Nanotechnology in Construction 1 INTRODUCTION As people involved in construction, we are very familiar with the concept of getting raw materials,

bringing them together in an organized way and then putting them together into a recognizable form. The finished product is a passive machine that does not change or adapt to the surroundings or environment. It works and slowly decays as it is used and abused by the environment and the owners of the project. It gets periodic maintenance but its main goal is to survive the demands made of it until it becomes obsolete and then it is dismantled and discarded to make way for something new. This is our role in society and we have performed it well for hundreds or thousands of years. Construction then is definitely not a new science or technology and yet it has undergone great changes over its history. The industry we see today is the result of a progression in science, technology, process and business. In the same vein, nanotechnology is not a new science and it is not a new technology either. It is rather an extension of the sciences and technologies that have already been in development for many years and it is the logical progression of the work that has been done to examine the nature of our world at ever smaller and smaller scale. 2 NANOTECHNOLOGY 2.1 Background Nanotechnology has recently become one of the 'hottest' areas in research and development worldwide, and has also attracted considerable attention in the media and investment community. It is essentially about new ways of making things through understanding and control over the fundamental building blocks (i.e. atoms, molecules and nanostuctures) of all physical things. This is likely to change the way almost everything is designed and made. With the backing of unprecedented funding, nanotechnology is fast emerging as the industrial revolution of the 21 st century. 2.2 What is Nanotechnology? In contrast to other technologies, nanotechnology is much less well-defined and well-structured. Nano, which comes from the Greek word for dwarf, indicates a billionth. One nanometre is a billionth of a metre, that is, about 1/80,000 of the diameter of a human hair. Nanotechnology can best be considered as a 'catch-all' description of activities (any application of science and Dept. of Civil Engineering, Govt. Engineering College Trichur 1

Nanotechnology in Construction technology) at the nanometre scale that have applications in the real world. Definitions of 'nanotechnology' vary, but it generally refers to understanding and manipulation of matter on the nanoscale, say, from 0.1 run to 100 nm. The significance and importance of controlling matter at the nanoscale is that at this scale different laws of physics come into play (quantum physics); traditional materials such as metals and ceramics show radically enhanced properties and new functionalities, the behaviour of surfaces starts to dominate the behaviour of bulk materials, and whole new realms open up for us. Gaining control of structures at the nanoscale sometimes leads to truly extraordinary materials such as carbon nanotubes, with a tensile strength often quoted as 100 times that of steel. There are two ways to approach the nanoscale: shrinking from the top down, or growing from the bottom up. These two models are fundamentally different, both in the approach to creating structures and in the underlying science that will make them possible. The 'top down' approach entails reducing the size of the smallest structures towards the nanoscale by machining and etching techniques, hereas the bottom up' approach, often referred to as molecular nanotechnology, implies controlled or directed selfassembly of atoms and molecules to create structures. Nanoscience and nanotechnology inevitably cross the boundaries and bring together traditional sciences and technologies, such as chemistry, physics, the life sciences, materials and many engineering disciplines. More than anything else, nanotechnology is an enabling technology, aIlowing us to do new things in almost every conceivable technological discipline. At the same time, its applications will lead to better, cleaner, cheaper, faster and smarter products and production processes. Just as other enabling technologies, e.g. electricity and microelectronics, have transformed lives, nanotechnology is likely to have a similar impact and the transformation may be much quicker due to the development of powerful computers, global communication and many other technological advances. 2.3 Nanotechnology Basics Nanotechnology is the creation of materials and devices by controlling of matter at the levels of atoms, molecules, and supramolecular (nanoscale) structures (Roco et al., 1999). In other words, it is the use of very small particles of materials to create new large scale materials (Mann, 2006). Although more thorough definitions were used by some researchers as well, the key is the size of Dept. of Civil Engineering, Govt. Engineering College Trichur 2

Nanotechnology in Construction particles because the properties of materials are dramatically affected under a scale of the nanometer (nm), 10-9 meter (m). To better understand the difference among various scales, Table 2.1 shows the categories of scales and its related topics Table 2.1: Scales vs. Topic Areas SCALES 10-12 10-9 TOPIC AREA Quantum Mechanics Molecular Dynamics Nanomechanics Molecular Biology Biophysics Elasticity Plasticity Dislocation Mechanics of Materials Structural Analysis

10-6 10-3 10-0

Actually, nanotechnology is not a new science or technology. It was believed first introduced by Richard P. Feynman in his lecture at the California Institute of Technology in 1959. However, the research on this topic has been very active only in recent two decades. This is because the development and application of nanotechnology are relying on the development of other related science and technology such as physics and chemistry that are commonly new to break through at that time. Most promising developments of nanotechnology are fullerene (a new form of carbon, C60) and carbon nanotubes (Sobolev and Gutierrez, 2005).Understanding and development of nanoscale structures change the traditional process of producing and applying construction materials and elements. The new features of construction materials and elements accordingly change the material usage and force and resistance calculations of project design and its related field construction operation and management.

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Fig 2.1: Nanotubes (After NASA, 2008)

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Nanotechnology in Construction Fig 2.2: Graphite Sheet of Nanotubes (After Nanopedia, 2008)

3 NANOTECHNOLOGY IN CONSTRUCTION IN GENERAL Nanotechnology can be used for design and construction processes in many areas since nanotechnology generated products have many unique characteristics. These characteristics can, again, significantly fix current construction problems, and may change the requirement and organization of construction process. These include products that are for: Lighter and stronger structural composites Low maintenance coating Improving pipe joining materials and techniques. Better properties of cementitious materials Reducing the thermal transfer rate of fire retardant and insulation Increasing the sound absorption of acoustic absorber Increasing the reflectivity of glass 4 NANOMATERIALS Nanotechnology can be used for design and construction processes in many areas since nanotechnology generated products have many unique characteristics. These include products that are for: Lighter structure; Stronger structural composites e.g. for briges etc ; Low maintenance coating ; Improving pipe joining materials and techniques ; Better properties of cementitious materials ; Reducing the thermal transfer rate of fire retardant and insulation ; Increasing the sound absorption of acoustic absorber ; Increasing the reflectivity of glass. There are large numbers of applications of nanotechnology in construction engineering/industry. Some of these applications are examined in detail below. 4.1 Nanotechnology and Concrete Concrete is probably unique in construction in that it is the only material exclusive to the business and therefore is the beneficiary of a fair proportion of the research and development money from Dept. of Civil Engineering, Govt. Engineering College Trichur 5

Nanotechnology in Construction industry. At the basic science level, much analysis of concrete is being done at the nano-level in order to understand its structure using the various techniques developed for study at that scale such as Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Focused Ion Beam (FIB) .Concrete is, after all, a macro-material strongly influenced by its nano-properties and understanding it at this new level is yielding new avenues for improvement of strength, durability and monitoring as outlined in the following paragraphs. 4.1.1 Silica Silica (SiO2) is present in conventional concrete as part of the normal mix. However, one of the advancements made by the study of concrete at the nanoscale is that particle packing in concrete can be improved by using nano-silica which leads to a densifying of the micro and nanostructure resulting in improved mechanical properties. Nano-silica addition to cement based materials can also control the degradation of the fundamental C-S-H (calcium silicatehydrate) reaction of concrete caused by calcium leaching in water as well as block water penetration and therefore lead to improvements in durability. Related to improved particle packing, high energy milling of ordinary portland cement (OPC) clinker and standard sand, produces a greater particle size diminution with respect to conventional OPC and, as a result, the compressive strength of the refined material is also 3 to 6 times higher (at different ages). 4.1.2 Fly Ash Fly ash improves concrete durability, strength and, importantly for sustainability, reduces the requirement for cement, however, the curing process of concrete is slowed by the addition of fly ash and early stage strength is also low in comparison to normal concrete. With the addition of SiO2 nanoparticles part of the cement is replaced but the density and strength of the fly-ash concrete improves particularly in the early stages. Research into haematite (Fe2O3) nanoparticles added to concrete has shown that they also increase strength as well as offering the benefit of monitoring stress levels through the measurement of section electrical resistance. 4.1.3 Titanium Dioxide

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Nanotechnology in Construction Another type of nanoparticle added to concrete to improve its properties is titanium dioxide (TiO2) .TiO2 is a white pigment and can be used as an excellent reflective coating. It is incorporated, as nanoparticles, in sun-block to block UV light and it is added to paints, cements and windows for its sterilizing properties since TiO2 breaks down organic pollutants, volatile organic compounds, and bacterial membranes through powerful catalytic reactions. It can therefore reduce airborne pollutants when applied to outdoor surfaces. Additionally, it is hydrophilic and therefore gives self cleaning properties to surfaces to which it is applied. The process by which this occurs is that rain water is attracted to the surface and forms sheets which collect the pollutants and dirt particles previously broken down and washes them off. The resulting concrete, already used in projects around the world, has a white colour that retains its whiteness very effectively unlike the stained buildings of the materials pioneering past. 4.1.4 Carbon Nano Tubes A further type of nanoparticle, which has remarkable properties, is the carbon nanotube (CNT) and current research is being carried out to investigate the benefits of adding CNTs to concrete. The addition of small amounts (1% wt) of CNTs can improve the mechanical properties of samples consisting of the main portland cement phase and water. Oxidized multi-walled nanotubes (MWNTs) show the best improvements both in compressive strength (+ 25 N/mm2) and flexural strength (+ 8 N/mm2) compared to the reference samples without the reinforcement. It is theorized the high defect concentration on the surface of the oxidized MWNTs could lead to a better linkage between the nanostructures and the binder thus improving the mechanical properties of the composite rather like the deformations on reinforcing bars. However, two problems with the addition of carbon nanotubes to any material are the clumping together of the tubes and the lack of cohesion between them and the matrix bulk material. Due to the interaction between the graphene sheets of nanotubes, the tubes tend to aggregate to form bundles or ropes and the ropes can even be entangled with one another. To achieve uniform dispersion they must be disentangled. Furthermore, due to their graphitic 4.2 Nanotechnology and Steel

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Nanotechnology in Construction Steel has been widely available since the second industrial revolution in the late part of the 19th and early part of the 20th Century and has played a major part in the construction industry since that time. A total of 185m tonnes of steel are produced per year in the EU and steel benefits from its wide use in industries which neighbour construction (e.g. automotive) and therefore enjoys a healthy allocation of research funding. The construction industry can benefit from the application of nanotechnology to steel and some of the promising areas currently under investigation or even available today are explored in the following paragraphs. Fatigue is a significant issue that can lead to the structural failure of steel subject to cyclic loading, such as in bridges or towers. This can happen at stresses significantly lower than the yield stress of the material and lead to a significant shortening of useful life of the structure. The current design philosophy entails one or more of three limiting measures: a design based on a dramatic reduction in the allowable stress, a shortened allowable service life or the need for a regular inspection regime. This has a significant impact on the life-cycle costs of structures and limits the effective use of resources and it is therefore a sustainability as well as a safety issue. Stress risers are responsible for initiating cracks from which fatigue failure results and research has shown that the addition of copper nanoparticles reduces the surface unevenness of steel which then limits the number of stress risers and hence fatigue cracking.

Fig 4.1: Nanostructure Modified Steel Reinforcement TEM Picture Showing Microstructure of Nano Sheet of Austenite in a Carbide Free Lath Of Martensite (MMFX Steel Corp. USA) Dept. of Civil Engineering, Govt. Engineering College Trichur 8

Nanotechnology in Construction

Advancements in this technology would lead to increased safety, less need for monitoring and more efficient materials use in construction prone to fatigue issues. Current research into the refinement of the cementite phase of steel to a nano-size has produced stronger cables. High strength steel cables, as well as being used in car tyres, are used in bridge construction and in precast concrete tensioning and a stronger cable material would reduce the costs and period of construction, especially in suspension bridges as the cables are run from end to end of the span. Sustainabilty is also enhanced by the use of higher cable strength as this leads to a more efficient use of materials. High rise structures require high strength joints and this in turn leads to the need for high strength bolts. The capacity of high strength bolts is realized generally through quenching and tempering and the microstructures of such products consist of tempered martensite. When the tensile strength of tempered martensite steel exceeds 1,200 MPa even a very small amount of hydrogen embrittles the grain boundaries and the steel material may fail during use. This phenomenon, which is known as delayed fracture, has hindered the further strengthening of steel bolts and their highest strength has long been limited to somewhere around 1,000 to 1,200 MPa. Research work on vanadium and molybdenum nanoparticles has shown that they improve the delayed fracture problems associated with high strength bolts. This is the result of the nanoparticles reducing the effects of hydrogen embrittlement and improving the steel micro-structure through reducing the effects of the intergranular cementite phase. Welds and the Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) adjacent to welds can be brittle and fail without warning when subjected to sudden dynamic loading, and weld toughness is a significant issue especially in zones of high seismic activity. Weld and HAZ failures led to the re-evaluation of welded structural joints in the aftermath of the 1994 Northridge earthquake in the Los Angeles area and current design philosophies include selective weakening of structures to produce controlled deformation away from brittle welded joints or the deliberate over-sizing of structures to keep all stresses low. Research currently under way, however, has shown that the addition of nanoparticles

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Nanotechnology in Construction of magnesium and calcium makes the HAZ grains finer (about 1/5th the size of conventional material) in plate steel and this leads to an increase in weld toughness. This is a sustainability as well as a safety issue, as an increase in toughness at welded joints would result in a smaller resource requirement because less material is required in order to keep stresses within allowable limits.

4.3 Nanotechnology and Wood Carbon nanotubes are a new discovery, whereas wood is an ancient material which has been used since the dawn of civilization. However, perhaps not surprisingly given natures evolutionary process, wood is also composed of nanotubes or nanofibrils; namely, lignocellulosic (woody tissue) elements which are twice as strong as steel. Harvesting these nanofibrils would lead to a new paradigm in sustainable construction as both the production and use would be part of a renewable cycle. Some developers have speculated that building functionality onto lignocellulosic surfaces at the nanoscale could open new opportunities for such things as self-sterilizing surfaces, internal selfrepair, and electronic lignocellulosic devices. These non-obtrusive active or passive nanoscale sensors would provide feedback on product performance and environmental conditions during service by monitoring structural loads, temperatures, moisture content, decay fungi, heat losses or gains, and loss of conditioned air. Currently, however, research in these areas appears limited. Due to its natural origins, wood is leading the way in cross-disciplinary research and modelling techniques which have already borne fruit in at least two areas. Firstly, BASF have developed a highly water repellent coating based on the actions of the lotus leaf as a result of the incorporation of silica and alumina nanoparticles and hydrophobic polymers. And, secondly, mechanical studies of bones have been adapted to model wood, for instance in the drying process. In the broader sense, nanotechnology represents a major opportunity for the wood industry to develop new products, substantially reduce processing costs, and open new markets for biobased materials. 4.4 Nanotechnology and Glass

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Nanotechnology in Construction The European glazing market, which represents 45% of the worldwide market, reached a volume of 80,000 units in 2001, at a sales volume of 18bn. The current state of the art in cladding is an active system which tracks sun, wind and rain in order to control the building environment and contribute to sustainability, but this is unreliable and difficult to calibrate and maintain. Consequently, there is a lot of research being carried out on the application of nanotechnology to glass and some of the most promising areas are outlined below as well as some products that are already available. Titanium dioxide (TiO2) is used in nanoparticle form to coat glazing since it has sterilizing and anti-fouling properties. The particles catalyze powerful reactions which breakdown organic pollutants, volatile organic compounds and bacterial membranes. In addition, TiO2 is hydrophilic and this attraction to water forms sheets out of rain drops which then wash off the dirt particles broken down in the previous process. Glass incorporating this self cleaning technology is available on the market today. Fire-protective glass is another application of nanotechnology. This is achieved by using a clear intumescent layer sandwiched between glass panels (an interlayer) formed of fumed silica (SiO2) nanoparticles which turns into a rigid and opaque fire shield when heated. Most of glass in construction is, of course, on the exterior surface of buildings and the control of light and heat entering through building glazing is a major sustainability issue. Research into nanotechnological solutions to this centres around four different strategies to block light and heat coming in through windows. Firstly, thin film coatings are being developed which are spectrally sensitive surface applications for window glass. These have the potential to filter out unwanted infrared frequencies of light (which heat up a room) and reduce the heat gain in buildings, however, these are effectively a passive solution. As an active solution, thermochromic technologies are being studied which react to temperature and provide thermal insulation to give protection from heating whilst maintaining adequate lighting. A third strategy, that produces a similar outcome by a different process, involves photochromic technologies which are being studied to react to changes in light intensity by increasing absorption. And finally, electrochromic coatings are being developed that react to Dept. of Civil Engineering, Govt. Engineering College Trichur 11

Nanotechnology in Construction changes in applied voltage by using a tungsten oxide layer; thereby becoming more opaque at the touch of a button. All these applications are intended to reduce energy use in cooling buildings and could make a major dent in the huge amounts used in the built environment. Further details on this area are covered in the section on Sustainability and the Environment.

4.5 Nanotechnology and Coatings Coatings is an area of significant research in nanotechnology and work is being carried out on concrete and glass (see sections above) as well as steel. Much of the work involves Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD), Dip, Meniscus, Spray and Plasma Coating in order to produce a layer which is bound to the base material to produce a surface of the desired protective or functional properties. Research is being carried out through experiment and modelling of coatings and the one of the goals is the endowment of self healing capabilities through a process of self-assembly Nanotechnology is being applied to paints and insulating properties, produced by the addition of nano-sized cells, pores and particles, giving very limited paths for thermal conduction (R values are double those for insulating foam), are currently available. This type of paint is used, at present, for corrosion protection under insulation since it is hydrophobic and repels water from the metal pipe and can also protect metal from salt water attack. As well as the applications for concrete detailed in the section above on Nanotechnology and Concrete, there are also potential uses in stone based materials. In these materials it is common to use resins for reinforcing purposes in order to avoid breakage problems, however, these resin treatments can affect the aesthetics and the adhesion to substrates.

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Fig 4.2: Stratigraphy of Deletum Anti-graffiti Coating Nanoparticle based systems can provide better adhesion and transparency than conventional techniques. In addition to the self-cleaning coatings mentioned above for glazing, the remarkable properties of TiO2 nanoparticles are being put to use as a coating material on roadways in tests around the world. The TiO2 coating captures and breaks down organic and inorganic air pollutants by a photocatalytic process (a coating of 7000m2 of road in Milan gave a 60% reduction in nitrous oxides). This research opens up the intriguing possibility of putting roads to good environmental use. 4.6 Nanotechnology and Fire Protection and Detection Fire resistance of steel structures is often provided by a coating produced by a spray-on cementitious process. Current portland cement based coatings are not popular because they need to be thick, tend to be brittle and polymer additions are needed to improve adhesion. However, research into nano-cement (made of nano-sized particles) has the potential to create a new paradigm in this area of application because the resulting material can be used as a tough, durable, high temperature coating. This is achieved by the mixing of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) with the cementious material to fabricate fibre composites that can inherit some of the outstanding properties of the nanotubes such as strength. Polypropylene fibres also are being considered as a method of increasing fire resistance and this is a cheaper option than conventional insulation. The use of processors in fire detection systems which are built into each detector head is fairly well established today. These improve reliability allowing better addressability and the ability to identify false alarms.

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Nanotechnology in Construction The use of nanotechnology in the future through the development of nano-electromechanical systems (NEMS) could see whole buildings become networked detectors, as such devices are embedded either into elements or surfaces. 4.7 Nanotechnology in Sustainability and the Environment Sustainability is defined as the ability to provide for the needs of the world's current population without damaging the ability of future generations to provide for themselves. A key aspect of sustainability is conservation through the efficient use of the resources that are tied up in the already built environment. As existing stock increases so will the need for effective maintenance and significant benefits will be offered by a realistic assessment of material lifetimes. Materials scientists have quantitative models which go from nanometres to millimetres and cover 6 length scales (e.g. pore network models to study the permeability of concrete). Engineers have models that go from tenths of millimetres to tens of metres and therefore cover about 6 length scales (e.g. structural analysis). Together they can, theoretically, cover 12 scale lengths and a model covering such a scale would be a powerful tool for service life predictions. This is one of the research areas currently under investigation and part of its advancement depends on the development of computing power which itself is dependent on advances in nanotechnology in the electronics field. In the field of cement and its derivatives, sustainability will be a major issue. The control of the cement hydration could lead to a new generation of products. These products will have a better ratio of property to mass, that means, the same or better property could be obtained with less material. Their production processes could be more environment-friendly. The same could be for other construction materials and the components made using them Another key aspect of sustainability is the efficient use of energy. In the EU, over 40% of total energy produced is consumed by buildings. Insulation is an obvious solution to reduce some of this energy use, however, limited space for installation is a major problem for building renovation. Micro and nanoporous aerogel materials are very good candidates for being core materials of vacuum insulation panels but they are sensitive to moisture. This risk is not acceptable for high Dept. of Civil Engineering, Govt. Engineering College Trichur 14

Nanotechnology in Construction performance thermal insulation and the next challenge is to develop a totally airtight wrapping, taking into account the foil and the welding. As a possible remedy, work by Aspen Aerogels has produced an ultra-thin wall. 5 APPLICATIONS OF NANOTECHNOLOGY IN CONSTRUCTION The application of nanotechnology in construction in itself is the use of nanomaterials and other nanocomposites. Apart from these two major topics of discussion where nanotechnology is of use in civil engineering are as follows: 5.1 Understanding Phenomena of Traditional Construction Materials at Nanoscale Initial efforts to exploit nanoscience/nanotechnology development in the construction sector have mainly focused on understanding phenomena and improving performance of existing materials/products. Work in this aspect remains to be one of the most active for nanotechnologyrelated research/activities in construction. Traditional construction materials, such as concrete, asphalt, plastics and steel, are used on a large scale and produced in huge quantities. Historically, it has been possible to assess the properties of such materials only on macroscale. To give one example only, cementitious materials have existed for over 2000 years, and at present more than 2 tons of concrete per person on average are used annually around the world. Despite their undisputed importance, omnipresence and low-tech status, however, cement-based materials are among the least well-understood materials due to their complex nature. Particularly, structural concretes have composite structures with features spanning 10 orders of magnitude in dimension, ranging from nanometre-sized pores and C-S-H gel to steel reinforcement that can be tens of metres in length, to paste, sand and stone particles of all sizes in between. Such complex structures are made even more complicated by the timedependent nature of the binding or cement hydration processes which start at the mixing of cement clinker minerals with water and continue for months and even years. The performance/properties of concrete are strongly influenced by the main hydration product, C-S-H (calcium silicate hydrates) gel, that is a variable, nanoscale composite material Dept. of Civil Engineering, Govt. Engineering College Trichur 15

Nanotechnology in Construction itself, and significantly modified by a multi-scale (from nm to ram) network of capillary pores and microcracks. Therefore, fundamental understanding at the nanoscale of the development and behaviour of the cement matrix and its interaction with the other constituents and the environment can provide a systematic and cost effective means to develop superior concrete and to better control properties and degradation processes. Recent rapid progress and improved availability of advanced instruments and characterization techniques sensitive to nanoscale structure and properties has led to an increasing number of research projects studying at micro/nano-scale the various structures, properties and underlying mechanisms of cement-based materials. Another important approach in studying the multiscale structure-properties relationship is by means of modeling and simulation. Various studies based on micromechanical and numerical modelling/simulation techniques have been reported. Furthermore, molecular dynamics modelling/simulation methods have recently been used to study the structures of various cement hydrates and the interactions of aqueous CI with their surfaces . Advances in development of design tools, by taking account of the properties of microstructural constituents of the composite material and making use of the modelling/simulation techniques, will allow structures to be built with smaller design margins. This progress, even if only slight improvements in the design, production processes and the materials' performance, can have enormous social and economic impact due to the multipliereffect of the huge quantities of materials used. 5.2 Biomimetic, Hybrid, Self-Assembly Materials One of the ultimate goals (and the most debated area) of nanotechnology is molecular manufacturing based on selfassembly or self-replicating nano machines (thus the vision of buildings that build themselves). Though increasing evidence indicates that molecular manufacturing is possible, full molecular nanotechnology capability is unlikely to be developed for at least 20 years .However, extensive effort toward that goal, and particularly biomimetic study to better understand and replicate nature's version of molecular nanotechnology (i.e. the way living organisms produce food and materials) is being made and is likely to have huge potential for new materials and processes applicable to construction in the next 5-15 years. Dept. of Civil Engineering, Govt. Engineering College Trichur 16

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In the fundamental level of understanding of living organisms, it has been known that biological cells have amazing materials properties, which are based on their macromolecular and supramolecular (or colloidal) building blocks. All cells contain similar macromolecules but different types of cells can survive in very different environments. Indeed, cells can live in boiling water, in strong acids, at the low temperatures of the Antarctic, and under the enormous pressures of the deep sea. These different adaptations, which are based upon different supramolecular architectures/assemblies, demonstrate the wide range of possible material properties of these architectures . Biomimetics is the science of mimicking nature, and biomimetic materials seek to replicate the best features of natural materials, whose structures have been fine tuned over many million years' evolution. Examples of natural systems with desired properties are almost everywhere, such as honeycomb giving a lightweight structure with exceptional mechanical strength, antler bone being tougher than any man-made ceramic composites, lotus leaf giving selfcleaning surfaces, chameleon's skin changing colours with the environment, etc. With growing skills in seeing and manipulating materials at the atomic level enabled by nanotechnology advances, biomimetic materials research provides a productive approach to creation of new materials/products and molecular manufacturing. An interesting example is mimicking geckos' hairy feet. Geckos are famed for their wall-climbing antics and their ability to hang from the ceiling or even polished glass by a single toe. They can do this because each of their toes contains half a million small hairs, and the end of each hair splits into 100 - 1000 tiny spatulas that bond with any surface through van der Waals (i.e. intermolecular) forces. The strong adhesion is also immediately reversible as, at a certain angle, the ends automatically detach and roll up. Inspired by gecko's hairy feet, researchers in the UK have produced a prototype super-sticky adhesive tape which is extremely strong, waterproof and reusable. The tape is produced by fabricating arrays of plastic pillars/fibres about 2 grn tall and apart, on a flexible base that moves to bring the minute synthetic hairs into contact with all the small undulations on surfaces.

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Fig 5.1: Super-strong, waterproof and reusable adhesive tape developed by copying gecko's hairy feet, picture on the right showing arrays of 2 ~rn tall synthetic hairs

Significant research is also being carried out to understand and emulate spider silk and its spinning technique. It has been found that spider's dragline silk has an extraordinary combination of toughness and strength. A dragline strand, being about one tenth the diameter of a human hair, is several times stronger than steel on a weight for-weight basis, and can stretch great lengths without snapping. The secret of dragline silk lies in its composite structure which is composed of two different proteins, each containing three types of regions with distinct properties. Apart from its superior mechanical properties over man-made fibres, spider silk can be spun in air or underwater (does not require high temperature/pressure or clean room facilities), and is also highly resistant to degradation.Another essential feature of natural materials is their structural organisation of different types of building blocks at many scales. A well-known example is the hierarchy 'bricksand- mortar' composite structure found in seashells, an abalone shell consists of layers roughly 0.2 mm thick, and each of these layers is a bricks-and-mortar assembly of yet more layers, each about a 0.5 pm thick. Such a micro-laminate brick-mortar composite is made up of tiny calcium carbonate crystals bonded by only a few percent by mass organic glycoprotein. The result of the multiscale, hybrid structural organisation and the special characteristics of the organic glue is a composite material - shell that has fracture toughness 3000 times greater than that of the calcium carbonate crystal alone. That is why cracks occurring on the outside few layers

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Nanotechnology in Construction of the shell rarely make it all the way through. The cracking process takes a tortuous route along the glue layer, dissipating/absorbing large amounts of energy along the way. Current studies on seashells have moved a step further by examining the processes and mechanisms of the structure formation, which will likely lead to potential new manufacturing processes (e.g. self assembly) and controls. 6 FUTURE OF NANOTECHNOLOGY IN CONSTRUCTION 6.1 Trends and Potentials The survey of construction professionals and the examination of current worldwide nanotechnology development relevant to construction applications appear to indicate that most of the research areas discussed above will have a significant impact on construction and the built environment within the next 10 years. The greatest impact to the construction industry and the economy within this time frame is likely to come from enhancement in performance of materials stemming from better understanding and control at the nanoscale and improvement of production processes, due to the huge quantities of materials involved. The advances are likely to be incremental on existing materials and technologies. In the medium to long-term (i.e. > 10-15 years), major breakthroughs in materials science are expected. Such breakthroughs will enable the 'materials by design' approach to replace the traditional 'trial and error' one to tailor a material for a specific requirement. It will also lead to development of more sophisticated, simulation-based design tools, new approaches to extend the life of existing structures and to prevent deterioration in the new build. Furthermore, nanotechnology development, particularly in conjunction with biomimetics research to uncover secrets of natural materials' structure formation and manufacturing process will lead to truly revolutionary approaches to design and production of materials and structures with much improved energy efficiency, sustainability and adaptability to changing environment. Ultimately, work on molecular nanotechnology offers the promise that building builds itself (i.e. getting molecules to do the work) 6.2 Challenges and Direction

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Nanotechnology in Construction As with most developing technologies, a major number of challenges exist during the initiation of the application of the technology into reality. It is important to be realistic and identify and plan for the limitations and challenges inherent in this process. In this section a short summary of selected challenges and limitations affecting application of nanotechnology in construction engineering are provided. The following main challenges and limitations can be defined: Fabrication, Health, Environment and Cost 6.2.1 Fabrication Current efforts in the field of nanotechnology are focused on the fabrication, characterization and use of these materials on a nanoscale domain. This leads to most of the development work focusing on very small quantities of material that is typically far removed from the type of quantities required for typical construction infrastructure. One of the potential solutions to this is to focus on the nano materials to act as catalyser, thereby reducing the amount of nano material required substantially. Another viewpoint is that for many applications, the material does not necessarily have to be used on a nano scale to obtain a major improvement in benefits. This would be the case with reduction of the dimensions of cement, where a substantial improvement in strength can already be obtained through the large scale milling of the cement to a finer form than the traditional form. Although the cement may not be purely a nano material as yet, the benefits obtained would already be substantial . 6.2.2 Health Nanotechnology based construction products might be harmful to health. For example, the nanotubes might cause a lung problem to construction workers. In other words, it creates an environmental challenge to the construction industry as well. 6.2.3 Environment The effect of various nanomaterials on the natural environment is hotly debated in nanotechnology and environmental research.Some work in this regard shows that the potential effects may be minimal.As constructed infrastructure are provided in the natural environment, all materials used in Dept. of Civil Engineering, Govt. Engineering College Trichur 20

Nanotechnology in Construction the construction and maintenance of these facilities need to be compatible to the natural environment and their effects on the natural environment should not be negative. Typical potential problems in this regard include leaching of materials into groundwater, release of materials into airways through the generation of dust and exposure to potentially harmful materials during construction and maintenance operations.The nanotechnolgy becomes a doubleedge sword to the construction industry.More research and practice efforts are needed with smart design and planning, construction projects can be made sustainable and therefore save energy, reduce resource usage, and avoid damages to environment. 6.2.4 Cost The costs of most nanotechnology materials and equipment are relatively high. This is due to the novelty of the technology and the complexity of the equipment used for preparation and characterization of the materials. However, costs have been shown to decrease over time and the expectations are that, as manufacturing technologies improve, these costs may further decrease. Whether the expected decreases will render the materials as run-of-the-mill construction engineering materials will have to be seen, and depends largely on the benefits rendered through the application of these materials. Current opinion is that in special cases, the materials will enable unique solutions to complicated problems that cause them to be cost effective, which will lead to largescale application of these specific technologies. In other cases the traditional methods for treating the problem may still remain the most cost effective. It is the challenge to the construction engineer to solve real world transportation infrastructure problems and provide a facility to the general public at a reasonable cost.

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Nanotechnology in Construction

7 CONCLUSIONS Construction business will inevitably be a beneficiary of nanotechnology; in fact it already is in the fields of concrete, steel and glass. Concrete is stronger, more durable and more easily placed, steel tougher and glass self-cleaning. Increased strength and durability are also a part of the drive to reduce the environmental footprint of the built environment by the efficient use of resources. This is achieved both prior to the construction process by a reduction in pollution during the production of materials (e.g. cement) and also in service, through efficient use of energy due to advancements in insulation. Two nano-sized particles that stand out in their application to construction materials are titanium dioxide (TiO2) and carbon nanotubes (CNTs). The former is being used for its ability to break down dirt or pollution and then allow it to be washed off by rain water on everything from concrete to glass and the latter is being used to strengthen and monitor concrete. Cost and the relatively small number of practical applications, for now, hold back much of the prospects for nanotechnology. Materials though, as mentioned above, are constructions core Dept. of Civil Engineering, Govt. Engineering College Trichur 22

Nanotechnology in Construction business and the prospects for more changes are significant in the not too distant future, in fact, the researchers surveyed predicted that many advances would arrive within five years. The sheer size and scope of the construction industry means that the accompanying economic impact will be huge.

REFERENCES 1. 2. 3. W. Zhu, P.J.M. Bartos and A. Porro: Application of nanotechnology in construction, Materials and Structures, Vol. 37, November 2004, pp 649-658. Zhi Ge, Zhili Gao: Applications of Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials in Construction, Vol. 37, December 2006, pp 235-239. Ashwani K. Rana, Shashi B Rana, Anjna Kumari and Vaishnav Kiran: Significance of Nanotechnology in Construction Engineering, International Journal of Recent Trends in Engineering, Vol 1, No. 4, May 2009 ,pp 46-48.

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