FINAL EXAM REVIEW GUIDE 2011 80 multiple choice questions (80 points, 1 point each) 14 open-ended questions (35

points) Total Points: 115 UNIT IV: Cellular Biology ATP: How does this molecule store and release energy? The chemical bonds in ATP contain energy, and when a bond s broken, it creates ADP and releases energy. Cellular Respiration: What is the purpose of this process? o The purpose of this is to Break down glucose and other food molecules in the presence of oxygen to release energy (as ATP). What is the equation for this process? o The equation for this process is 6O2 + C6H12O6 6CO2 + 6H2O+ energy In which cellular organelle does this process take place? o In the mitochondria. o 5 steps almost all aerobic glycolysis in cytoplasm Glucose splits into 2 3-C sugars (Pyruvic Acid) Releases ATP and NADH2 acetyl coenzyme bridge- in between cytoplasm and matrix of mitochondria 2 2-C sugars CO2 and NADH2 Krebs Cycle in the Matrix of mitochondria 2-C sugars become Citric Acid (6-C) And as 6-C breaks down energy released Electron Transport Chain in inner membrane of mitochondria ADP converts to ATP Oxygen gains electrons (H+) and H2O formed Chemiosmosis H+ ions flow down concentration gradient

What happens to the energy in glucose that is not released during cellular respiration? o It is used in lactic acid and alcoholic fermentation What is lactic acid fermentation? Alcoholic fermentation? Provide examples of each. o Lactic Acid Fermentation is the process in which respiration stops after glycolysis and no additional ATP is formed, since lactic acid fermentation is an anaerobic process. The end product of lactic acid

fermentation is lactic acid, and some organisms like bacteria, plants, and most animals go through this process. Alcoholic fermentation is an anaerobic process in which alcohol builds up, and the end product is Ethyl alcohol and CO2. Some organisms that go through alcoholic fermentation are yeasts and other fungi. Photosynthesis: What is the purpose of this process? The purpose of this process is for autotrophs to make energy, glucose, and oxygen for cellular respiration using sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water. What is the equation for this process? The equation is 6H2O + 6CO2 + sunlight C6H12O6 + 6O2 In which cellular organelle does this process take place? In the chloroplasts. What is the visible light spectrum? The visible light spectrum is a measure of the wavelengths (colors) of light and how they are absorbed or reflected (ex: black absorbs all wavelengths, white reflects all wavelengths). How does it play a role does the visible light spectrum play in photosynthesis? The visible light spectrum plays a role in photosynthesis because pigments of plants in chloroplasts reflect wavelengths of light and become that color. Also, photosynthesis is responsive to certain wavelengths of light over other wavelengths because the pigments in chloroplasts work more effectively in the presence of certain wavelengths of light. What determines the color of plants? The wavelength of light (color) that the plants pigment reflects. What is glucose and what is it used for? Glucose is a 6-C sugar produced in photosynthesis. It is used to feed the plant by giving it energy and in cellular respiration in order be metabolized into ATP and give us energy. What are the two stages of photosynthesis? What are their inputs and outputs? How are they reliant upon one another? The two stages of photosynthesis are the light independent (Calvin Cycle) and light dependent stages. The inputs of the light dependent stage are light energy and H2O. The outputs are ATP, O2 and NADPH. The inputs of the light independent stage (Calvin Cycle) are ATP, NADPH, and CO2. The output is Glucose. These two are reliant upon each other

because the output of the light dependent stage are the inputs for the Calvin cycle, except for CO2, which comes from the outside atmosphere. And the output from the Calvin Cycle, glucose, can be broken down into the inputs for the light dependent stage. How are photosynthesis, cellular respiration, and fermentation related? Photosynthesis and cellular respiration each create a product the other cycle uses as a reactant to form its product, so they have a little cycle formed. Fermentation is a part of cellular respiration, but only occurs when there is not enough oxygen being produced from photosynthesis and being used in cellular respiration. How do cellular respiration and photosynthesis depend on one another? The products for both reactions are used as the reactants for the other to make the products in the first reactions. (Ex: carbon dioxide is used in photosynthesis to make oxygen for cellular respiration, a reactant of cellular respiration. Cellular respiration then makes carbon dioxide, a reactant used in photosynthesis.) UNIT V: Genetics Mitosis & Meiosis What are the end products of each process? o The end product of mitosis is an exact duplicate of a cell, its DNA, and its organelles. The end product of meiosis is a haploid gamete cell with half the number of chromosomes as a diploid cell and genetic variation in each gamete. Compare and contrast mitosis & meiosis. o Mitosis and meiosis both start with one cell and make at least one duplicate cell. However, mitosis makes an exact copy of the cell, while meiosis makes a cell with genetic variation and half the number of chromosomes as a regular diploid cell. Mitosis can also happen at any time in your life, while meiosis will only occur when you are in your mothers womb and while youre starting to develop before you are born. Define the terms haploid and diploid. When are the cells haploid versus diploid during the process of meiosis? o Haploid means having only one copy of chromosomes (from one parent). Diploid means having both copies of chromosomes, and all somatic cells are diploid. Cells are diploid up until cytokinesis I, when the diploid cell splits into two haploid cells, and in cytokinesis II, where you end with 4 haploid cells. What are the phases of mitosis? Meiosis? o Mitosis- Gap 1, Synthesis, Gap 2, Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase, Cytokinesis.

Meiosis- Gap 1, Synthesis, Gap 2, Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I, Telophase I, Cytokinesis I, Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II, Telophase II, Cytokinesis II. Relate mitosis and meiosis in the development of a human being. Which one takes place first? Which cell is produced as a result of fertilization? How does the embryo develop (through mitosis or meiosis)? o Meiosis would take place first. A haploid cell would be produced first as a result of fertilization, but later diploid (somatic) cells would also be produced as the embryo develops. What are the benefits of sexual reproduction versus asexual reproduction? o Advantages of asexual reproduction: make offspring faster and you dont need a partner. Disadvantages of asexual reproduction: Everyone are alike and the exact same, so a disease can wipe out a whole population. Advantages of sexual reproduction: Allows for variation in a population, individuals can be different, provides foundation for evolution, and allows species to adapt to changes in their environment. Disadvantages of sexual reproduction: What is spermatogenesis? Oogenesis? o Spermatogenesis is the process of making mature sperm (sperm grow flagella and mature). Oogenesis is the process of making a mature egg by having 1 good egg, 3 polar bodies, and having lysosomes so it can be self digested using apoptosis, so the egg can die for the good of the organism. What is non-disjunction? o The failure of homologous chromosomes to separate properly during meiosis. What is a karyotype? How can you identify a genetic disorder using a karyotype? o A karyotype is a chart showing all of your chromosomes and their banding patterns. You can identify genetic disorders using karyotypes by looking at the chromosomes and seeing if there are any extra or missing chromosomes.

DNA Structure DNA structure Nucleotide structure: Identify, diagram, label Differences between DNA and RNA DNA: long life span, immobile, nucleotide structure of A, T, G, C; the sugar is deoxyribose, it is double stranded, and it is larger than RNA. RNA: short life span, highly mobile, nucleotide structure of A, U, G, C; the sugar is ribose, single stranded, and smaller than DNA. Mendelian Genetics

Punnett Square problems: sex-linked, dominant-recessive, blood type, dihybrid crosses, distributive property for determining possible gametes of parents Interpreting pedigrees. o Square= male, circle= female, line connecting two= parents, parents with brackets coming off= offspring, roman numerals= generation number, no color= trait not shown, half shaded= carrier for trait, fully shaded= shows trait, two straight slanted lines with one line connecting them= identical twins, same thing but no line connecting two slanted lines= non identical twins, shape with slanted line through it= deceased, brackets pointing in on both sides of individual= adopted into family, and same thing but brackets pointing out= adopted out of family. Molecular Genetics Central Dogma DNA-RNA-Protein. DNA Replication Where does this process take place? o In the nucleus How is DNA replicated? What are the steps? o DNA is replicated in three stages: unwinding, base pairing, and joining. Unwinding: DNA helicase unwinds DNA at a point called the origin of replication. Single stranded binding proteins keep the two strands apart and stabilize it. Wherever DNA helicase stops at become what is called the replication fork. Then, RNA primer adds a short segment of RNA nucleotides, called a primase, complementary to the DNA strands. Base Pairing: DNA polymerase III can now add a nucleotide to the 3I end of the template strand. This creates two strands on the replication fork. The one going toward the replication fork is called the leading strand, and the one going away from it is called the lagging strand. The leading strand is synthesized continuously with DNA, while the lagging strand is synthesized discontinuously. The lagging strand is synthesized in short little fragments called Okazaki fragments, which are synthesized by DNA polymerase III. Joining: an enzyme called exonuclease removes the primase, while DNA polymerase I fills in those gaps with DNA. DNA ligase then forms a phosphodiester bond where the primer was and the new DNA is. DNA Transcription Where does this process take place? o This process takes place in the cells nucleus of eukaryotes. DNA Translation Where are proteins produced in the cell? o On ribosomes in the cytoplasm.

What are genes? o Parts of chromosomes (DNA) that control specific characteristics What is a codon? o A codon is a three base code in DNA or RNA that codes for a specific amino acid. What is the genetic code? o The sequence of nucleotides in DNA or RNA that determines the specific amino acid sequence in the synthesis of proteins. Which molecules are the key players in the process of translation? What are they composed of: DNA, RNA, amino acids? Ribosomes, mRNA, and tRNA. DNA is made of adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine. RNA is made of adenine, uracil, guanine, and cytosine. Amino acids are made of three codons coded in an mRNA template strand. Practice transcribing and translating a message from DNA into RNA into an amino acid sequence. Mutation & Cancer What is a mutation? What happens as a result of a mutation? o A change in a single gene, or a few nucleotides, that can result in something good, bad, or have no effect at all. What enzymes regulate the cell cycle? Protein Kinase Cellular Differentation What is it and when does it occur? o Cellular differentiation is the process by which cells become specialized in structure and function and it occurs during the bodies development. UNIT VI: Applied Biotechnology Stem Cells What are they? o Unspecialized cells whose functions in the body have not yet been determined. What are they used for? o Stem cells are able to give rise to almost any other type of cell in the body, and will one day, hopefully be able to be used extensively in repairing the body itself. Human Genome Project Recombinant DNA Technology & Gene Cloning How do we make insulin? o Human insulin gene is cut from chromosome using a restriction enzyme. Plasmids are taken out of E. Coli cells. Combine human insulin gene and cut plasmid to make foreign DNA. Recombinant plasmid is produced. Recombinant Plasmid is inserted back into E. Coli cell, and E. Coli cell is now transformed. E. Coli is multiplied in fermentation tanks. Human gene product is isolated from bacteria. Human insulin is now ready to be injected into

the patient. Gene Therapy Gel Electrophoresis What is it? o A process that separates molecules based on charge and size. How does it work? o The charged macromolecules migrate across a span of gel because they are placed in an electrical field. The gel acts as a sieve to retard the passage of molecules according to their size and shape. How can we use it in crime scene analysis? o You can use it to identify banding patterns on prints to see if you can find a match on the criminals banding patterns and the suspects banding patterns. UNIT VII: Evolution Spontaneous generation and biogenesis Evidence for Evolution Dating fossils What role do isotopes play? o Fossils have certain isotopes inside of them that each have a certain rate of decay, so you can find the isotopes half life and how old the fossil is. Analogous vs. Homologous Structures Vestigial Structures Biochemical Evidence Natural Selection vs. Evolution How are they related to one another? o Natural selection explains how evolution works, it doesnt = evolution. How does evolution occur? What are the four tenants of natural selection? o Evolution occurs over millions of years due to changes in populations and other factors. The four tenants of natural selection are reproductive advantage, overproduction of offspring, heritability, and variation. What is meant by the term fitness? o Success in passing genes to next generation Antibiotic Resistance Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium (no problems), Req. for Genetic Equilibrium Speciation How does it occur? o Through allopatric or sympatric speciation. Allopatricspecies formation due to physical separation of populations. Can be separated by glaciers, rivers, and mountains. This is the main mode of species creation. o Sympatric- species form from populations that become reproductively isolated within the same area. Ex: feed in

different areas, mate in different seasons, hybridization between two species, or mutations. Punctuated equilibrium vs. gradualism UNIT VIII: Diversity of Life Binomial nomenclature The Immune System Active vs. passive Passive- Temporary immunity uses antibodies transferred or injected into the body. Active- long-term immunity creates memory cells, immune system exposed to a weakened form of a known virus or disease. Primary vs. secondary immune response Specific vs. non-specific immunity Bacteria Characteristics How do you identify bacteria? o Bacteria have a shape of cocci, spirochetes, or bacilli. They have a gram-positive (purple) cell wall, meaning there is no lipid layer and its a bacteria, or gram-negative (pink) meaning there is a lipid layer and its an archaea. Finally, bacteria have flagella (Also, all bacteria has DNA, a cell wall, ribosomes, a cell membrane, a nucleoid region instead of a nucleus, and membrane-bound organelles). How do bacteria reproduce? o Bacteria reproduce using binary fission (asexually) and conjugation. What is the endosymbiotic theory? The endosymbiotic theory is Viruses Are they living? No What is a host? o A cell a virus attaches to using receptors in the plasma membrane. The virus will inject its DNA into this cell and keep reproducing until the cell bursts and releases millions of viruses that will infect more host cells. What is a retrovirus? What makes it unique? o A retrovirus is a virus that contains RNA instead of DNA. It is so unique because it goes through reverse transcriptase to become DNA to reproduce, and retroviruses sometime lead to certain types of cancer. Vaccination What is it? Why do we do it? o A vaccination is a cure for a disease that can be injected into the body to protect you for a certain amount of time. We do this because it helps with active immunity by providing longterm immunity from a certain disease. UNIT IX: Human Body Systems Use the review guide provided in class during the Human Body System presentations.