social or cultural factors affect one cognitive process ...................................................... 17 Sociocultural level of analysis ..................................................................................................................... 18

1|Page

Marlon

copyright 2011-

Biological Level of Analysis

Explain how principles that define the biological level of analysis may be demonstrated in research.
The command term Explain asks me to give a detailed account giving reasons and causes of how principles that define biological level of analyses may be demonstrated in research. One principle is that there are biological correlates of behaviour. Another is that patterns of behaviour can be inherited and animal research may inform our understanding of behaviour. There are biological correlates of behaviour, suggests that all observable behaviour, as well as the internal mental activity of an individual (e.g. Emotions and cognitions) can be traced back to physiological events. There are links between psychological events and physiological activities: the effect of neurotransmitters, the effect of hormones and the effect of brain localization. This principle reflects a desire to find the causes of behaviour, emotions and thought within the human body. Main influences on human behaviour include environmental factors, endocrine system (responsible for the secretion of hormones) and the nervous system (the way the brain interacts with the body) Study supporting this principle: Adrenaline and emotion (Schachter and Singer, 1962) Aim: challenge several theories of emotion ->that the brain automatically initiated the fight or flight response by releasing adrenaline, and the emotion of fear was a consequence of this increase in adrenaline. -> the emotional state and the release of adrenaline were independent of each other, both caused by the brain at approximately the same time. Method: participants were deceived to participate in vision experiments, and were told that they received a vitamin injection. 184 male participants were divided into 4 groups, in which 3 groups actually received an adrenaline injection and the fourth group a placebo injection. the 3 groups with the adrenaline injection: one group was told that as side effect they may experience some increase in <3-rate and shaky hands (which are actual side effects of adrenaline injections), the second group were not given any information about side effects, and the third group was told that they may experience headaches or itchiness in the feet as side effect. There were two conditions in which the participants were placed with confederates of the researchers; euphoria condition, in which the confederate encouraged participants to join in games, thus a happy environment. The second condition was the anger condition, in which the confederate filled out a mock questionnaire at the same pace as the participants, but with increasingly outraging acts. The researcher then asked the participants to complete a self-report form that assessed their mood in terms of anger and happiness. Findings & conclusion: in the euphoria condition, it was clear that the groups who had received an adrenaline injection without the correct information about its physiological effects showed more of the euphoric behaviours, more happily. the anger condition did however not respond with anger, but the researcher concluded that that is due to the discomfort in reporting anger compared to reporting happiness. Therefore they relied on the 2|Page Marlon copyright 2011-

behavioural data, which showed that the participants who were aware of the real expected physiological changes performed less of the angry behaviours than the groups who had no explanation for their physiological arousal. In conclusion the researcher suggested that emotion occurs by a process of cognitive labeling, interpretation of physiological cues is combined with contextual cues to construct a persons subjective experience of emotion. (no analysis as the command term explain only asks for reasons and causes, this study will be analysed later on) The principle: patterns can be inherited is based on the work of Darwin; evolutionary psychology and the study of genetics. Each rely on the understanding of evolution, which states that humans have changed physically and behaviourally according to the demands of the environment. Even though that research has shown different behaviours are due to the demand of genes, modern researchers acknowledge it is unlikely that single genes are responsible for any of the complex behaviour psychologists are interested in. Study that supports this research: Is schizophrenia genetic? (Heston, 1966) -> case study This is an adoption study, the strength of this is that it enables researcher to conclude whether any physical and behavioural similarities observed between the biological parents and their separated children, is due to genetic factors. (I know my English is bad, stop crying) In this case Heston looked at kids in foster homes that were diagnosed with schizophrenia, he then correlated this incidence with the diagnosis of schizophrenia in their biological mothers. If schizophrenia would be genetic, we can assume that the kids later on diagnosed with schizophrenia, is not due to their biological parents. But because of biological inheritance, a higher chance of schizophrenia would be expected among the adopted children of schizophrenic mothers than among adoptees whose mothers did not have a diagnosis of schizophrenia. Findings: as the chance of schizophrenia in the general population is only 1%, Hestons results show that over 10% of the adopted children with a family history of schizophrenia were later diagnosed with it. This is strong evidence to assume that schizophrenia has a genetic component Analysis notes: researcher bias involved, as the adoptees are not representative of the general population shows lack of validity, also adoption agencies use selective placement which is finding homes for the kids that suit best to their original family. Therefore additional research could be made in terms of to what extend schizophrenia is affected by the environment. The principle that animal research may inform our understanding of behaviour is due to the assumption by Darwins work, with the idea that humans and the many types of animal are different species now because of the thousands of years of evolutionary adaption to environmental demands. This suggests that we humans are just another type of animal and are in many ways fundamentally the same. The advantage of this principle is that it gives us permission to conduct research on animals like monkeys and apes that show similar behaviour Study that supports this principle: brain plasticity of rats (Rosenzweig and Bennett, 1972) 3|Page Marlon copyright 2011-

Their target population involved rats that were placed in two different conditions. One condition was fully equipped with toys and the other was the environment with no toys. The rats were kept in their conditions for 30 or 60 days, then were sacrificed. The condition in which the rats were with toys, showed a significant increase in the thickness of their frontal lobes compared to the other condition. This is reaalllly unethical. You can think yourself why. In conclusion the biological level of analysis principles not only focuses on how biological systems within the body influence behaviour but also the how genetics and evolution may be influences of behaviour. Animal research is useful under the assumption that humans and animals have an identical brain, however now it is considered ethically wrong by not only society but also must be conducted carefully with guidelines provided by the APA (American Psychological Association) and BPS (British Psychological Society). (conclusions are not my strengths)

Discuss how and why particular research methods are used at the biological level of analysis.
The command term discuss asks me to offer a considered and balanced review that includes a range of arguments, factors or hypotheses of how and why particular research methods are used at the biological level of analysis. Opinions or conclusions should be presented clearly and supported by appropriate evidence. According to the principles there are three main research methods used at the biological level of analysis, [THE HOW] laboratory experiments, case studies and correlational studies. [THE WHY]The strength of laboratory experiments is that it establishes a cause and effect relationship between the variables studied also it shows highest levels of reliability. In laboratories researchers may choose to conduct an experiment with animals or with humans. As a principle states that animal research may inform our understanding of behaviour, at biological level of analysis animal research is favored as some research may be ethically wrong to do on humans. However some suggest animal research is morally wrong, arguably for some people, the difference between animal and human suffering is not large enough to justify what can seem like very cruel treatment. [THE HOW] the key feature of this kind of experiment is that it takes place in an environment designed to maximize control over extraneous variables to help ensure the validity of the study, with highest levels of reliability. It can be used to establish new theories, and is easy to replicate which increases the chances of the results being checked and confirmed by other researchers. However high level of control over variables means that the environment or the tasks completed by participants can become artificial or unrealistic. Therefore we have high levels of reliability but low level of ecological validity and cannot generalize the results beyond the experimental situation. Also demand characteristics may become a problem when experiments are done on humans, with the possibility of the Hawthorne effect and the screw-you effect. [THE WHY] Case studies are used in order to observe naturally occurring irregularities by obtaining detailed information about the participants condition, instead of changing the participants physiology. 4|Page Marlon copyright 2011-

As the results base on descriptive data there is little damage that can be done on the participant which makes it ethically acceptable. However there is a threat of ethical issues as the uniqueness of the case and the depth of information make it more likely that there is a risk to participants anonymity. Example of Case Study: The case of HM [THE HOW] Case studies can either be intrinsic or instrumental, where intrinsic case studies are those of interest purely or their own sake where there is no need to generalize beyond the case researched or to attempt to build theory based on the conclusion. For example Ogden has a history of intrinsic case studies (the case of HM, 2005. The case of Janet, 2005) [THE WHY] Correlational studies mainly focus on the scores on two or more measures and works out the relationship between them, this is highly used in twin studies and adoption studies. In addition many modern techniques such as fMRI and PET are essential correlating brain activity with behaviour, cognition or emotion.

Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the biological level of analysis
The command term discuss asks me to offer a considered and balanced review that includes a range of arguments, factors or hypothesizes of ethical consideration related to research studies at the biological level of analysis. Opinions or conclusions should be presented clearly and supported by appropriate evidence. Much research has been preceded on animals as one principle states that animal research may inform our understanding of behaviour, which is considered unethical and morally wrong. It was favored to first have research done on animals before similar research is done on humans. It enables us to create new theories and then confirm them with human research. For example Roger Sperrys work with split-brain patients has helped us with localization of brain function. Before he has done his split brain work on humans he conducted an experiment with a similar approach on cats. Meyer and Sperry (1953) had split-brain cats blindfolded with one eye and had them learn themselves through a maze. They found when the blindfold was put on the other eye the cats had difficulties working their way through the maze. They concluded that when the corpus callosum was severed in cats, it prevented the transfer of information from one side to the other. The study has been logically criticized with ethics. As the experiment itself included 4 groups of cats in which one group the corpus callosum was severed, another group was the optic chiasm severed, another group had the optic chiasm and the corpus callosum severed and the last was a control group with intact controls. This is morally wrong and thus unethical. [results shown on the picture below]. However Sperry and Meyer had a clear scientific purpose that increased the knowledge of processes relating to the development, control or biological significant of behaviour, however the research has not benefitted the health or welfare of animals. As the sever of the corpus callowsum and optic chiasm has caused serious harm in the long-term to the cats, they must be sacrificed right after the research, as this is considered the ethical thing to do if the research has caused damage to the cats that will affect its ability to live a relatively normal, pain-free life (according to the APA and BPS).

5|Page

Marlon

copyright 2011-

in conclusion animal research at the biological level of analysis needs to provide good scientific generalization of brain activity in order to consider unethical issues worth testing. However unethical animal research should not be replicated with the same method on animals. Sperry has replicated his study again on patients that have already split brain, which is considered ethically correct. etc.

Explain one study related to localization of function in the brain

The command term explain asks me to give a detailed account giving reasons or causes of one study related to localization of function in the brain. The brain has many different functions in certain areas of the brain that influence an individuals behaviour. A relevant way of localization of brain function is to do research on patients with certain brain damages. Modern brain imaging technologies are used to detect significant area in the brain which is active when proceeding certain activities.

6|Page

Marlon

copyright 2011-

A brain tumor patient, Janet, has been evaluated by Ogden (2005) and has established a curious case of hemineglect. When there is damage in the parietal lobe of the brain, the damage to this area can result in hemineglect. Also it occurs that when the damage of one side of the parietal lobe causes various forms of inattention to the opposite side of space. Introducing the case of Janet, who had been diagnosed with brain tumor in the right parietal lobe, has shown early signs of hemineglect when she only blew out one side of the candles of a cake on her birthday. Computed Axial Tomography (CAT-scan) has detected the damage in the brain. Such scanner combines computer and X-ray technology and shows an X-ray image of the bone but with the computer technology also shows the soft tissue of the brain. It is convenient to use CAT scan in this case as it shows structural changes in the brain really well and thus brain tumor of brain damage are shown clearly. Using the CAT scan is considered unethical as X-rays in general can cause tumors. Other symptoms that supported the idea of her being affected by hemineglect is that when she used to read out loud she usually skipped words from the left side of the page. When writing she tended to only write on the right side of the page. Similar when she was asked to fill in the numbers in an empty face of a clock, she tended to squeeze the numbers from 1 to 12 on the right half of the clock, leaving the left side completely empty. Ogden argued that such actions are caused by willing o neglect by the half of the brain that is affected, not an inability to sense or see. Occasionally Janet has even ignored parts of her left side of the body also claiming that her left arm belonged to someone else and had been mistakenly left in her bed.

Examine one interaction between cognition and physiology in terms of behaviour. Evaluate two relevant studies.
The command term examine asks me to consider an argument or concept in a way that uncovers the assumptions and interrelationships of one interaction between cognition and physiology in terms of behaviour. The command term evaluate asks me to make an appraisal by weighing up the strengths and limitations of two relevant studies. Neuroplasticity is the concept that, although localization of function occurs, the specific location of a function is not necessarily fixed for all individuals, and the area of brain dedicated to certain functions can be redistributed according to environmental demands. Taking an example, when a person performs one particular activity, the more neural connections are formed in the area of the brain responsible, and this creates a physical change in the brain. Changes in the brains of experienced London taxi drivers (Maguire et al. 2000), support the concept of neuroplasticity. London taxi drivers must undertake special training that takes about two years to complete during which time they must lean the roads and routes to the extent that they can reliably navigate their way around the central area without the aid of a map. Maguire predicted that London taxi drivers have structural differences compared to ordinary healthy men in their hippocampi as a result of this learning experience. Therefore to test this idea the researchers scanned the hippocampi with a MRI scanner of fully licensed male taxi drivers with a range of years experience and compared them with control subjects. The compared subjects, were not actual participants, but existing scans of healthy 7|Page Marlon copyright 2011-

males who did not drive taxis. The results clearly showed that the left and right hippocampus were significantly higher in volume in taxi drivers, compared to the control subjects. Additional to this the researcher ran a correlation between the volume of the hippocampi and the years of training of the taxi drivers. There was a positive correlation that was not accounted by age differences. The researchers concluded that there has probably been a redistribution of grey matter in the hippocampi as a result of intense development and use of spatial memory skills, specifically those relating to learning and remembering routes through the city. This is likely to be a strengthening of connections between neurons in a well used part of the brain. Drawing conclusions from natural or quasi experiments can be difficult as any differences found in the volume of grey matter may not have occurred just because of being a taxi-driver or not. However in this case the researcher have carried out a correlational analysis which clearly demonstrated that there was a positive correlation between length of time the participants had been driving taxi and their posterior hippocampi volume, providing us with high validity which is a strength of the study. Such correlations were possible with the help of MRI scanners, however such scanners is considered hardly ecologically valid it would not be possible for the participants to respond in demand characteristics, which weighs up another strength, this also gives the opportunity of taxi drivers not being deceived by researchers. Another strength of using MRI scans, is that it is assumed it does not pose any health risks for the participants so none of the participants have been negatively affected by their experience. Also mentioning the participants received an informed consent. The main limitation of this study is that the participants were all male, therefore there may be differences in females in terms of spatial memory, so this study can only apply to the knowledge of the male brain. Some critics even assume that there would be differences in people that are left handed. In conclusion this study supports the concept that neurons can be trained and actually increases the thickness, in this case, of the hippocampus. Another study that supports the concept of neuroplasticity is changes in the brain after juggling training (Draganski et al. 2004). With the support of brain-imaging technologies these researchers wanted to test whether both functional and structural changes could be detected in the human brain as a result of learning a new motor skill. Twenty-one females and three males participated in the study in which half of the participants were asked to practice for three months a basic juggling routine for a minimum of 60 seconds. Structural MRI scans were done before and after the three month of practice, a third scan was done three months after the three months of practice, where the participants were asked not to practice the new juggling skills. There was a volume difference in two parts of the brain after the three months of practice and a decrease in these volumes after the third scan. The two regions of the jugglers brains that have increased in volume are associated with the retention of visually detected movement information rather than physical co-ordination. Therefore the researchers concluded that the practice of watching balls moving through the air repetitively and learning to move in response to this has strengthened the connections between neurons in the parts of the brain responsible for this activity. This study shows strength and supports the concept of neuroplasticity as the use of MRI showed clearly an increase in volume. The fact that three months after practice the volume has ceased provides us evidence that in fact such increase in the two parts of the brain are due to the practicing. However its limitations are that the female-male ratio is uneven and also it is assumed that the level of interest plays a key role. This study can be applied also to other cultures and is therefore reliable. 8|Page Marlon copyright 2011-

With the help of the studies above it is easy to accept the concept of neuroplasticity, that certain areas of the brain can be redistributed according to environmental demands. Both studies show similar strength and similar limitations. Maguire has provided a wide range of results with the correlations drawn and the use of control subjects. Draganski has given valid results in terms of the use of MRI scans with the same conclusion as Maguire. As Maguire has limited his study only to male participants, therefore has only applied to that gender, Draganski has provided evidence with the same results just with more females. Therefore it can be assumed that there is no difference in gender when it comes to neuroplasticity, maybe a small difference in the regions that were involved, but to a general picture there is no difference.

Discuss the use of brain imaging technologies in investigating the relationship between biological factors and behaviour
The command term discuss asks me to offer a considered and balanced review that includes a range of arguments, factors or hypotheses of the use of brain imaging technologies in investigating the relationship between biological factors and behaviour. Opinions or conclusions should be presented clearly and supported by appropriate evidence. Brain imaging technologies are widely used in correlational studies, as it provides clear data. In this essay I will look at 3 types of brain imaging technologies with giving examples of researchers that used them. Computed Axial Tomography (CAT-scan) is based on the combination of computer technology and x-ray technology. The X-ray can clearly identify bones, however not soft brain tissue, computer technology has helped with the analysis of soft brain tissue from the analysis of X-ray. The strength of this type of scan is that the images acquired can be taken from the top, bottom, back, front or sides of the head and can show the brain at any depth. They are extremely useful for showing structural changes in the brain. For example they are highly recommended in detecting brain tumors or any other sort of brain damage. However its ability is limited as it only shows structural changes rather than providing us with brain activity. The case of Janet (Ogden, 2005) made good use of the CAT-scan in showing us the curious phenomenon of hemineglect, which is when damage to one side of the brain has resulted various forms of inattention to the opposite side of space. In Janets case the brain tumor was formed in the parietal lobe on the right hemisphere. CAT scan can be limited as it involves X-rays of the brain, which may increase chances of getting tumors.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is based on the discovery that when the body is exposed to a strong magnetic field, the protons in the water inside the body change their alignment. When a magnetic field is used in conjunction with radio frequency fields, the alignment of the hydrogen atoms is changed in such a way as to be detectable by a scanner. The signal from the scanner can be transformed into a visual representation of the area of the part of the body being studied. The exposure to magnetism can be dangerous for some individuals, such as those with metal screws used after surgery for broken bones. But for most people MRI scans is believed to be safe. It is more favored than CAT scan for 9|Page Marlon copyright 2011-

detecting tumors as where the CAT scans exposures to X-ray radiation which might cause concern. The image can be taken from any angle, and now it is even possible to have three-dimensional pictures of the brain. It allows researchers to obtain a more precise image of the structure of a brain. MRI scans are widely used in the use of providing evidence for neuroplasticity concept, due to the brain structure the machine can provide us with. For example Draganski et al (2004) have used structural MRI scans to detect any functional and structural changes in the human brain from learning a new motor skill: juggling. The functional MRI (fMRI) is a modification of the regular MRI and takes advantage of the fact that when neurons in a particular region are active, more blood is sent to that region. This technique has helped in mapping metabolic changes that indicate brain activity to provide us with a picture that shows with increasing precision which parts of the brain are active while certain activities are being performed or certain thoughts or emotions occur. Comparing this to the original MRI, it shows brain activity rather than structural changes in the brain. This gives us the strength to find correlation of behaviour, thoughts and emotions with the brain activity as they happen. This method is considered more flexible than the regular MRI due to its ability to provide dynamic rather than static information. Brefczynski-Lewis et al. (2007) tested the effect of meditation on the brain with the help of fMRI scans. The researchers have used the fMRI to determine the concentration levels of different types of participants that were participating in the experiment. This experiment was to test neuroplasticity. Brain imaging techniques are used to see structural changes in the brain and also to see brain activity when an individual is asked to perform a task. It is however quite expensive such a procedure and requires specialists to use the machines. Cognitive brain-imaging researchers are increasingly able to use technology to show what peoples brain are doing. Showing participants static images or video footage and using a computer to find similarities in brain activation have also allowed researchers to do the reverse: to look at brain activation in an individual and use it to predict what the person is visually imagining, with increasing accuracy. They are highly recommended for localization of brain functioning, and also have helped in neuroplasticity research.

Discuss two effects of the environment on physiological processes

The command term discuss asks me to offer a considered and balanced review that includes a range of arguments, factors or hypotheses of two effects of the environment on physiological processes. Opinions or conclusions should be presented clearly and supported by appropriate evidence. The brain changes in response to the way we use it, or how the environment affects it. In this essay I will focus on two studies which are related to two effects of the environment and their brain function. Maguire et al. (2000) has conducted an experiment to see differences in the brain of experienced London taxi drivers. All London taxi drivers must take a two year training program to learn all the routes of London in order to navigate any place without the aid of a map. Maguire et al. predicted that London taxi drivers will have a structural difference in their hippocampi as a result of this learning experience, compared to average healthy men. In order to proceed Maguire took fully licensed London taxi drivers as participants and had them take MRI scans, in order to find structural differences compared to other 10 | P a g e Marlon copyright 2011-

healthy control subjects. The control subjects were MRI scans of ordinary healthy men that had already undergone MRI scans, so were not considered as participants. The results have shown that both the left and the right hippocampus were significantly thicker in volume of the London taxi driver compared to the control subjects. In addition the researcher ran a correlation between volume of hippocampi and the time spent as a taxi driver, they found a positive correlation that could not be accounted for by age differences. Maguire et al concluded that that there has probably been a redistribution of grey matter in the hippocampi as a result of intense development and use of spatial memory skills, specifically those relating to learning and remembering routes through the city. Therefore this is likely to be a strengthening of connections between neurons in a well-used part of the brain. However the limitation of the study is that only male were used as participants and control subjects. Also it is likely to question to what extent being left-handed might have an effect upon the learning ability. This study can be applied to other cultures however it is questionable if such regulation of the UK has an effect on the visual learning ability of the taxi drivers, as in the UK the steering wheel of a car is on the right side compared to most of other countries in which the steering wheel is on the left side. The main strength of this study is its ability to have tested if the time spent as a taxi driver correlates to the volume of the hippocami. The taxi drivers used their hippocampi to store more visual information than most people, so their brains appear to have adapted to their cognitive behaviors. And exercising the parts of the brain responsible for visual processing of movement is associated with changes in relevant regions of the brain. This shows how important the environment is in shaping the structure of the brain and helps account for individual differences in brain structure and function. Brefczynski-lewis et al 2007 conducted an experiment to show the effects of meditation on the brain. Their aim was to examine significant differences in brain activity that might have resulted from having engaged in meditation over a long period of time. The researcher have predicted that meditating activates specific parts of the brain that are not active while a person is at rest, and that more experienced meditators would show less activity in those regions than the less experienced meditators, this is due to the assumption that the meditation has reduced the amount of effort required to sustain attention. The participants brain were scanned using fMRI while they concentrated on a dot on a screen in front of them and while at rest with no concentration, during the experiment the researcher played various noises in an attempt to distract participants from their meditation and force them to work harder to sustain attention. The researcher concluded that attention related networks in the brain and the visual cortex would be more active during meditation than during rest periods, and novice meditators would find it more difficult than experts to sustain their concentration. Also it was found that the experienced meditators showed a response to the disturbing stimuli, not in terms of a change in attention away from the target of their concentration meditation, but in terms of some kind of adjustment of concentration, perhaps an active resistance to being disrupted. Highly trained monks therefore have different levels of brain functioning due to the time they had spent meditating. The environment has in both cases shown that each appear to make a difference in shaping the structure of the brain and helped to account for individual differences in brain structure and function. 11 | P a g e Marlon copyright 2011-

Using one or more examples, explain effects of neurotransmission on human behaviour

The command term explain asks me to give a detailed account including reasons or causes of the effect of neurotransmission on human behaviour. The brain is made up of an enormous number of neurons or nerve cells, neuron structure receive information from other neurons through their dendrities and transmit is by electrical impulse across the cell body and along the axon to the terminal buttons at the end. Communications between neurons is a chemical process, where one neuron sends out chemical known as neurotransmitters, and other neurons puck up the chemical and may or may not send the message on. Neurotransmitters are stored in vesicles inside the terminal button of the axon, there they are released into the synaptic gap. In the synapse, neurotransmitter can bind with the receptor site on the next neuron, if the receptor site is the right type, or can be absorbed back into the neuron it came from, which would be called reuptake. When drugs or medicine are introduced into the body can encourage or prevent the production and release of neurotransmitters, can occupy receptor sites that would normally receive a neurotransmitter or can prevent the reuptake of neurotransmitters. There are different neurotransmitters which have different action on the neurotransmission. For example the neurotransmitter dopamine is responsible for the pleasure circuit in the body. L-dopa is a treatment for Parkinsons disease, the drug was designed to reduce the diseases symptoms, as it was believed that increasing the amount of dopamine would have a positive effect. It triggers release of dopamine in areas of the brain that lack it, such as the motor cortex. However it was later discovered that patients that were overmedicated for Parkinsons disease started to develop positive symptoms of schizophrenia. In turn schizophrenia has been associated with high levels of dopamine, where Parkinsons disease is associated with low levels of dopamine.

Using one or more examples, explain functions of two hormones in human behaviour
The command term explain asks me to give a detailed account including reasons or causes of functions of two hormones in human behaviour. Hormones are chemical messengers that are secreted by glands and can have a widespread effect on both physiology and psychology in humans. The system of glands that releases hormones into the bloodstream is called the endocrine system. In this essay I will focus on the hormone melatonin and oxytocin. Melatonin is a hormone with a role in the cycle of sleep, it is secreted when we are in the dark and thus helps us to sleep. Melatonin is secreted in the pineal gland when in the dark and depends on signals from the eyes and other sense organs relating to light and temperature. Lewy et al (2006) argue that the brain is sensitive to changes in the length of time that melatonin is released, so that as days become shorter and melatonin is released more, this is a signal to the brain to trigger other activity. This relationship between melatonin and the sleep-wake cycle has been useful to explain the phenomenon 12 | P a g e Marlon copyright 2011-

of jet lag. Thus we become tired at approximately the same time we would have been tired had we stayed in our original location, as then over time we adapt to the new location. Oxytocin is described as the love hormone or the trust hormone, it is released for example as a trigger for contractions in the uterus when a woman is giving birth or when a womans nipples are physically stimulated, for example during breastfeeding. Holt-Lunstad et al. (2008) argue that the hormone is also a stress reduction, for example after a positive physical contact between husband and wife, oxytocins levels rose and the husbands blood pressure drops. (Morhenn et al. 2008) Findings also suggest that oxytocins effect on behaviour is to increase generosity and cooperation among adults.

With reference to relevant research studies, to what extent does genetic inheritance influence behaviour?
The command term to what extent asks me to consider the merits or otherwise of an argument or concept of genetic inheritance influences behaviour. Opinions and conclusions should be presented clearly and supported with appropriate evidence and sound argument. A useful example of successful genetic research that helped us understand human behaviour is the genetic condition called phenylketonuria (PKU). Phenylalanine is present in chewing gum and is a sort of artificial sweetener, if you suffer from PKU, it means that your enzymes can not metabolize the amino acid. This is a good example as the gene has been identified, the role of the gene is clear and an intervention is followed, by preventing consuming any artificial sweeteners. However a lot of genetic research falls short of this example, as the media reports such cases poorly, resulting in a tendency for people to feel that genetic information has a stronger influence on their behavioural and physical characteristics than there is evidence for. At genetic research what is mostly taken into account is the use of twin studies adoption studies. One of the main problems in genetic research is that it does not actually locate the gene or genes responsible. This makes the example of PKU so good. . Adoption studies assume that if offspring are separated from their biological parents, we can conclude that any physical and behavioural similarities observed later between parent and child are caused by genetic factors. Heston (1966) used the idea of adoption study to generalize if schizophrenia is genetic. Heston looked into children that were diagnosed with schizophrenia in foster homes, and correlated them with the diagnosis of the biological mothers. The specific interest in this was to determine if schizophrenia is genetic or not. However already it shows that the specific gene cannot be identified with just simply finding any correlates. If the condition were genetic, it would be expected that adoption would not affect the number of children who were later diagnosed with schizophrenia, thus environmental factors would be the cause. But because of biological inheritance, a higher incidence of schizophrenia would be expected among the adopted children of schizophrenic mothers than among adoptees whose mothers did not have a diagnosis of schizophrenia. If the environment and nurture would play a bigger role in schizophrenia it would be hoped that adoption would reduce the number of children who were later diagnosed with schizophrenia. Heston found that over 10% of the adopted children with a family of schizophrenia were later diagnosed with it. This is considered strong evidence as the incident of schizophrenia in the general population is 1%, and provides evidence that schizophrenia has a genetic 13 | P a g e Marlon copyright 2011-

component. However as stated before this study just indicates that there are genetic inheritance that influence behaviour, but does not help us in solving the problem by indicating which gene responsible for schizophrenia. Bailey and Pillard (1991) used twin studies to find any concordance in homosexuality. The researchers studied monozygotic twins and dizygotic twins, and found a difference in the concordance on homosexuality. The dizygotic twins showed a concordance rate of 22% and the monozygotic twins showed a concordance rate of 52%. These results indicate that although there must be some environmental influence to explain why the monozygotic twins did not have 100% concordance, there must also be a strong genetic component to explain why the monozygotic twins have more than double the rate of concordance than dizygotic twins. What it the concordance rate is actually 100%, but is not as the environment puts pressure on the MZ twins as homosexuality is not socially accepted. Santtila et al. (2008) is here to save us all with the previous worry. She conducted a twin study including 6001 female twins and 3152 male twins. She mainly focused on the idea that reported rates of homosexuality might underestimate the frequency of homosexual attraction. This would explain circumstantial changes in behaviour such as occur in prisons, in the military, and for profit in pornography. Reported incidences of homosexual behaviour were 3.1% for men and 1.2% for women, but the potential for homosexual response was 32.8% for men and 65.4% for women. Concordance rates of both the potential for homosexual response and overt homosexual behaviour indicated that there is probably a genetic component, with MZ twins more than twice as likely to answer the questions in the same way. Conclusion: designer babies, advantages disadvantages etc.

Examine one evolutionary explanation of behaviour

The command term Examine asks me to consider an argument or concept in a way that uncovers the assumptions and interrelationships of one evolutionary explanation of behaviour. Here in this essay I will demonstrate with arguments how homosexually could be an adaptive behaviour. As it is questionable in the understanding of how could homosexuality be generically transmitted when it seems more likely to prevent reproduction. Zietsch et al. (2008) provides us an answer from an evolutionary perspective, with several different explanations. For example, that the presence of an individual homosexual person in the family offers some kind of reproductive advantage to others in the family, perhaps by sharing resources and care of others, thus increasing the reproductive fitness of the family, while not reproducing themselves. To investigate this idea that the genes which incline a man towards homosexuality are advantageous in heterosexual man, somehow increasing his attractiveness to women. This idea is linked to other research which shows that woman are more attracted to men with more feminine faces at certain times during their menstrual cycle. To investigate this idea, the researchers mailed questionnaires to 4904 14 | P a g e Marlon copyright 2011-

identical twins, asking them about sexual orientation, number of opposite-sex partners and gender identity. they found that sez-atypical gender identity (e.g when a male feels he is more lieke a woman) is associated with having more heterosexual sex partners than others, and that this was exaggerated in a twin pair when one twin was homosexual that is, the heterosexual twin brothers of homosexual men had a large number of sex partners. This is in line with the researcher theory that when we inherit some of the genetic predisposition for homosexuality, but do not consider ourselves homosexual, we have inherited some characteristics normally associated with the opposite sex, an these somehow make us more attractive to members of the opposite sex. Men may, therefore, be attracted to women who have the stereotypically masculine features of competiticeness and sezya l

BLABLABLABLA have no idea will look into it later

Discuss ethical considerations in research into genetic influences on behaviour
The command term discuss asks me to Offer a considered and balanced review that includes a range of arguments, factors or hypotheses of ethical considerations in research into genetic influences on behaviour. Opinions or conclusions should be presented clearly and supported by appropriate evidence. Genetic test has helped in many situations to prevent many potential problems, for example during pregnancy. As an example during pregnancy test can be made to test whether the unborn baby will suffer from PKU, if the test is positive the parents can prepare for this, by following special diets the baby needs right from the start, in order to prevent brain damages. There are several consequences for any individual who finds out that they have a genetic predisposition to a disorder or behaviour that they might consider unpleasant or harmful. Additional problems occur when a third party finds out about such predisposition to a disorder, like life insurance companies. This would make it difficult get support from such companies as they might prevent a person from receiving life insurance, or as another example, employers, who might prevent employment. Like in the other research situations, genetic research thus requires consent from the person under investigation or from family members who are responsible for them. in order to have the research ethically complete, any information obtained about a participant should be accessible to the participant. This means that when a person participates in a study investigating the role of genes in any kind of behaviour, there is a risk that the person will learn something about themselves that they are not prepared to deal with. In which counseling on how to deal with such conditions is recommended. Also it is required to repeat the tests to confirm the information found, as reporting inaccurate information could lead to a range of negative consequences. In order to avoid such issues another alternative is to ensure that any data will be anonymously coded so that neither the researcher nor the participant knows which results match which specific DNA sample.

15 | P a g e

Marlon

copyright 2011-

Cognitive level of analysis

Outline principles that define the cognitive level of analysis
The command term outline asks me to give a brief account or summary on the principles that define the cognitive level of analysis. There are many principles that define cognitive level of analysis, however I will only focus on two in this essay. One of them is that mental processes can and should be studied scientifically. This is based on claims by viewing mental processes in terms of information-processing. This has made it possible to formulate testable theories about unobservable cognitive structures and processes. They can be tested by conventional scientific methods such as laboratory experiments or using brain imaging technologies. Another principle that defines cognitive level of analysis is that mental representations guide behaviour.

Explain how biological factors may affect memory Describe schema theory
The command term describe asks me to give a detailed account of schema theory. A schema is a cognitive structure that provides a framework for organizing information about the world, events, people and actions. The Schema theory is used to refer to a number of interrelated ideas to account for the influence of stored knowledge on current information-processing and behaviour. They perform many interrelated functions, for example they can organize information in memory, can be activated to increase information-processing efficiency, enable the generation of expectations about subjects, events and people or they regulate behaviour. Bartlett (1932) to test the effect of schemas on memory, he asked English participants to read The war of the Ghost, which is a Native American folk tale. The memory of the participants was tested using two techniques, serial reproduction and repeated reproduction. In serial reproduction, the first participant read the story and then reproduces it on paper, in which the second participant uses that version of the story and the reproduces it again for the third participant. This procedure continued until six or seven reproductions were made by an equal number of participants. In the repeated reproduction, the same participant contributes all six or seven reproduction. This took place a number of attempts separated by intervals of from 15 minutes to as long as several years, from reading the original story. In Bartletts studies these two methods led to very similar findings. The reproduction of the story became a lot shorter after each reproduction made. Findings showed that are related to the distortions were in the direction of making the story more understandable from within the participants experiences and cultural background. The combined effect of these changes was to transform what started as a very strange tale into a conventional English story.

16 | P a g e

Marlon

copyright 2011-

Bartlett argues that the way the participants recalled the story came under the influence of relevant schematic knowledge in their memory. Bartlett referred to the term rationalization to refer to the process of making the story conform to the cultural expectations of the participants. This results from this study makes it difficult to belief historical events, that were passed on from generation to generation with possible rationalization.

Outline one model of one cognitive process

The command term outline asks me to give a brief account or summery of one model of one cognitive process. In this essay I will introduce the multistore model which was proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968). This is one of the earliest information-processing approach, according to which consists of three types of memory stores. Information received by the senses registers in the sensory stores, through attention some of the information is passed to the short-term store and with rehearsal to the long-term store. The sensory stores are of unlimited capacity, the information picked up by our senses enters its corresponding sensory store and registers in a code reflecting its initial form. For example, visual information enters the visual sensory store called the iconic memory, and is stored in visual forms. The auditory information is handled by the auditory sensory, called echoic memory, which is stored in sound forms. Attention is the control process for the information to be transferred into the short-term store. In the short-term store the information can limit up to 7 units. And the duration for it to stay in the STS is only about half a minute. However if rehearsed the information continues to the long-term store, if not the information is simply lost. Peterson and Peterson (1559) carried out an experiment where participants were presented with consonant triplets (KSD, SDF, RYD, etc) to memorize. The triplets were presented one at a time and had to be recalled after an interval during which the participants had to count a time and had to be recalled after an interval during which the participants had to count backwards in threes from a given number. The counting task lasted for 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18 seconds after which the participants had to recall the triplet. As the time interval increased, recall of the triplets became progressively worse.

Describe one theory of how emotion may affect one cognitive process
The command term describe asks me to give a detailed account of one theory of how emotion may affect one cognitive process.

Explain how technology can be used to investigate cognitive processes Analyze how social or cultural factors affect one cognitive process

17 | P a g e

Marlon

copyright 2011-

Sociocultural level of analysis

Explain how principles that define the sociocultural level of analysis may be demonstrated in research Describe the role of situational and dispositional factors in explaining behaviour
The command term describe asks me to give a detailed account on the role of situational and dispositional factors in explaining behaviour. When we attribute to certain information we attribute to two causes of behaviour. The dispositional cause, is when we attribute the cause of peoples behaviour to their internal characteristics, therefore we are making a dispositional attribution. For example your date is already two hours late from your meeting point, and you attribute this situation to her personality assuming that she is always late etc. Situational causes occur when we attribute peoples behaviour to external factors such as the immediate rewards and punishments in a social setting or social pressure, therefore making a situational attribution. For example your date is late already for two hours and you attribute her lateness to the traffic or storm or any other situational factor. Personality is often defined in terms of traits. These are dispositions to behave in a particular way over a range of similar situations. The five-factor model (FFM) of personality introduced by McCrae and Costa (1999) is very popular in terms of describing someones personality in terms of traits or personality factors. FFM factor Neuroticism has high score values when the person is emotional, moody or impulsive, when at a low score the person appears relaxed and even-tempered. The FFM factor Extraversion has a high score value when the person is outgoing, active and sociable, thus has a low value when the person is reserved, serious and passive. openness to experience: low scores: down-toearth, practical, High scores are: imaginative, creative. Agreeableness: low scores are: hostile, selfish and cold, High scores are: kind, trusting, warm and altruistic. Conscientiousness: low scores are: easygoing, unreliable, sloppy, High scores are: organized, tidy and striving. Milgrams experiment on obedience of authority (1974), where he deceived participants to give electric shock to the confederates when they got answers wrong to the questions the participants asked. Each time a wrong answer the voltage increased by 15V up to 450V. The results were rather shocking, that 65% of the participants actually obeyed, where it was assumed that maybe less than 1% would actually obey. The socio psychological explanation for this is that the participants behaviour was under situational control, under authorities orders, rather than dispositional control, the participants conscience.

Discuss two errors in attributions

The command term discuss asks me to offer a considered and balanced review that includes a range of arguments, factors or hypotheses of two errors in attribution. Opinions or conclusions should be presented clearly and supported by appropriate evidence. When people attribute to dispositional 18 | P a g e Marlon copyright 2011-

factors, they tend to attribute to somebodys personality, attitude or beliefs. When people attribute to situational factors they tend to attribute to external situation like reward and punish in a social setting or social pressure. In this essay I will discuss fundamental attribution error and self-serving bias which are two errors in attribution. It is common for people to favor explanations of behaviour in terms of dispositional rather than situational factors. Instead of acknowledging the important role played by situational determinants, we assume that other peoples behaviour reflects their disposition, this describes the fundamental attribution error. In other words this term refers t a bias to attribute others behaviour to stable internal causes rather than external circumstances. Psychologists argue that we often commit the fundamental attribution error because we are mentally lazy. Jones and Harris (1967) showed a demonstration of the fundamental attribution error. They asked the participants to read essays written by students that were about Fidel Castros rule in Cuba and were either supportive or critical of Castro. The participants task was to guess what attitude the writers of the essays were really held towards Castro and his government. The participants were divided into two conditions, the choice condition and the no choice condition. In the choice condition the participants were told that essayists were free to choose to take a positive or negative view about Castro in their essays. In the no choice condition the participants were told that the essayists did not have any choice, where the researchers had assigned them into the pro-Castro or anti-Castro role. As expected, participants in the choice condition assumed that the essays reflect the genuine attitudes of their writers. However, participants ratings seemed to indicate that those in the no choice condition also thought that the essays reflect the genuine views of their authors. Therefore, despite the fact that it was made clear that the essayists behaviour was severely constrained by the situation observers still opted for an internal attribution. This study showed how the fundamental attribution error happens, however there may be demand characteristics involved, the Hawthorne-effect. Therefore it can be argued that it lacks of ecological validity. Personally, if I was part in the no choice condition, I would have attributed also to dispositional factors rather than situational factors, however, this without any demand characteristics involved. This most likely with ignoring that the essayist had no choice in their opinion on Castro. If I was in the proCastro group I would have most probably done the fundamental attribution error, however if I was in the anti-Castro group I would have shown balance between situational attribution and dispositional attribution. Fein (2001) argues that we resist making dispositional attributions in situations where we suspect actors may have ulterior motives for their behaviours. His argument reflected his findings in 1990 (Fein et al.), where US students read an essay about a character called Rob Taylor. In which one condition the participants were told that Rob had been assigned to write either in favor or against some view, as expected this condition showed positive evidence towards the fundamental attribution error. In the second condition, participants were led to believe that Robs essay expressed views which were very similar to those held by his professor and which, therefore, would be found pleasing by his professor. In this condition there was no fundamental attribution detected. 19 | P a g e Marlon copyright 2011-

The two studies mentioned above about the fundamental attribution error, contradict each other, therefore no general conclusions can be drawn. In my opinion what affects such type of study mostly, is the mood and personality of the participants. Also their background should be considered, in my opinion if they were highly trained from physiology views, fundamental attribution error is less likely to happen. Also we cannot generalize to other countries other than where those two studies took place. The second attribution error is the self-serving bias, and it occurs when we explain our successes on the basis of internal, thus dispositional factors and our failures on external factors, thus situational factors. This is found common in professional sport, Lau and Russell (1980) showed that professional athletes and coaches attribute 80% of their wins to internal factors, and losses are far more likely to be attributed to external factors. Similar findings can be found in students, in terms of getting good or bad grades. Johnson et al. (1964) showed a good demonstration of the self-serving bias. Psychology students acting as participants taught two children how to multiply numbers by 10 and 20. The teaching was done in two phases, the first phase involved teaching the children how to multiply by 10 and the second phase involved teaching children how to multiply by 20. The worksheets had been marked in such a way that in both condition, child A gave the right answers to all the questions on both worksheets. Depending on condition, Child B either did badly on both tasks, or did badly on the first worksheet but improved on the second. The participants, therefore, had either failed or succeeded in teaching Child B the two tasks. Johnson et al. found that in the condition where Child Bs performance improved, participants explained the improvement as a success based on their abilities as teachers. When Child B failed to improve, they attributed this to the childs lack of ability. This study also limits as it can only be stated about one culture. Silvia (2002) argues that we are more likely to attribute our failure to internal causes if we belief we can do something to improve the situation in the future. Abramson et al. (1989) assumes that depressed people often rely on an attributional style that attributes success to external and failure to internal causes. Both attribution errors give us an insight into human behaviour in terms of giving reasons its causes. Even though many factors influence such errors and thus we cannot generalize over a whole culture, but can learn from such errors.

Evaluate social identity theory, making reference to relevant studies

The command term evaluate asks me to make an appraisal by weighing up the strengths and limitations of social identity theory by making reference to relevant studies. Social identity theory is based on four interrelated concepts. That is social categorization, social identity, social comparison and positive distinctiveness. Social categorization reduces perceived variability within the ingroup (we are similar to one another), reduces perceived variability in outgroup (they are all the same) and it increases perceived variability between the ingroup and the outgroup (we are different from them). Social identity 20 | P a g e Marlon copyright 2011-

is that part of our self-concept that is based on knowledge of our membership of one or more social groups. Social identity is related to intergroup behaviours. People can have several social and personal identities, reflecting the groups they identify with and the close relationships and personal characteristic that define them as individuals. According to social identity theory, we strive for a positive self-concept. Ur social identity contributes to how we feel about ourselves, so we seek positive social identities to maintain and enhance our selfesteem. Positive social identities may result from the process of social comparison. We continuously compare our ingroups with relevant outgroups. This social comparison process is fuelled by our need for positive distinctiveness. That is the motivation to show that our ingroup is preferable to an outgroup. Intergroup behaviors based on social identities exhibit several general characteristics including Ethnocentrism (this is ingroup-serving bias: ingroup successes are attributed to disposition, failures are attributed to situational factors. Outgroup negative behaviour is attributed to disposition and positive behaviours of by outgroup members being attributed to situational factors), ingroup favoritism, intergroup differentiation, stereotypical thinking and conformity to ingroup norms (that is acting in accordance to standards of behaviour defined by the ingroup. Tajfel et al. (1971) supports the social identity theory using the minimal group paradigm. The researchers divided British schoolboys that acted as participants into two groups. The participants were randomly allocated into each group, however the boys were led to believe that the groups were defined on the basis of a preference for paintings by Klee or Kandinsky. Individually the boys had to distribute points to ingroup and outgroup members and were not allowed to give points to themselves. The researchers were interested in finding how the participants distributed the points. The boys showed a strong tendency to favor members of their ingroup over members of the outgroup, thus manifesting ingroup favoritism. [Observed that boys that were randomly assigned to a group based on their likings of

the artists Klandinsky or Klee were found to identify more with the other boys in their groups and like them better than the boys in the opposing group as the boys rated the out-group boys as less likeable but not actually disliked. ] -ethan
Social identity theory has been supported by hundreds of relevant empirical studies, which involved cross-cultural studies, also it demonstrated the crucial role of social categorization in intergroup behaviour. Social identity theory has shown the difference between personal identity and social identity and thus has explored ways our basic need to belong affects social interaction. Another valuable strength of social identity theory is that it has contributed very significantly to the explanation of an impressive list of social psychological phenomena. It has provided the theoretical basis for explanations in several other areas of social psychology such as stereotypes and stereotyping and explanations of conformity, groupthink and group polarization. But most importantly it helped to explain intergroup conflict in setting where there was no realistic basis for conflict (e.g. no competition for resources). In addition the original social identity theory has been expanding over the years and continues to generate a lot of research. 21 | P a g e Marlon copyright 2011-

The self esteem hypothesis, which figured extensively in the original statement of the theory, is no longer viewed as central to SIT. Some studies have shown that the increase in self-esteem associated with outgroup discrimination is too short-lived to have long-lasting effects on how ingroup members view themselves. One of the expressed aims of SIT was to favor situational explanations over dispositional ones. Yet there is at least some evidence suggesting that individual differences do affect SIT processes. Platow et al (1990) argues that competitive participants showed greater ingroup favoritism than cooperative participants. Despite the weaknesses the SIT theory has helped understand social representation and has lead to further investigation topics such as conformity, obedience, stereotyping etc. Thus it was a great new income of information towards a whole subcategory in sociocultural level of analysis.

22 | P a g e

Marlon

copyright 2011-