DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORKS

DATA COMMUNICATION :
We all are acquainted with some sorts of communication in our day to day life. For communication of information and messages we use telephone and postal communication systems. Similarly data and information from one computer system can be transmitted to other systems across geographical areas. Thus data transmission is the movement of information using some standard methods. These methods include electrical signals carried along a conductor, optical signals along an optical fibers and electromagnetic areas. Suppose a manager has to write several letters to various clients. First he has to use his PC and Word Processing package to prepare the letter, if the PC is connected to all the client's PC through networking, he can send the letters to all the clients within minutes. Thus irrespective of geographical areas, if PCs are connected through communication channel, the data and information, computer files and any other programs can be transmitted to other computer systems within seconds. The distance over which data moves within a computer may vary from a few thousandths of an inch, as is the case within a single IC chip, to as much as several feet along the backplane of the main circuit board. Over such small distances, digital data may be transmitted as direct, two-level electrical signals over simple copper conductors. Except for the fastest computers, circuit designers are not very concerned about the shape of the conductor or the analog characteristics of signal transmission.

Frequently, however, data must be sent beyond the local circuitry that constitutes a computer. In many cases, the distances involved may be enormous. Unfortunately, as the distance between the source of a message and its destination increases, accurate transmission becomes increasingly difficult. This results from the electrical distortion of signals traveling through long conductors, and from noise added to the signal as it propagates through a transmission medium. Although some precautions must be taken for data exchange within a computer, the biggest problems occur when data is transferred to devices outside the computer's circuitry. In this case, distortion and noise can become so severe that information is lost. Data Communications concerns the transmission of digital messages to devices external to the message source. "External" devices are generally thought of as being independently powered circuitry that exists beyond the chassis of a computer or other digital message source. As a rule, the maximum permissible transmission rate of a message is directly proportional to signal power and inversely proportional to channel noise. It is the aim of any communications system to provide the highest possible transmission rate at the lowest possible power and with the least possible noise.

Basic Elements of a Communication System

The following are the basic requirements for working of a communication system. 1. The sender (source) who creates the message to be transmitted 2. A medium that carries the message 3. The receiver (sink) who receives the message 4. Protocols-A standard set of regulations and requirements that allow two electronic items to connect to and exchange information with one another. In data communication four basic terms are frequently used. They are: Data : A collection of facts in raw forms that become information after processing. Signals : Electric or electromagnetic encoding of data. Signaling : Propagation of signals across a communication medium. Transmission : Communication of data achieved by the processing of signals.

DIFFERENT COMMUNICATION MEDIA(CHANNELS)

1.Optical Fibres 2.Coaxial Cables 3.Communication Satellite

Communication Protocols
You may be wondering how computers send and receive data across communication links. The answer is data communication software. The data communication software instructs computer systems and devices as to how exactly data is to be transferred from one place to another. The procedure of data transformation in the form of software is commonly known as protocol. The data transmission software or protocols perform the following functions for the efficient and error free transmission of data. 1. Data sequencing: A long message to be transmitted is broken intosmaller packets of fixed size for error free data transmission. 2. Data Routing: It is the process of finding the most efficient routebetween source and destination before sending the data. 3. Flow Control: All machines are not equally efficient in terms of speed. Hence the flow control regulates the process of sending data betweenfast sender and slow receiver. 4. Error Control: Error detecting and recovering is the one of the mainfunctions of communication software. It ensures that data are transmitted without any error.

Types of Communication Services

A term used to describe the data-handling capacity of a communication service is bandwidth. Bandwidth is the range of frequencies that is available for the transmission of data. A narrow range of frequencies in a communication system is analogous to a garden hose with a small diameter. The flow of information in such a system its data rate is restricted, just as is the flow of water in the narrow hose. Wider bandwidths permit more rapid information flow. The communication data transfer rate is measured in a unit called baud. Baud is identical to bits per second. Therefore, a rate of 300 baud is 300 bits per second. Communication companies such as American Telephone and Telegraph (AT&T) and Western Union are called common carriers, and they provide three general classes of service for both voice and data communication: 1. Narrowband handles low data volumes. Data transmission rates are from45 to 300 baud. The low- speed devices might use narrow band communications. 2. Voiceband handles moderate data transmission volumes between 300 and9600 baud. They are used for applications ranging from operating a CRT to running a line printer. Their major application is for telephone voice communication hence, the term voiceband. 3. Broadband handles very large volumes of data. These systems provide data transmission rates of 1 million baud or more. High-speed data analysis and satellite communications are examples of broadband communication systems.

TWO TYPES OF INTERNET CONNECTIONS

LEASED LINE: A leased line is a direct connection to the Internet, thanks to a dedicated line linking an office computer, or network of office computers, directly to the Internet. Typically, leased lines at this time would be 56 KB or of T1 size. There are no modems involved for the users. Whenever the office staff comes into the office and turns on their computers, they are on the Internet. These are dedicated circuits provided by Basic Service Providers (BSPs), which provide permanent connectivity to the Internet. Leased lines provide the last mile access from the user premises to the ISP. They provide permanent connection as compared to the temporary connectivity through dialup access. The quality of the connection is far superior to what is normally available through dialup, thanks to digital signaling, less noise, fewer exchanges etc. Fig: A leased line connection. DIAL UP CONNECTION: It is a form of Internet access that uses the facilities of the public switched telephone network (PSTN) to establish a dialed connection to an Internet service provider (ISP) via telephone lines. The user's computer or router uses an attached modem to encode and decode Internet Protocol packets and control information into and from analogue audio frequency signals, respectively. Fig.A Dial up

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LEASED LINE AND DIAL UP CONNECTION: 1.Leased line provides permanent, reliable, high-speed connectivity as compared to the temporary connectivity of dial up access. 2.In it the quality of the connection is far superior to what is normally available through dialup, because of the digital signaling, less noise, fewer exchanges etc. 3.Leased bandwidth prices are quite high, compared to dialup bandwidth of comparable size. 4.Entry level annual port prices are also high at present, so that this access method is only feasible beyond a fairly high threshold level. 5.Permanent connectivity to the Net exposes the organization to a variety of threats including hacking, malicious code including active vandals, viruses, Trojan Horses, macros, denial of service attacks etc. 6. Lease line connection have dedicated IP and speed is faster and comes with Cable. but Dial up connection comes with Rj45 cable as general telephone line cable and you have to dial up to a server through a telephone line. Lease Line is very costaly not good for SOHO its only for corporate, rahther than Home or Office use.

Fig.: A Router

Fig.: A Modem

COMPUTER NETWORKS A computer network is interconnection of various computer systems located at different places. In computer network two or more computers are linked together with a medium and data communication devices for the purpose of communication data and sharing resources. The computer that provides resources to other computers on a network is known as server. In the network the individual computers, which access shared network resources, are known as nodes. Types of Networks There are many different types of networks. However, from an end user's point of view there are two basic types:

1. Local-Area Networks (LANs) The computers are geographically close together (that is, in the same building). LAN is a computer network that spans a relatively small area. Most LANs are confined to a single building or group of buildings. However, one LAN can be connected to other LANS over any distance via telephone lines and radio waves. A system of LANs connected in this way is called a wide-area network (WAN). 2. Wide-Area Networks (WANs) The computers are farther apart and are connected by telephone lines or radio waves. A WAN is a computer network that spans a relatively large geographical area. Typically, A WAN consists of two or more local-area networks (LANs).Computers connected to a wide-area network are often connected through public networks, such as the telephone system. They can also be connected through leased lines or satellites. The largest WAN in existence is the Internet.

3. Metropolitan area network (MAN) It is a computer network that usually spans a city or a large campus. A MAN is optimized for a larger geographical area than a LAN, ranging from several blocks of buildings to entire cities. MANs can also depend on communications channels of moderate-to-high data rates. A MAN might be owned and operated by a single organization, but it usually will be used by many individuals and organizations. MANs might also be owned and operated as public utilities. They will often provide means for internetworking of local networks. TOPOLOGY A series of points or nodes interconnected by communication paths is usually referred to as a Network in Information Technology. Networking thus can be defined as the construction, design, and use of network, including the physical (cabling, hub, bridge, switch, router, and so forth), the selection and use of telecommunication protocol and computer software for using and managing the network, and the establishment of operation policies and procedures related to the network. In connecting computers together to form a Network, the structure and layout of the computers and the cabling required to link them together must be taking into consideration. The pattern of computer nodes and the way they are interconnected is referred to as the Topology.

NETWORK TOPOLOGIES When we talk of topologies, we are talking of the manner in which network devices are organized. Topology is a term that refers the shape of the network and the layout of cabling from a bird's eye view, much as a floor plan identifies the layout of offices and hallways in a building. The different topologies available to LAN are discussed in the following pages: STAR TOPOLOGY This is a form of LAN architecture is which nodes on a network are connected to a common central hub or switch, and this is done by the use of dedicated links.The Star topology is now emerging as the most common network layout used today in LAN layout. Each workstation is connected point-to-point to a single central location.

BUS TOPOLOGY In the bus topology the server is at one end, and the client PCs (devices) are connected at different points or positions along the network. All signals pass through each of the devices. Each device has a unique identity and can recognize those signals intended for is easy and simple to design and implement.

MESH TOPOLOGY The Mesh topology is a variation of the bus, in which all devices are connected to one another in a daisy-chain fashion, as opposed to connecting in sequence to a single network cable. Each node is capable of transmitting, receiving, and routing data.

LAN Ring Topology This topology is a simple design and consists of a single cable that forms the main data path in the shape of a ring. Each device is connected to a closed loop of cable. Signals travel in one direction from one node to all other nodes around the loop.

Tree Topology The Tree topology is essentially a hybrid of the bus and star layouts. The basic topology is similar to that of a bus, with nodes connected in sequence to a linear central cable. But tree networks may have "branches" that contain multiple workstations that are connected pointto-point in a star-like pattern. Signals from a transmitting node travel the length of the medium and are received by all other nodes.

COMPUTER COMPONENTS REQUIRED IN NETWORKING

Computer network devices also known as communication devices and they constitute a data communication network. These devices are routers, switches, hubs, LAN cards, gateway, modems, hardware firewall, CSU/DSU, ISDN terminals and transceivers. In an Ethernet or WAN network, the data communication cannot be performed without these devices. Being an IT professional or a network administrator, you must have the good understanding of these devices. Based on your business requirements, you have the select the best devices for your network and before selection, make sure that they are compatible with each other. It is recommended that you select all the devices for your IT infrastructure from the same vendor. Routers A router is a communication device that is used to connect two logically and physically different networks, two LANs, two WANs and a LAN with WAN. The main function of the router is to sorting and the distribution of the data packets to their destinations based on their IP addresses. Routers provides the connectivity between the enterprise businesses, ISPs and in the internet infrastructure, router is a main device. Cisco routers are widely used in the world. Every router has routing software, which is known as IOS. Router operates at the network layer of the OSI model. Switches

Fig.Wireless Routers

Like the router, a switch is an intelligent device that maps the IP address with the MAC address of the LAN card. Unlike the hubs, a switch does not broadcast the data to all the computers, it sends the data packets only to the destined computer. Switches are used in the LAN, MAN and WAN. In an Ethernet network, computers are directly connected with the switch via twisted pair cables. In a network, switches use the three methods to transmit the data i.e. store and forward, cut through and fragment free. Fig. A Network Switch. Hubs The central connecting device in a computer network is known as a hub. There are two types of a hub i.e. active hub and passive hub. Every computer is directly connected with the hub. When data packets arrives at hub, it broadcast them to all the LAN cards in a network and the destined recipient picks them and all other computers discard the data packets. Hub has five, eight, sixteen and more ports and one port is known as uplink port, which is used to connect with the next hub. LAN Cards LAN cards or network adapters are the building blocks of a computer network. No computer can communicate without a properly installed and configured LAN card. Every LAN card is provided with a unique IP address, subnet mask, gateway and DNS (if applicable). An UTP/STP cable connects a computer with the hub or switch. Both ends of the cable have the RJ-45 connectors one is inserted into the LAN card and one in the hub/switch. LAN cards are inserted into the expansion slots inside the computer. Different LAN cards support different speed from 10/100 to 10/1000.

Fig.A Hub

Multiplexer Multiplexer is a device that is used to combining the several electrical signals into one signal. In telecommunications and computer networks, multiplexing (also known as muxing) is a method by which multiple analog message signals or digital data streams are combined into one signal over a shared medium. The aim is to share an expensive resource. For example, in telecommunications, several telephone calls may be carried using one wire. Multiplexing originated in telegraphy, and is now widely applied in communications. The multiplexed signal is transmitted over a communication channel, which may be a physical transmission medium. The multiplexing divides the capacity of the low-level communication channel into several higher-level logical channels, one for each message signal or data stream to be transferred. A reverse process, known as demultiplexing, can extract the original channels on the receiver side.A device that performs the multiplexing is called a multiplexer (MUX), and a device that performs the reverse process is called a demultiplexer (DEMUX). Modem A modem (modulator-demodulator) is a device that modulates an analog carrier signal to encode digital information, and also demodulates such a carrier signal to decode the transmitted information. The goal is to produce a signal that can be transmitted easily and decoded to reproduce the original digital data. Modems can be used over any means of transmitting analog signals, from light emitting diodes to radio. The most familiar example is a voice band modem that turns the digital data of a personal computer into modulated electrical signals in the voice frequency range of a telephone channel. These signals can be transmitted over telephone lines and demodulated by another modem at the receiver side to recover the digital data. Modems are generally classified by the amount of data they can send in a given unit of time, usually expressed in bits per second (bit/s, or bps). Modems can alternatively be classified by their symbol rate, measured in baud. The baud unit denotes symbols per second, or the number of times per second the modem sends a new signal.

MOTHERBOARD AND ITS COMPONENTS

A motherboard is the central printed circuit board (PCB) in many modern computers and holds many of the crucial components of the system, providing connectors for other peripherals. The motherboard is sometimes alternatively known as the mainboard, system board, or, on Apple computers, the logic board.It is also sometimes casually shortened to mobo
This is the Asus P5N32-E SLI motherboard. All boards will be slightly different as far as which components they have, and the locations of those components may differ, but they are pretty close.

A. PCI Slot - This board has 2 PCI slots. These can be used for components such as B.

C.

D. E.

F.

G. H.

I. J.

K. L. M.

N. O. P.

Ethernet cards, sound cards, and modems. PCI-E 16x Slot - There are 2 of them on this motherboard diagram, both are blue. These are used for your graphics card. With two of them onboard, you can run 2 graphics cards in SLI. You would only need this if you are a gamer, or working with high end video / graphics editing. These are the 16x speed versions, which are currently the fastest. PCI-E 1x Slot - Single slot - In the PCIe 1.x generation, each lane (1x) carries 250 MB/s compared to 133 MB/s for the PCI slots. These can be used for expansion cards such as Sound Cards, or Ethernet Cards. Northbridge - This is the Northbridge for this motherboard. This allows communication between the CPU and the system memory and PCI-E slots. ATX 12V 2X and 4 Pin Power Connection Power Connection - This is one of two power connections that supply power to the motherboard. This connection will come from your Power Supply. CPU-Fan Connection - This is where your CPU fan will connect. Using this connection over one from your power supply will allow the motherboard to control the speed of your fan, based on the CPU temperature. Socket - This is where your CPU will plug in. The orange bracket that is surrounding it is used for high end heat sinks. It helps to support the weight of the heat sink. Memory Slots - These are the slots for your RAM. Most boards will have 4 slots, but some will only have 2. The color coding you see on the motherboard diagram is used to match up RAM for Dual-Channel. Using them this way will give your memory a speed boost. ATX Power Connector - This is the second of two power connections. This is the main power connection for the motherboard, and comes from the Power Supply. IDE Connection - The IDE (Integrated Drive Electronics) is the connection for your hard drive or CD / DVD drive. Most drives today come with SATA connections, so you may not use this. Southbridge - This is the controller for components such as the PCI slots, onboard audio, and USB connections. SATA Connections - These are 4 of the 6 SATA connections on the motherboard. These will be used for hard drives, and CD / DVD drives. Front Panel Connections - this is where you will hook in the connections from your case. These are mostly the different lights on your case, such as power on, hard drive activity etc. FDD Connection - The FDD is the Floppy Disk controller. If you have a floppy disk drive in your computer, this is where you will hook it up. External USB Connections - This is where you will plug in external USB connections for your case or USB bracket. CMOS battery - This is the motherboard's battery. This is used to allow the CMOS to keep its settings.

Difference between a Hub, a Switch and a Router

Hubs, switches, and routers are all devices that let you connect one or more computers to other computers, networked devices, or to other networks. Each has two or more connectors called ports into which you plug in the cables to make the connection. Varying degrees of magic happen inside the device, and therein lies the difference. I often see the terms misused so let's clarify what each one really means. A hub is typically the least expensive, least intelligent, and least complicated of the three. Its job is very simple: anything that comes in one port is sent out to the others. That's it. Every computer connected to the hub "sees" everything that every other computer on the hub sees. The hub itself is blissfully ignorant of the data being transmitted. For years, simple hubs have been quick andeasy ways to connect computers in small networks. A switch does essentially what a hub does but more efficiently. By paying attention to the traffic that comes across it, it can "learn" where particular addresses are. For example, if it sees traffic from machine A coming in on port 2, it now knows that machine A is connected to that port and that traffic to machine A needs to only be sent to that port and not any of the others. The net result of using a switch over a hub is that most of the network traffic only goes where it needs to rather than to every port. On busy networks this can make the network significantly faster. A router is the smartest and most complicated of the bunch. Routers come in all shapes and sizes from the small four-port broadband routers that are very popular right now to the large industrial strength devices that drive the internet itself. A simple way to think of a router is as a computer that can be programmed to understand, possibly manipulate, and route the data its being asked to handle. For example, broadband routers include the ability to "hide" computers behind a type of firewall which involves slightly modifying the packets of network traffic as they traverse the device. All routers include some kind of user interface for configuring how the router will treat traffic. The really large routers include the equivalent of a full-blown programming language to describe how they should operate as well as the ability to communicate with other routers to describe or determine the best way to get network traffic from point A to point B. A quick note on one other thing that you'll often see mentioned with these devices and that's network speed. Most devices now are capable of both 10mps (10 mega-bits, or million bits, per second) as well as 100mbs and will automatically detect the speed. If the device is labeled with only one speed then it will only be able to communicate with devices that also support that speed. 1000mbs or "gigabit" devices are starting to slowly become more common as well. Similarly many devices now also include 802.11b or 802.11g wireless transmitters that simply act like additional ports to the device.

Harmful Effects of Mobile

Radiation absorption
Part of the radio waves emitted by a mobile telephone handset are absorbed by the human head. The radio waves emitted by a GSM handset can have a peak power of 2 watts, and a US analogue phone had a maximum transmit power of 3.6 watts

Thermal effects
One well-understood effect of microwave radiation is dielectric heating, in which any dielectric material (such as living tissue) is heated by rotations of polar molecules induced by the electromagnetic field. In the case of a person using a cell phone, most of the heating effect will occur at the surface of the head, causing its temperature to increase by a fraction of a degree. In this case, the level of temperature increase is an order of magnitude less than that obtained during the exposure of the head to direct sunlight. The brain's blood circulation is capable of disposing of excess heat by increasing local blood flow.

Blood-brain barrier effects

Swedish researchers from Lund University (Salford, Brun, Persson, Eberhardt, and Malmgren) have studied the effects of microwave radiation on the rat brain. They found a leakage of albumin into the brain via a permeated blood-brain barrier. This confirms earlier work on the blood-brain barrier by Allan Frey, Oscar and Hawkins, and Albert and Kerns. Other groups have not confirmed these findings in vitro cell studies or whole animal studies.

Cognitive effects
A 2009 study examined the effects of exposure to radiofrequency radiation (RFR) emitted by standard GSM cell phones on the cognitive functions of humans. The study confirmed longer (slower) response times to a spatial working memory task when exposed to RFR from a standard GSM cellular phone placed next to the head of male subjects, and showed that longer duration of exposure to RFR may increase the effects on performance.

Electromagnetic hypersensitivity
Some users of mobile handsets have reported feeling several unspecific symptoms during and after its use; ranging from burning and tingling sensations in the skin of the head and extremities, fatigue, sleep disturbances, dizziness, loss of mental attention, reaction times and memory retentiveness, headaches, malaise, tachycardia (heart palpitations), to disturbances of the digestive system. Reports have noted that all of these symptoms can also be attributed to stress and that current research cannot separate the symptoms from nocebo effects.

Genotoxic effects
A meta-analysis (2008) of 63 in vitro and in vivo studies from the years 19902005 concluded that RF radiation was genotoxic only in some conditions and that the studies reporting positive effects evidenced publication bias. A meta-study (2009) of 101 publications on genotoxicity of RF electromagnetic fields showed that 49 reported a genotoxic effect and 42 not. The authors found "ample evidence that RF-EMF can alter the genetic material of exposed cells in vivo and in vitro and in more than one way".

Sleep and EEG effects

Sleep, EEG and waking rCBF have been studied in relation to RF exposure for a decade now, and the majority of papers published to date have found some form of effect. While a Finnish study failed to find any effect on sleep or other cognitive function from pulsed RF exposure, most other papers have found significant effects on sleep. Two of these papers found the effect was only present when the exposure was pulsed (amplitude modulated), and one early paper actually found that sleep quality (measured by the amount of participants' broken sleep) actually improved. While some papers were inconclusive or inconsistent,[54][55] a number of studies have now demonstrated reversible EEG and rCBF alterations from exposure to pulsed RF exposure. German research from 2006 found that statistically significant EEG changes could be consistently found, but only in a relatively low proportion of study participants (12 - 30%).

WI FI AND WI MAX
WI FI:
Wi-Fi is a wireless standard for connecting electronic devices. A WiFi enabled device such as a personal computer, video game console, smart phone, and digital audio player can connect to the Internet when within range of a wireless network connected to the Internet. A single access point (or hotspot) has a range of about 20 meters indoors. The term Wi-Fi suggests Wireless Fidelity, resembling the longestablished audio-equipment classification term high fidelity (in use since the 1930s[6]) or Hi-Fi (used since 1950[6]). Even the Wi-Fi Alliance itself has often used the phrase Wireless Fidelity in its press releases[7][8] and documents;[9][10] the term also appears in a white paper on Wi-Fi from ITAA.[11] However, based on Phil Belanger's[note 1] statement, the term Wi-Fi was never supposed to mean anything at all.[12][13]

ADVANTAGES OF WI FI:
1. Sync Your Music Library, Photo Library, or Other Files with Your Smartphone USB-Free

2. Tell Your Phone When Its Home (or Not) 3. Share Files with Nearby Computers 4. Stream Audio to Any Speakers in the House 5. Wirelessly Transfer Photos from Your Digital Camera 8. Send Documents to Your Printer from Any Computer or Smartphone 7. Forward Notifications from Your Smartphone to Your PC 8. Tether Your Smartphone to Your Computer for Internet Anywhere 9. Turn Your Smartphone into a Remote Contro 10. Stream Movies to Any TV in the House

WI MAX:
WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access) is a telecommunications protocol that provides fixed and mobile Internet access. The current WiMAX revision provides up to 40 Mbit/s with the IEEE 802.16m update expected to offer up to 1 Gbit/s fixed speeds. The name "WiMAX" was created by the WiMAX Forum, which was formed in June 2001 to promote conformity and interoperability of the standard. The forum describes WiMAX as "a standards-based technology enabling the delivery of last mile wireless broadband access as an alternative to cable and DSL".

ADVANTAGES:
1.The bandwidth and range of WiMAX make it suitable for the following potential applications:

Providing portable mobile broadband connectivity across cities and countries through a variety of devices. Providing a wireless alternative to cable and DSL for "last mile" broadband access. Providing data, telecommunications (VoIP) and IPTV services (triple play). Providing a source of Internet connectivity as part of a business continuity plan.

2. Broadband 3. Triple-play 4. Backhaul 5. Rapid deployment

Comparisons and confusion between WiMAX and Wi-Fi are frequent because both are related to wireless connectivity and Internet access.

WiMAX is a long range system, covering many kilometres, that uses licensed or unlicensed spectrum to deliver connection to a network, in most cases the Internet. Wi-Fi uses unlicensed spectrum to provide access to a local network. Wi-Fi is more popular in end user devices. Wi-Fi runs on the Media Access Control's CSMA/CA protocol, which is connectionless and contention based, whereas WiMAX runs a connection-oriented MAC. WiMAX and Wi-Fi have quite different quality of service (QoS) mechanisms: o WiMAX uses a QoS mechanism based on connections between the base station and the user device. Each connection is based on specific scheduling algorithms. o Wi-Fi uses contention access - all subscriber stations that wish to pass data through a wireless access point (AP) are competing for the AP's attention on a random interrupt basis. This can cause subscriber stations distant from the AP to be repeatedly interrupted by closer stations, greatly reducing their throughput. Both 802.11 (which includes Wi-Fi) and 802.16 (which includes WiMAX) define Peerto-Peer (P2P) and ad hoc networks, where an end user communicates to users or servers on another Local Area Network (LAN) using its access point or base station. However, 802.11 supports also direct ad hoc or peer to peer networking between end user devices without an access point while 802.16 end user devices must be in range of the base station.

Although Wi-Fi and WiMAX are designed for different situations, they are complementary. WiMAX network operators typically provide a WiMAX Subscriber Unit which connects to the metropolitan WiMAX network and provides Wi-Fi within the home or business for local devices (e.g., Laptops, Wi-Fi Handsets, smartphones) for connectivity. This enables the user to place the WiMAX Subscriber Unit in the best reception area (such as a window), and still be able to use the WiMAX network from any place within their residence.

CYBER LAWS:
Cyber Law is the law governing cyber space. Cyber space is a very wide term and includes computers, networks, software, data storage devices(such as hard disks, USB disks etc), the Internet, websites, emails and even electronic devices such as cell phones, ATM machines etc. Law encompasses the rules of conduct: 1. that have been approved by the government, and 2. which are in force over a certain territory, and 3. which must be obeyed by all persons on that territory. Violation of these rules could lead to government action such as imprisonment or fine or an order to pay compensation. Cyber law encompasses laws relating to: 1. Cyber Crimes 2. Electronic and Digital Signatures 3. Intellectual Property 4. Data Protection and Privacy Cyber crimes are unlawful acts where the computer is used either as a tool or a target or both. The enormous growth in electronic commerce (e-commerce) and online share trading has led to a phenomenal spurt in incidents of cyber crime. These crimes are discussed in detail further in this chapter. A comprehensive discussion on the Indian law relating to cybercrimes and digital evidence is provided in the ASCL publication titled Cyber Crimes & Digital Evidence Indian Perspective. Electronic signatures are used to authenticate electronic records. Digital signatures are one type of electronic signature. Digital signatures satisfy three major legal requirements signer authentication, message authentication and message integrity. The technology and efficiency of digital signatures makes them more trustworthy than hand written signatures. These issues are discussed in detail in the ASCL publication titled Ecommerce Legal Issues. Intellectual property is refers to creations of the human mind e.g. a story, a song, a painting, a design etc. The facets of intellectual property that relate to cyber space are covered cyber law. These include: copyright law in relation to computer software, computer source code, websites, cell phone content etc, software and source code licenses trademark law with relation to domain names, meta tags, mirroring, framing, linking etc semiconductor law which relates to the protection of semiconductor integrated circuits design and layouts, patent law in relation to computer hardware and software. These issues are discussed in detail in the ASCL publication titled IPR & Cyberspace - the Indian Perspective. Data protection and privacy laws aim to achieve a fair balance between the privacy rights of the individual and the interests of data controllers such as banks, hospitals, email service provider etc.

CYBER CRIMES:
In Simple way we can say that cyber crime is unlawful acts wherein the computer is either a tool or a target or both Cyber crimes can involve criminal activities that are traditional in nature, such as theft, fraud, forgery, defamation and mischief, all of which are subject to the Indian Penal Code. The abuse of computers has also given birth to a gamut of new age crimes that are addressed by the Information Technology Act, 2000. We can categorize Cyber crimes in two ways The Computer as a Target:-using a computer to attack other computers. E.g. Hacking, Virus/Worm attacks, DOS attack etc. The computer as a weapon:-using a computer to commit real world crimes. E.g. Cyber Terrorism, IPR violations, Credit card frauds, EFT frauds, Pornography etc. a. Unauthorized access & Hacking:Access means gaining entry into, instructing or communicating with the logical, arithmetical, or memory function resources of a computer, computer system or computer network. Unauthorized access would therefore mean any kind of access without the permission of either the rightful owner or the person in charge of a computer, computer system or computer network. Every act committed towards breaking into a computer and/or network is hacking. Hackers write or use ready-made computer programs to attack the target computer. They possess the desire to destruct and they get the kick out of such destruction. Some hackers hack for personal monetary gains, such as to stealing the credit card information, transferring money from various bank accounts to their own account followed by withdrawal of money. By hacking web server taking control on another persons website called as web hijacking b. Trojan Attack:-

The program that act like something useful but do the things that are quiet damping. The programs of this kind are called as Trojans. The name Trojan Horse is popular. Trojans come in two parts, a Client part and a Server part. When the victim (unknowingly) runs the server on its machine, the attacker will then use the Client to connect to the Server and start using the trojan. TCP/IP protocol is the usual protocol type used for communications, but some functions of the trojans use the UDP protocol as well. c. Virus and Worm attack:A program that has capability to infect other programs and make copies of itself and spread into other programs is called virus. Programs that multiply like viruses but spread from computer to computer are called as worms. d. E-mail & IRC related crimes:1. Email spoofing Email spoofing refers to email that appears to have been originated from one source when it was actually sent from another source. Please Read 2. Email Spamming Email "spamming" refers to sending email to thousands and thousands of users - similar to a chain letter. 3 Sending malicious codes through email E-mails are used to send viruses, Trojans etc through emails as an attachment or by sending a link of website which on visiting downloads malicious code. 4. Email bombing E-mail "bombing" is characterized by abusers repeatedly sending an identical email message to a particular address. 5. Sending threatening emails 6. Defamatory emails 7. Email frauds e. Denial of Service attacks:Flooding a computer resource with more requests than it can handle. This causes the resource to crash thereby denying access of service to authorized users. Examples include attempts to "flood" a network, thereby preventing legitimate network traffic attempts to disrupt connections between two machines, thereby preventing access to a service attempts to prevent a particular individual from accessing a service attempts to disrupt service to a specific system or person. You can check some confidentiality agreement template of online websites here.

F.Distributed DOS A distributed denial of service (DoS) attack is accomplished by using the Internet to break into computers and using them to attack a network. Hundreds or thousands of computer systems across the Internet can be turned into zombies and used to attack another system or website. Types of DOS There are three basic types of attack: a. Consumption of scarce, limited, or non-renewable resources like NW bandwidth, RAM, CPU time. Even power, cool air, or water can affect. b. Destruction or Alteration of Configuration Information c. Physical Destruction or Alteration of Network Components g. Forgery:Counterfeit currency notes, postage and revenue stamps, mark sheets etc can be forged using sophisticated computers, printers and scanners. Also impersonate another person is considered forgery. h. IPR Violations:These include software piracy, copyright infringement, trademarks violations, theft of computer source code, patent violations. etc. Cyber Squatting- Domain names are also trademarks and protected by ICANNs domain dispute resolution policy and also under trademark laws. Cyber Squatters registers domain name identical to popular service providers domain so as to attract their users and get benefit from it. i. Cyber Terrorism:Targeted attacks on military installations, power plants, air traffic control, banks, trail traffic control, telecommunication networks are the most likely targets. Others like police, medical, fire and rescue systems etc. Cyber terrorism is an attractive option for modern terrorists for several reasons. 1. It is cheaper than traditional terrorist methods. 2. Cyberterrorism is more anonymous than traditional terrorist methods. 3. The variety and number of targets are enormous. 4. Cyberterrorism can be conducted remotely, a feature that isespecially appealing to terrorists. 5. Cyberterrorism has the potential to affect directly a larger number of people. j. Banking/Credit card Related crimes:In the corporate world, Internet hackers are continually looking for opportunities to compromise a companys security in order to gain access to confidential banking and financial information. Use of stolen card information or fake credit/debit cards is common. Bank employee can grab money using programs to deduce small amount of money from all customer accounts and adding it to own account also called as salami.

k. E-commerce/ Investment Frauds:Sales and Investment frauds. An offering that uses false or fraudulent claims to solicit investments or loans, or that provides for the purchase, use, or trade of forged or counterfeit securities. Merchandise or services that were purchased or contracted by individuals online are never delivered. The fraud attributable to the misrepresentation of a product advertised for sale through an Internet auction site or the non-delivery of products purchased through an Internet auction site. Investors are enticed to invest in this fraudulent scheme by the promises of abnormally high profits. l. Sale of illegal articles:This would include trade of narcotics, weapons and wildlife etc., by posting information on websites, auction websites, and bulletin boards or simply by using email communication. Research shows that number of people employed in this criminal area. Daily peoples receiving so many emails with offer of banned or illegal products for sale. m. Online gambling:There are millions of websites hosted on servers abroad that offer online gambling. In fact, it is believed that many of these websites are actually fronts for money laundering. n. Defamation: Defamation can be understood as the intentional infringement of another person's right to his good name. Cyber Defamation occurs when defamation takes place with the help of computers and / or the Internet. E.g. someone publishes defamatory matter about someone on a website or sends e-mails containing defamatory information to all of that person's friends. Information posted to a bulletin board can be accessed by anyone. This means that anyone can place Cyber defamation is also called as Cyber smearing. o.Cyber Stacking:Cyber stalking involves following a persons movements across the Internet by posting messages (sometimes threatening) on the bulletin boards frequented by the victim, entering the chat-rooms frequented by the victim, constantly bombarding the victim with emails etc. In general, the harasser intends to cause emotional distress and has no legitimate purpose to his communications. p. Pedophiles:Also there are persons who intentionally prey upon children. Specially with a teen they will let the teen know that fully understand the feelings towards adult and in particular teen parents. They earns teens trust and gradually seduce them into sexual or indecent acts. Pedophiles lure the children by distributing pornographic material, then they try to meet them for sex or to take their nude photographs including their engagement in sexual positions.

q.IdentityTheft:Identity theft is the fastest growing crime in countries like America. Identity theft occurs when someone appropriates another's personal information without their knowledge to commit theft or fraud. Identity theft is a vehicle for perpetrating other types of fraud schemes. r. Data diddling:Data diddling involves changing data prior or during input into a computer. In other words, information is changed from the way it should be entered by a person typing in the data, a virus that changes data, the programmer of the database or application, or anyone else involved in the process of having information stored in a computer file. .s. Theft of Internet Hours:Unauthorized use of Internet hours paid for by another person. By gaining access to an organisation's telephone switchboard (PBX) individuals or criminal organizations can obtain access to dial-in/dial-out circuits and then make their own calls or sell call time to third parties. Additional forms of service theft include capturing 'calling card' details and on-selling calls charged to the calling card account, and counterfeiting or illicit reprogramming of stored value telephone cards. t. Theft of computer system (Hardware):This type of offence involves the theft of a computer, some part(s) of a computer or a peripheral attached to the computer. u. Physically damaging a computer system:Physically damaging a computer or its peripherals either by shock, fire or excess electric supply etc. v. Breach of Privacy and Confidentiality Privacy Privacy refers to the right of an individual/s to determine when, how and to what extent his or her personal data will be shared with others. Breach of privacy means unauthorized use or distribution or disclosure of personal information like medical records, sexual preferences, financial status etc. Confidentiality It means non disclosure of information to unauthorized or unwanted persons. In addition to Personal information some other type of information which useful for business and leakage of such information to other persons may cause damage to business or person, such information should be protected.

Hardware components of computer

If you use a desktop computer, you might already know that there isn't any single part called the "computer." A computer is really a system of many parts working together. The physical parts, which you can see and touch, are collectively called hardware. (Software, on the other hand, refers to the instructions, or programs, that tell the hardware what to do.) The illustration below shows the most common hardware in a desktop computer system. Your system may look a little different, but it probably has most of these parts. A laptop computer has similar parts but combines them into a single notebook-sized package. Picture of a desktop computer system

System unit
The system unit is the core of a computer system. Usually it's a rectangular box placed on or underneath your desk. Inside this box are many electronic components that process information. The most important of these components is the central processing unit (CPU), or microprocessor, which acts as the "brain" of your computer. Another component is random access memo(RAM), which temporarily stores information that the CPU uses while the computer is on. The information stored in RAM is erased when the computer is turned off.

Storage
Your computer has one or more disk drivesdevices that store information on a metal or plastic disk. The disk preserves the information even when your computer is turned off. Hard disk drive Your computer's hard disk drive stores information on a hard disk, a rigid platter or stack of platters with a magnetic surface. Because hard disks can hold massive amounts of information, they usually serve as your computer's primary means of storage, holding almost all of your programs and files. The hard disk drive is normally located inside the system unit. Picture of a hard disk drive

CD and DVD drives Nearly all computers today come equipped with a CD or DVD drive, usually located on the front of the system unit. CD drives use lasers to read (retrieve) data from a CD, and many CD drives can also write (record) data onto CDs. If you have a recordable disk drive, you can store copies

of your files on blank CDs. You can also use a CD drive to play music CDs on your computer.

Mouse A mouse is a small device used to point to and select items on your computer screen. Although mice come in many shapes, the typical mouse does look a bit like an actual mouse. It's small, oblong, and connected to the system unit by a long wire that resembles a tail. Some newer mice are wireless.

Keyboard A keyboard is used mainly for typing text into your computer. Like the keyboard on a typewriter, it has keys for letters and numbers, but it also has special keys: The function keys, found on the top row, perform different functions depending on where they are used. The numeric keypad, located on the right side of most keyboards, allows you to enter numbers quickly. The navigation keys, such as the arrow keys, allow you to move your position within a document or webpage.

Monitor A monitor displays information in visual form, using text and graphics. The portion of the monitor that displays the information is called the screen. Like a television screen, a computer screen can show still or moving pictures. There are two basic types of monitors: CRT (cathode ray tube) monitors and LCD (liquid crystal display) monitors. Both types produce sharp images, but LCD monitors have the advantage of being much thinner and lighter. CRT monitors, however, are generally more affordable.

Printer
A printer transfers data from a computer onto paper. You don't need a printer to use your computer, but having one allows you to print e-mail, cards, invitations, announcements, and other materials. Many people also like being able to print their own photos at home. The two main types of printers are inkjet printers and laser printers. Inkjet printers are the most popular printers for the home. They can print in black and white or in full color and can produce high-quality photographs when used with special paper. Laser printers are faster and generally better able to handle heavy use. Picture of an inkjet printer and a laser printer Inkjet printer (left); laser printer (right)

Speakers
Speakers are used to play sound. They may be built into the system unit or connected with cables. Speakers allow you to listen to music and hear sound effects from your computer. Picture of computer speakers Computer speakers