Sunteți pe pagina 1din 5

Social Psychology Chapter V : Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination

Group Two or more persons perceived as related because of their interactions with each other over time, membership in the same social category, or common fate. Stereotype a belief that associates a group of people with certain traits. Prejudice negative feelings toward persons based on their membership in certain groups. Discrimination negative behavior directed against persons because of their membership in a particular group.

Stereotypes:

How stereotypes form: Two processes: 1) categorization; we sort people into groups. 2) we perceive groups in which we belong ( ingroups ) as being different from groups in which we do not belong ( outgroups ). Processes are influenced by sociocultural and motivational factors, as well as by differences in individuals theories about groups.

Social Categorization: ~ the classification of persons into groups on the basis of common attributes. Ingroups versus Outgroups: Ingroups groups with which an individual feels a sense of membership, belonging, and identity. Outgroups groups with which an individual does not feel a sense of membership belonging, or identity. Outgroup homogenity effect the tendency to assume that there is a greater similarity among members of outgroups than among members of ingroups. Two reasons: 1) We often do not notice subtle differences among outgroups because we have little personal contact with them. 2) People often do not encounter a representative sample of outgroup members. Sociocultural and Motivational Factors: Cultures differ in what categorization they emphasize and how they make ingroup-outgroup distinctions. Motivational factors also affect how people categorize others. Page 137 138 Implicit Personality Theories About Groups: Entity theorists people who tend to see social groups as relatively fixed, static entities and the borders between groups as relatively clear and rigid. Incremental theorists people who tend to see social groups as relatively dynamic and changeable, with less consistency within groups and more malleability between groups. Are Stereotypes Ever Accurate?: Page 139 140

How Stereotypes Survive and Self-Perpetuate:


They offer us quick and convenient summaries of social groups. They often cause us to overlook the diversity within categories and form mistaken impressions of specific individuals.

Illusory Correlations: ~ an overestimate of the association between variables that are only slightly or not at all correlated. Causes are the overestimation from correlations by: distinctive variables - e.g. in a small group is a negative behavior more outstanding and become faster connected to the hole group in contrast to big groups expected variables - e.g. by random word combination lion-tiger word combination are more reported than lion-egg combination although there are not more often Subtyping and Contras Effects: Subtyping - admitting exceptions make it possible to keep prejudgments o Gordon Allport: There is a common mental device that permits people to hold prejudgments even in the face of much contradictory evidence. Contrast effect - E xception is more extreme perceived than they are (e.g. business woman more ambitious/assertive than comparable man)

Is Stereotyping Inevitable? Automatic Versus Intentional Processes:


Factors to overcome stereotypes: 1. Amount personal information we have about someone individual information more important than stereotypes 2. Cognitive ability to focus on an individual of stereotyped group (e.g. a drunken man is more influenced by stereotypes) 3. Motivation to form an accurate impression of someone

Prejudice:

~ ones negative feelings toward people based on their membership group.

Intergroup Conflicts:
Robbers Cave: Setting the Stage: Superordinate goals shared goals that can be achieved only through cooperation among individuals or groups. Realistic Conflict Theory: ~ the theory that hostility between groups is caused by direct competition for limited resources. Relative deprivation feelings of discontent aroused by the belief that one fares poorly compared with others.

Social Identity Theory:


Ingroup favoritism the tendency to discriminate in favor of ingroups over outgroups. Social identity theory the theory that people favor ingroups over outgroups in order to enhance their self-esteem. Page 153 / Figure 5.6 > Social Identity Theory

Basic Predictions: Two basic predictions arise from social identity theory: 1) threats to ones self-esteem heighten the need for ingroup favoritism. 2) expressions of ingroup favoritism enhance ones self-esteem. Situational, Individual, and Cultural Differences: Page 155 156

Reaction to Low Status: If an ingroup is relatively low in status in a particular domain (such as academics), ingroup members may de-emphasize the importance of this domain and instead invest their self-esteem in domains for which their ingroups have higher status (such as popularity).

Implicit Theories and Ideologies:

Seeing groups as fixed entities promotes the exaggeration of intragroup similarity and intergroup differences, makes people more anxious about accepting outsiders into ones ingroup, and creates a greater tendency for ingroup favoritism. Social dominance orientation a desire to see ones ingroups as dominant over other groups and a willingness to adopt cultural values that facilitate oppression over other groups. People who tend to endorse and legitimize existing social arrangements can show signs of outgroup favoritism when their group holds a relatively disadvantaged position in society.

Sexism:

~ prejudice and discrimination based on a persons gender.

Gender Stereotypes: Blue for Boys, Pink for Girls:

Page 158 159

Why Do Gender Stereotypes Endure?:


Gender stereotypes often based on a kernel of truth, but they tend to oversimplify and exaggerate that truth. Mechanisms: illusory correlations, biased attributions, confirmation biases, and self-fulfilling prophecies. Gender stereotypes are distinct from virtually all other stereotypes in that they are predescriptive rather than merely descriptive; that is, they indicate what the majority of people in a given culture believe men and women should be. Stereotypic media images support remaining gender stereotypes. Social Role theory a theory that small gender differences are magnified in perception by contrasting social roles occupied by men and women. Page 162 / Figure 5.9 Eaglys Social Role Theory of Gender Stereotypes

Sex Discrimination: A Double Standard?:


There are some striking sex differences in occupational choices. Men and Women are judged more favorably when they apply for jobs that are consistent with gender stereotypes. Women often face a difficult dilemma: If they behave consistently with gender stereotypes, they may be liked more but respect less.

Ambivalent Sexism:

~ a form of sexism characterized by attitudes about women that reflect both negative, resentful beliefs (hostile sexism) and feelings and affectionate, chivalrous, but potentially patronizing beliefs and feelings (benevolent sexism).

Racism:

~ prejudice and discrimination based on a persons racial background. Racism exist at several different levels: At the individual level, any of us racist toward anyone else At the institutional and cultural levels, some people are privileged while others are discriminated against.

Going Under Cover: Modern and Implicit Racism:

Page 167 / Table 5.6 Changes in Overt Racism

Modern Racism: ~ a form of prejudice that surfaces in subtle ways when it is safe, socially acceptable, and easy to rationalize. Many people are racially ambivalent. Individuals differ in the degree to which they exhibit underlying racist tendencies. Implicit Racism: Racism and other forms of prejudice and discrimination can operate unconsciously and unintentionally.

Interracial Perceptions and Interactions:


White perceivers are more likely to perceive hostility in the facial expressions of a black person than in a white person. Seeing a member of racial outgroup is associated with increased activation in the amygdala, a brain structure associated with emotion. Interracial interactions can feel threatening, anxiety-provoking, and cognitively draining, particularly among people relatively high in implicit racism.

A Threat in the Air: Effects on Stigmatized Targets:

stigmatized - individuals who, by virtue of their membership in a particular social group, or by possession of particular characteristics, are devalued in society.

Perceiving Discrimination:

When members of stigmatized groups perceive others reactions to them as discrimination, they experience both benefits to their self-esteem and feelings of control. The frequency, and effects, of such perceptions depend in part on how and to what extent the target identifies with his or her stigmatized group.

Stereotype Threat and Academic Achievement:


Situations that activate stereotype threat cause individuals to worry that others will see them in negative, stereotypic ways. Stereotype threat can impair the intellectual performance and identity of stereotyped group members. Research has documented a huge and growing list of groups whose members show underperformance and performance-impairing behaviors when a negative stereotype about their abilities is made relevant. Reducing stereotype threat through slight changes in a setting can dramatically improve the performance of stereotyped group members.

Reducing Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination:


Intergroup Contact:

Contact Hypothesis the theory that direct contact between hostile groups will reduce prejudice under certain circumstances. According to the contact hypothesis, four conditions must exist for contact to succed See Page 178 / Table 5.7 The Contact Hypothesis: Critical Conditions.

The Jigsaw Classroom:


~ a cooperative learning method used to reduce racial prejudice through interaction in group efforts. In this system, everyone regardless of race, ability, or self-confidence needs everyone if the group as a whole is to succeed.

Decategorization and Recategorization:


Decategorization leads people not only to pay less attention on categories and intergroup boundaries but also to perceive outgroup members as individuals. Recategorization leads people to change their conception of groups, allowing to develop a more inclusive sense of the diversity characterizing their own ingroup.

Changing Cultures and Motivations:


Changes in the kind of information perpetuated in ones culture can alter how we perceive social groups. As the general culture, and local norms, change to promote values consistent with fairness and diversity and inconsistent with prejudice and discrimination, individuals motives can change accordingly.

S-ar putea să vă placă și