POWER AMPLIFIERS

1.Explain the difference between Class A, B, AB, C.

A: Its a quasi-linear amplifier, the active load is always ON,
its bias point is in the middle of the voltage and current
swings (
, ,
,
2
DS BR DS K
DS M
V V
V

=
,
2
DSS
DS M
I
i = ), while
n =50% and optimum load: .







B: The active device is ON for exactly 50% of the time: the
Vgs swings below Vth for 50% of the period, and above Vth
for the other 50%. Consequently the for half of the time.
Bias at the cutoff(zero current without signal applied). The
efficiency n is 78%. The optimum load is the same of the
class A. The gain is reduced of 6 dB with respect to class
A, but OK for variable envelope signals.









AB: The active load is ON for more than 50% of the time,
better n than class A, but lower gain and unsuited for
variable envelope signals and RF>GHz.
C: The active device is ON for less than 50%. It has better
efficiency (100%) but large gain penalty and its unsuitable
for variable envelope.
2.Explain why the amplifier efficiency increases from class A to B while the gain decreases. Where is the
optimum PAE depending on the device gain?
Because in class B is dissipated less power on the
transistor.

, FR M
CD
P
P
n =
,
,
4
DS BR DSS
CD A
V I
P =
,
_
2
DS BR DSS
DC B
V I
P
t
=
1
1
OP
PAE
G
n
| |
=
|
\ .

Efficiency: Class b amplifier achieve a higher
efficiency than class A stages by incorporating two
parallel sections each of which conducts for only 180
degree. A familiar example is the push-pull stage of
Fig, commonly used in low-frequency power
amplifiers. Here, as Vin becomes more positive, Q1
provides the output current, while Q2 is nearly off.
Similarly, as Vin drops, Q2 conducts while Q1 carries
little current. We note that the efficiency is higher here
because the supply current always flows through the
load, whereas in the class A stage, the supply current
flows through only the transistor for part of the cycle. (
class b: amplifying element is switched off altogether
half of the time, and so cannot dissipate power )
Gain: gain is reduced by 6 dB with respect to Class A
since an input with twice the amplitude in Class A . 4
times input power is needed to obtain the same output
amplitude. And gain is worse due to the need of
biasing the device at threshold. When we get highest
gain, then we can get optimum PAE.
6.Explain why a class B amplifier cannot be wideband.
Because its a non linear stage, and they work only for narrowband signal (needing a tuned load), otherwise it introduces
strong non linearity.
3.What is the optimum load of a class A power amplifier? Why is the optimum load different from the optimum
small-signal load?
,
,
DS BR
L OPT
DSS
V
R
I
=
The optimum small signal load is the one yielding conjugate matching (i.e. power matching) at the output and input of an
amplifier. This maximizes the gain in small-signal conditions. The optimum load in a power amplifier is the one
maximizing the output power in large-signal conditions, not the gain.
4.Discuss the kind of amplifier needed to amplify constant envelope or variable envelope signals.
Non linear amplifiers are optimum for constant envelope, less suitable for variable envelope (classes AB, C). Classes A,B
are suitable for non constant envelope, because if we change the amplitude of the input, the amplifier gain remains the
same, while for classes AB and C, a change in the input amplitude changes the circulation angle, and therefore the gain.
Especially Class AB and C are not good for variable-envelope signals (e.g. multi-level PS signals). Class B is OK for
variable envelope signals but has a gain penalty of 6 dB.
5.Discuss the optimum DC working point in class A, B and C.
A:
,
2
DSS
DS DC
I
I =
, ,
,
2
DS BR DS K
DS DC
V V
V
+
=
DS th
V V > always
B:
, ,
,
2
DS BR DS K
DS DC
V V
V
+
=
GS th
V V = C:
, ,
,
2
DS BR DS K
DS DC
V V
V
+
=
GS th
V V <
7.Explain why third-order inter-modulation products are more important than other IMPs.
Because the intermodulation products (+/-mf1+/-nf2) fall close to the input tones (talking about two tone test). Generally,
III IMP have a continuous BW that overlaps the signal BW and its larger.
The intermodulation product spectral region of most concern in a regulated communications band is the third order step,
which is the one that lies closest to the main signal. This is usually known, logically enough, as the adjacent channel,
and a specification of much importance is the integrated power which lies inside this channel, known as the adjacent
channel power, or ACP.
9.Explain the load-pull design procedure for an amplifier.
Its the process of pulling the output impedance of a RF device while measuring the device behaviour. Its needed when
the device-under-test has a non linear response. We detect the optimum load impedance, the IMPS, n for a power
amplifier. Ideally the load pull measurement indicates the max power or saturation power for each load. The power sweep
is stopped up to a certain compression point.
We actually change large signal load impedance from a small value (near 0) to a large value and calculate the power
deliver to the load. A series of contours, known as isopower lines are then plotted on the Smith chart, representing the
load reflection coefficients with similar output power level. At the optimum load impedance, the power amplifier will deliver
maximum power to the load.
For short: the load-pull procedure can be carried out experimentally by changing the load seen by the device with a
mechanical or electronic tuner; in this way the optimum load impedance can be detected, also for other parameters
(IMPs, efficiency etc.). Also a source-pull approach is feasible, but less effective at least in FETs( low sensitivity with
respect to source impedance).
10.Explain why the two-tone IMP3 test is easier to carry out than a measurement of the amplifier harmonics.
Because its more easily to measure the power of the 2 tones at f1 and f2 together with the two IMP3. the two tones have
the same power and, if the power amplifier is narrowband, the output IMP3 have the same power, so they can be
measured only measuring the carries + IMP3 powers, and leaving out the (known a priori) carries power.
13.Discuss whether the 1 dB compression point is frequency dependent.
1
, 2
3
1
0,145
8 | ( ) |
G DIST
G
dB
a
P
compr R H F a
=

The 1dB compression point depends mainly on the third order term, but, above the input cut off frequency, the
compression point power increases with frequency, the compression point power increases with frequency, because
there is the dependency with
2
1
( ) H f
.
11.What are the physical causes of power saturation in a class A amplifier?
The power saturates when the
DS
V and/or
DS
I take values beyond their maximum values. If voltage and/or current
waveforms are clipped (i.e when
. L L OPT
R R = ), the output power is in saturation. The is clipped when
. L L OPT
R R < , while
is clipped when
, L L OPT
R R > .
12.In a class A amplifier, is that possible to increase the efficiency beyond 50% through input overdrive?
Explain.
A constant increase of the efficiency can be obtained because, overdriving the input power from
, IN MAX
P (that is the
linearity limit), until the saturation power
SAT
P (we have that
SAT
P =1.6*
, IN MAX
P ) and the resulting efficiency increases too.
1dB compression point is a trade off between overdrive and gain reduction.
14.Define the PAE for an amplifier.
Power-added efficiency (PAE) is a percentage that rates the efficiency of a power amplifier.
15.In a class A amplifier, what is the behaviour of the device temperature when the input signal increases? What
is the behaviour of a class B amplifier?


8.Justify the behaviour of IMP3 versus input
power.

IMP3 power behaves as Pin at the third power, where
IIP3 is the input interception point. High IIP3 means
higher linearity, because it intercepts the output power
in linearity for away.











1.Explain class F operation as opposed to class B operation.
- In class F : harmonic loading: a tuned load is implemented for the all harmonics: input waveform is equal to class B, but
Z(nf0) is such as to lead to a squarewave behaviour of the voltage across the switch, thus lowering power loss (since no DC
power dissipation, all battery power is converted to RF (efficiency=100%, provided higher reactive (not resistive) harmonics
in the load dont dissipate any power and this is simple because: even harmonics of drain voltage are 0 -> s.c load; odd
harmonics of drain current are 0 -> o.c. load)
- In class B : gate bias at the threshold; since gate voltage swings below Vth for 50% of period and above for the other
50%, the structure incorporates 2 parallel sections (each of which conducts for only 180) allowing the current to flow on the
load at any time (so quite high efficiency (78%)); load tuned only for the fundamental (DC component is blocked by
capacitor included or in series with the biasT) not for all harmonics
class B optimum load:
Lo
R
=VDS.br/
DSS
I
class F optimum load:
Lo
R
=4VDS.br/
DSS
I t







7. Explain the reasons of the statistica variation of power level in a multi-channel amplifier.
They are due to location, traffic pattern, environment and represent the reason why output power of PA is not constant.

4. Explain the meaning of ACPR. What is the relationship between ACPR and CIMR?
ACPR (Adjacent Channel Power Ratio) is a quantitative measure of spectral regrowth as an amount of interference (or power) to a
nearby channel. Its usually defined as the ratio of the average power in the adjacent frequency channel to the average power in
the transmitted frequency channel. (MC: main channel, Ck: K-th adjacent channel).
ACPR is sensitive to the signal format: constant envelope (less sensitive), variable (more sensitive).
CIMR (Carrier intermodulation ratio): is the ratio between output power at the fundamental and the third order intermodulation
output power.

ACPR vs CIMR: in a multichannel system intermodulation products are distributed on the main frequency (that is the carrier) and
(those of higher order) on the adjacent ones representing respectively noise and interference and ACPR characterizes this
phenomenum.
ACPR finds the ratio of the output power in a smaller bandwidth around the center of carrier to the power in the adjacent channel.
The smaller bandwidth is equal to the bandwidth of the adjacent channel signal. ACPR is related with power in a band, but CIMR
only related with a single frequency.


5. Qualitatively explain why spectral regrowth is more pronounced in variable-envelope signals.
Spectral regrowth is conditioned by constant/variable-envelope nature of modulation schemes; non constant-envelope leads to
a larger spectral regrowth and requires more linear PA.
Constant-envelope signals passed through a non linear system exhibit lower spectral regrowth than variable: because in the
latter case weve to consider the in-phase and quadrature components.
6. Give some examples of variable-envelope and constant-envelope digital modulations.
CONSTANT
- analog FM
- MSK(minimum shift keying), MSK(Gaussian
minimum shift keying)








VARIABLE
- multilevel digital modulation
- some signals after filtering: PSK(binary phase
shift keying) , QPSK(quadrature phase shift
keying) OQPSK(offset QPSK) , /4-QPSK

9. What does input overdrive mean in the context of power amplifiers? What is the consequence of overdrive on
efficiency?
Overdrive means drive the device with a signal such that the output is nonlinear (that is the input power larger than
the power saturation threshold (
linear in
P
,
)); by doing so efficiency is increased, but the drawbacks: difficulty to
overdrive easily (MESFETs cannot stand gate positive overdrive) and lower gain.
2.Describe a class E amplifier.
Switching mode, non linear amplifier: usually overdriven by the input signal (poor gain), it alternates from a low-voltage, high-
current condition (SATURATION: switch behaves as a current source) to a low-current, high-voltage condition (CUT-OFF:
switch as an open). Since the switch ideally dissipates no instantaneous power -> high efficiency (100%).
The reactive part of load must be carefully designed to achieve proper output waveform shaping (fundamental is passed to the
load (LC group is resonant at fundamental), even harmonics shorted, all higher odd harmonic are open). Parallel capacitance
depends on the desired circulation angle (around 90), battery voltage and peak current
Class E design is not very sensitive to switch operation (the reactive load does most of the job) and since a high peak voltage is
sustainable by the switch in the off state (about 10V), it demands a high transistor breakdown voltage.

10. Explain the meaning of the efficiency-linearity tradeoff in a multichannel amplifier.
The higher the linearity, the lower the efficiency: but high linearity may experience problems due to possible
multichannel operations, while high efficiency implies heat dissipation.
Conducting class PAs such as class-A, and -AB offer excellent linearity but are inefficient. On the other hand,
switching class PAs such as class-E, and D, or harmonic loading PAs such as class-F are highly nonlinear, but very
efficient. Modern wireless communication systems often employ intricate modulation schemes such as Orthogonal
Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) with multi-channel Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) in order to
maximize bandwidth efficiency. Such modulation usually results in amplitude-modulated signals with large peak-to-
average power ratios (PAPR) that require power amplifiers with extremely good linearity. Enabling the use of high
efficiency, non-linear power amplifiers for linear systems is essential to significantly improve PAs efficiency. This
general technique is referred to as Linear amplification using Nonlinear Components (LINC).
In multiple-channel PAs (basestations) because the total multichannel power undergoes statistical fluctuations related
to location, traffic pattern, environmentthe PA output power is not constant. LINEARITY: AM and PM distortion take
place if the PA is used at its full-rated RF power level EFFICIENCY: Conventional design of high-efficiency PA leads
to good solution only near the maximum rated power; if the power is backed off efficiency drops sharply. So there is
trade off between efficiency and linearity in multi channel amplifier.
11. What is the meaning of backoff? To what extent can backoff be exploited to increase the PA linearity in class A
and class AB? explain the difference of the two cases.
Backoff usually improves linearity, decreases efficiency (max efficiency deterioration in class A)
Suppose that a reference operating condition for a PA occurs with a given (reference) input power, We say that the
PA operates with a given back-off (e.g. 3 dB, 10 dB...) with respect to the reference condition when the input power is
reduced by 3, 10... dB with respect to the reference input power.
Class A PA is backed off with respect to the 1dB compression point to increase linearity (reducing IMPs)
8. What is a low order class F amplifier?
Harmonic tuning is only provided at first harmonic
(load impedance becomes an open), second (short)
and third (open) since enlarging too much the tuning
for higher harmonics involves further interference.
Series resonator for odd harmonics, parallel resonator
for fundamental.
Due to the overlapping of harmonics band when
changing the fundamental, the band of the amplifier
must be limited to avoid interference.

12. Qualitatively estimate class B efficiency as a function of backoff with respect to maximum output power.
In class B: efficiency decreases as the square root of backoff






TRANSCEIVERS & LNAs
1. In a GSM-900 standard, what are the modulation format, duplexing system, access system? What
frequency bands are allocated to the standard, and what is the channel bandwidth?
- Band: 935 960 MHz (downlink), 890 915 MHz (uplink)
- Bandwidht: 200KHz
- Format modulation: BPSK
- Duplexing system: Frequency division duplexing
- Access system: multiple access

2. In a transceiver, mention which parts are realized as (1) Si bipolar ICs (2) Si MOS ICs (3) GaAs (4)
External discrete components.
Si bipolar Ics: LNA, mixer, VCO, IF AGC, IF PLL, IF mixer, modulator, Tx PLL, Tx VCO
Si MOS Ics: ADC, DAC, channel select PLL
GaAs: duplexer FDD, Power amplifiers
External discrete components: duplexer filter, filter following LNA, filter in IF AGC, tanks.
The receiver is typically today in CMOS and a few years ago it was Si pipolar, same for the transmitter till the power, the
power amplifier often in GaAs and so is the switch, bandpass filters are typically external (e.g. SAW components).

4. Motivate the use of image-rejecting receivers as opposed to simple image filtering.
IRR provides an automatic rejection of the image frequency: the problem comes from the fact that a frequencies
symmetric to the
LO
are down converted to the same IF frequency, with a possible strong in-band interferer: the
image corrupts the desired signal and cannot be removed.
As simple image filtering, we have image rejection filter tradeoff, we need compromise between: High IF(better image
rejection, in-band interferers rejected poorly) and Low IF(poorer image rejection, better treatment of in-band interferers).
To avoid the tradeoffs involved with image rejection, IRR have been devised to automatically reject the image frequency
(60-70 dB rejection required) by generating a 90 degrees shifted signal allowing cancellation of the image by its negated
replica.

5. Explain why diplexer design is easier in TDD than in FDD systems.
Frequency Division Duplex (FDD) and Time Division Duplex (TDD) are the two most prevalent duplexing schemes used in
fixed broadband wireless networks. In FDD systems the duplexer must provide high isolation between the TX and RX stage
(Otherwise, the LNA in receiver line is desensitized, for it is driven into saturation by a strong interferer on a nearby
band(even TX band doesnt equal to RX band, there is also interference). But the problem is avoided or alleviated in TDD.

3. Motivate the use of a heterodyne system in the receiver part of a transceiver.
Heterodyne system in receiver part is a radio receiver that combines a locally generated frequency (LO) with the carrier
frequency (RF) to produce a supersonic signal (IF) that is demodulated and amplified.
The IF downconversion allows a relax of the filter Q for channel selection (a further downconversion to baseband follows).
IF choice is dictated by the problem of image rejection and filter sensitivity.
IF = RF - LO
Homodyne architectures are less sensitive for:
- DC offset (they falls in-band for homodyne receivers).
- I/Q mismatch: in heterodyne systems I/Q demodulation occurs at IF, and there's lower sensitivity to parasitics. There's
also less phase mismatch because less processing follows I/Q demodulation.
- even order distorsions, they drop far from IF
- flicker noise, stronger at lower frequencies

6. Sketch the structure of a heterodyne receiver for a QSK-like signal.

7. Explain the role of sampling-and-holding in a heterodyne receiver in which digital quadrature demodulation is
carried out.
S/H used for subsampling the ADC, because the heterodyne receivers very demanding on ADC speed. With S/H the
bandwidht is downconverted to (
IF
-
S
). The ADC speed is reduced, but the noise aliasing increases as the sampling rate.
The previous stages convert the RF to low enough IF in order to utilize the ADCs good performance on noise and linearity.
ADC supply large sampling rate and get a low noise floor(noise spread out over more frequency) which can be easily
filtered, also high process gain is achieved.
9. Quote a few pros - cons of heterodyne versus
homodyne systems.
PROS:
- the channel selection filter's Q can be relaxed
- less DC offset
- less I/Q mismatch
- less even order distortions
- less flicker noise
CONS:
- high cost and not so good integration
- it has the image problem
- the second order distorsion in the LNA brings
interferer at (RF+LO)/2 into IF after downconversion
- more complicated filters (SAW vs LPF)


8. Sketch a direct-conversion (homodyne) receiver
for QSK-like signals.
10. Sketch a transmitter stage for a QSK-like signal.


11. Explain the concept of LO pulling from the power amplifier.
It is a problem in the sense that it degrades the system peformance of transmitters: the power amplifier output may leak
back to the VCO. The output signal from the PA may create a disturb on the control voltage of the VCO, if they are not well
isolated, causing a change in the output VCO frequency.
Left figure has a drawback: disturbance of the transmit local oscillator by the power amplifier. This issue arises because PA
output is a modulated waveform with high power and a spectrum centred around the LO frequency (right figure). Despite
various shielding techniques employed to isolate vco, the noisy output of the PA still corrupts the oscillator spectrum. This
corruption occurs through the injection pulling. The problem worsens if PA is turned on and off periodically to save power.


12. Analyze the GSM dual-band Philips receiver and identify the main functions it includes.
At the very beginning the receiver has two band selection BPF, for 1800MHZ and 900MHZ respectively, then the receiver
comprises an RF and an IF section. The RF (GSM) front-end amplifies the antenna signal, converts the chosen channel
frequency to an IF of 200 MHz, and also provides more than 30 dB of image suppression. Some selectivity is provided at
this stage by an off-chip bandpass pre-filter. The IF section further amplifies the chosen channel, maintains the gain at the
required level, demodulates the signal into I and Q components, and provides channel selectivity at a baseband stage using
a high performance integrated low-pass filter. The IF gain can be varied over a range of more than 60 dB. The offset at the I
and Q outputs can be cancelled out by software using the 3-wire serial programming bus. The input Low Noise Amplifier
(LNA) can be switched off via the bus to allow accurate calibration in the offset cancellation mode.
13. Explain the impact of a two-band GSM choice on the transceiver architecture. Does the whole transceiver need
to be duplicated? Can the same solution applied to a multi-standard transceiver (e.g. GSM + TACS)?
By adopting two-band, device becomes more compatible and economical, instead of changing for another device in different
countries.This also reduces the stress of network due to the unbalanced consumer using device with diff. bands.
It is not necessary to duplicated the whole transceiver, because circuits for the different bands share some modules. Such
as in Philips dual-band GSM/DCS transceiver, after the LNA+Image rejection stages, circuits for different bands share gain
amplification and demodulation parts.
Multi-standard may have different frequency bands and use different techniques, and the same solution can not satisfy the
condition.
14. In a RF LNA the design goal is the minimum NF or the maximum gain (in practice)? Justify the answer.
In practice, maximum gain is the design goal.
The solution in most RF LNA amplifiers lies heavily on the gain matching side, noise matching often leads to low gain with
negligible improvement in noise figure.
In some cases, NF is bad, such as in CB LNA(in input matching condition, NF is 1.76dB), but its reasonable for many
applications(for example: cell phone).
15. Explain the use of cascode stages in a LNA.
By combining stages common emitter and common base together, we have the so called cascode stages.
As in cascode stage, output resistance is typically larger than the input and that transistor current gain>>1,
BC
CE
BE
bc
C
bc
C
R
R
C C <<
+
=
) 1 ( |

Cascode stage has the same transconductance as the CE transistor, same input Y, but larger isolation(also with slightly
larger noise). With larger isolation between input and output, it reduces coupling by decreasing the Miller capacitance. And
the reduction of the Miller capacitance leads to moderate broadbanding, increment in band stability
17. Explain why an inductively degenerated bipolar LNA has to work at a rather high collector current to allow 50
Ohm input matching.
C
T
bb
B
T
bb ie bb in
I
V
r
I
V
r h r R
|
+ = + = + = , in order to get 50 Ohm input matching, we have to work at a rather high collector
current, it also can be known from figure
18. In a common-base LNA, what is the bias collector current needed for 50 Ohm matching?
In common base case,
C
T
m m
in
I
V
g jwC g
R = ~
+
=
H
1 1
, in order to obtain Zin=50Ohm, the collector current is set to 0.5mA.
19. Why is that important to have LNAs with high linearity?
LNA always operates in class A, and its linearity is described by input referred 3
rd
order intercepter point (IIP3). Larger the
value of IIP3 is, better the linearity will be.

In order to have large SFDR, which means large input dynamic range, we need large IIP3, so high linearity.

16. Sketch some examples of noiseless matching stages for LNAs.
Parallel capacitive feedback matching Series inductive feedback matching

Common base/source stages Negative shunt feedback matching

RF Mixers
1. In a mixer the RF is 2.4 GHz and the LO is 1.6 GHz.
Identify the IF and the image frequency. What
happens if the LO and the RF are interchanged?

IF = RF LO = 2.4 1.6 = 0.8GHz
IM = LO IF = 1.6 0.8 = 0.8GHz
If LO and RF interchanged:
IF = RF LO = | 1.6 2.4 | = 0.8GHz
IM = LO ( IF) = 2.4 0.8 = 3.2GHz

7. A mixer has a conversion gain of 3 dB and a noise
figure of 10 dB. Assuming the SNR at RF is 30 dB with
a RF power of -10 dB, evaluate the IF power and the
SNR at IF.
P
IF
= P
RF
+ GAIN = 10dBm + 3 = 7dBm
SNR
IF
=SNR
RF
NF = 30 10 = 20dB
Assuming the same reference impedance at both RF&IF
sides

2. Explain why a single mixer (single-ended, balanced, double balanced) cannot perform image rejection.
IMAGE REJECTION


3. Describe the structure and operation of a passive single balanced mixer.
Exploit a balanced configuration > LO or RF are different signals:
Through transformers (low freq to RF) or through directional couplers, distributed elements (microwaves)
Advantage: cancellation of RF or LO at the output (apart from filtering)
Topology examined first with diodes, then extended to other elements

















6. In a passive mixer, does the IF power linearly depend on the LO power? What in an active mixer?


In passive mixers (usually) IF power is not proportional to
LO power.In ideal case, IF linearity doesnt depend on the
LO power.
In active mixers, LO works as an input signal of a transistor
with trasconductance, so the power of LO will affect the
linearity of the IF output.













4. Describe the structure and operation
of a double balanced Gilbert cell mixer.

It is an active mixer because it
exploits active devices. Both RF and
Lo inputs are balanced. It provides
rejection at output of both RF and Lo
through the crossed differential
amplifier topology (rejection can be
obtained even without the final
differential stage. A gilbert cell can be
implemented with bipolar o mos
technology.










V1 = V0 Alo * Vlo Kif * Vrf * Vlo
V2 = V0 + Alo * Vlo + Kif * Vrf * Vlo
V3 = V0 + Alo * Vlo Kif * Vrf * Vlo
V4 = V0 Alo * Vlo + Kif * Vrf * Vlo
Vif = (V1 + V3) (V2 +
V4) = -4Kif * Vrf * Vlo
5. In a mixer, does IF power depend linearly on the RF power?What happens if RF power is increased?





With the RF power increase, IF
output will go to saturation
Increasing the RF power the
mixer leaves the SS (SSLS)
regime and becomes fully
nonlinear, finally experiencing
power saturation and IMP
generation.
8. Explain the difference between the SSB
and DSB noise figure in a mixer.
SSB NF (ok for heterodyne systems): noise in
the image band downconverted to IF (not DC)
together with noise in signal band, thus since
the noise is white (same in both bands) and
the conversion gain of the mixer is the same
from the signal and image band, the IF noise
is twice the in-band one (in this case
noiseless signal has 3dB NF).
DSB NF (ok for homodyne systems):
downconversion occurs at DC (homodyning),
the image band is half of the original band, so
no additional noise (in this case a noiseless
mixer has 0dB NF).
Usually SSB NF = DSB NF + 3dB
(if DSB NF is measured)


RF Oscillators
1. Describe the principle of operation of an oscillator. Why do we need instability and frequency selec-
tivity? What is the startup condition for oscillation?
Principle: Energy transfer (from electric to magnetic) + Supply energy to maintain oscillation
The oscillator is the component that with its electrical or mechanical vibration its able to generate a periodical signal. There are
two types of oscillators:
1 Relaxation Oscillators: non-harmonic oscillation (e.g. square wave), timing originated by RC discharge or the like (typically,
poor phase noise or jitter)
2 Harmonic Oscillators: frequency-selective feedback within the circuit (good phase noise).
The principle is simple: with a resonator it is possible to obtain a vibration, then with a negative resistance (obtained by an active
element) it is possible to maintain the vibration by compensating the losses of the circuit.
Need of instability to generate frequency components, need of freq. selectivity to specify the frequency
Startup condition: Barkhausen condition: loop gain: phase shift: that come from
feedback transfer function: by defining the loop gain:
2. What are the feedback and negative R models for an oscillator? How can a linearly unstable circuit
give stable large-signal oscillations?
An oscillator with feedback an negative R can be:



A linearly unstable circuit can give stable large-signal
oscillations because non-linear gm and supply limit oscillation
amplitude, the negative series resistance or parallel
conductance equivalently decrease with increasing amplitude
A of voltage or current. In conclusion stability is obtained for
zero total conductance or resistance. (the negative resistance
compensate the losses of the circuit).
3. Draw some examples of basic oscillator topologies.

4. Discuss amplitude and phase noise in an oscillator. What are the system-level consequences?
Ideal real oscillators:

Being amplitude and phase noise very small-term it is possible to do a Taylor expansion:



Normally the phase noise component is dominating.
The consequences of this kinds of noise can be seen in the spectrum of the output signal of the oscillator.
Below weve 2 phenomena related to this shape of spectrum.



Another effect of the phase noise can be seen in the constellation of a phase digital modulation (i.e. QPSK): the SNR
decrease and the BER increase.
7. What is the Leesons formula for oscillator noise? What role is played by the oscillator Q?


The higher the Q of the tank, the lower the noise.
Phase noise inversely prop. To power dissipation

8. Discuss injection pulling in an oscillator.





9. Make some examples of resonatorless oscillators.


As the magnitude of the noise increases, the carrier
frequency may shift towards the noise frequency Wn
and eventually work at that frequency.
5. Define the single-sideband noise spectral density LT in an oscillator.


It is a parameter that defines how
much power we have in the carrier
with respect to the side bands.
LT disadvantage: phase noise and
amplitude not separate
Since amplitude limiting reduces
amplitude noise while phase noise
cannot be reduced, LT is usually
dominated by the phase noise thus :
oscillator noise almost equal to
oscillator phase noise



6. In an oscillator exploited in the receiver chain we want a SNR greater than 30 dB on a 60 kHz bandwidth with
an offset of 500 MHz with respect to the carrier. The signal is -80 dBc with respect to the carrier. Evaluate the
required LT at that offset frequency, assuming constant oscillator noise on the signal bandwidth.


P
carrier
P
signal
= 80dBc

SNR = P
signal

P
n
= 30dB

P
in
= 10log(P
sideband
* B) = 10log(P
sideband
* 60KHz)
= P
sideband
|dBm/Hz + 47.8dB

LT = P
sideband
|dBm/Hz P
carrier
=
80 30 47.8= -157.8dBc/Hz @ 500MH
11. Discuss some device choices in RF and microwave oscillators.
Device choice: Bipolars: lower phasenoise, lower frequency
FETs: higher phase noise, higher frequency
Sometimes low frequency + multipliers
Resonators often realized with dielectric resonators to increase resonator Q, with microstrip for low-Q resonators.

10. In RF systems often we need to generate quadrature signals. Explain how this can be done.


In theory, it can be obtained through a simple RC pair; in practice, RC mismatch leads to phase mismatch vs. 90 (SEE
FIGURE).



Shift the signal by +/- 45swing
a RC-CR network the phase
difference between Vout1 and
Vout2 for all frequencies, but
the output amplitudes are equal
only to e=1/RC.