CHAPTER-5

Problem definition and methodology

Problem definition
A stiffened panel which represents the structural features near the passenger window cut out is considered for the analysis. The basic configuration of the stiffened panel consists of a window cutout and stiffeners on either side of the cutout, as shown in Figure 5.1. The stiffened panel has variable thickness. The dimensions of the panel are shown in figure 5.1. In practical the stiffened panel will be a curved panel. For the current study it is idealized as a flat panel. The panel has the following structural elements and different salient features Skin Bulkhead Rivets Variable thickness Large cutout Rivet holes around the cutout

The skin is a thin sheet of material stiffened using bulkheads. The cutout surrounding area has higher thickness. The bulkheads are riveted to the skin. Fuselage cabin experiences hoop stresses due to the pressurization. These hoop stresses are considered as uniform tensile stresses at the edges of the panel. The maximum tensile stress magnitude and its location are identified through the stress analysis of the stiffened panel. The maximum tensile stress identified through the stress analysis is considered as the input to the calculation of fatigue life to crack initiation in the panel. The stress based approach is followed to calculate the fatigue life using S-N curve of the respective material.

Figure 5.1 : Dimensions of the stiffened panel with window cutout

Aircraft cabin pressurization Aircraft are flown at high altitudes for two reasons. First, an aircraft flown at high altitude consumes less fuel for a given airspeed than it does for the same speed at a lower altitude because the aircraft is more efficient at a high altitude. Second, bad weather and turbulence may be avoided by flying in relatively smooth air above the storms. Many modern aircraft are being designed to operate at high altitudes, taking advantage of that environment. In order to fly at higher altitudes, the aircraft must be pressurized. It is important for pilots who fly these aircraft to be familiar with the basic operating principles. In a typical pressurization system, the cabin, flight compartment, and baggage compartments are incorporated into a sealed unit capable of containing air under a pressure higher than outside atmospheric pressure. On aircraft powered by turbine engines, bleed air from the engine compressor section is used to pressurize the cabin. Superchargers may be used on older model turbine-powered aircraft to pump air into the sealed fuselage. Piston-powered

aircraft may use air supplied from each engine turbocharger through a sonic venturi (flow limiter). Air is released from the fuselage by a device called an outflow valve. By regulating the air exit, the outflow valve allows for a constant inflow of air to the pressurized area. [Figure xxx]

Figure 5.2; High performance airplane pressurization system. A cabin pressurization system typically maintains a cabin pressure altitude of approximately 8,000 feet at the maximum designed cruising altitude of an aircraft. This prevents rapid changes of cabin altitude that may be uncomfortable or cause injury to passengers and crew. In addition, the pressurization system permits a reasonably fast exchange of air from the inside to the outside of the cabin. This is necessary to eliminate odors and to remove stale air. [Figure xxx]

Figure 5.3; Standard atmospheric pressure chart. Pressurization of the aircraft cabin is an accepted method of protecting occupants against the effects of hypoxia. Within a pressurized cabin, occupants can be transported comfortably and safely for long periods of time, particularly if the cabin altitude is maintained at 8,000 feet or below, where the use of oxygen equipment is not required. The flight crew in this type of aircraft must be aware of the danger of accidental loss of cabin pressure and be prepared to deal with such an emergency whenever it occurs.

Material
Selection of materials in aircraft construction is rather complex and is based on trade off amongst conflicting requirement of high strength , low density and ease of fabrication or processing. The material used in various parts of vechile structures generally are selected by different criteria. The material used in the fuselage structure is aluminium alloy 2024-T351 and it has the following properties. 1. Youngs Modulus, E = 70,000 N/mm2 2. Poison's Ratio, = 0.3 3. Ultimate Tensile Strength, u = 420 N/mm2 4. Yield Stress, y = 350 N/mm2

The following table shows the composition of the material considered.

Composition
Al Cr Cu Fe Mg

Wt. %
90.7-94.7 max. 0.1 3.8-4.9 max. 0.5 5.2-5.8

Composition
Mn Si Ti Zn Others

Wt. %
0.3-0.9 max. 0.5 max. 0.15 max. 0.25 max. 0.15

Table 5.1; composition of the material

Finite element model

An isometric view of the 3-D CATIA model of the stiffened panel is shown in figure xx. The CATIA model is imported to the finite element analysis pre-processor software to prepare the the finite element model of the panel. The geometry extraction is carried out which will be used as input to the finite element mesh generation. The mesh generated for the stiffened panel is shown in figure xx. The panel consists of a large cutout, tiny holes around the cutout, variable thickness and bulkheads on either sides of the cutout. All these features are considered for the development of the finite element model. The mesh generated near the tiny hole around the cutout is shown in figure xx.

Figure 5.4 ; finite element model

Figure 5.5; meshing of a model

Figure 5.6 ; meshing near a rivet hole

Load and boundary condition

The cabin pressurization is considered as one of the critical load cases for the fuselage in the design of the airframe. Due to pressurization in the fuselage will experience the hoop stress and longitudinal stresses. The window cutouts in the fuselage are in the circumferential direction. Therefore the hoop stress is more critical than the longitudinal stress in the case of the stiffened panel with window cutout. The internal pressurization will be in the radial direction, but the hoop stresses developed will be in the circuferential direction. The segment of the fuselage which curved in practical is idealized as a flat panel in the current study. The load acting on the edge of the panel will be equal to the load due to hoop stress at that section. Essentially the load acting on the panel will be tension-tension loading. For the finite element analysis of the stiffened panel one edge of the panel is constrained with all degrees of freedom. The load is introduced at the opposite edge to that of the constrained edge.

Figure 5.7; Finite element model of the stiffened panel with loads and boundary conditions

The differential pressure to be applied inside the fuselage will be in the range of 6 psi to 9 psi depending on the altitude at which the aircraft will be flown. There are two cases considered in the linear static analysis. One at 6 psi and the other at 9 psi. since it is linear static analysis the response of the structure also will be linear. The tension load applied on the edge of the stiffened panel is calculated as below. Load Case-1
Pressure 6psi = 0.00422 kg/mm Hoop stress = p*r/t Where The radius of fuselage r = 3000mm Thickness of the skin t = 2mm Hoop stress = 0.00422*3000/2 = 6.33kg/mm The stress developed at the edge of the panel is same in the structural elements skin, tear strap and bulkhead. This is because of the displacement compatibility between these three members and the material used for these members is the same.

Area in mm2 Skin Tear strap Stiffeners 1000*2=2000 50*2*2= 200 582*2= 1164

Stress in Kg/mm2 6.33 6.33 6.33

Load in kg 12660 1266 7368.12

Load Case -2

Pressure 9psi Hoop stress = p*r/t

0.006319 kg/mm

Radius of fuselage r = 3000 mm Thickness of the skin t = 2 mm Hoop stress = 0.006319*3000/2 = 9.4785kg/mm

Area in mm2 Skin Tear strap Stiffeners 1000*2=2000 50*2*2= 200 582*2= 1164

Stress in Kg/mm2 9.4785 9.4785 9.4785

Load in kg 18957 1895.7 11032.96

CHAPTER-6

Result and discussion

The cabin pressurization is considered as one of the critical load cases for the fuselage in the design of the airframe. Due to pressurization in the fuselage will experience the hoop stress and longitudinal stresses. The window cutouts in the fuselage are in the circumferential direction. Therefore the hoop stress is more critical than the longitudinal stress in the case of the stiffened panel with window cutout. There are two cases considered in the linear static analysis. One at 6 psi and the other at 9 psi. and also there several iterations are carried out to get the desired degree of accuracy.

Load Case-1 (6 psi pressure)

Pressure to be applied inside the fuselage will be in the range of 6 psi to 9 psi depending on the altitude at which the aircraft will be flown. The load in the panel axial direction. The tension load applied on the edge of the stiffened panel as calculated and refer table no xxx. 1st Iteration Figure 6.1 shows the number of elements around the rivet hole. In the first iteration 32 elements are used in the rivet hole.

Figure 6.1; mesh near a rivet hole

Figure 6.2; displacement plot

Fig xxx shows displacement plot for the stiffened panel with window cutout. The maximum displacement corresponding to 6 psi loading condition is 2.01mm and occurs on the load applied region of the stiffened panel. The dark red colour contour on the surface of the stiffened panel indicates that the maximum displacement location. The different colour shows the magnitude of displacement variation depends on the length of the stiffened panel.

Figure 6.3 ; stress plot

Fig xxx shows stress plot for the stiffened panel with window cutout. The maximum stress corresponding 6 psi loading condition is 35 kg/mm2 and occurs on the rivet hole near the cutout region in the stiffened panel due to stress concentration factor varies near the rivet hole.

2nd iteration In the second iteration the number of elements around rivet hole in the cutout of stiffened panel increased to 64 elements as shown in fig xxx.

Figure 6.5 ; mesh near a rivet hole

Figure 6.6; displacement plot

Figure 6.7; stress plot Fig xxx and fig xxx shows displacement and stress plot corresponding to 6 psi loading condition. Maximum displacement is 2.01 mm and occurs on the load applied region of the stiffened panel. The dark red colour contour on the surface of the stiffened panel indicates that the maximum displacement location. In this iteration maximum stress varies to 36.2 kg/mm2 on the rivet hole near cutout in the stiffened panel.

3rd iteration In this iteration the number of elements around rivet hole in the cutout of stiffened panel increased to 80 elements as shown in fig xxx.

Figure 6.8; mesh near a rivet hole

Figure 6.9; displacement plot

Figure 6.10; stress plot

Fig xxx and fig xxx shows displacement and stress plot for the stiffened panel with window cutout corresponding to 6 psi loading condition. Maximum displacement is 1.98 mm and occurs on the load applied region of the stiffened panel. The dark red colour contour on the surface of the stiffened panel indicates that the maximum displacement location. In this iteration maximum stress varies only in fraction decimal. The maximum stress is 36.6 kg/mm2 on the rivet hole near cutout in the stiffened panel. Table xxx shows convergence results of different mesh divisions are considered in the rivet hole. Number of elements around hole 32 elements 64 elements 80 elements Max principal stresses in Kg/mm2 35.0 36.2 36.6 Displacement in Mm 2.01 2.01 1.98

Table 6.1; convergence result table of 6 psi pressure load case

Load Case-2
In the second case the 9 psi pressure load considered in the static analysis. The load in the panel axial direction. The tension load applied on the edge of the stiffened panel as calculated and refer table no xxx.

.
Figure 6.11; displacement plot

Figure 6.12; stress plot Fig xxx shows displacement and stress plot for the maximum pressure load case condition. Maximum displacement corresponding to 9 psi loading condition is 3.02 mm and occurs on the load applied region of the stiffened panel. The dark red colour contour on the surface of the stiffened panel indicates that the maximum displacement location. Stress plot clearly indicates that rivet hole is taking maximum stress is 54.2 kg/mm2 in the cutout region. So we have design to reduce stress level to acceptable limit i.e. yield strength of the material is 35 kg/mm2. The following steps are carried to get the stress acceptable limit.

Step-1 increasing thickness in the cutout region

Figure 6.13; stress plot for thickness t=2.5 mm

Figure 6.14; stress plot for thickness t=3 mm

Figure 6.15; stress plot for thickness t=3.5 mm

Fig xxx to fig xxx shows stress plots of the stiffened panel with window cutout for variation of thickness. Thickness t=2.5 t=3 t=3.5 Max principal stress in Kg/mm2 51.5 49.1 47.0 Displacement in Mm 3.02 2.97 2.95

Table xxx; increased thickness in the cutout region result table

Table xxx shows the Still stress magnitude is higher than acceptable limit (35 kg/mm2). If we further increases the thickness in the cutout region of the stiffened panel the weight of the panel increases. Weight of the structure also important consideration in the design process.

Step-2 Adding flange stiffener inside of the cutout

Fig xxx shows added flange stiffener inside of the cutout in the stiffened panel.

Figure 6.16; stiffener inside of the cutout

Figure 6.17; displacement plot

Figure 6.18; stress plot

Fig xxx and Fig xxx shows displacement and stress plot corresponding to 9 psi loading condition. Maximum displacement is 2.91 mm and occurs on the load applied region of the stiffened panel. The dark red colour contour on the surface of the stiffened panel indicates that the maximum displacement location. The maximum stress is 44.7 kg/mm2 and occurs in rivet hole near cutout in the stiffened panel. In this step still stress is higher than the acceptable limit.

Step-3 adding T type stiffener to the cutout

In this step both flange and web type stiffener added inside the cutout in the stiffened panel as shown in fig xxx.

Figure 6.19; T type stiffener inside of the cutout Table xxx shows thickness are considered in the design of the stiffened panel skin, stiffener, and cutout region. In Skin near the Cutout region in mm 3 mm

Skin in mm Thickness 2 mm

Stiffener In mm 3 mm

Figure 6.20; displacement plot

Figure 6.21; stress plot

The Fig xxx and Fig xxx shows the displacement and stress plot of the stiffened panel with window cutout. Maximum displacement is 2.74 mm and occurs on the load applied region of the stiffened panel. The dark red colour contour on the surface of the stiffened panel indicates that the maximum displacement location. panel. . Table xxx shows thickness are considered in the design of the stiffened panel skin, stiffener, and cutout region. In this step the maximum stress reduces to 36.6 kg/mm2 on the rivet hole near cutout in the stiffened

Skin in mm Thickness 2 mm

In Skin near the Cutout region in mm 3mm

Stiffener In mm 3.5 mm

Figure 6.22; displacement plot

Figure 6.23; stress plot

The fig xxx and fig xxx shows the displacement and stress plot of the stiffened panel with window cutout. Maximum displacement is 2.74 mm and occurs on the load applied region of the stiffened panel. The dark red colour contour on the surface of the stiffened panel indicates that the maximum displacement location. The maximum stress is 35.6 kg/mm2 occurs on the rivet hole near cutout region in the stiffened panel.

Step-4 Adding cutout step with T type stiffener to the cutout

Fig xxx shows stiffener inside and outside of the cutout in the stiffened panel with window cutout.

Figure 6.24; cutout step with T type stiffener inside of the cutout Table xxx shows thickness are considered in the design of the stiffened panel skin, stiffener, and cutout region. Skin In mm Thickness 2 mm In Skin near the Cutout In mm 3.5 mm Stiffener In mm 3.5 mm Cutout step In mm 3 mm

Table xxx; thickness are considered in the stiffened panel

Figure 6.25; displacement plot

Figure 6.26; stress plot

The fig xxx and fig xxx shows the displacement and stress plot of the stiffened panel with window cutout. Maximum displacement is 2.72 mm and occurs on the load applied region of the stiffened panel. The dark red colour contour on the surface of the stiffened panel indicates that the maximum displacement location. The maximum stress is 33.4 kg/mm2 occurs on the rivet hole near cutout region in the stiffened panel. Table xxx shows thickness are considered in the design of the stiffened panel skin, stiffener, and cutout region.

Skin In mm Thickness 2 mm

Cutout In mm 4 mm

Stiffener In mm 4 mm

Cutout step In mm 3 mm

Table xxx; thickness are considered in the stiffened panel 1st Iteration

Figure 6.27; displacement plot

Figure 6.28; stress plot

2nd Iteration

Figure 6.29; displacement plot

Figure 6.30; stress plot 3rd iteration

Figure 6.31; displacement plot

Figure 6.32; stress plot From Fig xxx to Fig xxx shows the displacement and stress plot of the stiffened panel with window cutout correspondingly. Maximum displacement is 2.68 mm and occurs on the load applied region of the stiffened panel. The dark red colour contour on the surface of the stiffened panel indicates that the maximum displacement location. The maximum stress is 32.3 kg/mm2 occurs on the rivet hole near cutout region in the stiffened panel. Table xxx shows convergence results of different mesh divisions are considered in the rivet hole. Number of elements around hole 32 elements 64 elements 80 elements Max principal stresses in Kg/mm2 31.1 31.9 32.3 Displacement in Mm 2.65 2.68 2.65

Table xxx ; convergence result table of 9 psi pressure load case Modified geometry results for 6 psi pressure

Figure 6.33; modified geometry displacement plot for iteration 1

Figure 6.34; modified geometry stress plot for iteration 1

Figure 6.35; modified geometry displacement plot for iteration 2

Figure 6.36; modified geometry stress plot for iteration 2

Figure 6.37; modified geometry displacement plot for iteration 3

Figure 6.38; modified geometry stress plot for iteration 3

From fig xxx to fig xxx shows the displacement and stress plots of the stiffened panel with window cutout correspondingly. Maximum displacement is 1.79 mm and occurs on the load applied region of the stiffened panel. The dark red colour contour on the surface of the stiffened panel indicates that the maximum displacement location. The maximum stress is 21.6 kg/mm2 occurs on the rivet hole near cutout region in the stiffened panel.

Number of elements around hole 32 elements 64 elements 80 elements

Max principal stresses in Kg/mm2 20. 8 21.3 21.6

Displacement in Mm 1.77 1.79 1.77

Table xxx; convergence result table of modified geometry results for 6 psi pressure

PREDICTION OF FATIGUE LIFE ANALYSIS

From the stress analysis of the stiffened panel the maximum tensile stress location is identified. A fatigue crack will always initiate from the location of maximum tensile stress. From the stress analysis it is found that such a location is at one of the rivet hole. A typical flight load spectrum is considered for the fatigue analysis of the stiffened panel. Calculation of fatigue life to crack initiation is carried out by using Miner`s Rule. The number of cycles considered for the fatigue analysis is given in Table

pressure cycles 6 psi 14000 6.5 psi 7500 7 psi 4500 7.5 psi 1800 8 psi 1200 8.5 psi 500 9 psi 500 Table; actual number of fatigue cycle The various correction factors are considered in the calculation of fatigue cycles, they are

For surface roughness (esr) 0.8 For type of loading (el) 1 For reliability design (er) -0.897 Stress correction factor can be calculated as follows = maximum stress/correction factor coefficients = 21.6 / (0.8*1*0.897) = 30.10kg/mm2 Table xxx shows stress correction factor

Pressure in psi
6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9

Stress in kg/mm2
21.6 23.383 25.16 26.949 28.732 30.515 32.3

Stress correction factor in kg/mm2

30.10 32.58 35.069 37.554 40.039 42.523 45.011

Stress correction factor in ksi

42.82 46.34 49.89 53.425 56.96 60.49 64.03

Fig: Typical constant life diagram for unnotched fatigue behavior of 2024-T3 Aluminum alloy. Using the maximum stress and value of R from Table in the S-N curve given in Fig The fatigue cycle for various stress levels are found out. From Miners equation, ni/Nf= C Where ni = number of actual cycle Nf= number of fatigue cycles to failure Damage accumulated for the load case 1 d1= ni /Nf
==

14000/ 4*105

= 0.035 Damage accumulated for the load case 2

D2= ni /Nf =7500/3.25*105 = 0.023

Pressure in psi

Actual no of cycles
14000 7500 4500 1800 1200 500 500

Fatigue cycles from graph 4*105 3.25*105 2.5*105 85*103 70*103

32,500 25,000

Damage accumulated from miners formula

0.035 0.023 0.018 0.021 0.017 0.0153 0.02

6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9

Total damage accumulated for all load case is given by

d=d1+d2+d3+d4+d5+d6+d7 d= 0.035+0.023+0.018+0.021+0.017+0.0153+0.02 d=0.1493