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R.PANJAABEGESAN 13355
Single state of matter The bonding between atom in solid are having more strength
Distance between atoms also less causing the energy required to evaporate any solid is greater than liquid
As for gases, the intermolecular forces are much weaker causing them to move in any direction so it does not have fixed volume A group of states which consists of liquid, gas, vapour and plasma
Some other comparison of classes of fluids Newtonian / Non-Newtonian Fluids Even among fluids which are accepted as fluids there can be wide differences in behaviour under stress. Fluids obeying Newton's law where the value of m is constant are known as Newtonian fluids. If m is constant the shear stress is linearly dependent on velocity gradient. This is true for most common fluids. Fluids in which the value of m is not constant are known as non-Newtonian fluids. There are several categories of these, and they are outlined briefly below. These categories are based on the relationship between shear stress and the velocity gradient (rate of shear strain) in the fluid. These relationships can be seen in the graph below for several categories
Shear stress vs. Rate of shear strain du/dy Each of these lines can be represented by the equation
Below are brief description of the physical properties of the several categories:
o o o o o o o
Plastic: Shear stress must reach a certain minimum before flow commences. Bingham plastic: As with the plastic above a minimum shear stress must be achieved. With this classification n = 1. An example is sewage sludge. Pseudo-plastic: No minimum shear stress necessary and the viscosity decreases with rate of shear, e.g. colloidial substances like clay, milk and cement. Dilatant substances; Viscosity increases with rate of shear e.g. quicksand. Thixotropic substances: Viscosity decreases with length of time shear force is applied e.g. thixotropic jelly paints. Rheopectic substances: Viscosity increases with length of time shear force is applied Viscoelastic materials: Similar to Newtonian but if there is a sudden large change in shear they behave like plastic. There is also one more - which is not real, it does not exist - known as the ideal fluid. This is a fluid which is assumed to have no viscosity. This is a useful concept when theoretical solutions are being considered - it does help achieve some practically useful solutions. Compressible versus Incompressible Fluids Compressible fluids are fluids whose specific volume is a function of pressure. Compressibility is not related to a fluid's ability to change shape, as is sometimes erroneously assumed. Conversely, an incompressible fluid is a fluid whose density if not changed by external forces acting on the fluid. Hydrodynamic is the study of the behaviour of incompressible fluids, whereas gas dynamics is the study of compressible fluids. The familiar Mach number M indicates the importance of the compressibility of gases in the dynamics of a fluid flow. The Mach number is defined as the ratio of the velocity of the fluid to the velocity of sound. Compressible fluids are subdivided into subsonic, transonic, supersonic and hypersonic compressible flows, meaning speeds less than, equal to, or greater than the speed of sound.
Equation above states that none of the dependent variables change with time at any point in the flow. In unsteady flow, however, the fluid exhibits variations at a fixed point in space with respect to time. Thus, we shall have to consider whether the flow through a nozzle is steady or unsteady or if the flow past a wing is steady or unsteady. Consider steady and unsteady flows for two different real fluids. Let one fluid be laminar (well-behaved), and the other turbulent (random). A turbulent flow can be viewed as steady provided that its time average velocity is constant at a specific point in the flow. We are primarily concerned with steady fluid flow, although unsteady motion are also treated. One, Two, and Three-Dimensional Flows A one-dimensional flow has spatial variations in one direction only, such a flow is also said to be uniform at every cross section normal to the main direction of flow. Only one independent space variable is needed to describe the variation. Usually it is designate x to be that variable. Thus f = f(x) is one-dimensional. Example: steady ideal fluid flow through a graduated tunnel.
Similarly, a two-dimensional flow is one in which spatial variations exist in twodirections, or variations exist along some planar surface. Two Cartesian independent
space variables are needed to describe the variation. Thus f = f(x; y) is twodimensional. Example: steady flow through a pipe. A three dimensional flow has spatial variations everywhere in the flow field. All turbulent fluid flows are three-dimensional. Thus f = f(x; y; z) would be threedimensional. Example: steady flow rotating in a fixed wall. Rotational versus Irrotational Flow A flow is irrotational if it exhibits no rate of angular deformation of any fluid particle. The converse holds for rotational flows. Irrotational flow means that the fluid masses may deform but cannot rotate. To recognize rotation we need to consider finite (though small) fluid masses called fluid parcels. Fluid particles, which are point masses, have no detectable rotation. To detect rotation, a coordinate system is attached to the fluid parcel, and if, the coordinate system rotates as the parcel moves along a path, then we say the flow is rotational. A fluid flow that is irrotational is defined as a potential flow.
The motion of a non-turbulent, Newtonian fluid is governed by the NavierStokes equations. The equation can be used to model turbulent flow, where the fluid parameters are interpreted as time-averaged values.
The Bernoulli Equation - A statement of the conservation of energy in a form useful for solving problems involving fluids. For a non-viscous, incompressible fluid in steady flow, the sum of pressure, potential and kinetic energies per unit volume is constant at any point.
Conservation laws
The conservation laws states that particular measurable properties of an isolated physical system does not change as the system evolves. Conservation of energy (including mass) Fluid Mechanics and Conservation of Mass - The law of conservation of mass states that mass can neither be created or destroyed. The Continuity Equation - The Continuity Equation is a statement that mass is conserved.
Darcy-Weisbach Equation
Pressure Loss and Head Loss due to Friction in Ducts and Tubes - Major loss head loss or pressure loss - due to friction in pipes and ducts.
where
hf is the head loss due to friction; L is the length of the pipe; D is the hydraulic diameter of the pipe (for a pipe of circular section, this equals the internal diameter of the pipe); V is the average velocity of the fluid flow, equal to the volumetric flow rate per unit cross-sectional wetted area;
g is the local acceleration due to gravity; f is a dimensionless coefficient called the Darcy friction factor. It can be found from a Moody diagram or more precisely by solving Colebrook equation.
the ratio of the length to diameter of the pipe, L/D; the density of the fluid, ; the mean velocity of the flow, V, as defined above; a (dimensionless) coefficient of laminar, or turbulent flow, f.
Euler Equations
In fluid dynamics, the Euler equations govern the motion of a compressible, inviscid fluid. They correspond to the Navier-Stokes equations with zero viscosity, although they are usually written in the form shown here because this emphasizes the fact that they directly represent conservation of mass, momentum, and energy.
Laplace's Equation
The Laplace Equations describes the behavior of gravitational, electric, and fluid potentials.
The Ideal Gas Law - For a perfect or ideal gas the change in density is directly related to the change in temperature and pressure as expressed in the Ideal Gas Law. Properties of Gas Mixtures - Special care must be taken for gas mixtures when using the ideal gas law, calculating the mass, the individual gas constant or the density. The Individual and Universal Gas Constant - The Individual and Universal Gas Constant is common in fluid mechanics and thermodynamics.
The Mechanical Energy Equation - The mechanical energy equation in:Terms of Energy per Unit Mass
pin / + vin2 / 2 + g hin + wshaft = pout / + vout2 / 2 + g hout + wloss where p = static pressure = density v = flow velocity g = acceleration of gravity h = elevation height wshaft = net shaft energy inn per unit mass for a pump, fan or similar wloss = loss due to friction
Terms of Energy per Unit Volume pin + vin2 / 2 + hin + wshaft = pout + vout2 / 2 + hout + wloss where = g = specific weight Terms of Energy per Unit Weight involves Heads. pin / + vin2 / 2 g + hin + hshaft = pout / + vout2 / 2 g + hout + hloss where = g = specific weight hshaft = wshaft / g = net shaft energy head inn per unit mass for a pump, fan or similar hloss = wloss / g = loss head due to friction
Pressure
Static Pressure and Pressure Head in a Fluid - Pressure and pressure head in a static fluid.
Static Pressure p2 - p1 = - (z2 - z1) where p2 = pressure at level 2 p1 = pressure at level 1 z2 = level 2 z1 = level 1 Pressure Head h = (p2 - p1) /