Generator protection Multi CT Differential Protection for Generators (contd..

)
Introduction Generator protection and control are interdependent problems. A generator has to be protected not only from electrical faults (stator and rotor faults) and mechanical problems (e.g. Related to turbine, boilers etc), but it also has to be protected from adverse system interaction arising like generator going of out of step with the rest of system, loss of field winding etc. Under certain situations like internal faults, the generator has to be quickly isolated (shut down), while problems like loss of field problem requires an alarm' to alert the operator. Following is a descriptive list of internal faults and abnormal operating conditions. 1. Internal Faults a. Phase and /or ground faults in the stator and associated protection zone b. Ground faults in the rotor (field winding) 2. Abnormal Operating Conditions a. Overload. b. Overvoltage. c. Loss of field. d. Unbalanced Operation e.g. single phasing. e. Under and over frequency. f. Motoring or loss of prime mover. g. Subsynchronous oscillation. h. Loss of synchronization (out of step). Multi CT Differential Protection for Generators Typical interconnections for differential protection of connected generators is shown in fig 40.1(a). With a numerical relay, the circulatory as shown in fig 40.1 (a and b) is not be hard wired. Instead, equivalent computations can be done in microprocessor. For differential protection, it is important to choose CTs from same manufacturer with identical turns ratio to minimize CT mismatch. To improve security, percentage differential protection is preferred. The accuracy of the differential protection for generators is expected to be better than that of differential protection for transformers, as issues like overfluxing, magnetizing inrush, no load current and different voltage rating of primary and secondary are non existent.

Generator protection Multi CT Differential Protection for Generators (contd..)

Stator Ground Fault Protection

Most faults in a generator are a consequence of insulation failure. They may lead to turn to turn faults and ground faults. Hence ground fault protection is very essential for generators. Three types of grounding schemes are used in practice Fault Protection with high impedance grounding. Fault protection with low impedance grounding. Hybrid grounding. High Impedance Grounding It is used to limit the maximum fault current due to fault in winding near generator terminals to 1 10 A primary. This reduces iron burning in the generator and it helps in avoiding costly repairs. Fig 40.2 below shows a typical circuit connection. High impedance grounding reduces sensitivity for both feeder ground protection and differential protection in the stators of the generators. Alternative to high impedance grounding is low impedance grounding. Low Impedance Grounding

1. 2. 3.

Generator protection Multi CT Differential Protection for Generators (contd..)

The advantage of low impedance grounding is improved sensitivity of the protection. However, if the fault is not cleared quickly, the damage to equipment can be much higher. It is possible to engineer ground (zero sequence) differential protection using a directional ground overcurrent relaying as shown in fig 40.2. The basic idea is to compare the sum of terminal current with neutral current. If the two are identical, there is no internal ground fault. Conversely, a differential in the two quantities indicates an internal ground fault on the generator. Reduced or Loss of Excitation Protection What is it? Reduction or loss of excitation to the field winding is an abnormality rather than a fault. If the field winding is completely lost, then in principle, synchronous generator will try to mimic an induction generator. This mode of operation is possible provided that power system to which generator is connected is strong enough to provide necessary reactive power support. Recall that an induction generator has no field winding and hence it cannot generate reactive power. If adequate reactive power support is not available (a strong possibility!), then the generator will have to be shut down. It is likely that field winding will be accidentally shut off and usually loss of synchronism will require appreciable time to take effect. Hence, it is preferable to first raise an alarm for operator to restore field, failing which, generator has to be shut down. Consequences

Prima-facie, consequence of reduced excitation may not appear to be dramatic, but it can lead to end-region over-heating in turbo-alternators. Hence, this abnormality has to be detected and an alarm has to be raised for the operator. The ultimate measure would be to shut down the generator. Fig 40.3 shows the reactive power capability curve of a generator. It can be seen that in the lagging power factor-operating region, limits are determined either by rotor field heating limit or by stator armature heating limit. Reduced or Loss of Excitation Protection (contd..) Consequences (contd..) Turbo-alternators may not have adequate reactive power absorption capability. Hence, they are seldom operated with leading power factor. Typically leading power factor operation of generators results when the field excitation is reduced. Hence, limitations on the reactive power absorption capability set a lower limit on the reduction on field excitation system (see dotted line in fig 40.4).

Generator protection Multi CT Differential Protection for Generators (contd..)

Reduced or Loss of Excitation Protection (contd..) Consequences (contd..) How? Protection system for synchronous-generators should detect reduced or loss of excitation condition, raise an alarm and if the abnormality persists, trip the generator. This can be achieved by use of distance relays that are installed at generator terminals. Directionally, they look into the generator. For this purpose, we need to interpret capability curve on the R-X plane. If the complex power generated is given by terminals is given by then the apparent impedance seen by the distance relay installed on the generator

(1) For simplicity, we have referred impedance has been referred to the primary side. Fig 40.5 shows the capability curve transferred to R-X plane using eqn. (1).

To protect the generator two distance relays and directional units are used. To protect generator against complete loss of field, inner circle is used. The relay operates when the impedance

vector moves into this circle. Operating time of about 0.2 to 0.3 seconds are used with a complete shut down of the generator. The diameter of this circle is of the order of

, with the upper

part of the circle 50-75% of below the origin. The larger circle is used to detect reduced or partial loss of excitation system. Directional blinder may be used to limit pickup on normal operating condition. Protection against unbalanced operation Quite often, a generator is connected to grid using a transformer. The - winding on the generator side, traps the zero sequence current from flowing through the phase winding. However, positive and negative sequence currents will find their way into stator winding. Positive sequence currents cannot discriminate between balanced and unbalanced operating conditions. On, the other hand, negative sequence currents clearly indicate the abnormality. Hence, it can be used as an effective discriminant for unbalanced system operation. Negative sequence currents create an mmf wave in opposite direction to the direction of rotation of rotor. Hence, it sweep across the rotor induces second harmonic currents in rotor, which can cause severe over heating and ultimately, the melting of the wedges in the air gap.

Generator protection Multi CT Differential Protection for Generators (contd..)

ANSI standards have established that the limits can be expressed as where is the negative sequence current flowing. The machine designer establishes constant k. It can be in the range of 5 50. An inverse-time overcurrent relay excited by negative sequence current can be used for this protection. Generator Motoring: why and how? If the mechanical input to the prime mover is removed while the generator is in service, then rotors mmf wave will tend to drive the rotor, just like an induction motor. This is dangerous to both steam and hydro turbine. In steam turbines, it may lead to overheating while in hydro turbine it would cause cavitation of the turbine blades. The motoring of generator can be detected by reverse power flow relays having sensitivity of 0.5% of rated power output with time delay of approximate 2 seconds. Over Voltage Protection How? On its face value, over voltage protection should be more or less straightforward. First, one should raise an alarm if the over voltage is above 110% of rated value. There would a subsequent trip if it persists for 1 min or more. Very large over voltages of the order of 120% of rated value or above, will lead to trip within approximately 6 seconds. Why? Terminal voltage of a generator is controlled by an automatic voltage regulator (AVR). If the load current (I) on the generator reduces, the AVR would automatically reduce the field current so as to reduce open circuit emf E to maintain constant terminal voltage V. However, loss of a VT fuse, incorrect operation or setting of AVR etc can lead to over voltage which is detrimental to the generator. Steady state over voltage will lead to saturation of iron, both for generator and the unit transformer connected to it. This will lead to large magnetizing currents, unacceptable flux patterns, over-heating, which can damage the power apparatus. Hence, generators have to be protected against overvoltage. V/f Protection During start-up or shut down, the speed of the generator will deviate significantly from the nominal speed. As per the emf equation (E = 4.44f m N), overfluxing of the core is not simply a consequence of over voltages with respect to nominal voltage. Rather overfluxing occurs when V/f ratio exceeds its nominal value. Hence, over voltage protection is implemented after normalizing the terminal voltage by the frequency of the generator. Out-of-Step Protection With modern generators having large Xd and EHV transmission having low reactance, it is likely that the electrical center, a consequence of out-of step condition would be within the generator step-up transformer unit. To detect this condition, distance relay looking into the generator (or into the transformer-generator unit) should be installed. Even a distance relay used for loss-of-field protection will pick-up on such power swing. If the swing moves out of the relay characteristic, before the timer runs down, then, no trip action will be initiated. However, if the swing persists for sufficient time, the loss-ofexcitation distance relay will operate on power swing. A Note on Numerical Protection At this point of time, there are no new principles to be introduced from the numerical relaying perspective. The differential protection scheme can be implemented by either using sample comparison (time domain approach) or by using phasor comparison (frequency domain approach). Time domain approach can be faster, than phasor comparison approach. The DFT approach with 1-cycle window will require one cycle to latch on to the phasor. Usually, the time constant associated with DC offset currents for generator faults will be large. Hence, decaying dc offset can be approximated by dc signal, which implies the full cycle DFT will be able to reject it. However, with half-cycle estimation, mimic impedance should be used. Sample comparison approach is immune to dc-offset problem but building reliability with such an approach requires a polling scheme. In other words, reliability is obtained at the cost of time by ascertaining that successive samples return the trip decision. One can even implement a hybrid approach where in one switches from time domain to frequency domain approach. The decision to switch will depend upon the speed of rotation.

Transformer protection
Introduction Differential protection of transformer was introduced in lecture 2. Traditionally, it involves establishing circulating current through a pair of matched CTs installed on the primary and secondary winding of the transformer. If there is no internal fault in the transformer, zero current flows through the differential overcurrent element. However, in case of an internal fault, the CT secondary currents are not matched and hence the differential current pick up and operate the circuit breakers to isolate the transformer. Selection of CT Turns Ratio is not zero. This causes the overcurrent element to

Let the transformer turns ratio given by be given by and

and the corresponding CT ratio

as given in fig 39.1. Then,

Current in CT - 1 primary =

Current in CT - 1 secondary =

Current in CT - 2 primary =

Current in CT - 2 secondary =

Generator protection Multi CT Differential Protection for Generators (contd..)

If there is no fault, then with proper connections account for the CT polarity, we should obtain circulatory current through CT secondary. Hence,

Selection of CT Turns Ratio (contd..) (1 ) i.e, or If the transformer (to be protected ) is working on tap T as shown in fig 39.2, then the above equality has to be modified as follows:

(2) Example Let the primary of the transformer winding has 1000 turns while secondary has 500 turns. If the primary CT ratio is 100:5, find the CT ratio required in the secondary side to establish circulatory current scheme. Ans:

=1000,

and

=20

From equation (1), we get

Thus, a suitable secondary CT ratio would be 200:5. Example (contd..) Remarks 1: Sometimes due to odd turns ratio' involved in primary, it may not be possible to obtain matching CTs on the secondary. In such situations auxiliary CTs' are used either on primary or secondary (or both sides) to obtain circulatory currents in absence of internal faults. Primary of the auxilliary CT is connected in series with secondary of main CT. Secondary of auxilliary CT participates in the circulating current scheme. Remark 2: The circulating current scheme described above has been traditionally used with electromechanical and solid state relays. However in case of numerical relays, such physical connections are no more required. Given turns ratio and

CTs ratio and , one can work out the expected current in secondary of transformer (in absence of internal fault). Hence, auxiliary CTs become redundant and the transformer connections are simplified drastically. Thus, with numerical relaying most of the hardware connections and circulatory currents can be easily accounted in software. Further, with digital protection systems differential protection can be implemented by either 'sample by sampe' comparison or by first computing the phasors and then comparing them. Phasor computation approach will involve a delay equal to the time required for moving window to latch on to post fault phasor. Conversely, 'sample by sample' comparison approach can be faster but it is more prone to picking up to noise or trannsients. Hence, even it has to be slowed down by 'polling scheme'. In this scheme, we increment a winter, whenever large enough differential is detected. If counter is positive and differential is below threshold, we decrement the counter. If the counter 'ensures as threshold, a trip decision is issued

Generator protection Multi CT Differential Protection for Generators (contd..)

Example (contd..) Remark 3: When dealing with three phase transformers, the transformer connections like Y-Y or also play a role in determining CT secondary interconnections to establish circulating current scheme. This is because of the phase shifts typically of the order of that result in the line currents when we move from primary to secondary side of the power transformer. Fig 39.3 shows the typical connections for star-delta transformer bank for establishing the circulatory currents. The study of the circuit brings out the following important rule for interconnection of CT secondary for transformers: If the power transformer winding are connected in Y configuration, use CT secondary interconnections" (and vice-versa). configuration for corresponding

Remark 4: With numerical relays such interconnection complexity can be easily handled in software. After, specifying the turns ratio and the phase shift from primary to secondary, it should be possible to work out the expected secondary differential current by simple calculation. Role of Percentage Differential Protection So far, our discussion has focused on an ideal transformer. However, practical transformers and CTs pose additional challenge to protection. (1) The primary of transformer will carry no load current even when the secondary is open circuited. This will lead to differential current on which the protection scheme should not operate. (2) (3) It is not possible to exactly match the CT ratio as per equation (1). This would also lead to differential currents under healthy conditions. If the transformer is used with an off nominal tap, then differential currents will arise as equation (2) is not satisfied even under healthy conditions. However, tap position can be read in numerical protection scheme and accounted by equation (2). This would make the numerical protection scheme adaptive.

Generator protection Multi CT Differential Protection for Generators (contd..)

To prevent the differential protection scheme from picking up under such conditions, a percentage differential protection scheme is used. (see fig 39.4 ) It improves security at the cost of sensitivity. Notice an offset of to account for the no load current. The current on the x-axis is the average current of primary and secondary winding referred to primary. It indicates the restraining current while the corresponding difference on Y-axis represents the differential current. For reference current direction see fig 39.1.

The differential protection will pick up if magnitude of differential current is more than a fixed percentage of the restraining current.

We now plan to show that even percentage differential protection scheme will misclassify the inrush current as fault current. This is because during inrush, secondary current is negligible (zero if secondary is open circuited), while primary current can be as high as 10 - 20 times the full load current. Thus some kind of restraint function is required to inhibit the pick up on inrush. Traditionally, this restraint is based upon second harmonic content in primary which discriminates a fault from the inrush condition. Alternatives in numerical relaying also include voltage restraint used in integrated substation protection scheme and flux restraint scheme. Before, discussing these schemes further, we will review the origin of magnetizing inrush phenomenon. Consider the circuit in fig 39.5. The switch is closed at t = 0. By Faraday's law, we have

, with

and

(3)

Complications of Magnetizing Inrush (contd..) For simplicity, let us assume that . i.e. core is initially demagnetized. Then, the post energisation flux wave form in the core is shown in fig 39.6.

Generator protection Multi CT Differential Protection for Generators (contd..)

Complications of Magnetizing Inrush (contd..)

This wave form is quite different from what we obtain by steady state analysis as shown in fig 39.7. During steady state

analysis, we can replace

by

and the corresponding steady state phasor equation is given as follows:

i.e, (4) Complications of Magnetizing Inrush (contd..) and

Generator protection Multi CT Differential Protection for Generators (contd..)

Thus, it is clear that peak flux during energization is twice as high as the steady state peak sinusoidal value.

Depending upon the residual flux, it can be even higher. Now, , where is the knee point flux density of core. Thus, during energization, the core is driven deep into saturation. The resulting H and hence magnetizing current can be very high (up to 20 times full load current). This current is known as inrush current of transformer. So far, we have assumed . But in general, depends upon the remnant flux in the

core and H can be anywhere between

and

. Hence,

during energization will vary from

to

. Fig 39.8 visualizes the nature of the inrush current.

Complications of Magnetizing Inrush (contd..) Our analysis so has a discrepancy. As per our analysis, flux and current wave shape in fig 39.6 should persist till infinity i.e. it should represent the steady state flux and current waveform in the core. However, we also know that steady state flux and current waveform is as per fig 39.7. The resulting discrepancy is a consequence of our simplifying assumption viz, core is ideal and the winding is non resistive. If we also model the winding resistance, we would observe that the voltage available at the ideal transformer primary terminals would reduce drastically due to large voltage drop in the winding impedance during inrush condition. Consequently, the effect should propagate and reduce flux in the core. If the flux in the core reduces, so would magnetizing current. Thus, each cycle would have smaller magnetization current peak and the magnetizing current and flux would finally approach the one produced by steady state phasor equation. To summarize the discussion so far, 1. Transformer when energized can be subjected to large inrush currents. 2. Inrush current can trip differential protection of transformers. Some methodology to detect inrush has to be devised and transformer differential protection has to be inhibited from tripping during this condition. Detection of Inrush Current and Overexcitation Condition Appreciable differential current can result due to either inrush or overexcitation of transformer. When a transformer is overexcited, then from the relationship , we can infer that peak sinusoidal flux is large. This implies that transformer core will be driven into saturation for an interval in each half cycle. Due to this, there would be distortion from the sinusoidal magnetization current. During saturation, the corresponding magnetizing current can be quite large and on the resulting differential the protection system may issue a trip decision by confusing overexcitation for an internal fault. Hence, in practice restraint has to be provided for both overexcitation and inrush current condition. There are three possible ways in which this can be achieved. (1)Harmonic Restraint Analysis of the current waveform indicates that inrush current is rich in second harmonic and current during overfluxing has a large fifth harmonic component. Thus, if we compute the second and fifth harmonic current in , then, we can provide following logic for restraining operation of differential protection. Restrain operation of differential protection if 1. or

for restrain (No load magnetization current)

Generator protection Multi CT Differential Protection for Generators (contd..)

2.

(Where or

is the slope of the % differential characteristics)

Detection of Inrush Current and Overexcitation Condition (contd..) (1)Harmonic Restraint (contd..) 3. [For restraining inrush current] (Where or 4. [For restraining overexcitation] (Where is the magnitude of fifth harmonic) is the magnitude of second harmonic)

Typically, and are the percentage harmonic restraint and would depend upon type of transformer and steel. For numerical relays, the design of anti aliasing filters also affects the choice of above parameters. During any transient (including the fault condition), harmonics develop much more rapidly than the fundamental and hence, typically numerical relays are restrained for about a cycle indirectly by these transients. Typical setting for used in practice are 10, 20 or 30%. (2)Voltage Based Restraint In an integrated substation protection system, it is reasonable to assume availability of bus voltage measurement for transformer protection without extra cost of VT. Then, voltage measurement can be used to restrain the operation of differential protection scheme on inrush or overexcitation. Traditionally, this has been referred in literature as tripping suppressor as it suppresses tripping function. If the voltage signal is high, the relay is restrained if (5)

or

(6)

or

(7)

(8) Detection of Inrush Current and Overexcitation Condition (contd..) (2) Voltage Based Restraint (contd..) Expressions 5, 6 and 7 are self explanatory. The last restraining function is known as the transient monitor function. The transient monitor function is used to qualify the purity of data. Typically, in a numerical relaying set up, with moving window algorithm, there are a certain number of windows in which both pre fault and post fault data points are present. Any phasor computation done with them is meaningless because the window does not fit with either prefault or post fault signal. Under such condition, the residual error ( sample) between estimated (reconstructed) and measured signal is quite high. For a half cycle window with 6 samples in it,

. When

is greater than threshold value

, then tripping decision should be inhibited.

(3) Flux Restraint Scheme

Generator protection Multi CT Differential Protection for Generators (contd..)

Fig 39.9 shows the flux current plane associated with no fault and internal fault regions. It is difficult to evaluate the actual flux in the core, because the initial condition is unknown. It depends also upon the remanant flux. Fortunately, to distinguish no fault (or external fault) from the internal fault, we are interested in the slope of curve rather than the actual values.

(3 Flux Restraint Scheme (contd..) )

Detection of Inrush Current and Overexcitation Condition (contd..) This can be easily worked out as follows. Let the voltage at the terminal of the transformer be v(t), current i(t) and let L be the leakage inductance of the winding. If we neglect the resistance of the winding, then,

Using trapezoidal rule of integration, we get

(9) From the above equation (9) we can deduce the following generic relationship. (10)

Operation on the unsaturated region of magnetizing curve produces large value of slope

. Since, the fault or overexcitation

(saturated) regions have smaller counter scheme.

slopes, we can now distinguish internal fault from the saturation condition by following

If current differential indicates trip and

, increment counter.

else if

and

, then

else if

and

, then

If there is an internal fault in the system, then

will monotonically increase and once

crosses a known threshold, trip

Generator protection Multi CT Differential Protection for Generators (contd..)

decision will be issued. On the other hand, during inrush or over excitation the

will alternate between low slope and high will indicate a small tooth kind of

slope region depending upon whether the core is in saturation or not. Thus, the counter behavior with this region.

being below the threshold value. Hence, operation of the different protection scheme would be restrained in

Remark 5: We have illustrated the basic principle so far using a single phase transformer for simplicity. However, in practice, we use both three phase two winding and three phase three winding (primary, secondary and tertiary) transformers. The basic principle of differential protection is the same but we now have to scale up to multiple phases. For a three phase (two winding) transformer, there would be 3 trip currents (one per phase) and three restraining currents (one per phase). For three phase three winding transformers, two restraining per phase are required.

Bus Protection
Faults in a power system can be either apparatus faults or bus faults. Apparatus fault refer to faults in feeders, transformers, generators or motors. On the other hand bus is an external interconnection point for terminals of different apparatus. A bus fault is usually rare, but if and when it happens its consequences can be quite severe. It can lead loss of multiple feeders or transmission lines and hence has a potential to create a large enough disturbance to induce transient instability. Even if it does not lead to transient instability, loss of load from an important substation can be quite high. Because of these reasons, bus rearrangement can have sufficient redundancy so that in case of a bus fault, an alternative bus automatically takes over the functions of the main bus'. Thus, the end user sees no disruption in service except during the fault interval. This can however involve significant costs, viz the cost of new bus bar and additional circuit breakers to configure a parallel arrangement. Hence, different bus configurations are used in practice each one representing a different trade off between cost, flexibility and redundancy. In this lecture, we will discuss following bus arrangements:1.Single bus - single breaker 2.Single breaker - double bus with bus-tie 3.Double bus - double breaker 4.Ring bus arrangement 5.One - and - a - half circuit breaker arrangement Differential protection discussed in lecture 3 is used for bus protection. If the algebraic sum of all apparatus currents is zero, then there is no fault on the bus. However, during bus fault, the apparatus current sums to the bus fault current. Single Bus Single Breaker Arrangement Fig 38.1 shows the single bus single breaker arrangement. In this particular example, there are six feeders connected to a bus. Each feeder has a CT to monitor feeder current while a single VT is used to measure bus voltage. The NC's are mechanical switches which are normally closed. During bus maintenance, these will have to be opened to guarantee safety to maintenance personnel. In case of bus fault, all the breakers have to be opened to isolate the bus. In turn, it leads to severe disruption of service to loads. Hence, this scheme has minimum flexibility. However, it uses minimum number of circuit breakers, (one per feeder) and it also requires only one VT.

Hence, of

it is cheap and is used for non critical, low priority feeders where loss service is not a prime consideration but low cost (investment) is.
Single Breaker Double Bus with Bus Tie

Generator protection Multi CT Differential Protection for Generators (contd..)

Fig 38.2 shows the arrangement. This arrangement is used when 1.Large number of circuits exists especially at lower voltage and industrial substation. 2.Substation is fed from two separate power supplies with one supply for each bus. If each bus has its own source, then bus coupler with overcurrent protection can be opened or closed. In case of loss of supply, 51 (AC time overcurrent relay) is closed. For each bus, there is a differential protection is provided. For a bus fault, we have to open all circuit breakers on bus along with 51T (trip breaker). Thus, bus fault leads to only partial loss of service. The arrangement requires two VTs. Hence, this scheme with addition of one bus bar and circuit breaker improves flexibility in comparison to the single bus single breaker scheme. Double Bus Double Breaker Arrangement Fig 38.3 shows a double bus, double breaker arrangement.

As shown in the fig 38.3, each feeder is connected to two buses which in normal operation mode are paralleled. Bus differential protection is provided for each bus. This scheme would be used typically at high voltages like 400kV. Distance protection of such voltage level has to be directional as fault in the primary line of Z2 of one of the relays cannot be left unattended for time required for Z2 operation. Hence, directional comparison scheme is required for which CCVT is used for communication. Hence, one CCVT per feeder would be used along with this scheme. In case of a bus fault (say on bus-1), the breakers connected to it will have to be opened. Subsequently, the system function then automatically switches to alternative bus (e.g. Bus 2) with no loss of service to load. In case, if a feeder has to be isolated, both the breakers connected to it will have to be opened. For line (feeder) protection, to measure feeder current the CT contribution from both bus 1 and 2 have to be summed. i.e. corresponding CTs are paralleled. In case of a stuck breaker, local backup for breaker failure is to operate all the corresponding bus breakers. This bus arrangement provides maximum flexibility but it is also costly as two breakers per feeder are required. Ring Bus Arrangement Fig 38.4 shows a typical ring bus arrangemen t with four feeders.

Generator protection Multi CT Differential Protection for Generators (contd..)

Again to isolate a feeder, say on a feeder fault, two adjacent breakers have to be operated. Similarly, feeder current is calculated by summing or paralleling the appropriate CTs. Each feeder requires its own VT. The arrangement requires one circuit breaker per feeder and hence it is less costly. This arrangement is popular because of low cost and high flexibility. As the bus section between the two breakers becomes a part of the line, separate bus protection is not applicable or required. i.e, the feeder protection also provides the functionality of bus bar protection. One and a Half Circuit Breaker Arrangement Fig 38.5 shows the one and a half circuit breaker arrangement. It is so called because total number of breakers is 1.5 times the number of feeders. Fig 38.5 shows the arrangement with 4 feeders and 6 breakers. There are two buses, each one having its own bus differential protection. In case of a bus fault, all breakers connected to the bus will have to be opened. Automatically, the system operation moves to alternative bus without any further loss of service. Hence, this scheme also provides a high level of flexibility. Now, consider the case of a stuck breaker say while clearing of feeder fault on L1. In case of a stuck breaker which is connected to the bus (shown in red in fig 38.5), the local breaker backup (LBB) is to open all the breakers on the bus. In the case of stuck central breaker (see green breaker) i.e. when the shared breaker is stuck, LBB consists of opening the adjacent breaker. In addition, a transfer trip signal is required to the breaker at the remote end of the feeder (L2) connected to the stuck breaker.

Differential relay for bus bar protection can be implemented in one of the following three ways: Differential relay for bus bar protection can be implemented in one of the following three ways: 1. Sample by sample comparison. 2. Comparison of current phasors.

Generator protection Multi CT Differential Protection for Generators (contd..)

3. High impedance bus differential relay The main difficulty in bus differential protection is that significant differential current may appear due to saturation of CT on external fault. When a CT saturates, its secondary current is not scaled replica of primary current. Therefore, sum of CT secondary current is not equal to sum of primary currents even though primary CT currents sum to zero. This causes a differential relay to operate on even external faults, leading to maloperation of bus protection scheme. This compromises security and is not acceptable. While the percentage differential can provide security against normal CT errors due to mismatch of CT turns ratio and magnetization current; it is not adequate to handle severe CT saturation problem. So the relevant questions to be asked now are: (1 How was this problem handled in the past, i.e. in the era prior to numerical relays? ) (2 How do numerical relays cope with this problem? ) High Impedance Bus Differential Relay This approach has been the most successful with traditional electro mechanical and solid state relay. It is based upon the following ingenious and innovative thinking. If you cannot beat CT saturation, exploit it! In fact this is now a well accepted principle in theory of systematic innovation, also known as TRIZ (a Russian acronym), that one innovative way to problem solving is to exploit the harm: If you cannot undo the harm, stretch the harm to the extreme and then exploit it to your advantage". Recall that when a CT core saturates, it behaves more like an air core device. The coupling between the primary and secondary winding is negligible. The impedance now offered by the CT as seen from the CT secondary terminals is very low and it equals the impedance of the CT secondary winding. The CT is no more a current source with high impedance shunt. Rather, it is a plain low impedance path. Thus, if we increase the impedance of the relay element which was to carry the differential current significantly, then sum of all the CT secondary currents (except for the saturated CT) will be diverted into the low impedance path of saturated CT's secondary. Therefore, differential current would be negligible and hence protection system will not operate (See fig 38.6).Thus, now saturation of CT itself is responsible for saving a false operation High Impedance Bus Differential Relay (contd..)

In contrast, numerical relays offer a low impedance path. Hence, this scheme of differential bus bar protection cannot be emulated with numerical relays. Therefore, with numerical relays the busbar protection has to be very fast. i.e preferably decision making has to be completed before the CT saturates. Recall that saturation of CT is primarily a consequence of DC offset current. The time for CT core saturation also depends upon time constant (L/R) of transmission line. If the protection system could reach trip decision before the onset of CT core saturation, then it would be reliable. Hence, numerical relaying based bus bar protection is expected to operate in quarter of a cycle. Development of such protection scheme requires ingenuity because of the well known speed vs accuracy conflict.

Non linear % Differential Characteristics

If the CT core saturation factor could be discounted for, then we could use constant % differential characteristic for bus bar differential protection. We model a CT as scaled current source due to transformation ratio in parallel with magnetizing impedance (Norton's equivalent). However, the magnetizing impedance itself is nonlinear. It is large when CT core is not saturated and small when CT core is saturated. The current in this branch directly contributes to the differential current. Non linear % Differential Characteristics (contd..)

This suggests that % differential characteristics should be modified to have higher slopes to take care of CT saturation. A fast protection scheme can be devised by instantaneous sample based differential protection scheme. In contrast, a phasor summation scheme will be inherently slower as correct phasor estimates will have to wait until the moving window is totally populated with post fault current samples. One way out of this imbroglio is to use a smaller data window (e.g. 3 sample window). On the other hand, the comparison scheme based computation of instantaneous samples can be error prone due to noise transient related problem. To obtain reliability, it is necessary that consistent differential current should be obtained. A transient monitor function can be used to check that. A transient counter is initialized to zero. If a fault is detected due to presence of differential current, then counter is incremented. Conversely, if counter is greater than zero, and no fault is detected (small enough differential current magnitude) then counter is decremented. If the counter crosses a preset threshold value, trip decision is implemented. This scheme will not trip on transient. However, in addition to internal faults, it will also trip on external fault. For this purpose, the differential protection relay also has to have an inbuilt feature to detect CT saturation. One way to detect CT core saturation is based on measuring current change in consecutive samples with the expected sinusoidal signal model. A change much beyond the expected change in sinusoidal model indicates CT core saturation. Many more innovative schemes can be thought out to detect CT saturation which is beyond the scope of this lecture