TWI-FAQ s The use of thoriated tungsten electrodes

Introduction

Tungsten electrodes are used when arc welding with the Tungsten Inert gas (TIG) process or when plasma welding. In both processes the electrode, arc and weld pool are protected from atmospheric contamination by an inert gas. A tungsten electrode is used because it can withstand very high temperatures with minimal melting or erosion. Electrodes are made by powder metallurgy and are formed to size after sintering. TIG welding electrodes usually contain small quantities of other metallic oxides which can offer the following benefits:y y y y y facilitate arc starting increase arc stability improve current-carrying capacity of the rod. reduce the risk of weld contamination increase electrode life

Oxides used are primarily those of zirconium, thorium, lanthanum, yttrium or cerium. Additions are usually of order 1%-4%. All these oxides greatly improve arc initiation, especially when direct current (DC) welding is employed. Thorium oxide (thoria) has been used for many years having been found effective in terms of long life and thermal efficiency. Zirconium oxide (zirconia) has been commonly used for alternating current (AC) TIG welding, normally for welding aluminium.
Hazards

Thorium (Th) is slightly radioactive with a long half life and emits mainly alpha (

particles, but occasionally some beta ( ) and gamma ( ) radiation is emitted. Alpha particles cannot penetrate skin or even paper. However, they are harmful if released inside the digestive tract, or inside the lungs, where they act as a carcinogen. Thorium oxide is, therefore, a low level radioactive material which may give rise to both a small external radiation hazard and an internal hazard from ingestion or inhalation. The external hazard estimated for a welder holding an electrode for a whole year is a very small fraction of the maximum permissible radiation dose and it is concluded that the external radiation hazard is likely to be negligible. There is almost no release of radioactive material during arcing. However, to achieve maximum arc stability the electrode tip is ground to a conical point before use. This shape is maintained during use by regular regrinding. During the grinding process, particles of tungsten may be produced with thoria on the surface. It is these dust particles that create the major hazard, as they may be inhaled, and the thoria may release alpha particles from the surface. In a review of air sampling measurements carried out during grinding it was concluded that during grinding air concentrations could approach or even exceed concentrations at which it would be necessary to consider designating the area as a controlled area as defined by the Ionising Radiation Regulations 1999.

However, the risk of cancer in TIG welders due to thoria exposure is very low, since the exposure times to individuals are invariably small. The Danish Welding Institute estimates that of 1200 full-time TIG welders, a cancer incidence of 0-3 may occur during a thirty year working life. While this figure is considered acceptable, the Danish Welding Institute has recommended that thoriated tungsten be phased out in Denmark since non-radioactive alternatives are available.
Safe working conditions
Storage

It is recommended that thoriated electrodes are stored in steel boxes, clearly labelled with the radiation trefoil. When stored in closed boxes, there is no significant hazard in handling and storage. Small numbers (1 day's supply) of electrodes can be handled by welders safely without any special precautions.
Preparation/Grinding

Grinding creates the greatest hazard as the exposed tungsten/thoria area is greatly increased and fine particles of potentially radioactive dust are released into the atmosphere. It is recommended that a dedicated grindstone with local dust extraction is used, and a simple filter mask is worn unless the number of electrodes used is very small (less than about 20 per year). If the grinding wheel is not fitted with a protective viewing screen, eye protection should be worn. The air extract from the grindstone should be arranged so that the particles are deposited into a substantial disposable bag. A safe method of collecting and handling the dust from the collection unit must be used to minimise release to the atmosphere (for example, it could be placed in a sealed paper/plastic bag.) The area round the grinding wheels should be cleaned daily with a vacuum cleaner to remove dust particles. If a high efficiency vacuum cleaner is not available, then the material should be damped down to minimise dust. Workers should be encouraged to wash their hands before using the toilet facilities, and before taking work breaks, and for this reason the washing facilities should be close to the work areas.
Welding

Some vaporisation of tungsten does occur during welding but it is a very small amount and the corresponding level of radioactivity is extremely low. No special precautions are necessary. However, as with grinding thoriated tungsten electrodes, wearing mouth, nose and eye protection during welding would further reduce any risk of contamination.
Alternatives to thoriated tungsten

Lanthanum, cerium, yttrium and zirconium oxides can all be used with tungsten. While they are all marginally radioactive, the risk is even lower than with thoria, so no specific

precautions are needed. The general consensus of users is that ceriated or lanthanated tungstens are acceptable alternatives to thoriated tungstens, particularly with a DC current, while zirconiated tungsten is preferred for AC current welding. There are very minor differences in the arc voltages required for equal currents between the various alternatives. Consideration should be given to justifying the use of thoriated tungsten electrodes in preference to other suitable alternatives.
Official guidelines

The International Institute of Welding Health and Safety Commission VIII states that there are no specific hazards regarding storage, handling or welding but dust extraction equipment should be used on the grindstone and respiratory protection should be worn by the operator during grinding. This is covered by the Health and Safety Executive Guidance note HS(6) 53 The selection, use and maintenance of respiratory protective equipment. In the UK the use of thoriated tungsten electrodes is subject to the Ionising Radiations Regulations 1999. Exposure must be kept as low as is reasonably practicable, and the guidelines in the previous sections are designed to achieve this. Local rules and adequate supervision are required. The employer must appoint a Radiation Protection Supervisor (RPS), who should be responsible for 1. The implementation and monitoring of all health and safety procedures for the storage, grinding, use and disposal of thoriated tungsten electrodes and all byproducts. 2. Keeping records of the amount of thoriated tungsten in store, and the numbers of electrodes issued to each welder. 3. Giving instruction in the correct use and grinding procedures to the welders. These procedures should be in the form of written instructions, in addition to verbal presentations. The welders must know the name to the RPS. 4. Monitoring to check that the welders are carrying out the grinding procedures correctly, and that the dust extraction system is working effectively.
Recommended reading

Ionising Radiations Regulations, 1999. L121 Approved Code of Practice and Guidance. The Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH) Regulations 2002 - L5 Approved Code of Practice and Guidance. HSE Guidance note HS(G) 53 Respiratory protective equipment at work. HSE Information Document: Storage and Use of Thoriated Tungsten 564/6. Arc Welder at Work, Welding Manufacturers Association leaflet No. 236 BS EN ISO 6848:2004 Arc welding and cutting. Non consumable tungsten electrodes.

BS EN 1011-4: Welding - Recommendations for Welding of Metallic Materials. Part 4: Arc Welding of Aluminium and Aluminium Alloys. ANSI/AWS A5.12/AS.12M 98 (R2007) Specification for Tungsten and Tungsten Alloy Electrodes for Arc Welding and Cutting IIS/IIW-VIII 1582-91 Estimated Radiation Doses From Thorium and Daughters Contained in Thoriated Welding Electrodes IIS/IIW VIII 1702-93 Health Aspects in the Use of Thoriated Tungsten Electrodes. Occupational Hygiene Vol. 1 No.1, 1994, 'Cancer Risk and Thoriated Welding Electrodes'

What should be checked when making a detailed examination of a selfpiercing riveted joint?
Detailed inspection is likely to include examination of a cross-sectioned joint as this will allow assessment of the joint's interior features. Prior to cross-sectioning, the exterior of the joint should be carefully examined: the way this can be carried out is explained in 'What should be checked during simple visual inspection of self-piercing riveted joints?' The following points should be checked on the sectioned joint (see illustration): y the joint should be symmetrical, indicating that there was no misalignment between the punch, die and sheets (1) there should be no gaps underneath the rivet head (2) and, ideally, none between the rivet and the sheets (3) the rivet tail should have flared properly so that it provides good mechanical interlock and there should be sufficient material around the foot of the rivet to give the button strength (4)

Specific quality requirements will depend on the particular application, as well as additional criteria such as allowable damage to any coating(s) used. Minimum rivet compression may also be defined. In addition to examining the exterior and a cross-section, it may be considered necessary to obtain further information on joint quality by performing peel and shear tests.

What fracture toughness can I assume for a ferritic steel if I know that it meets a certain Charpy energy requirement?
Direct measurement of fracture toughness is preferable, but there are several Charpy/fracture toughness correlations which can be used where this is not possible. Three correlations are given in Annex J of BS7910, 2005 ('Guide to methods for assessing the acceptability of flaws in metallic structures'). Two of these are used for materials on the lower shelf/transition of the ductile/brittle transition curve, whilst the third is recommended for upper shelf behaviour. 1. For steels on the lower shelf and in the transition region, a simple lower bound estimate of toughness can be made from the Charpy energy at the same temperature [1] as follows:

[1] where: K
mat

is the estimate of the fracture toughness (in MPa

m); is required (in

B C

is the thickness of the material for which an estimate of K mm);

v

mat

is the lower bound Charpy V-notch impact energy at the service temperature (in joules)

2. The so-called Master Curve approach[2] can be used to make a preliminary estimate of the fracture toughness of ferritic steels from Charpy energy. This is a wellvalidated approach which is based on a correlation between the 27J or 40J Charpy transition temperature and the temperature at which a 25mm thick fracture mechanics specimen shows a fracture toughness, Kmat, of 100MPa m. Although the approach has been extensively validated for a range of parent steels, there are cases where it overestimates K mat, especially the following cases: y y where Charpy specimens exhibit unusual behaviour such as fracture path deviation; this may occur in hard, narrow welds made by laser or electron beam welding where splits are present on the fracture surface of fracture toughness specimens

where microstructure and properties vary through the section thickness, making it difficult to ensure that the Charpy specimen samples the same microstructure as that associated with initiation in the fracture toughness specimen where material is heavily cold-worked

It is thus highly advisable for users to assure themselves that the correlation is applicable to any particular case. The method takes into account the test temperature, (T), 27J or 40J transition temperature (T27J or T40J), the 100MPa m transition temperature (T0), the thickness of the specimen (B), and desired probability of failure (Pf). T0 is derived from the Charpy transition temperature as follows: T0 = T27J -18 C T0 = T40J -24 C where: T0 is the temperature for median toughness of 100MPa m in 25mm thick specimens; T27J and T40J are the temperature for energies of 27J and 40J, respectively, measured in a standard 10 x 10mm Charpy V specimen. Toughness at a given temperature is then given by the equation: [2] [3]

[4] where: K
mat

is in MPa

m; is to be determined (in C);

T T T
0 K

is the temperature at which K

mat

is estimated from equations [2] and [3]; is the temperature term that describes the scatter in the Charpy versus fracture toughness correlation given by equations [2] and [3]. For a standard deviation of 15C and 90% confidence, T K =+25C; is the thickness of the material for which an estimate of K
mat

B P
f

is required (in mm);

is the probability of K mat being less than estimated. The use of P f = 0.05 (5%) is recommended unless experimental evidence supports the use of a higher probability for a given material.

units: Kmat in MPa m, T, T0, Tk, T27J, T40J in C, B in mm. A value Pf =0.05 (5%) is recommended for initial assessments.

Note that equation [4] increases without limit as the temperature is increased, and it is important to take into account the onset of upper shelf behaviour, so that the upper shelf toughness is not overestimated (see equation [5]). Kmat = 0.54 Cv + 55 where: K
mat

[5]

is the estimated fracture toughness (in MPa

m);

is the lower bound Charpy V-notch impact energy at the service temperature for which Kmat is required (in Joules).

APIS79-1/ASME FFS-1 2007 recommends an alternative approach to fracture toughness estimation, based on the ASME reference curve, but based on Charpy testing alone, i.e. without the use of Pellini tests.
References

1. INSTA Technical Report, 1991: 'Assessment of structures containing discontinuities', Materials Standards Institution, Stockholm. 2. Wallin, K: 'Simple theoretical Charpy V-KIc correlation for irradiation embrittlement', in Innovative approaches to irradiation damage and fracture analysis, ed DL Marriott, TR Mayer, WH Barnford, New York: ASME. PVP-170. 93.100. ISBN 0791803260

What is a sol (in the context of sol-gel technology)?

A sol is the dispersion of very small-scale (2nm to 1m) solid particulates in a liquid. This is one particular type of colloidal system, a general classification of these systems is given in Table 1.

Table 1 Classification of colloidal systems

System Dispersed Phase Dispersion Medium

Sol

Solid

Liquid

Emulsion

Liquid

Liquid

Solid Emulsion

Liquid

Solid

Foam

Gas

Liquid

Fog, Mist or Aerosol

Liquid

Gas

Smoke

Solid

Gas

Alloy

Solid

Solid

There are two generic variations of the sol-gel technique, the colloidal route and the polymeric (or alkoxide) route. For the colloidal sol-gel route, the sol is created by dispersing fine particles in a liquid which is often water. For the polymeric sol-gel route, there is a pre-stage before the sol is formed. The precursor (often a chemical called an alkoxide) is dissolved in a solvent, usually an alcohol. This produces a true solution i.e. a single-phase liquid. This solution is then treated, or activated to produce polymeric chains in the alcohol. This is the sol, or more accurately, a polymeric sol. Sols are often stable and do not change significantly with time, however, when they are destabilised (or activated) they can solidify to form a gel .

What should be checked during simple visual inspection of self-piercing riveted joints?
Simple visual assessment of self-piercing riveting is worthwhile because appearance can give a good indication of joint quality. On the top sheet, a good joint will show the rivet head in firm contact with the material (and completely flush when using a countersunk rivet). There should be no cracks in the head of the rivet or in the surrounding material. The joint should not be loose, and there should be little or no distortion of the component. On the die side, there should be a symmetrical button of the correct diameter and shape (determined by the die). Ideally, the tail of the rivet should not pierce the bottom sheet or be visible. This may not be significant for some applications but for components subjected to fatigue loading or corrosive environments in service it will be particularly important. It is also important that there are no cracks in or around the button. There may be cosmetic reasons why the button should be neatly formed and free of cracks and other imperfections. More detailed inspection is likely to include examining a cross-sectioned joint. This will allow assessment of the joint's interior features.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of penetrant examination in Non-Destructive Examination (NDE)?
Advantages of the penetrant method of Non-Destructive Examination are: y y y y y y It is a very sensitive method, capable of finding extremely fine flaws It can be used on magnetic and non-magnetic metals, some plastics and glass Small objects, with awkward shapes, can be inspected A power supply is not needed for some methods of penetrant testing The method requires no great skill and is easy to understand Lots of small articles, in batches, can be examined using automated systems

Disadvantages of the penetrant method of Non-Destructive Examination are: y y y y y y y y y y Can only detect defects open to the surface Preparation, before testing, can be time consuming and costly The method takes time and can rarely be completed in less than 30 minutes The method cannot normally be applied to painted objects It is messy Interpretation of results is sometimes difficult There may be a problem disposing of contaminated cleaning and penetrant fluids Dry, clean, conditions are essential, as is careful cleaning of the surfaces to be examined The method is often abused and skimped, or not fully understood There can be a fume exposure problem, particularly in confined spaces

Books on the subject are: y y y R Hamshaw, Introduction to the Non-Destructive Testing of Welded Joints, 2nd edition, Abington Publishing, Cambridge, UK, 1996 (ISBN 1 85573 314 5) David Lovejoy, Penetrant Examination. A Practical Guide, published by Chapman and Hall, 1991 C E Betz, Principles of Penetrants, published by the Magnaflux Corporation, 1963

What are the principles of radiography in Non-Destructive Examination (NDE)?

X-rays and gamma radiation have wavelengths shorter than 100 nanometres (nm). Energy, at these wavelengths, will penetrate solid material. The shorter the wavelength, the greater the penetration. Like visible light, X-rays and Gamma radiation also have a photochemical effect on silver halide and can therefore produce an image on film. Thus, by passing penetrating radiation through an object, and recording the emerging radiation on a film, a two dimensional picture of the differences in thickness or density of the object can be obtained. Hence, flaws in the object can be detected. This process was discovered by William Roentgen in 1895 and was soon applied to medicine and then to industrial components. It is based on the principle that radiation is absorbed and scattered as it passes through an object. If there are variations in thickness or density (e.g. due to defects) in an object, more or less radiation passes through and affects the film exposure. Flaws show up on the film, usually as dark areas.

With training, an inspector can tell, from the shape of the dark areas on the film, what and where the flaws are. If the flaw in the object makes little difference to the through thickness of the object, it is unlikely to show on the radiograph. A lamination can, therefore, be difficult to detect by radiography. Cracks parallel to the beam, porosity, slag inclusions and root defects show very well. The biggest disadvantage is that short wavelength radiations are ionising. This means they can cause chemical changes in the human body. No ionising radiation is safe, as small amounts can cause genetic damage and increase the likelihood of cancers. Stringent safety precautions are needed when using radiography and this makes it rather time consuming, disruptive and expensive. Industrial radiography uses two sources of penetrating radiation: y y X-ray sets, of varying power, that run from an electric mains or on-site generators Radioactive isotopes, carried in shielding containers, which do not need a supply of electricity

Books on Radiography: y y y y R Hamshaw, Introduction to the Non-Destructive Testing of Welded Joints, 2nd edition, Abington Publishing, Cambridge, UK, 1996 (ISBN 1 85573 314 5) R Halmshaw, Industrial Radiography, published by Agfa Gevaert, Mortsel, Belgium, 1986 Radiography in Modern Industry, 4th Edition, published by Kodak Ltd, Rochester, New York, USA, 1980 Alan Martin and Samuel A Harbison, An Introduction to Radiation Protection, published by Chapman and Hall, 1986, 3rd edition, 1986 (ISBN 0-412-27810-3)

What are the residual stresses in a dissimilar metal weld?

A dissimilar metal weld (DMW) in this article refers to a weld joining two materials from different alloy systems. A common power plant application is joining a ferritic low alloy steel to an austenitic stainless steel. A schematic of a DMW is shown in Figure 1.

Fig. 1. Dissimilar metal weld joint

A buttering layer is often used to provide a transition between the considerably different physical and mechanical properties of the parent materials. A power plant application of DMW is given in Table 1. Table 1 An example of DMW joint materials and their properties

Joint component Parent A Weld metal Buttering Parent B

Material 316L 308L 309L/308L A508

C.T.E. (1/K) at 300C 19.0 x 10 19.0 x 10 19.0 x 10 14.0 x 10

-6

Yield strength (MPa) at 300C 213 333 333 463

Tensile strength (MPa) at 300C 453 441 441 640

-6

-6

-6

The most significant feature of dissimilar metal welds (DMWs) with respect to residual stresses is differences in coefficient of thermal expansion between the parent and weld metals. There may also be differences in yield strength, which limit the magnitudes of the residual stresses which can exist in the component materials (as is also the case in similar metal welds with non-matching yield strengths), but do not change the general characteristics of the residual stress field. The residual stresses in similar and dissimilar metal welds are generated by the thermal contraction of the weld metal and the adjacent heated parent metal, and hence the residual stress distribution in an as-welded DMW is broadly similar to that in a similar metal weld. Although information on the magnitude and distribution of welding residual stresses is available in several codes and standards, these are not validated extensively for DMWs. It is recommended that residual stresses in DMWs should be measured physically or calculated numerically by computational welding simulation. If the structure containing the DMW is subject to post-weld heat treatment (PWHT), then its residual stresses will be completely different from those at similar metal welds. Most of the original as-welded residual stresses will be relieved during the heat-up and hold period of the PWHT procedure. During cool down, a new set of residual stresses will be generated because of the differential contractions of the different regions. After PWHT: y The longitudinal residual stresses (parallel to the welding direction) will tend to be tensile in the material with the higher coefficient of expansion, and compressive in the material with the lower coefficient of expansion, with a discontinuity in the stress field at the interface. Shear stresses will occur at the interface, with peak values at the intersection with the surface. These may contribute to the initiation or propagation of cracking at the interface. Localised transverse residual stresses may be found on the surface near the interface. Longer range transverse stresses will depend on the restraint acting across the joint.

A simple prediction of the residual stress field at a heat-treated DMW may be obtained using a finite element model by assuming that the weldment is stress-free at the end of the temperature hold period, and then calculating the stresses generated due to differential contraction during cooling. In practice however, there may be some additional residual stresses resulting from the original welding operation, and not fully relieved during PWHT.

It should be remembered that additional thermal stresses will be generated when the temperature of the DMW changes. A change of temperature from ambient to a higher temperature will partially relieve the residual stresses generated during cool-down from PWHT. For further information please contact the Numerical Modelling and Optimisation section at nmo@twi.co.uk.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI) in Non-Destructive Examination (NDE)?
Advantages of the Magnetic Particle method of Non-Destructive Examination are: y y y y y y y It is quick and relatively uncomplicated It gives immediate indications of defects It shows surface and near surface defects, and these are the most serious ones as they concentrate stresses The method can be adapted for site or workshop use It is inexpensive compared to radiography Large or small objects can be examined Elaborate pre-cleaning is not necessary

Disadvantages of the Magnetic Particle method of Non-Destructive Examination are: y y y y y y y It is restricted to ferromagnetic materials - usually iron and steel, and cannot be used on austenitic stainless steel It is messy Most methods need a supply of electricity It is sometimes unclear whether the magnetic field is sufficiently strong to give good indications The method cannot be used if a thick paint coating is present Spurious, or non-relevant indications, are probable, and thus interpretation is a skilled task Some of the paints and particle suspension fluids can give a fume or fire problem, particularly in a confined space

Books on the subject are: y y y y R Hamshaw, Introduction to the Non-Destructive Testing of Welded Joints, 2nd edition, Abington Publishing, Cambridge, UK, 1996 (ISBN 1 85573 314 5) C E Betz, Principles of Magnetic Particle Examination, published by the Magnaflux Corporation, 1967. Magnetic Particle Examination, NDE Monograph, published by the Non Destructive Examination Society of Great Britain, 1975 David Lovejoy, Magnetic Particle Inspection, A Practical Guide, published by Chapman Hall, 1993

What are the main properties of a sound wave relevant to ultrasonic testing? by Ivan Pinson
The main properties of a sound beam are:

y y y y y

Wavelength Period Amplitude Frequency Velocity

Wavelength is defined as: the horizontal distance between any two successive equivalent points on the wave, and is usually represented by the symbol .

Period is defined as: the time required for one complete cycle of the wave to pass by a point. One period is therefore the time it takes for a wave to travel a distance of one wavelength. Amplitude is: the height of a wave and thus when there is a loud sound, the wave is high and the amplitude is large.

A decibel is the unit that measures the intensity of sound and the softest sound that a human can hear is the zero point. When the sound is twice as loud, the decibel level goes up by six. Humans speak normally at 60 decibels.
Frequency

Every cycle of sound has one condensation, a region of increased pressure, and one rarefaction, a region where air pressure is slightly less than normal. The frequency of a sound wave is measured in hertz. Hertz (Hz) indicate the number of cycles per second that pass a given location. If a speaker's diaphragm is vibrating back and forth at a frequency of 900 Hz, then 900 condensations are generated every second, each followed by a rarefaction, forming a sound wave whose frequency is 900 Hz.

How the brain interprets the frequency of an emitted sound is referred to as the pitch. The faster the vibrations the emitted sound makes (or the higher the frequency), the higher the pitch. Therefore, when the frequency is low, the sound is lower.

What is the effect of corrosion on the fatigue strength of welded steel structures?
The presence of a corrosive environment may accelerate fatigue crack propagation in structural steels. If pitting conditions exist, development of corrosion pits will introduce additional points of stress concentration at which cracking may develop. Both these mechanisms are likely to reduce fatigue strength below that in an inert environment. The effect of a marine environment on fatigue of joints in ferritic steels has been extensively investigated (1) and the results incorporated in fatigue design rules. Corrections to the expected fatigue performance are usually quoted in terms of an environmental reduction factor (ERF), which is the ratio of fatigue endurance in air to that in the marine environment. For example, in the UK, BS7608 (2) suggests an ERF of 2 for unprotected joints exposed to sea water. In addition the S-N curve is assumed to have a constant slope irrespective of stress range, rather than an endurance limit at low stress range as in air. A more recent review of fatigue design guidance for offshore structures (3) suggests an environmental reduction factor of 3 for unprotected joints. Reference 3 also provides guidance on the value of ERF under cathodic protection. Other environments may be more aggressive and specialist advice should be sought - contact Structural Integrity at TWI. Where direct contact with the environment is prevented by a protective coating the fatigue strength can be taken as that in air. However, it must be certain that the coating will remain sound for the expected life of the structure.

References
1. UK Offshore Steels Research Project - Phase II Final Summary Report, OTH 87 265, HMSO, 1987. 2. BS 7608:1993, Code of Practice for Fatigue Design and Assessment of Steel Structures, BSI. 3. Fatigue Background Guidance Document, Report OTH 92 390, UK Health and Safety Executive, 1992. Copyright 2000, TWI Ltd

What are the principles of ultrasonic examination in Non-Destructive Examination (NDE)?

Ultrasound has a frequency above 20 kilohertz (kHz). The human ear can detect frequencies below this, down to 20 hertz. Ultrasonic inspection involves sending a high frequency, mechanical vibration into material and registering and evaluating any echoes that are detected; rather like submarine detection by echo sounding. Ultrasonic examination procedures are widely used for thickness measurement, corrosion monitoring, lamination checks and flaw detection in welds, forgings, castings and pipes.

An ultrasonic set, or flaw detector, has an oscillator circuit, which sends electrical pulses to a probe. The probe holds a piezoelectric crystal, which vibrates when it receives the electrical pulse. The vibrations from the crystal are ultrasonic, with a frequency in the range 1MHz to 15MHz. Typical frequencies used in weld examination are between 2 and 5 Mhz. The ultrasonic vibrations leave the probe and are conducted into the material to be tested by a couplant, usually grease, oil, water, paste, or gelatin. In the material, the ultrasonic pulses travel in straight lines, until they hit an interface between two different materials (steel and air for example), or a flaw, when most of the energy of the vibration will be reflected, like an echo from a wall or mountainside. A small amount of the energy is reflected back to the probe, where it vibrates the piezoelectric crystal, generating a tiny electric current. This current returns to the flaw detector, where it is amplified, rectified, filtered and displayed on a cathode ray tube. Further information can be found in: R Hamshaw, Introduction to the Non-Destructive Testing of Welded Joints, 2nd edition, Abington Publishing, Cambridge, UK, 1996 (ISBN 1 85573 314 5) Copyright by TWI, 1999

What are the principles of penetrant examination in Non-Destructive Examination (NDE)?

The penetrant method of NDE was developed from the 19th century 'oil and chalk' inspection technique. Cracks in railway engines and rolling stock were found by immersing (or painting) components in thin oil for several hours, cleaning the surface, then covering the component with chalk dust. Oil, absorbed into cracks, was drawn out by the chalk and showed as a brown smear. Penetrant inspection was introduced in the USA during World War 2. Very thin hydrocarbons with fluorescent dyes were used to find flaws during mass production of aero engines. Colour contrast systems were developed in the UK in the immediate post war years. Penetrant inspection involves a number of steps: y y y y y y y Pre-cleaning the component, so that no grease, paint or dirt clogs up surface breaking defects Application of the penetrant Removal of surface penetrant, taking care not to wash the penetrant from flaws. Solvents or water are used Development with an absorbent coating Inspection, after a development time of at least ten minutes, using natural light or ultra violet radiation Recording flaws Post cleaning and protection

Books on the subject are: y R Hamshaw, Introduction to the Non-Destructive Testing of Welded Joints, 2nd edition, Abington Publishing, Cambridge, UK, 1996 (ISBN 1 85573 314 5)

y y

David Lovejoy, Penetrant Examination. A practical guide, published by Chapman and Hall, 1991 C E Betz, Principles of Penetrants, published by the Magnaflux Corporation, 1963

Copyright by TWI, 1999

What are the subclasses of magnetic particle indications? by Ivan Pinson

Indications are any particle accumulations that can be seen on the specimen under test. Just as not all flux leakage fields are defects, not all indications are caused by flux leakage fields. Indications can be further subdivided into: y y y Relevant Spurious Non-Relevant

Relevant indications

Relevant indications are discontinuities or flaws, which in turn are un-designed imperfections. When it is considered that a relevant indication will affect the fitness for purpose of a test specimen, it is classified as a defect, but not all defects are cracks. Product and process knowledge (a knowledge of product technology and the processes that a test specimen has been through) is necessary to define and interpret defects more closely. It is perhaps safer, without that knowledge, to categorise indications by their: a) Size b) Shape c) Orientation
Spurious indications

Indications which are not held on the surface by a flux leakage are called spurious. Lint, scale, dirt, hairs, drainage lines, etc, are examples. However, one spurious indication, called magnetic writing, is a little different. If two pieces of steel touch when one of them is in a magnetised condition, local poles are created at the areas of contact. If magnetic particles are then sprinkled on the surface the local poles become visible as fuzzy lines.
Non-relevant indications

Non-relevant indications are true magnetic particle patterns actually formed and held in place by leakage fields. However, they are caused by design features and the structure of the specimen and only exceptionally will they affect the fitness for purpose of the specimen. Below is a non-exhaustive list: a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. k. Scores and scratches Key ways Internal splines and drillings Abrupt changes of section Fine threads Force fits Dissimilar magnetic material (HAZ or heat treated material) Forging flow lines Grain boundaries Brazed joints Cold working

What are the principles of Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI) in NonDestructive Examination (NDE)?
The magnetic particle method of Non-Destructive Examination was developed in the USA, in the 1930s, as a way to check steel components on production lines. The principle of the method is that the specimen is magnetised to produce magnetic lines of force, or flux, in the material. If these lines of force meet a discontinuity, such as a crack, secondary magnetic poles are created at the faces of the crack. Where these secondary magnetic fields appear at the surface of the metal, they can be revealed by applying magnetic particles, as a powder, or in a liquid suspension, to the surface. The particles are attracted to the flux leakage and clump round the flaw, making it visible. The particles may be black, or coated with a fluorescent dye to increase their visibilty. The magnetic flux lines should be at right angles to a flaw to give the best indication, as this creates maximum flux leakage. This governs the choice of a suitable magnetising technique. Often, more than one technique must be used to give a complete inspection. A flaw attracts more particles if it cuts more magnetic lines of force, so the ability to show a flaw depends on the depth of the flaw, the angle of the flaw to the lines of force, and the magnetic field strength induced during magnetisation. The method is limited to ferromagnetic materials - iron, cobalt and nickel - as other paramagnetic and diamagnetic materials cannot hold a flux which is strong enough to attract particles. An MPI inspection comprises several steps: y y y y y y y y Pre-cleaning Demagnetisation, if necessary Application of a background contrast paint if necessary Magnetisation Application of magnetic particle powders or inks Inspection of surfaces for indications of flaws Demagnetisation, and re-magnetisation by another method if necessary Recording flaws, if any

y y

Demagnetisation, if necessary Cleaning and protecting

There are several methods of magnetic particle inspection. Site methods, utilising portable equipment, include: y y y y y Permanent magnet Electromagnetic Yoke Current flow probes Flexible coil Adjacent cable

Bench, or fixed, installations in a factory include: y y y y y Current flow Threading bar Magnetic flow Fixed coil Induced current (as a specialised option)

Books on the subject are: y y y y R Hamshaw, Introduction to the Non-Destructive Testing of Welded Joints, 2nd edition, Abington Publishing, Cambridge, UK, 1996 (ISBN 1 85573 314 5) C E Betz, Principles of Magnetic Particle Examination, published by the Magnaflux Corporation, 1967. Magnetic Particle Examination, NDE Monograph, published by the Non Destructive Examination Society of Great Britain, 1975 David Lovejoy, Magnetic Particle Inspection, A Practical Guide, published by Chapman Hall, 1993

Copyright by TWI, 1999

What are the advantages of using twin crystal ultrasonic probes? by Ivan Pinson
A single crystal probe transmits and receives ultrasound with one crystal: the crystal transmits the pulse and vibrates when the pulse returns from a backwall echo or a flaw. However, when a single crystal probe is used, a signal appears on the screen at the beginning of the time base. It is caused by vibrations immediately adjacent to the crystal and is called by several names: initial pulse, transmission signal, crystal strike or main bang. The signal on the screen caused by the initial pulse may mask signals from flaws close to the top of the parent material. For this reason the area on the CRT (cathode ray tube) screen in which flaws may be masked is called the DEAD ZONE.

A twin or double crystal probe is designed to minimise the problem of dead zone. A twin crystal probe has two crystals mounted on perspex shoes angled inwards slightly to focus at a set distance in the test material. If the crystals are not angled, the pulse would be reflected straight back into the transmitting crystal. The perspex shoes hold the crystals away from the test surface, so that the initial pulse does not appear on the CRT screen. The dead zone is greatly reduced to the region adjoining the test surface, where the transmission and reception beams do not overlap. There are other advantages: a) b) c) d) The double crystal probe can be focused from 3 - 25mm It can measure thin plate It can detect near-surface flaws It has good near-surface resolution

But a double-crystal probe has disadvantages: a) Good contact is difficult with curved surfaces b) It is difficult to size small defects accurately as the width of a double-crystal probe is c) usually greater than that of a single-crystal probe The amplitude of a signal decreases the further a reflector is situated from the focal distance - a response curve can be made out.

Therefore single and twin crystal probes are complementary.

Health and safety in welding and allied processes - assessing and controlling the exposure risk and complying with the COSHH regulations for welding fume
Introduction

Exposure to welding fume can cause lung disease, so welding fume must be regarded as a substance that is hazardous to health. Employers and the self-employed must protect workers' health by controlling exposure to hazardous substances, according to the requirements of the Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (Amendment) Regulations 2004 (The COSHH Regulations). The COSHH Regulations require that, before work involving substances hazardous to health is carried out, the risk to health created by that work is assessed and that the steps needed to control the risk are identified and implemented. Assessing the risks for welding and allied processes will involve estimating, or measuring, whether exposure to the hazardous components present in welding fume is likely to exceed the concentrations given in Guidance Note EH40 from the Health and Safety Executive and known as Workplace Exposure Limits (WELs). Assistance in conducting the risk assessment is provided in this article. Further guidance may be obtained from COSHH Essentials Welding at www.hse.gov.uk/welding/guidance/index.htm If the risk assessment indicates that exposure is likely to exceed defined levels, exposure must be controlled, at source, using local exhaust ventilation (LEV). If exposure cannot be controlled adequately using ventilation, suitable respiratory protection equipment (RPE), in addition to ventilation measures, must be employed. When control measures are used, employers must establish procedures to ensure that they are properly used and employees must use the control measures as intended and instructed. Employers must also ensure that control equipment is maintained in efficient working order, in good repair and in clean condition. Exposure measurement may be required if previous data are not available for a risk assessment, to ensure compliance with exposure limits, to test the effectiveness of control measures such as ventilation or to give guidance on the selection of RPE. Workers that are regularly exposed to fumes, dust and noxious gases should be the subjects of health surveillance. Consequently, health surveillance will usually be required for welders, unless the risk of exposure is low. The early detection of breathing problems could prevent further damage to the lungs. The COSHH Regulations require that an employer, who undertakes work that may expose his employees to substances hazardous to health, provides information, instruction and training to allow them to know all the risks to health created by the exposure and the precautions to be taken.
Risk assessment

Performing a risk assessment for exposure to welding fume will involve consideration of the following questions:

What concentration of fume are workers are exposed to? How long they are exposed for? What is the likelihood of exposure occurring? What are the possible adverse effects of exposure? The answers will identify any requirements for fume control or exposure measurement. A good risk assessment will provide protection against occupational disease but avoid the inconvenience and expense of carrying out over-elaborate precautions. The risk assessment must be recorded and should indicate the sources of information and the factors considered by the assessor. It must be reviewed and, if necessary, updated, if circumstances change or it becomes apparent that the original assessment is no longer valid. The results of a risk assessment must be communicated to employees and to their representative. The safe system of work, developed from the risk assessment, should include not only what must be done but also deal with any consequences that may arise from not following the procedure. For example, if the safe system of work shows a requirement for control measures such as ventilation or respiratory protection, it will be necessary to: Ensure proper use of the equipment provided Ensure that the equipment is maintained in good working order Ensure that workers have received appropriate information and training Other possible consequences include: Exposure monitoring Health surveillance Employees must have access to their own monitoring results and to the collective results of any health surveillance.
Assessment of exposure

To assess whether exposure is likely to exceed WELs, it will be necessary to gather information on:
The composition of the fume

The composition of the fume determines the level of control that must be exercised to avoid health risks. Fume containing larger concentrations of more toxic components, i.e. those with lower exposure limits, will require control to lower levels. Fume containing carcinogens or asthmagens, e.g hexavalent chromium, will require control to as low a level as is reasonably practicable. In arc welding, around 90% of the fume originates from the welding consumable. The parent material has only a minor effect on fume composition. Therefore, the consumable is the main factor affecting fume composition. In UK, under Section 6(1)(c) of the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974, manufacturers, importers and suppliers of welding consumables are required to provide sufficient information for their safe use. Typically, the hazard

information package supplied with welding consumables comprises a warning label attached to or printed on every carton or package, Welding Manufacturers Association publication WMA236 on the nature and hazards of welding fume, hazard data sheets giving concentrations of the principal components in the fume emitted and other relevant data about the hazards and precautions. Welding fume composition data can be used to: y y y Evaluate gravimetric measurements of exposure to welding fume Identify the key component of the welding fume Calculate the key component welding fume limit value

These uses, which aid the assessment of exposure and reduce the costs of exposure measurement, are explained fully in Annex B of ISO 15011-4, Health and safety in welding and allied processes - Laboratory method for sampling fume and gases - Part 4: Fume datasheets. It is increasingly common to arc weld through surface coatings such as primers and to resistance weld through zinc or organically coated steels, oils, adhesives and sealants. In these cases, information on the composition of these coatings and products, given on safety datasheets, may not reflect the composition of the fume emitted sufficiently for risk assessment. Fume from cutting processes is generally similar in composition to the metal cut, unless a surface coating is present. Precautionary removal of the coating should be carried out when insufficient information on the coating is available to evaluate the risk.
The amount of fume generated

The main factors affecting the amount of fume generated are the process and the process parameters, of which the process is the most important factor. Some processes produce large quantities of fume and others do not, irrespective of the process parameters. Processes where metal is transferred across an open arc generate the most fume, e.g. MMA, FCA, MIG/MAG welding. TIG and resistance welding do not produce significant amounts of fume. Higher metal removal rates generally generate more fume when gouging and cutting. The effect of welding parameters is small when compared to the overall effect of the process. Current and voltage are the most important process parameters and often the effect of other parameters stems from the changes that they confer on current and voltage. Generally, higher currents and voltages equate to more fume.
The welding position

The welding position affects the proximity of the fume to the welder's breathing zone and has a major effect on exposure. Welding positions that place the welder closer to, or worst of all, above the plume of fume lead to the highest exposures.
The welding location

The confinement (i.e. size and/or volume) of the workspace is expected to affect exposure. Smaller confined spaces are expected to result in higher exposures.

The duty cycle and duration of exposure

For a given welding situation, lower duty cycles generate less fume and usually give rise to lower exposures. Similarly, if the duration of exposure is short, lower exposure would be expected over an averaged work period.
Fume control

A hierarchical approach to fume control must be taken, as follows: Exposure must be prevented Exposure must be controlled using methods, i.e. LEV, other than respiratory protective equipment (RPE) Exposure must be controlled using LEV plus RPE If welding is to be performed, total prevention of exposure is not possible. The scope for reducing the quantity of fumes emitted, or for modifying their composition through consumable formulation, or by changing welding parameters, is very limited. Although general ventilation can help control exposure by reducing background levels of fume, it is usually ineffective for the control of welder exposure and may lead to expensive environmental heat loss. Consequently, ventilation that removes fume at source, commonly known as LEV, is recommended for fume control in the welding industry. Extracting the fume at source protects not only the welder but also other workers, by preventing the fume from entering the general workshop atmosphere. There are four main methods of controlling exposure by removing fume at source. These are: y y y y Adjustable extract hoods Extracted benches Extracted booths Extraction equipment fitted directly to the welding torch

Eight principles of good practice for the control of exposure of substances hazardous to health are set out in Schedule 2A of the COSHH Regulations 2002 (as amended). Approved Code of practice and guidance. If employers apply the principles correctly, exposure should be below any relevant WEL. The eight principles are detailed below: a. Design and operate processes and activities to minimise emission, release and spread of substances hazardous to health; b. Take into account all relevant routes of exposure - inhalation, skin absorption and ingestion - when developing control measures; c. Control exposure by measures that are proportionate to health risk; d. Choose the most effective and reliable control options which minimise the escape and spread of substances hazardous to health; e. Where adequate control of exposure cannot be achieved by other means, provide, in combination with other control measures, suitable personal protective equipment; f. Check and review regularly all elements of control measures for their continuing effectiveness; g. Inform and train all employees on the hazards and risks from the substances with which they work and the use of control measures developed to minimise the risks; h. Ensure that the introduction of control measures does not increase the overall risk to health and safety.

If ventilation control measures are used, it will be necessary to ensure that they are properly maintained by initiating a suitable management system. Such a system must ensure that control measures continue to be effective and that they are used properly. If circumstances change, re-assessment of the risks to health will be required. Respiratory protective equipment must be used provided and used when welding fume cannot be adequately controlled using LEV. RPE should always be regarded as a last resort solution to an exposure problem and should be used in addition to, rather than instead of, LEV. RPE is broadly grouped into two classes; respirators and air supplied equipment. Respirator equipment includes disposable respirators, powered respirators and face masks with filters. They take in contaminated air and filter or clean it before it is inhaled. Air supplied equipment includes devices such as air fed helmets and self-contained breathing apparatus. They deliver air from a separate source to the welder. If used, RPE should be incorporated into a formal management scheme so that effective controls are put in place and monitoring is undertaken regularly.
Measurement of exposure to fume and gases

The COSHH Regulations, require that, where necessary, the exposure of employees to hazardous substances is monitored in accordance with a suitable procedure. The employer must keep a suitable record of any monitoring carried out and ensure that the record or summary is kept available for inspection. Monitoring may be required to a) gather information on exposure levels when previous data and experience are not available, b) to ensure compliance with exposure limits, c) to test the effectiveness of control measures such as extraction, d) to give a guide for the selection of RPE. For welding fume and gases, exposure measurements must be performed according to standard protocols. The standard that applies is EN ISO 10882. The main difference between personal sampling during welding and sampling during other activities arises because a helmet is worn during welding. When a helmet is worn, sampling must be performed behind the helmet, to provide a true indication of the quantity of fume breathed. Measurements may also be carried out at pre-selected points in the workshop. These are known as fixed point measurements. While fixed point measurements do not measure personal exposure, they can be useful in estimating the amount of fume breathed by other workers in the area. They may also be useful in identifying failures of control measures. Records from monitoring should be readily retrievable for inspection and should be in an easily understood form. The results of personal sampling must be kept by the employer for at least forty years and for at least five years in all other cases.
Health monitoring and surveillance

Exposure to metal fumes and irritating gases, such as nitrogen oxides, has been identified as a cause of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Therefore, health monitoring of welders should be carried out. The early detection of reduced lung function or increased breathing problems could prevent further damage to the lungs. Regular testing by a health

professional, possibly involving completion of a questionnaire and an assessment of lung function is appropriate. Welding fumes that contain hexavalent chromium compounds are generally considered to be respiratory sensitisers, which means that they may cause asthma. Employees that are exposed to a substance that may cause occupational asthma should be under health surveillance. Health surveillance helps prevent the development of asthma by detecting the early signs of ill health. Higher or lower level health surveillance may be appropriate depending on the degree of risk. Further information may be obtained from Control guidance sheet 402, Health surveillance for occupational asthma, from Health and Safety Executive.
Information, instruction and training

The COHH regulations require that an employer, who undertakes work which may expose his employees to substances hazardous to health, provides information, instruction and training to allow them to know the risks to health created by the exposure and the precautions to be taken. General duties are placed upon manufacturers, importers or suppliers under Section 6 of the health and safety at Work Act 1974, to provide information on the risks to health of substances which they supply. Such information should be distributed by the employer to all employees and others who need it. It is not sufficient to simply hold the information on file. Employees or their representatives must be informed of the results of risk assessments and of any monitoring carried out, particularly the monitoring of substances that may be carcinogens or asthmagens where an exposure limit has been exceeded. The collective results of any health surveillance must also be provided, but in a form which preserves the anonymity of individuals. Employees (and other persons as appropriate) must, as described in the General COSHH Approved Code of Practice, be kept well informed in the following matters: a. The nature and degree of the risks to health arising as a consequence of exposure; including factors that may influence risk (such as the substances involved) and factors that may increase that risk (e.g. smoking). b. The control measures adopted, the reasons for these, and how to use them properly. c. The reasons for personal protective equipment and clothing, and the jobs where this is necessary. d. The monitoring procedures, the arrangements for access to the results, and methods of notification if the exposure limit for a carcinogen or asthmagen is exceeded. e. The role of health surveillance, employees' duty to attend, the health surveillance procedures, arrangements for access to individual records and the collective results of health surveillance. Instruction must be given to ensure that employees know: a. What they must do, the precautions that must be taken and when they must take them. b. What cleaning, storage and disposal procedures are in place, why they are required and when they are to be carried out. c. The procedures to be followed in an emergency.

Training must be provided for the effective application and use of: a. Methods of control b. Personal protective equipment c. Emergency measures
Bibliography

Great Britain. Parliament SI 2002 No 2677 The Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations 2002. London: The Stationery Office, 2002. ISBN 0110429192. Available online at: www.opsi.gov.uk/si/si2002/20022677.htm Health and Safety Executive EH40/2005 Workplace exposure limits 2005: containing the list of workplace exposure limits for use with the Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations as amended. Norwich: HSE, 2005. ISBN 0717629775. British Standards Institution BS EN ISO 10882-1:2001 Health and safety in welding and allied processes - Sampling of airborne particles and gases in the operator's breathing zone. Part 1: Sampling of airborne particles. London: BSI, 2001. ISBN 0580348407 British Standards Institution BS EN ISO 10882-2:2000 Health and safety in welding and allied processes - Sampling of airborne particles and gases in the operator's breathing zone. Part 2: Sampling of gases. London: BSI, 2000. ISBN 0580347052 Health and Safety Executive Respiratory protective equipment at work: a practical guide. (HSG53). Norwich:HSE, 2005. ISBN 071762904X. Health and Safety Executive Control of substances hazardous to health. The Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations 2002 (as amended). (L5) Norwich: HSE, 2005. ISBN 0717629813. Health and Safety Executive An introduction to local exhaust ventilation. (HSG37). Norwich: HSE, 1993. ISBN 0717610012.

Why is the Ti:N ratio specified in steel specifications? by Stephen Birch

At any given temperature, there is an equilibrium grain size which is dependent on the temperature. Therefore, grains will attempt to coarsen at elevated temperatures. Some restriction on grain growth by pinning the grain boundaries is provided by aluminium nitride particles, but above a certain temperature these are taken into solution, thus leaving the grain boundaries unimpeded. The presence of titanium nitrides (TiN) extends the temperature range over which the grain boundary pinning is effective, since these particles are taken into solution at a significantly higher temperature than other particles known to restrict grain growth [1,2] .

The optimum effect occurs with a particle size of ~0.05nm and a titanium content of ~0.015% [3] at around the stoichiometric composition (Ti/N = 3.42). It should be noted that at high temperatures, TiN particles coarsen (known as Ostwald ripening) and hence become less effective in the prevention of grain coarsening. It should also be recognised that the correct Ti:N ratio is not a guarantee of a suitable distribution of particles. In particular, the cooling rates during solidification of ingot cast steels are too slow, and result in too coarse a particle size distribution. TiN also promotes the formation of intragranular acicular ferrite by acting as nuclei during the transformation from austenite. This provides the steel with much improved notch toughness.
Further information

The effect of aluminium on the microstructure and toughness of submerged arc welds in CMn-Nb steel The effect of TiN particles on the HAZ properties of microalloyed steels (pdf 6.95MB) Local brittle zones in C-Mn steel multipass welds
References

N 1

Author

Title

Svensson L- 'Control of Microstructures and Properties in Steel Arc Welds', CRC Press E: 1994, p 97-99. Easterling K: 'Introduction to the Physical Metallurgy of Welding', Butterworth Heinemann 1992, p145. Lancaster J F: 'Metallurgy of Welding', Abington Publishing, pp 233-235.

What is meant by postweld heat treatment/stress relief heat treatment? by Joanna Nicholas
Postweld heat treatment (PWHT), or stress relief as it is sometimes known, is a method for reducing and redistributing the residual stresses in the material that have been introduced by welding. The extent of relaxation of the residual stresses depends on the material type and composition, the temperature of PWHT and the soaking time at that temperature. A commonly used guideline for PWHT is that the joint should be soaked at peak temperature for 1 hour for each 25mm (1 inch) of thickness, although for certain cases a minimum soak time will be specified. In addition to reduction and redistribution of residual stresses, PWHT at higher temperatures permits some tempering, precipitation or ageing effects to occur. These metallurgical changes can reduce the hardness of the as-welded structure, improving ductility and reducing the risks of brittle fracture. In some steels, however, ageing/precipitation processes can cause deterioration in the mechanical properties of the

steel, in which case, specialist advice should be taken on the appropriate times and temperatures to use. The necessity for PWHT depends on the material and the service requirements. Other factors that influence the need for PWHT are the welding parameters and the likely mechanism of failure. In some standards, PWHT is mandatory for certain grades or thicknesses, but where there is an option, cost and potential adverse effects need to be balanced against possible benefits. The energy costs are generally significant due to the high temperatures and long times involved, but costs associated with time delays may be more important. Detrimental effects include distortion, temper embrittlement, oversoftening and reheat cracking, which means that control of heating and cooling rates, holding temperature tolerances and the times at temperature are extremely important, and must be carefully controlled in order to realise the full benefit of the process. Quenched and tempered (Q&T) steels have the PWHT temperature limited to below the original tempering temperature of the steel, as higher temperatures can change the microstructure of the base material from what was expected or required.

What is the significance of local brittle zones (LBZs)? by Henryk Pisarski

Local brittle zones are discrete microstructural regions in a weld heat affected zone (HAZ) that exhibit lower resistance to fracture initiation than surrounding material. See What are LBZs? for further discussion of this topic. LBZs can result in fracture initiation under near linear elastic conditions during fracture toughness testing. For example, in terms of crack tip opening displacement (CTOD), fracture toughness can be of the order of 0.01mm in the LBZ when adjacent material can have a toughness of greater than 0.1mm at the same temperature. During testing, LBZs can result in specimen fracture or an arrested brittle fracture (pop-in). Consequently, LBZ behaviour is a warning of potentially low resistance to brittle fracture initiation in the structural component being assessed. However, LBZ behaviour does not necessarily mean that the structural component is at high risk of failure by brittle fracture. Where LBZ behaviour is observed, the results need to be carefully considered along with factors described below. LBZs are not normally apparent during routine Charpy impact testing. (See What are LBZs?). However, low Charpy toughness can be due to presence of LBZs when they are favourably positioned within the specimen and the test temperature is appropriate. LBZs can also result in fracture or pop-in with test specimen geometries other than the conventional, deeply notched three-point bend specimens used in CTOD testing (see BS 7448: Parts 1 and 2, ASTM E1290, ASTM E1820) such as: shallow notched bend specimens; single edge notch tension specimens; or structurally representative tests such as wide plate tension tests. However, because of reduced crack tip stress triaxiality or constraint in these geometries, LBZ behaviour may be less apparent and fracture toughness values may be

higher than in conventional, deeply notched bend specimens. Consequently, when assessing the structural significance of LBZs, consideration needs to be given to differences in crack tip constraint between the test specimen and the crack in the structural component of interest. To assess these differences, it will be necessary to either: y determine fracture toughness using a lower constraint test geometry (but ensuring at the same time that the microstructure giving rise to the LBZ is tested); or, conduct the fracture mechanics assessment allowing for the reduced constraint condition in the structure (e.g. using a constraint modified FAD [failure assessment diagram] according to BS 7910:2005).

Both theoretical and experimental work shows that LBZ behaviour is influenced by the length of LBZ present along the crack tip front. Consequently, in addition to constraint effects, the structural significance of the LBZ will depend on the likelihood of a crack tip intersecting the LBZ and the length of LBZ present. Although LBZ behaviour produces low initiation (usually cleavage) fracture toughness, the arrest toughness of other regions of the HAZ could be significantly higher. This is because the HAZ is a composite of different microstructures, some of which have high toughness. Thus, brittle fracture initiation from a LBZ will be followed by crack advance along a front intersecting both LBZ and high toughness regions. The overall toughness of this 'composite' microstructure may be sufficiently high to arrest the brittle fracture. This has been observed in crack arrest tests conducted on HAZs that contain LBZs, and it is part of the explanation for the arrest of popins observed in both conventional fracture mechanics tests (e.g. CTOD) and wide plate tests. Finally, if the material adjacent to and ahead of the LBZ can be shown to have sufficient fracture toughness to arrest a brittle fracture initiating from the LBZ, the risk of brittle fracture in the structure will be eliminated. However, this will necessitate the determination of the arrest fracture toughness of the surrounding material. (A procedure for assessing the capability of the structure to arrest a fracture that has initiated from a LBZ is described in chapter III, Section III.12 of the British Energy R6 document). Furthermore, the significance of an arrested brittle fracture on other modes of failure, for example, fatigue crack growth, needs to be evaluated.
References

ASTM E1290-09 Standard test method for Crack-tip opening displacement (CTOD) fracture toughness measurement. ASTM E1820-08 Standard test method for measurement of fracture toughness. BS 7448: Part 1: 1991 Fracture mechanics toughness tests. Part 1. Method for determination of KIc, critical CTOD and critical J values of metallic materials. BS 7448: Part 2: 1997 Fracture mechanics toughness tests. Part 2. Method for determination of KIc, critical CTOD and critical J values of welds in metallic materials.

BS 7910: 2005 (Incorporating Amendment No. 1, issued October 2007). Guide to methods for assessing the acceptability of flaws in metallic structures. R6 - Revision 4, 2001 (Amendment No.7, 2009) - 'Assessment of the Integrity of Structures containing Defects', British Energy.

Does the detection of intermetallic precipitates in super duplex stainless steel components compromise their fracture resistance?
It is well known that heating of duplex, and especially super duplex, stainless steel in the temperature range 750 to 1000C causes the precipitation of intermetallic phases (especially sigma phase, but also chi phase, nitrides and others), which can form within time periods of less than one minute. The presence of intermetallic phases can cause a severe loss in corrosion resistance and toughness. TWI work [1] has shown that intermetallic precipitation can occur in the HAZ during welding of thin wall thickness super duplex stainless steels. There is a marked reduction of Charpy and fracture toughness when intermetallic precipitates are present. The very sharp decrease in toughness from the solution annealed (or precipitate free) state to a situation when very small amounts (less than 0.5% volume fraction) of intermetallic are present suggests that there are microstructural modifications taking place before the precipitates are visible by microscopy, see Ref. [2] and [3]. However, the correlation between Charpy energy and fracture toughness is not affected by the presence, or otherwise, of intermetallic precipitates. Charpy requirements applicable will remain therefore valid for super duplex steel joints which may contain intermetallic precipitation [4]. In conclusion, with respect to the failure modes of fracture and plastic collapse, the existence of intermetallic precipitation does not mean that the component cannot be used safely at low temperatures, as long as the toughness levels determined reach the appropriate requirements.
References

1. C S Wiesner, S J Garwood and P L Bowden: 'The structural significance of HAZ sigma phase formation in 25% Cr super duplex pipework'. Proceedings of the 12 th International Conference on Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering. Glasgow, Scotland, June 20-24, 1993. Vol. III A, 59 - 68. New York, ASME, 1993. 2. R N Gunn and C S Wiesner, 'Effect of HAZ intermetallic precipitates on the toughness of super duplex stainless steel', TWI Research Report 624/98, September 1998 (only available to TWI Industrial Members). 3. C S Wiesner, 'Toughness requirements for duplex and super duplex stainless steels'. Duplex Stainless Steels '97. Proceedings of the 5 th World Conference. Maastricht, The Netherlands, 21-23 October 1997. Book 2, p.979-990. Zutphen, KCI Publishing, 1997. 4. Gunn R N: 'Intermetallic formation in super duplex stainless steel simulated HAZs'. Duplex Stainless Steels '97. Proceedings of the 5 th World Conference. Maastricht, The Netherlands, 21-23 October 1997. Book 2, p.335-345. Zutphen, KCI Publishing, 1997.

5. What Charpy toughness requirements should be specified for duplex and super duplex stainless steels?
6. Toughness requirements should be derived for the structural situation of interest as they will be strongly affected by applied loads and possible flaw dimensions. However, for general use of this type of steel, TWI work has suggested a Charpy requirement of 40J up to a wall thickness of 50mm at the minimum operating temperature. 7. Reference 8. C S Wiesner, 'Toughness requirements for duplex and super duplex stainless steels'. Duplex Stainless Steels '97. Proceedings of the 5th World Conference. Maastricht, The Netherlands, 21-23 October 1997. Book 2, p.979-990. Zutphen, KCI Publishing, 1997.

Standards commonly used in the UK joining industry: Quality and Testing (Metals)
y y y y Quality & terminology Destructive testing Nondestructive testing Nondestructive testing equipment and media

Qualification and Certification: NDT

AWS B5.15: 2010 Specification for the qualification of radiographic interpreters

The requirements for the qualification of radiographic interpreters, including experience, knowledge, and skills unique to the interpretation of radiographic media and the determination of acceptance criteria for weldments and adjacent base metal, are defined.
BS EN 473: 2008 Nondestructive testing. Qualification and certification of NDT personnel. General principles

Principles for the qualification and certification of personnel who perform industrial nondestructive testing (NDT) are established. The term 'industrial' implies the exclusion of medical applications. The certification covers proficiency in one or more of the following methods: acoustic emission testing; eddy current testing; leak testing (hydraulic pressure tests excluded); magnetic particle testing; penetrant testing; radiographic testing; ultrasonic testing; visual testing (direct unaided visual tests and visual tests carried out during the application of another NDT method are excluded).
BS EN 4179: 2009 Aerospace series. Qualification and certification of personnel for nondestructive testing

Minimum requirements for the qualification and approval of personnel involved in the use of nondestructive testing for materials, products, systems, subsystems and component inspection are specified. Training, experience and examination within the aerospace industry, in both manufacturing and service; individuals directly responsible for the technical adequacy of NDT methods used; and those providing technical training or supervision for NDT personnel are included. All NDT methods are covered.

ISO 11484: 2009 Steel products. Employer's qualification system for nondestructive testing (NDT) personnel ISO/TS 22809: 2007 Nondestructive testing. Discontinuities in specimens for use in qualification examinations

Will not be implemented as a British Standard

PD CEN/TR 14748: 2004 Nondestructive testing. Methodology for qualification of nondestructive tests

Basic principles, recommendations and general guidelines for carrying out qualification of nondestructive testing (NDT) are given. Methods for qualifying NDT procedures to determine whether they are capable of attaining their objectives and applies to all aspects of tests influencing their effectiveness are defined. The principles, qualification phases, steps and responsibilities are set out in detail and further information on the NDT qualification process is given in annexes.
PD CEN/TR 15589: 2007 Nondestructive testing. Code of practice for the approval of NDT personnel by recognised third party organisations under the provisions of Directive 97/23/EC

A methodology for approval of NDT personnel under the provisions of Directive 97/23/EC, Annex 1, section 3.1.3 is presented.
PD CEN ISO/TR 25107: 2006 Nondestructive testing. Guidelines for NDT training syllabuses.

Guidelines for non-destructive testing (NDT) training syllabuses, with the intention of harmonizing and maintaining the general standard of training of NDT personnel for industrial needs are given. It also establishes the minimum requirements for effective structured training of NDT personnel to ensure eligibility for qualification examinations leading to third-party certification according to recognized standards. In addition to nondestructive testing in general, its guidelines for syllabuses cover acoustic emission, eddy current, leak, magnetic particle, penetrant, radiographic, ultrasonic and visual testing.

Quality and Terminology AWS G1.10M: 2001 Guide for evaluation of hot gas, hot gas extrusion and heated tool butt thermoplastic welds
See Adhesives and Plastics Standards FAQ
BS 7910: 2005 Guidance on methods for assessing the acceptability of flaws in metallic structures (incorporating Amendment 1)

Supersedes PD 6493:1991 and PD 6539:1994 Guidance for assessing the acceptability of flaws in all types of structures and components is provided. Although specifically aimed at welded fabrications in ferritic and austenitic steels and aluminium alloys, the procedures developed can be used for analysing flaws in welds in

other materials and in non-welded applications. Types of defect and modes of failure are described. Detailed assessments for brittle fracture, fatigue, creep and other failure modes are given. Appendices cover: evaluation under stresses or loading; tubular joints in offshore structures; pressure vessels and pipelines; stress due to misalignment; flaw recharacterisation; leak-before-break assessment; reporting failure assessments; effects of weld strength mismatch on fracture behaviour; Charpy V-notch impact tests; reliability of data; fracture toughness determination; stress intensity factors; acceptability levels for flaws; proof testing and warm prestressing; reference stress; residual stress distributions; plasticity interaction effects under loading; fatigue life estimation; and high temperature crack growth assessments. BS EN 729 Quality requirements for welding. Fusion welding of metallic materials Part 1: 1995 Guidelines for selection and use Superseded by BS EN ISO 3834-1 Part 2: 1995 Comprehensive quality requirements Superseded by BS EN ISO 3834-2 Part 3: 1995 Standard quality requirements Superseded by BS EN ISO 3834-3 Part 4: 1995 Elementary quality requirements Superseded by BS EN ISO 3834-4
BS EN 1330 Non-destructive testing. Terminology

Part 1: 1998 List of general terms

The standard comprises a trilingual (English, French and German) listing of terms used in non-destructive testing which come from other fields, such as the electrical, vacuum technology and metrology industries. The relevant standard number is given beside each term. A listing of relevant standards is included within the text.

Part 2: 1998 Terms common to the non-destructive testing methods

Terms and definitions for non-destructive testing which are used in two or more testing methods are listed in this standard. The listing is trilingual, with both terms and definitions being given in English, French and German. Some terms listed in this part of the standard will be defined more precisely in the subsequent parts, which deal with the specific test methods in more detail.

Part 3: 1997 Terms used in industrial radiographic testing

Terms and definitions for radiographic testing are listed. The listing is trilingual, with both terms and definitions being given in English, French and German.

Part 4: 2010 Terms used in ultrasonic testing

Terms and definitions for ultrasonic testing are listed. The listing is trilingual, with both terms and definitions being given in English, French and German. Part 5: 1998 Terms used in eddy current testing Superseded by BS EN 12718: 2008

Part 7: 2005 Terms used in magnetic particle testing

Terms used in magnetic particle inspection are classified. Terminology is issued in three languages (English, French and German). There are forty six terms and definitions and alphabetical cross indexes for each of the three languages.

Part 8: 1998 Terms used in leak testing

Terms and definitions for leak testing are listed. The listing is trilingual, with both terms and definitions being given in English, French and German.

Part 9: 2009 Terms used in acoustic emission

Terms and definitions for acoustic emission are listed. The listing is trilingual, with both terms and definitions being given in English, French and German.

Part 10: 2003 Terms used in visual testing

Terms used in visual testing are listed. There are fifty three terms and definitions and alphabetical cross indexes for each of the three languages.

Part 11: 2007 Terms used in X-ray diffraction from polycrystalline and amorphous materials
This standard defines the most common terms used for X-ray powder diffraction methods.

BS EN 14728: 2005 Imperfections in thermoplastic welds

See Adhesives and Plastics Standards FAQ BS EN 25817: 1992 Arc welded joints in steel. Guidance on quality levels for imperfections Superseded by BS EN ISO 5817 BS EN 26520: 1992 Classification of imperfections in metallic fusion welds, with explanations Superseded by BS EN ISO 6520-1

BS EN 30042: 1994 Arc welded joints in aluminium and its weldable alloys. Guidance on quality levels for imperfections Superseded by BS EN ISO 10042
BS EN 61191 Printed board assemblies

Part 6: 2010 Evaluation criteria for voids in soldered joints of BGA and LGA and measurement methods
Identical to IEC 61191-6: 2010 The evaluation criteria for voids on the scale of the thermal cycle life, and the measurement method of voids using X-ray observation are specified. The standard applies to voids generated in solder joints of BGA and LGA soldered on a board, not to the BGA package itself before it is assembled on a board. Devices having joints made by melt and resolidification, such as flip chip devices and multi-chip modules, in addition to BGA and LGA are also covered, but not joints with under-fill between a device and a board, or to solder joints within a device package. The standard applies to macrovoids from 10 m to several hundred micrometres generated in a soldered joint, but not smaller voids (typically, planar microvoids) smaller than 10 m diameter.
BS EN ISO 3834 Quality requirements for fusion welding of metallic materials

Part 1: 2005 Criteria for the selection of the appropriate level of quality requirements
Supersedes BS EN 729-1 A general outline of ISO 3834 and criteria to be taken into account for the selection of the appropriate level of quality requirements for fusion welding of metallic materials, among the three levels specified in ISO 3834-2 [3], ISO 3834-3 [4] and ISO 3834-4 [5] is given. It applies to manufacturing, both in workshops and at field installation sites.

Part 2: 2005 Comprehensive quality requirements

Supersedes BS EN 729-2 This part of ISO 3834 defines comprehensive quality requirements for fusion welding of metallic materials both in workshops and at field installation sites.

Part 3: 2005 Standard quality requirements

Supersedes BS EN 729-3

This part of ISO 3834 defines standard quality requirements for fusion welding of metallic materials both in workshops and at field installation sites.

Part 4: 2005 Elementary quality requirements

Supersedes BS EN 729-4 This part of ISO 3834 defines elementary quality requirements for fusion welding of metallic materials both in workshops and at field installation sites.

Part 5: 2005 Documents with which it is necessary to conform to claim conformity to the quality requirements of ISO 3834-2, ISO 3834-3 or ISO 3834-4 Part 6: 2007 Guidelines on implementing BS ISO 3834-1
(PD CEN ISO/TR 3834-6: 2007)
BS EN ISO 5817: 2007 Welding. Fusion welded joints in steel, nickel, titanium and their alloys (beam welding excluded). Quality levels for imperfections

Supersedes BS EN 25817 This standard specifies quality levels of imperfections (excluding for beam welding) in fusion-welded joints in all types of steel, nickel, titanium and their alloys, using a range of arc welding processes and oxy-fuel gas welding (steel only). It applies to material thicknesses above 0.5 mm. It contains a simplified selection of designations given in ISO 6520-1: 1998. Imperfections are assessed in terms of relevant designations, wall or plate nominal thickness and three levels of limits on production quality.
BS EN ISO 6520 Welding and allied processes. Classification of geometric imperfections in metallic materials

Part 1: 2007 Fusion welding

Precise classifications and descriptions of weld imperfections, including explanations and illustrations where appropriate, are detailed. The content and numbering system from ISO 6520: 1982 have been retained as far as possible, though additional imperfections have been included , and the terms on Undercut have been renumbered. New numbers have been introduced for microshrinkage in order to make a distinction between macroscopic and microscopic phenomena, and information on cracking after welding is included.

Part 2: 2002 Welding with pressure

Ppossible geometric imperfections in welds in metallic materials made by welding with pressure are classified by a uniform designation of type, shape and dimensions. Metallurgical deviations and imperfections caused by non-welding factors are not included. The imperfections are classified in six groups covering cracks, cavities, lack of fusion,

imperfect shape and other imperfections. The main welding with pressure processes and their variants are covered. There is an informative annex listing relevant imperfections against the various welding processes.
BS EN ISO 9013: 2002 Thermal cutting. Classification of thermal cuts. Geometrical product specification and quality tolerances

Quality classification and dimensional tolerance requirements for oxyfuel, plasma and laser cut metals between 3 and 300 mm thick are presented. Factors used for the classification of quality are perpendicular tolerance, angularity tolerance, ten point height of irregularities, drag and melting of top edge. Tables give limit deviations for normal tolerances. Symbols and codes for marking required quality and tolerances on technical drawings and documents are shown.
BS EN ISO 10042: 2005 Welding. Arc welded joints in aluminium and its alloys. Quality levels for imperfections

Supersedes BS EN 30042 Quality levels are specified for imperfections in arc welded joints in aluminium and its alloys. It applies to material thicknesses above 0,5 mm and covers full penetration butt welds and all fillet welds. The principles of the standard may also be applied to partial penetration butt welds. Quality levels for beam welded joints are presented in ISO 13919-2. Three quality levels are given in order to permit application to a wide range of welded constructions and these are designated by symbols B, C and D. Quality level B corresponds to the highest requirement on the finished weld. The quality levels refer to production quality and not to the fitness for purpose of the product manufactured. The standard applies to: all types of weld, e.g. butt welds, fillet welds and branch connections; the following welding processes and their sub-processes as defined in ISO 4063: metal inert gas welding (MIG welding); gas metal arc welding; tungsten inert gas welding (TIG welding) (gas tungsten arc welding); plasma arc welding; manual, mechanised and automatic welding - in all welding positions.
BS EN ISO 12706: 2009 Nondestructive testing. Penetrant testing. Vocabulary

Technical terms relating to penetrant testing are defined.

BS EN ISO 12718: 2008 Nondestructive testing. Eddy current testing. Vocabulary

Supersedes BS EN 1330-5: 1998 Terms and definitions for eddy current testing are listed. The listing is trilingual, with both terms and definitions being given in English, French and German.
BS EN ISO 13919 Welding. Electron and laser beam welded joints. Guidance on quality levels for imperfections

Part 1: 1997 Steel

The standard should be used as a reference in the drafting of application codes and/or for other application standards. It gives guidance levels of imperfections in electron and laser beam welded joints in steel. The three levels are given so as to permit application for a wide range of welded fabrications, and refer to production quality.

Part 2: 2001 Aluminium and its weldable alloys

Used as a reference for drafting application codes and/or other application standards, this standard provides guidance on levels of imperfections in electron and laser beam welding of all types of joint, with or without filler wire, in aluminium and its alloys of. The thickness range covered is equal to or above 1mm. A wide range of welded fabrications is covered through the three levels of imperfections.
BS EN ISO 14731: 2006 Welding coordination. Tasks and responsibilities

This International Standard identifies the quality-related responsibilities and tasks included in the coordination of welding-related activities. In any manufacturing organization, welding coordination can be undertaken by one or a number of persons. Welding coordination requirements can be specified by a manufacturer, a contract or an application standard.
BS EN ISO 17663: 2009 Welding. Quality requirements for heat treatment in connection with welding and allied processes

Supersedes PD CR ISO 17663:2001 Requirements for heat treatment in air or controlled atmospheres carried out in workshops and on site in connection with welding and forming are specified. It applies mainly to ferritic steels, but can be used for other materials as appropriate. Guidance is provided for manufacturers that perform heat treatment or produce heat treated products or components. The standard can also be used as a basis for assessing a manufacturer in respect to heat treatment capability.
BS EN ISO 18279: 2003 Brazing. Imperfections in brazed joints.

This standard provides a classification of imperfections that can occur in brazed joints. Guidance is given on quality levels and limits on imperfections are suggested. The imperfections are divided into six groups, details being given in a table: cracks, cavities, solid inclusions, bonding imperfections, shape and size imperfections and miscellaneous imperfections. A distinction is also made in classifying external and internal imperfections. Information on evaluation is given in two annexes.
BS EN ISO 23277: 2009 Nondestructive testing of welds. Penetrant testing of welds. Acceptance levels

Supersedes BS EN 1289:1998

Acceptance levels for indications from surface breaking imperfections in metallic welds detected by penetrant testing are specified. The acceptance levels can be used during manufacture or for in service inspection. Definitions are given of linear and non-linear indications. Effects of sensitivity, surface condition, process and technique on the shape and size of indication produced by a weld imperfection, and their relation to acceptance level are specified.
BS EN ISO 23278: 2009 Nondestructive testing of welds. Magnetic particle testing of welds. Acceptance levels

Supersedes BS EN 1281:1998 This standard specifies acceptance levels for indications from imperfections in ferromagnetic steel welds detected by magnetic particle testing, and applies to inspection during manufacture or in service. Definitions are given of linear and non-linear indications. Tables are presented of acceptance levels and of recommended testing parameters for the reliable detection of small imperfections. Grouped indications and the removal of imperfections are considered.
BS EN ISO 23279: 2010 Nondestructive testing of welds. Ultrasonic testing. Characterisation of indications in welds

Supersedes BS EN 1713:1998 The characterisation of embedded indications by classifying them as planar or non-planar is specified. The procedure is also suitable for indications that break the surface after removal of the weld reinforcement.
BS ISO 24497 Nondestructive testing. Metal magnetic memory

Part 1: 2007 Terms and definitions

Terms and definitions for procedures in the sphere of nondestructive testing by the method of metal magnetic memory are specified.
ISO 10675 Nondestructive testing of welds. Acceptance levels for radiographic testing

Part 1: 2008 Steel, nickel, titanium and their alloys

ISO/DIS 15628 Nondestructive testing of welds. Time-of-flight diffraction technique. Acceptance levels

Circulated for EN ISO adoption via Fast Track (April 2010)

ISO 19232 Nondestructive testing. Image quality of radiographs

Part 1: 2004 Image quality indicators (wire type). Determination of image quality value
See also BS EN 462-1

Part 2: 2004 Image quality classes for ferrous metals

See also BS EN 462-3

Part 3: 2004 Image quality indicators (step/hole type). Determination of image quality value
See also BS EN 462-2

Part 4: 2004 Experimental evaluation of image quality values and image quality tables
See also BS EN 462-4

Part 5: 2004 Image quality indicators (duplex wire type). Determination of image unsharpness value
See also BS EN 462-5 PD 6493: 1991 Guidance on methods for assessing the acceptability of flaws in fusion welded structures Superseded by BS 7910 PD 6539: 1994 Guide to methods for the assessment of the influence of crack growth on the significance of defects in components operating at high temperatures Superseded by BS 7910

Testing
Destructive Testing
AWS B4.0M: 2007 Standard methods for mechanical testing of welds (metric)

Requirements for mechanical testing of welds and welded joints are given. The standard covers butt, fillet and stud welds, tested by bend tests, tension tests, fracture toughness tests, soundness tests, shear tests, nick-break tests, hardness tests, stud weld tests and selected weldability tests (controlled thermal severity, cruciform, implant, Lehigh restraint, Varestraint, oblique Y-groove tests). For each testing method, scope, applicable ANSI and ASTM document references, required apparatus, specimen preparation, procedure and report requirements are given.

AWS C3.2M/C3.2: 2008 Standard method for evaluating the strength of brazed joints

A standard test method is described for obtaining reliable shear strength values for brazed joints of different designs. In this revision test specimens to obtain brazed strength data in butt tension, stress rupture, creep strength and four-point bending are added to single lap shear specimens previously given. Aspects covered include: specimen preparation methods, brazing and postbrazing procedures; mechanical testing techniques and recording and presentation of data.
AWS C7.3: 1999 (R2003) Process specification for electron beam welding

This standard addresses processing and quality control requirements for electron beam welding. The specification covers safety issues (electric shocks, materials, fumes and gases, X-radiation, visible radiation, vacuum, mechanical systems), requirements (equipment, materials, joint design, pre-weld and post-weld heat treatments), fabrication, inspection (nondestructive examination, discontinuity limits, destructive evaluation), equipment calibration and maintenance, approval of work, and delivery of work (identification, protective treatments and packaging).
AWS D8.9M: 2002 (SAE D8.9M) Recommended practices for test methods for evaluating the resistance spot welding behaviour of automotive sheet steel materials

The document contains several standardised test methods for evaluating the resistance spot welding behaviour of coated and uncoated sheet steels in a laboratory. The following are determined: the effect of the interaction between a sheet steel's coating and the welding electrodes on electrode deterioration and weld size/quality over an extended number of welds; currents; mechanical properties of welds at different weld sizes and hold times; metallurgical and hardness properties of welds. BS 709: 1983 Methods of destructive testing welded joints and weld metal in steel Superseded by BS EN 1043-1, BS EN 1043-2, BS EN 1320, BS EN 1321, BS EN 875, BS EN 876, BS EN 895, BS EN 910, BS EN ISO 9018 BS 1723 Brazing Part 3:1988 Methods for nondestructive and destructive testing Superseded by BS EN 12797 and BS EN 12799 BS 3451: 1973 Methods of testing fusion welds in aluminium and aluminium alloys Superseded by BS EN 895, BS EN 910, BS EN 1320 and BS EN 1321 BS 4206: 1967 Methods of testing fusion welds in copper and copper alloys Superseded by BS EN 895, BS EN 910, BS EN 1320 and BS EN 1321

BS EN 875: 1995 Destructive tests on welds in metallic materials. Impact tests. Test specimen location, notch orientation and examination

Partially supersedes BS 709:1983 Requirements are presented for the method to be used when describing test piece location and notch orientation for the testing and reporting of impact tests on welded butt joints. The standard applies to impact tests on metallic materials in all forms of product with joints made by any fusion welding process.
BS EN 876: 1995 Destructive tests on welds in metallic materials. Longitudinal tensile test on weld metal in fusion welded joints

Partially supersedes BS 709:1983 Specifications are given for the sizes of test pieces and the test procedures required for carrying out longitudinal tensile tests on cylindrical test pieces to determine the mechanical properties of weld metal in a fusion welded joint. The standard applies to welds made by any fusion process in any metallic material.
BS EN 895: 1995 Destructive tests on welds in metallic materials. Transverse tensile test

Partially supersedes BS 709:1983, BS 3451:1973 and BS 4206:1967 Requirements are given for the sizes of test pieces and the procedure for carrying out transverse tensile tests to determine the tensile strength and location of fracture of a welded butt joint. The standard applies to metallic materials in all forms of product with joints made by any fusion welding process. BS EN 910: 1996 Destructive tests on welds in metallic materials. Bend tests Superseded by BS EN ISO 5173: 2010; partially supersedes BS 709:1983, BS 3451:1973 and BS 4206:1967
BS EN 1043 Destructive tests on welds in metallic materials. Hardness testing

Part 1: 1996 Hardness tests on arc welded joints

Partially supersedes BS 709:1983; related to ISO 9015-1:2001 A specification is given for hardness testing on transverse sections of arc welded joints of metals. Vickers hardness tests according to ISO 6507-1 with loads of 49 N or 98 N are covered but the principles may be applied to Brinell hardness testing in accordance with EN 10003-1 and microhardness testing to ISO 6507-2 and EN 1043-2. Test piece preparation, test procedure and location of indentations are specified.

Part 2: 1997 Micro hardness testing on welded joints

Partially supersedes BS 709:1983; related to ISO 9015-2:2003 The standard specifies microhardness tests on transverse sections of welded joints of metallic materials with high hardness gradients. It covers Vickers hardness tests in accordance with ISO DIS 6507-1, but not the test described in EN 1043-1. It specifies the location of indentations, preparation of specimens, test procedure and report format.
BS EN 1320: 1997 Destructive tests on welds in metallic materials. Fracture tests

Partially supersedes BS 709:1983, BS 3451:1973 and BS 4206:1967 The sizes of test pieces and procedures are specified for carrying out fracture tests to obtain information on the types, sizes and distribution of internal imperfections such as porosity, cracks, lack of penetration and solid inclusions. The standard applies to metals in all sorts of products welded by any fusion welding process.
BS EN 1321: 1997 Destructive tests on welds in metallic materials. Macroscopic and microscopic examination of welds

Partially supersedes BS 709:1983, BS 3451:1973 and BS 4206:1967 The methods of specimen preparation, test procedures and their main objectives are specified for the macroscopic and microscopic examination of welds. Defects and microstructural features that can be assessed by the different methods are tabulated.
BS EN 12797: 2000 Brazing. Destructive tests of brazed joints

With BS EN 12799 supersedes BS 1723-3:1988 This standard describes the principles, and test pieces and specimens, test procedures needed to perform destructive tests on brazed joints. The standard covers the general principles of destructive testing, shear tests, tensile tests, metallographic examination, hardness testing, peel tests, and bend tests. Details are given of the test results and information to be reported. Imperfections in brazed joints are described in Annex A.

BS EN 12814 Testing of welded joints of thermoplastics semi-finished products Parts 1-8

See Adhesives and Plastics Standards FAQ
BS EN 13445 Unfired pressure vessels

Part 5: 2009 Inspection and testing

The inspection and testing of individual and serially produced pressure vessels made of steels in accordance with Part 2 is specified. Tables are presented of the extent of nondestructive testing (NDT) for various types of welds and of the various NDT methods and associated techniques, characterisation and acceptance criteria. The selection of NDT methods for detection of internal flaws in full penetration joints is presented. Destructive tests are also covered.
BS EN 15085 Railway applications. Welding of railway vehicles and components

Part 5: 2007 Inspection, testing and documentation

Inspections and testing to be executed on the welds; destructive and nondestructive tests to be performed; and necessary product conformity documentation are specified.
BS EN 60068 Environmental testing

Part 2-20: 2008 Test T. Test methods for solderability and resistance to soldering heat of devices with leads
Identical to IEC 60068-2-20; supersedes BS 2011-2.1T:1981, which remains current Tests are presented to determine the ability of component terminations and printed circuits to wet easily, and to check that the component itself will not be damaged by assembly soldering processes.

Part 2-54: 2006 Tests. Test Ta. Solderability testing of electronic components by the wetting balance method
Supersedes BS 2011-2.1Ta:1989 This part of IEC 60068 outlines Test Ta, solder bath wetting balance method applicable for any shape of component terminations to determine the solderability. It is especially suitable for reference testing and for components that cannot be quantitatively tested by other methods. (For surface mounting devices (SMD), IEC 60068-2-69 should be applied if it is suitable.) This standard provides the standard procedures for solder alloys containing lead (Pb) and for lead-free solder alloys.

Part 2-58: 2004 Tests. Test Td. Test methods for solderability. Resistance to dissolution of metallisation and to soldering heat of surface mounting devices (SMD)
Identical to IEC 60068-2-58

Applicable to surface mounting devices (SMD), which are intended to mount on substrates. Standard procedures for solder alloys containing lead (Pb) and for lead-free solder alloys are provided along with procedures for determining the solderability and resistance of soldering heat to lead-free solder alloys, and procedures for determining the solderability, dissolution of metallization and resistance of soldering heat to solder alloys which are eutectic or near eutectic tin lead solders. The procedures in this standard include the solder bath method and reflow method. The objective of this standard is to ensure that component lead or termination solderability meets the applicable solder joint requirements of IEC 61191-2 using each of the soldering methods specified in IEC 61760-1. In addition, test methods are provided to ensure that the component body can resist the heat load to which it is exposed during soldering.

Part 2-69: 2007 Tests. Test Te. Solderability testing of electronic components for surface mount technology by the wetting balance method
Identical to IEC 60068-2-69 A description is given of two wetting balance methods (solder bath and solder globule) for quantitatively determining the solderability of terminations on surface mounted devices. Both techniques are applicable to components with metallic terminations and metallised solder pads. Topics covered include: general description of the method; description of the test apparatus; specimen preparation; solder and flux composition; test procedures; test conditions; presentation of results; and information to be given in the relevant specification. Equipment specification and use of the wetting balance for surface mounted device (SMD) solderability testing are covered in annexes.
BS EN 60512 Connectors for electronic equipment. Tests and measurements

Part 12-1: 2006 Soldering tests. Test 12a. Solderability. Wetting, solder bath method
Identical to IEC 60152-12-1 A standard test method to assess the solderability of the terminations of a connector designed for use with printed boards or for other applications using similar soldering techniques is detailed.

Part 12-2: 2006 Soldering tests. Test 12b. Solderability. Wetting, soldering iron method
Identical to IEC 60512-12-2 A standard test method to assess the solderability of the terminations of a connector that are designed to be soldered with a soldering iron and the soldering bath test method of IEC 60512-12-1 is not appropriate is detailed.

Part 12-3: 2006 Soldering tests. Test 12c. Solderability. Dewetting

Identical to IEC 60512-12-3 A standard test method to assess the ability of the terminations of a connector to remain covered with solder when being brought into contact with molten solder under specified conditions is defined.

Part 12-4: 2006 Soldering tests. Test 12d. Solderability. Resistance to soldering heat. Solder bath method
Identical to IEC 60512-12-4 A standard test method is detailed to assess the ability of a connector to withstand the heating stresses produced by a mass soldering operation.

Part 12-5: 2006 Soldering tests. Test 12e. Resistance to soldering heat. Soldering iron method
Identical to IEC 60512-12-5 A standard test method is detailed to assess the ability of a connector to withstand the heating stresses produced by a soldering iron.

Part 12-6: 1997 Soldering tests. Test 12f. Sealing against flux and cleaning solvents in machine soldering
Identical to IEC 60512-12-6 The object of this test is to detail a standard test method to verify the effectiveness of the sealing of a component against flux and cleaning solvents during the machine soldering process. The results of this test may not be represent active for other fluxes; e.g. resinreduced foam flux, other fluxing and cleaning methods as prescribed herein.

Part 12-7: 2001 Soldering tests. Test 12g. Solderability. Wetting balance method
Identical to IEC 60512-12-7 This specification defines a standard test method to assess the solderability of the terminations of a component designed for use with printed boards or other applications using similar soldering techniques.
BS EN 60749 Semiconductor devices. Mechanical and climatic test methods

Part 21: 2005 Solderability

Identical to IEC 60749-21 A standard procedure is established for determining the solderability of device package terminations that are intended to be joined to another surface using tin-lead (SnPb) or leadfree (Pb-free) solder for the attachment. This test method provides a procedure for 'dip and look' solderability testing of through hole, axial and surface mount devices (SMDs) as well as an optional procedure for a board mounting solderability test for SMDs for the purpose of allowing simulation of the soldering process to be used in the device application. The test method also provides optional conditions for ageing. This test is considered destructive unless otherwise detailed in the relevant specification.
BS EN 62137 Surface mount technology. Environmental and endurance test methods for surface mount solder joint

Part 1-1: 2007 Pull strength test

Identical to IEC 62137-1-1:2007 The test method described is applicable to gull-wing lead surface mounting components. The method is designed to test and evaluate the endurance of the soldered joint between component leads and lands on a substrate, by means of a pull type mechanical stress. This test is suitable for evaluating the effects of repeated temperature change on the strength of the soldered joint between component terminals and lands on a substrate.

Part 1-2: 2007 Shear strength test

Identical to IEC 62137-1-2: 2007 The test method described is applicable to leadless surface mounting components and surface mounting connectors to which pull test is not applicable. It is not applicable to multi-lead components and gull-wing leads. The method is designed to test and evaluate the endurance of the soldered joint between component terminals and lands on a substrate, by means of a shear type mechanical stress. This test is applicable to evaluate the effects of repeated temperature change on the strength of the soldered joints between terminals and lands on a substrate.

Part 1-3: 2009 Cyclic drop test

Identical to IEC 62137-1-3: 2009 The test method described applies to soldered joints between terminals of surface mounting devices (SMDs) and land patterns on printed wiring boards (PWBs). It is intended to evaluate the strength of the soldered joints of larger sized multi-terminal components and other components in devices (e.g. handheld mobile devices) in the event that the device is

dropped. The properties of the soldered joints (e.g. solder alloy, substrate, mounted device or design, etc.) are evaluated to assist in improving joint strength.

Part 1-4: 2009 Cyclic bending test

Identical to IEC 62137-1-4: 2009 The test method described applies to surface mount components with a thin and wide basal plane, such as QFP and BGA. It evaluates the endurance of the soldered joints between component leads and lands on a substrate by cyclic bending of substrate and also the effects of repeated mechanical stress, such as key pushing in cell phones, the strength of the soldered joint between component terminals and lands on a substrate. Evaluation requires the surface mount component to be mounted on the substrate by reflow soldering, then the substrate is cyclically bent to a certain degree of depth until fracture of the soldered joints occurs. The properties of the soldered joints (e.g, solder alloy, substrate, mounted device or design, etc.) are evaluated to assist in improving joint strength.

Part 1-5: 2009 Mechanical shear fatigue test

Identical to IEC 62137-1-5: 2009 A method, applying to area array packages such as BGA, is described to test and evaluate the fatigue life of the soldered joint between component leads and lands on the substrate of surface mounting connectors. The surface mount component is mounted on the substrate by reflow soldering and cyclic mechanical shear deformation is applied to the soldered joints until fracture occurs. After a general introduction, detail is given of test equipment and materials utilising the reflow soldering process and solder composition in the range Sn, 34%Ag, 0.5-1%Cu. Test piece assembly is defined. Shear test conditions and procedures are set out. Data to be included in test reports and product specifications are listed.
BS EN ISO 5173: 2010 Destructive tests on welds in metallic materials. Bend tests

Supersedes BS EN 910:1996 A method for making transverse root, face and side bend tests on test specimens from butt welds, butt welds with cladding (subdivided into welds in clad plates and clad welds) and cladding without butt welds, in order to assess ductility and/or absence of imperfections on or near the surface of the test specimen is specified. Dimensions of the test specimen are given. Also specified is a method for making longitudinal root and face bend tests for use instead of transverse bend tests for heterogeneous assemblies when base materials and/or filler metal have a significant difference in their physical and mechanical properties in relation to bending. The standard applies to metallic materials in all forms of product with welded joints made by any fusion arc welding process.
BS EN ISO 7539 Corrosion of metals and alloys. Stress corrosion testing

Part 8: 2008 Preparation and use of specimens to evaluate weldments

Procedures available for stress corrosion testing of welded specimens are specified and the additional factors which must be taken into account when conducting tests on welded specimens are examined. Recommendations are given for the choice of specimens and test procedures to determine the resistance of a metal to stress corrosion when it is welded.
BS EN ISO 9018: 2003 Destructive tests on welds in metallic materials - tensile test on cruciform and lapped joints

Partially supersedes BS 709 This standard specifies the testpiece and specimen dimensions and the procedure for tensile testing to determine the tensile strength and fracture location of welded joints with transversely stressed fillet welds in welded cruciform and lap joints in metal plates and other solid sections. Test result evaluation is not covered. Requirements are given for test procedure including experimental conditions, specimen preparation, test method and information to appear in the test report. An example of a test report is given in an annex.
BS EN ISO 10447: 2007 Resistance welding. Peel and chisel testing of resistance spot and projection welds

The procedure and recommended tooling to be used for testing resistance spot and projection welds by means of peel and chisel tests is specified. It applies to welds made in two or more sheets in the thickness range of 0,5 mm to 3,0 mm. The aim of these tests is to determine: weld size and failure type when the tests are used as destructive tests, and verification of welds when the tests are used as non-destructive tests. The previous edition of this standard included seam welds. The preferred method of peel testing seam welds (mechanised peel testing) is now covered in BS EN ISO 14270.
BS EN ISO 14270: 2001 Specimen dimensions and procedure for mechanised peel testing resistance spot, seam and embossed projection welds

This standard specifies specimen dimensions and a testing procedure for mechanised peel testing of single spot, seam and projection welds in overlapping sheets. It is applicable to any metallic material of thickness 0.5-3 mm, where the welds have a maximum diameter of 7 x sq. root of t (where t is the sheet thickness in mm). For near-maximum size welds, the peel force value can be underestimated using the recommended test specimen dimensions. Test specimen dimensions, test equipment, testing procedures and the information required in a test report are also included.
BS EN ISO 14271: 2001 Vickers hardness testing of resistance spot, projection and seam welds (low load and microhardness)

This standard describes the procedures for hardness testing of etched cross sections of resistance spot, projection and seam welds in order to determine Vickers hardness in the low load or microhardness range of the weld nugget, HAZ and parent metal. It is applicable

to welds made in ferrous and non-ferrous metal sheets with a thickness of at least 0.5 mm. The standard covers recommended forces for testing resistance welds, test pieces, test equipment, testing procedures and positions of the indentations, and the information to be included in the test report.
BS EN ISO 14272: 2001 Specimen dimensions and procedure for cross tension testing resistance spot and embossed projection welds

This standard specifies the specimen dimensions and a testing procedure for the cross tension testing of spot and projection welds in overlapping sheets in any metallic material of thickness 0.5-3 mm where the welds have a maximum diameter of 7 x sq. root of t (where t is the sheet thickness in mm). The object of the test is to determine the tensile force that the test specimen can sustain. This standard covers test specimen dimensions, test equipment, testing procedures and the information required in a test report.
BS EN ISO 14273: 2001 Specimen dimensions and procedure for shear testing resistance spot, seam and embossed projection welds

This standard specifies the specimen dimensions and a testing procedure for shear testing of spot, seam and embossed projection welds in overlapping sheets in any metallic material of thickness 0.5-10 mm where the welds have a maximum diameter of 7 x sq. root of t (where t is the thickness in mm). For near-maximum size welds, the value of shear strength can be underestimated when using the recommended test specimen dimensions. The object of the test is to determine the tensile force that the test specimen can sustain. Test specimen dimensions, test equipment, testing procedures and the information required in a test report are also included.
BS EN ISO 14324: 2003 Resistance spot welding. Destructive tests of welds. Method for the fatigue testing of spot welded joints

This standard specifies test specimens and procedures for fatigue testing spot welds, at ambient conditions, under repeated tensile loading to produce either shear or cross tension loading of the spot weld, in steel sheet of thickness 0.5-6 mm. The standard covers requirements for test specimens (including shape and dimensions, test sheets and specimen fabrication), the testing machine, test methods (including test rig details, specimen clamping, procedure, test termination and fatigue limit data determination), analysis and presentation of test results and test report information.
BS EN ISO 14329: 2003 Resistance welding. Destructive tests of welds. Failure types and geometric measurements for resistance spot, seam and projection welds

This standard specifies definitions of the geometric measurements and fracture types to be used in relation to the destructive testing of resistance spot, seam and projection welds in which different loading configurations cause different stress distributions in the weld. The aim of establishing these definitions is to provide a common basis for their use in other related standards. Requirements are divided into two sections: terms and definitions and symbols, abbreviated terms and units. Illustrative figures are provided.

BS EN ISO 14923: 2003 Thermal spraying. Characterisation and testing of thermally sprayed coatings

Guidance on tests used for the characterisation of thermally sprayed coatings is given. Details regards the different types of coatings are not included. Tests listed are procedures and test criteria in general use - visual examination, surface roughness measurement and impression, crack detection, hardness, thickness, conductivity, metallographic examination, SEM, X-ray diffraction, chemical analysis, bond strength, hardness, wear, thermal shock and corrosion resistance.
BS EN ISO 17641 Destructive tests on welds in metallic materials. Hot cracking tests for weldments. Arc welding processes

Part 1: 2004 General

This standard summarises the fundamentals of hot cracking in weld metals and parent alloys. It briefly describes the tests available for assessing hot cracking in arc welding processes. Types of test are divided into self-restraint tests (EN ISO 17641-2) and externally loaded tests (EN 1S0 17641-3). These are further subdivided, self restraint tests covering the T-joint weld cracking, weld metal tensile and longitudinal bend tests and the externally loaded tests the hot tensile, Varestraint and Transvarestraint and controlled flat tensile tests. Applications for the tests are summarised in tabular form.

Part 2: 2005 Self-restraint tests

This standard specifies requirements for testpiece design and procedures to be followed to carry out self restraint hot cracking tests on weldments made by arc welding processes to measure the sensitivity of weld metals to three types of hot cracking: T-joint weld cracking test, weld metal tensile test and longitudinal bend test. Details are given of the specific requirements for each test, covering testpiece preparation, welding and examination and test report.

Part 3: 2005 Externally loaded tests

(PD CEN ISO/TR 17641-3) This standard specifies backing plate sizes, test piece dimensions and procedures for carrying out externally loaded hot cracking tests by implant testing to obtain information on hot cracking sensitivity during welding. It applies primarily, but not exclusively, to carbon, manganese and low alloy steels. It states criteria for assessing the test characteristics and gives detailed requirements for the implant test, including materials, specimen dimensions and preparation, welding and test procedures, test piece examination and test report.
BS EN ISO 17642 Destructive tests on welds in metallic materials. Cold cracking tests for weldments. Arc welding processes

Part 1: 2004 General

This standard summarises the fundamentals of cold crack formation and the principles of cold cracking tests that can be used to determine the cold cracking sensitivity of welding consumables, parent materials and weld metal. Types of test are divided into self-restraint tests (EN ISO 17642-2) and externally loaded tests (EN ISO 17642-3). These are set out, with their applications, in tabular form, and further subdivided into self restraint tests covering the CTS, Y-groove (Tekken) and U-groove (Lehigh) tests and externally loaded tests covering the implant test.

Part 2: 2005 Self-restraint tests

This part specifies requirements for testpiece design and procedures to be followed to carry out self restraint tests to assess the cold cracking sensitivity of parent materials and welding consumables by the following tests: CTS (Controlled Thermal Severity) test, Tekken (Ygroove) or Lehigh (U-groove) test. The standard applies primarily to C-Mn and low alloy steels. Details are given of specific requirements for each test, covering testpiece preparation, welding, examination and test report.

Part 3: 2005 Externally loaded tests

This standard specifies backing plate sizes, test piece dimensions and procedures for carrying out externally loaded cold cracking tests by implant testing to obtain information on cold cracking sensitivity during welding. It applies primarily, but not exclusively, to carbon, manganese and low alloy steels. It states criteria for assessing the test characteristics and gives detailed requirements for the implant test, including materials, specimen dimensions and preparation, welding and test procedures, test piece examination and test report.
BS EN ISO 18278 Resistance welding. Weldability

Part 1: 2004 Assessment of weldability for resistance spot, seam and projection welding of metallic materials
This standard gives recommendations for determining the generic weldability for resistance spot, seam and projection welding of metallic materials. These are applicable to uncoated and coated steels, stainless steels and nonferrous alloys such as aluminium, titanium, magnesium, nickel and their alloys, having a single thickness less than or equal to 5 mm. The procedures can be used for weldability comparison or investigation purposes, equipment response comparison or effects of welding parameters on weldability. Test conditions are specified.

Part 2: 2004 Alternative procedures for the assessment of sheet steels for spot welding
This standard specifies a test procedure to assess the weldability of uncoated and coated sheet steels of thicknesses up to 3 mm by determining the acceptable welding current range and electrode life using a multi-spot test under specific conditions. It applies only to a new type or batch of material. Requirements are given for test equipment, range of qualification, testpiece characteristics, preliminary adjustments, welding current range determination, electrode life estimation, specific conditions for steel sheet, customer qualification and test report.
BS ISO 22826: 2005 Destructive tests on welds in metallic materials. Hardness testing of narrow joints welded by laser and electron beam (Vickers and Knoop hardness tests)

This standard specifies requirements for hardness testing of transverse sections of narrow laser and electron beam welded joints in metallic materials. It applies to Vickers and Knoop hardness tests done according to ISO 6507-1 and ISO 4545 respectively, with test forces 0.098 N to just under 98 N for Vickers tests and up to 9.8 N for Knoop tests, and outlines general hardness testing procedures and gives requirements for specimen preparation, test procedures, results and test report. Information is given on test force selection and on report format for two types of hardness test.
IEC 60749 Semiconductor devices. Mechanical and climatic test methods

Part 20-1: 2009 Handling, packing, labelling and shipping of surface-mount devices sensitive to the combined effect of moisture and soldering heat
ISO 9015 Destructive tests on welds in metallic materials. Hardness testing

Part 1: 2001 Hardness tests on arc welded joints

Related to BS EN 1043-1:1996

Part 2: 2003 Microhardness testing on welded joints

Related to BS EN 1043-2:1997
ISO 15653: 2010 Metallic materials. Method of test for the determination of quasistatic fracture toughess of welds BS EN ISO 18592: 2009 Resistance welding. Destructive testing of welds. Method for the fatigue testing of multispot welded specimens

Test specimens and procedures for performing constant load amplitude fatigue tests on multi-spot-welded and multi-axial specimens in the thickness range from 0,5 mm to 5 mm at room temperature and a relative humidity of max. 80 % are specified. Larger thicknesses can be limited by mechanical properties such as yield strength and formability of the

specimen material. The thickness range for advanced high strength steels (AHSS) is generally below 3,0 mm. Greater thicknesses apply for aluminium alloys, for example.
Nondestructive Testing
AWS B1.10M/B1.10: 2009 Guide for the nondestructive examination of welds

A guide to basic principles of NDT and test selection is presented. The problems and limitations of NDT are described as an introduction. Types of defects, their characteristics, common locations and their relationships with welding processes have a marked influence on the selection of inspection techniques. These include: visual inspection, dye penetrant, magnetic particle, radiographic, ultrasonic, eddy current and leak testing.
AWS B1.11: 2000 Guide for the visual examination of welds

Guidance is given on visual inspection prerequisites (visual acuity, equipment, experience, training, procedures, certification, safety), fundamentals, weld surface conditions and examination equipment. Illustrations are provided of weld defects commonly encountered: scattered, aligned, elongated and piping porosity; incomplete fusion; incomplete joint penetration; undercut; underfill; overlap; laminations; longitudinal, throat, crater, toe and transverse cracks; slag inclusions; convexity; spatter; and surface oxidation.
AWS C3.5M/C3.5: 2007 Specification for induction brazing

Minimum joint fabrication and quality requirements are specified for induction brazing of steels, stainless steels, copper, copper alloys and other heat and corrosion resistant metals. Equipment, consumables, procedures (for surface preparation, joint gap, application of filler, flux and stop-off, brazing cycle and post brazing operations) and quality assurance (inspection and NDT) are covered.
AWS C3.6M/C3.6: 2008 Specification for furnace brazing

Minimum joint fabrication and quality requirements are specified for furnace brazing of steels, nickel, nickel alloys, copper, copper alloys and heat and corrosion resistant alloys. The specification allows standardisation of furnace brazing requirements for all applications where furnace brazed joints of assured quality are required. It provides criteria for classifying furnace brazed joints based on loading, the consequences of failure, and quality assurance criteria defining the limits of acceptability of each class. The specification defines acceptable furnace brazing equipment, materials and procedures, as well as the required inspection for each class of joint.
AWS C3.8M/C3.8: 2005 Recommended practice for ultrasonic inspection of brazed joints

This recommended practices presents minimum fabrication, equipment, and process procedure requirements for the ultrasonic inspection of brazed joints. Its purpose is to standardise brazed joint ultrasonic inspection requirements for equipment, procedures and

documentation of such tests. Sections comprise: scope; applicable documents; requirements (ultrasonic testing and accessory equipment; reference standards; required procedures); acceptance criteria; and definition.
AWS C7.3: 1999 (R2003) Process specification for electron beam welding

This standard addresses processing and quality control requirements for electron beam welding. The specification covers safety issues (electric shocks, materials, fumes and gases, X-radiation, visible radiation, vacuum, mechanical systems), requirements (equipment, materials, joint design, pre-weld and post-weld heat treatments), fabrication, inspection (nondestructive examination, discontinuity limits, destructive evaluation), equipment calibration and maintenance, approval of work, and delivery of work (identification, protective treatments and packaging). BS 1723 Brazing Part 3: 1988 Methods for nondestructive and destructive testing Superseded by BS EN 12797 and BS EN 12799
BS 3923 Methods for ultrasonic examination of welds

Part 2: 1972 Automatic examination of fusion welded butt joints in ferritic steels
This standard has been re-proposed for obsolescence as it is significantly out of date; it is hoped that a future European Standard will cover this topic. The document will still be available for reference Methods for the automatic scanning and recording of imperfections in fusion welded butt joints in ferritic steels are specified. The procedures apply to all thicknesses of material with limiting parameters: a: whether the material traversed by the ultrasonic beam is such that the beam can be propagated through it sufficiently to achieve the agreed sensitivity; b: that with the angles of probe available, the ultrasonic beam will reflect from the under surface of the material in such a way as to cover the full cross section of the weld. For curved parts the ability of the beam to reflect from the under surface depends on the ratio of the outside diameter to the thickness. BS 5289: 1976 (1983) Code of practice. Visual inspection of fusion welded joints Superseded by BS EN 970 BS 6443: 1984 Method for penetrant flaw detection Superseded by BS EN 571-1
BS EN 462 Nondestructive testing. Image quality of radiographs

Part 1: 1994 Image quality indicators (wire type). Determination of image quality value
This standard specifies a device and a method for the determination of the image quality of radiographs.

Part 2: 1994 Image quality indicators (step/hole type). Determination of image quality value
This standard specifies a device and a method for the determination of the image quality of radiographs.

Part 3: 1997 Image quality classes for ferrous metals

This standard specifies the minimum image quality values to ensure a uniform radiographic quality. It applies to the two types of image quality indicator as detailed in EN 462-1 for wire type IQI and EN 462-2 for step/hole type IQI and for the two techniques described in EN 444. Values are specified for the two classes of radiographic technique specified in EN 444 and for ferrous metals.

Part 4: 1995 Experimental evaluation of image quality values and image quality tables
This standard gives instructions for the determination of image quality values and image quality tables.

Part 5: 1996 Image quality indicators (duplex wire type). Determination of image unsharpness value
This standard specifies a method of determining the image unsharpness of radiographs and real-time radioscopic systems.
BS EN 571 Nondestructive testing. Penetrant testing

Part 1: 1997 General principles

Supersedes BS 6443:1984 A method of penetration testing for detecting discontinuities open to the surface of material to be tested is defined. Aimed at metallic materials, the standard can be used for other material inert to the test media and not too porous (castings, forgings, welds, ceramics, etc.). It is not intended for use for acceptance criteria.
BS EN 583 Nondestructive testing. Ultrasonic examination

Part 1: 1999 General principles

General principles required for the ultrasonic examination of industrial products that allow the transmission of ultrasound are defined.

Part 2: 2001 Sensitivity and range setting

General rules for setting the time base range and sensitivity of a manually operated ultrasonic flaw detector with A-scan display are specified. The standard is applicable to the use of a single contact probe with either a single or twin transducers, but excludes the immersion technique and the use of more than one probe.

Part 3: 1997 Transmission technique

The principles of transmission techniques are specified. Transmission techniques are used for the detection of imperfections and the determination of attenuation in flat products, and for examinations where direct reflection is not possible, in materials with high attenuation and for thin products.

Part 4: 2002 Examination for discontinuities perpendicular to the surface

The principles of tandem- and LLT1-examination for detecting discontinuities perpendicular to the surface (planar discontinuities more than 15 mm from the surface) are given. Prepared for examining metallic materials from 40 mm to 500 mm thick with parallel or concentric surfaces, the standard can be used for other materials and thicknesses if special precautions are taken.

Part 5: 2001 Characterisation and sizing of discontinuities

Principles and techniques for the sizing and characterisation of detected discontinuities for evaluation against acceptance criteria are specified.

Part 6: 2008 Time-of-flight diffraction technique as a method for detection and sizing of discontinuities
Supersedes BS 7706:1993 and DD ENV 583-6:2000 The general principles for the application of the time-of-flight diffraction (TOFD) technique for both detection and sizing of discontinuities in low alloyed carbon steel components are defined. It could also be used for other types of materials, provided the application of the TOFD technique is performed with necessary consideration of geometry, acoustical properties of the materials and the sensitivity of the examination. Although it is applicable, in general terms, to discontinuities in materials and applications covered by EN 583-1, it contains references to the application on welds.
BS EN 970: 1997 Nondestructive examination of fusion welds. Visual examination

Supersedes BS 5289:1976 (1983) The standard covers the visual examination (VE) of fusion welds in metallic materials, normally performed on welds in the as-welded condition, but exceptionally at other stages in the welding process. Sections are: normative references, examination conditions and equipment, personnel, VE - general, VE of joint preparation, VE during welding, VE of the finished weld, VE after post-weld heat treatment, VE of repaired welds and examination records. The appendix describes various types of examination equipment, measurement devices and gauges. BS EN 1290: 1998 Nondestructive examination of welds. Magnetic particle examination of welds Superseded by BS EN ISO 17638
BS EN 1593: 1999 Nondestructive testing. Leak testing. Bubble emission techniques

Procedures are described for the detection and location of leaks by the bubble emission techniques. The sensitivity depends on techniques and materials used. Two techniques are described: a) immersion technique (quantitative measurements can be made using this procedure with particular devices); b) liquid application technique. This standard can be used for equipment which can be evacuated or pressurised.
BS EN 1779: 1999 Nondestructive testing. Leak testing. Criteria for method and technique selection

This standard describes criteria for the selection of the most suitable method and technique for the assessment of leak tightness by indication or measurement of a gas leakage. Annex A, normative, allows a comparison of standard test methods. BS EN 12062: 1998 Nondestructive examination of welds. General rules for metallic materials Superseded by BS EN ISO 17635
BS EN 12084: 2001 Nondestructive testing. Eddy current testing. General principles and guidelines

This standard defines the general principles to be applied to the eddy current nondestructive examination of products and materials in order to provide a defined and repeatable performance. It includes guidelines for the preparation of application documents, which describe the specific requirements for the application of the eddy current method to a product.
BS EN 12517 Nondestructive testing of welds

Part 1: 2006 Evaluation of welded joints in steel, nickel, titanium and their alloys by radiography. Acceptance levels
This standard specifies acceptance levels for indications from imperfections in welds detected by radiography. Acceptance levels are specified for cracks, crater cracks, porosity, wormholes, solid and metallic inclusions and elongated cavities, copper inclusions, lack of fusion, lack of penetration, undercut, excessive penetration, local protrusion, and stray flash and spatter.

Part 2: 2008 Evaluation of welded joints in aluminium and its alloys by radiography. Acceptance levels
Acceptance levels for indications from imperfections in aluminium butt welds detected by radiographic testing are specified. The acceptance levels may be related to welding standards, application standards, specifications or codes. During assessment for a weld quality level, the sizes of imperfections permitted by standards are compared with the dimensions of indications revealed by a radiograph made of the weld in accordance with EN 1435.
BS EN 12799: 2000 Brazing. Nondestructive examination of brazed joints

With BS EN 12797 supersedes BS 1723-3:1988 This standard describes testing procedures and test pieces required for the nondestructive testing of brazed joints. The nondestructive examination methods described are: visual examination, ultrasonic examination, radiographic examination, penetrant detection, leak testing, proof testing and thermography. For each method, details are given of personnel qualifications, equipment, acceptance guidelines and test results and information to be reported. Imperfections in brazed joints are described in Annex A.
BS EN 13018: 2001 Nondestructive testing. Visual testing. General principles

This standard specifies the general principles for visual testing both directly and remotely when it is used to determine the compliance of a product with specified requirements (e.g. surface condition of the part, alignment of mating surfaces, shape of part).
BS EN 13068 Nondestructive testing. Radioscopic testing

Part 1: 2000 Quantitative measurement of imaging properties

The procedures in this standard can be applied to all radioscopic systems that can provide electronic signals to a display unit or automated image interpretation system, and can be analysed for well defined test specimen responses. The specifications of the imaging system regarding image properties can be derived from the results.

Part 2: 2000 Check of long term stability of imaging devices

Guidance is given for the on-site checking of equipment for radioscopy where the image is presented on a display unit, including image processing where the radiation source may be X-rays or gamma rays. Rules for testing a radioscopic system are established to assure a constant level of inspection quality, based on input signals from defined image quality indicators.

Part 3: 2001 General principles of radioscopic testing of metallic materials by x- and gamma rays
This standard specifies general rules for industrial X- and gamma-radioscopy for flaw detection in metallic materials, using radioscopic techniques. The aim is to permit repeatable results to be obtained economically.

BS EN 13100 Nondestructive testing of welded joints of thermoplastics semi-finished products Part 1: 2000 Visual examination Part 2: 2004 X-ray radiographic testing Part 3: 2004 Ultrasonic testing
See Adhesives and Plastics Standards FAQ
BS EN 13184: 2001 Nondestructive testing. Leak testing. Pressure change method

The techniques for the determination of the leakage rates across the boundary of an isolated object, subjected to a pressure difference, are described. The techniques are based on the evaluation of the change of the mass of gas within the test object.
BS EN 13185: 2001 Nondestructive testing. Leak testing. Tracer gas method

This standard describes the techniques to be applied for the detection of a leak, using a tracer gas and a tracer gas specific leak detector.
BS EN 13192: 2002 Nondestructive testing. Leak testing. Calibration of reference leaks for gases

The standard specifies calibration of leaks used for the adjustment of leak detectors to determine leakage rate in everyday use by comparison with a standard leak in. The procedures are applicable to a helium leak to enable test gas to be selectively measured by a mass spectrometer leak detector (MSLD). This enables leaks to become traceable to a primary standard as required by the ISO 9000 series of standards.
BS EN 13445 Unfired pressure vessels

Part 5: 2009 Inspection and testing

The inspection and testing of individual and serially produced pressure vessels made of steels in accordance with Part 2 is specified. Tables are presented of the extent of nondestructive testing (NDT) for various types of welds and of the various NDT methods and associated techniques, characterisation and acceptance criteria. The selection of NDT methods for detection of internal flaws in full penetration joints is presented. Destructive tests are also covered.
BS EN 13480 Metallic and industrial piping

Part 5: 2002 Inspection and testing

Requirements for inspection and testing of industrial piping of the types listed in Part 1, as performed on individual spools or piping systems and supports, designed in accordance with Part 3 (see FAQ on welding process and procedures standards), are listed.
BS EN 13554: 2002 Nondestructive testing. Acoustic emission. General principles

Requirements for the acoustic emission testing of industrial structures, components and different materials under stress and for harsh environments are given. Guidelines for the preparation of application documents describing specific requirements are included.
BS EN 13925 Nondestructive testing. X-ray diffraction from polycrystalline and amorphous materials

Part 1: 2003 General principles

This standard specifies the general principles of X-ray diffraction from polycrystalline and amorphous materials. This materials testing method has traditionally been referred to as Xray Powder Diffraction (XRPD), and is now applied to powders, bulk materials, thin film, and others. As the method can be used for various types of materials and to obtain a large variety of information, this standard reviews a large number of types of analysis but remains non-exhaustive.

Part 2: 2003 Procedures

This standard specifies the basic procedures applied in the X-ray Powder Diffraction (XRPD) method. Many of these procedures are common to most types of diffractometer used and types of analysis mentioned in EN 13925-1. In the interests of clarity and immediate usability more details are given for procedures using instruments with Bragg-Brentano geometry and application to phase identification. Aspects of specimen preparation and data quality assessment are included, but the standard remains non-exhaustive.
BS EN 14784 Nondestructive testing. Industrial computed radiography with storage phosphor imaging plates

Part 2: 2005 General principles for testing of metallic materials using Xrays and gamma rays
Fundamental techniques of computed radiography with the aim of enabling satisfactory and repeatable results to be obtained economically are specified. The techniques are based on the fundamental theory of the subject and tests measurements. This document specifies the general rules for industrial computed X and gamma radiography for flaw detection purposes, using storage phosphor imaging plates (IP). It is based on the general principles for radiographic examination of metallic materials on the basis of films (EN 444 and ISO 5579). The basic set-up of radiation source, detector and the corresponding geometry shall be applied in agreement with EN 444 and ISO 5579 and the corresponding product standards as e.g. EN 1435 for welding and EN 12681 for foundry.
BS EN 15085 Railway applications. Welding of railway vehicles and components

Part 5: 2007 Inspection, testing and documentation.

Inspections and testing to be executed on the welds; destructive and nondestructive tests to be performed; and necessary product conformity documentation are specified.
BS EN 15305: 2008 Nondestructive testing. Test method for residual stress analysis by Xray diffraction

The test method for the determination of macroscopic residual or applied stresses nondestructively by X-ray diffraction analysis in the near-surface region of a polycrystalline specimen or component is described.
BS EN 15495: 2007 Nondestructive testing. Acoustic emission. Examination of metallic pressure equipment during proof testing. Zone location of AE sources

The methods for conducting an acoustic emission (AE) examination of metallic pressure equipment during acceptance pressure testing using a zone location procedure are specified.
BS EN 15617: 2009 Nondestructive testing of welds. Time-of-flight diffraction technique (TOFD). Acceptance levels

Acceptance levels for the time-of-flight diffraction technique (TOFD) of full penetration welds in ferritic steels from 6 mm up to 300 mm thickness which correspond to the quality levels of EN ISO 5817 are specified. These acceptance levels are applicable to indications classified in accordance with CEN/TS 14751.
BS EN ISO 3059: 2001 Nondestructive testing. Penetrant testing and magnetic particle testing. Viewing conditions

This standard describes the control of the viewing conditions for magnetic particle and penetrant testing and includes minimum requirements for illuminance and UV-A irradiance and their measurement. It is intended for use when the human eye is the primary detection aid.

BS EN ISO 3452 Non-destructive testing. Penetrant testing

Part 5: 2008 Penetrant testing at temperatures higher than 50C

Testing requirements particular to applications at higher temperatures (over 50C) and also the method for qualification of suitable testing products are specified. It applies only to materials qualified for the relevant temperature range used in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions.

Part 6: 2008 Penetrant testing at temperatures lower than 10C

Testing requirements particular to applications at low temperatures (lower than + 10C) as well as the method for qualification of suitable testing products are specified. It applies only to materials qualified for the relevant temperature range used in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions.
BS EN ISO 8501 Preparation of steel substrates before application of paints and related products. Visual assessment of surface cleanliness

Part 3: 2007 Preparation grades of welds, edges and other areas with surface imperfections
Supersedes BS 7079-A3:2002 The preparation grades of welds, edges and other areas, on steel surfaces with imperfections are described. Such imperfections can become visible before and/or after an abrasive blast-cleaning process. The preparation grades given are to make steel surfaces with imperfections, including welded and fabricated surfaces, suitable for the application of paints and related products.
BS EN ISO 9934 Nondestructive testing. Magnetic particle testing

Part 1: 2001 General principles

General principles for the magnetic particle testing of ferromagnetic materials are specified, including surface preparation, magnetisation techniques, requirements and applications of the detection media and recording and interpretation of the results.
BS EN ISO 14923: 2003 Thermal spraying. Characterisation and testing of thermally sprayed coatings

Guidance on tests used for the characterisation of thermally sprayed coatings is given. Details regards the different types of coatings are not included. Tests listed are procedures and test criteria in general use - visual examination, surface roughness measurement and impression, crack detection, hardness, thickness, conductivity, metallographic examination, SEM, X-ray diffraction, chemical analysis, bond strength, hardness, wear, thermal shock and corrosion resistance.

BS EN ISO 17635: 2010 Nondestructive testing of welds. General rules for metallic materials

Supersedes BS EN 12062: 1998 Guidelines for the choice of non-destructive testing (NDT) methods for welds and evaluation of the results for quality control purposes, based on quality requirements, material, weld thickness, welding process, and extent of testing are presented. General rules and standards to be applied to the different types of testing, for either the methodology or the acceptance level for metallic materials are also specified.
BS EN ISO 17638: 2009 Non-destructive testing of welds. Magnetic particle testing

Supersedes BS EN 1290:1998 Techniques for detection of surface imperfections in welds in ferromagnetic materials, including the heat affected zones, by means of magnetic particle testing are specified. The techniques are suitable for most welding processes and joint configurations. Variations in the basic techniques that will provide a higher or lower test sensitivity, are described in Annex A.
BS EN ISO 22825:2006 Nondestructive testing of welds. Ultrasonic testing. Testing of welds in austenitic steels and nickel-based alloys

The approach to be followed when developing procedures for the ultrasonic testing of the following welds: welds in austenitic stainless steels; welds in nickel-based alloys; welds in duplex steels; dissimilar metal welds are specified. The purposes of the testing can be very different, e.g.: for the assessment of quality level (manufacturing); for the detection of specific indications induced in service. Acceptance levels are not included; requirements are applicable to both manual and mechanised testing.
BS ISO 24497 Nondestructive testing. Metal magnetic memory

Part 2: 2007 General requirements

General requirements for the application of the method of metal magnetic memory of components, units, equipment, and structures for various application purposes are specified.

Part 3: 2007 Metal magnetic memory

General requirements for the application of the metal magnetic memory inspection method as a nondestructive testing method for quality assurance of welded joints of pressurized components are specified. The method may be applied to welded joints in any type of products, pipelines, vessels, equipment, and metal constructions, as agreed with the purchaser.

DD CEN/TS 14751: 2004 Welding. Use of time-of-flight diffraction (TOFD) for examination of welds

The application of the time-of-flight diffraction (TOFD) technique for the semi-, or fully automated ultrasonic testing of fusion welded joints in metallic materials equal to and above 6 mm thickness is specified. The standard is primarily intended for use on full penetration welded joints of simple geometry in plates, pipes, and vessels, where both the weld and parent material are low alloyed carbon steel. Where specified and appropriate, TOFD may also be used on other types of materials that exhibit low ultrasonic attenuation (especially that due to scatter). Reference is made to EN 583-6 and guidance is given on the specific capabilities and limitations of TOFD for the detection, location, sizing and characterisation of discontinuities in fusion welded joints. TOFD may be used as a stand-alone method or in combination with other NDT methods or techniques, both for manufacturing inspection (preservice) and for in-service inspection. Four examination levels are specified (A, B, C, D) corresponding to an increasing level of inspection reliability. Guidance on the selection of examination levels is provided. Assessment of indications for acceptance purposes is permitted. This assessment is based on the evaluation of transmitted, reflected and diffracted ultrasonic signals within a generated TOFD image. This document does not include acceptance levels for discontinuities.
DD CEN/TS 15053: 2005 Nodnestructive testing. Recommendations for discontinuities-types in test specimens for examination

Discontinuities-types to be exhibited in test specimens for use in practical Non Destructive Testing examinations are considered and defined. According to EN 473:2000, Clause 7.1.3.3, the discontinuities contained in the test specimens may be natural, artificial or implanted. Acoustic Emission Testing, Infrared Thermography Testing and Leak Testing need not define discontinuity type, due to their specific approach (e.g. replaced in AT by artificial sources). The range of welded test specimens held by the examination centre may include the following characteristics: plate butt welds; pipes and tubes; joints; nozzle welds; and weld build-ups.
ISO 3452 Nondestructive testing. Penetrant testing

Part 1: 2008 General principles

ISO 15549: 2008 Non destructive testing. Eddy current testing. General principles PD CEN/TR 15135: 2005 Welding. Design and nondestructive testing of welds

An information document providing guidance on the design and evaluation of various welded joint types and geometrical configurations subject to nondestructive testing (NDT). Test methods covered are: visual, ultrasonic, radiographic, magnetic particle and penetrant testing. Illustrations of the general NDT evaluation of welded joints are given in tabular form, indicating the suitability of the test methods for different types of welded joints. A second table shows the evaluation of more specific examples.
Nondestructive Testing Equipment and Media

AWS A4.2M: 2006 Standard procedures for calibrating magnetic instruments to measure the delta ferrite content of austenitic and duplex ferritic-austenitic stainless steel weld metal

ISO 8249:2000 modified Calibration procedures are specified for a number of commercial instruments that can then provide reproducible measurements of the ferrite content of austenitic stainless steel weld metals. Certain of these instruments can be further calibrated for measurements of the ferrite content of duplex ferritic-austenitic stainless steel weld metals. Calibration with primary standards (nonmagnetic coating thickness standards from the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology) is the preferred method for appropriate instruments. Alternatively, these and other instruments can be calibrated with weld-metal-like secondary standards. Reproducibility of measurement after calibration is specified. Problems associated with accurate determination of ferrite content are described.
BS EN 584 Nondestructive testing. Industrial radiographic film

Part 1: 2006 Classification of film systems for industrial radiography

The performance of film systems is established . The standard classifies film systems in combination with specified lead screens for industrial radiography (nondestructive testing) and is intended to assure that the image quality of radiographs as far as this is influenced by the film system is in conformity with the requirements of current European Standards. Films used with fluorescent intensifying screens are not included. The measurement of film systems is restricted to a selected radiation quality to simplify the procedure. The properties of films will change with radiation energy but not the ranking of film system quality.

Part 2: 1997 Control of film processing by means of reference values

A procedure for the control of the film processing systems by users by processing calibrated pre-exposed strips is described.
BS EN 1518: 1998 Nondestructive testing. Leak testing. Characterisation of mass spectrometer leak detectors

Terms and procedures are specified for the characterisation of mass spectrometer leak detectors (MSLD). It is not intended to give a complete set of specifications for an acceptance test but a description of procedures that can be used without particular calibration equipment. The methods described in this standard are applicable without restrictions to helium as the tracer gas. For other gases, additional precautions may be necessary.
BS EN 12223: 2000 Nondestructive testing. Ultrasonic examination. Specification for calibration block No.1

Requirements for the dimensions, materials and manufacture of a steel block for the calibration of ultrasonic flaw detection and inspection equipment used in manual testing are specified.

BS EN 12543 Nondestructive testing. Characteristics of focal spots in industrial X-ray systems for use in nondestructive testing

Part 1: 1999 Scanning method

The measurement of focal spot dimensions of industrial X-ray systems up to and including 500 kV tube voltage is specified. A method of direct mechanical scanning of focal spots above 0.1 mm with a highly collimated receiver is described.

Part 2: 2008 Pinhole camera radiographic method

A method for the measurement of focal spot dimensions above 0.2 mm of X-ray systems up to and including 500 kV tube voltage by means of the pinhole camera radiographic method is specified. The voltage applied for this measurement is restricted to 200 kV.

Part 3: 1999 Slit camera radiographic method

A method for the measurement of focal spot dimensions above 0.1 mm of X-ray systems up to and including 500 kV tube voltage by means of the slit camera radiographic method is specified. The voltage applied for this measurement is restricted to 200 kV.

Part 4: 1999 Edge method

The checking of focal spot dimensions above 0.5 mm of X-ray systems up to and including 500 kV tube voltage by means of radiographs of sharp edges is specified.

Part 5: 1999 Measurement of the effective focal spot size of mini and micro focus X-ray tubes
A method for the measurement of focal spot dimensions within the range of 5 - 300 microns of X-ray systems up to and including 225 kV tube voltage by means of radiographs of sharp edges is specified.
BS EN 12544 Nondestructive testing. Measurement and evaluation of the X-ray tube voltage

Part 1: 1999 Voltage divider method

A method for the direct and absolute measurement of the average high voltage of constant potential (DC) X-ray systems on the secondary side of the high voltage generator is specified.

Part 2: 2000 Constancy check by the thick filter method

A constancy check of an X-ray system where mainly the X-ray voltage is checked and also the tube current and the constitution of the target, which can be changing due to tube ageing, is specified.

Part 3: 1999 Spectrometric method

The test method for non-invasive measurement of X-ray tube voltages using the energy spectrum of X-rays is specified (10 kV to 500 kV).
BS EN 12668 Nondestructive testing. Characterisation and verification of ultrasonic examination equipment

Part 1: 2010 Instruments

Methods and acceptance criteria for assessing the electrical performance of analogue and digital ultrasonic instruments for pulse operation using A-scan display, employed for manual ultrasonic nondestructive examination with single or twin transducer probes operating within the centre frequency range 0,5 MHz to 15 MHz are specified. Ultrasonic instruments for continuous waves are not included in this standard. The standard may partly apply to ultrasonic instruments in automatic systems but then other tests may be needed to ensure satisfactory performance.

Part 2: 2010 Probes

This standard covers probes used for ultrasonic non-destructive examination in the following categories with centre frequencies in the range 0,5 MHz to 15 MHz, focusing and without focusing means: a) single or dual transducer contact probes generating compressional or shear waves ; b) immersion probes. Where material dependent ultrasonic values are specified in this standard they are based on steels having an ultrasonic sound velocity of (5 920 50) m/s for longitudinal waves, and (3 255 30) m/s for transverse waves.

Part 3: 2000 Combined equipment

This standard describes methods and acceptance criteria for verifying the performance of ultrasonic equipment (i.e. instrument and probe combined as defined in Parts 1 and 2 of the standard) by the use of appropriate standard calibration blocks. These methods are not intended to prove the suitability of the equipment for particular applications. Those described are suitable for the use by operators working under site or shop floor conditions and only apply to pulse echo equipment using A-scan presentation, with gain controls or attenuators calibrated in steps not greater than 2 dB, used essentially in contact testing. These methods are specifically intended for manual testing equipment. For automated testing different tests can be needed to ensure satisfactory performance.
BS EN 12679: 2000 Nondestructive testing. Determination of the size of industrial radiographic sources. Radiographic method

This standard specifies the determination of the size of gamma radiographic sources of 0,5 mm or greater, made from the radionuclides Iridium 192, Ytterbium 169, Selenium 75, or Cobalt 60, by a method of radiography with X-rays.
BS EN 13068 Nondestructive testing. Radioscopic testing

Part 1: 2000 Quantitative measurement of imaging properties

The radioscopic system is analysed for the response to a well defined test specimen. Applicable to all systems providing an electronic signal to a display unit or an automated image interpretation signal.

Part 2: 2000 Check of long term stability of imaging devices

Guidance is given on the on-site check of equipment for radioscopy where the image is presented on a display unit including image processing. Applicable to X-ray or gamma radiation sources.
BS EN 13625: 2002 Nondestructive testing. Leak test. Guide to the selection of instrumentation for the measurement of gas leakage

This standard specifies criteria for the selection of equipment for the leak detection methods described in EN 1779. The minimum requirements for the performance of the instruments used are also given as a guideline for personnel involved in testing. The definite selection of an instrument for a given test is within the responsibility of a qualified operator (at minimum level 2 qualification(EN 473)).
BS EN 13860 Nondestructive testing. Eddy current examination. Equipment characteristics and verification

Part 1: 2003 Instrument characteristics and verification

Superseded by BS EN ISO 15548-1:2008

Part 2: 2003 Probe characteristics and verification

Superseded by BS EN ISO 15548-2:2008

Part 3: 2003 System characteristics and verification

Superseded by BS EN ISO 15548-3:2008
BS EN 13925 Nondestructive testing. X-ray diffraction from polycrystalline and amorphous materials

Part 3: 2005 Instruments

This document sets out the characteristics of instruments used for X-ray powder diffraction as a basis for their control and hence quality assurance of the measurements made by this technique. Performance testing indicators are given for diffractometer performance testing. Different types and makes of X-ray powder diffractometer vary considerably in their design and intended fields of application. This document attempts to cover as much of this range as possible by keeping to common principles. To make the standard more readily applicable, the Bragg-Brentano configuration is addressed in most detail because of its wide use.

Additional considerations and adaptations may be necessary to cover some types of instruments or configuration and some fields of application. Some of these types of instrument are described in Annex B.
BS EN 13927: 2003 Nondestructive testing. Visual testing. Equipment

Equipment which is used in visual testing is classified according to the visual testing technique (direct or remote as described in EN 13018). Further outlines are given in an informative annex.
BS EN 14096 Nondestructive testing. Qualification of radiographic film digitisation systems

Part 1: 2003 Definitions, quantitative measurement of image quality parameters, standard reference film and qualitative control
Radiographic film systems are used for industrial inspection by X- and gamma rays. To apply modern means of computer support for analysis, transmission and storage the information stored in the radiographic film should be converted into digital data (digitisation). This standard defines minimum requirements to ensure that the relevant information for evaluation of the digital data is preserved during the film digitisation process.

Part 2: 2003 Minimum requirements

This standard specifies three film-digitisation quality classes for the requirements of nondestructive testing. The selected class depends on the radiation energy, penetrated material thickness and the quality level of the original radiographic film.
BS EN 14784 Nondestructive testing. Industrial computed radiography with storage phosphor imaging plates

Part 1: 2005 Classification of systems

Fundamental parameters of computed radiography systems are specified with the aim of enabling satisfactory and repeatable results to be obtained economically. The techniques are based both on fundamental theory and test measurements. This document specifies the performance of computed radiography (CR) systems and the measurement of the corresponding parameters for the system scanner and storage phosphor imaging plate (IP). It describes the classification of these systems in combination with specified metal screens for industrial radiography. It is intended to ensure that the quality of images - as far as this is influenced by the scanner-IP system - is in conformity with the requirements of Part 2 of this document. The document relates to the requirements of film radiography defined in EN 584-1 and ISO 11699-1.
BS EN 25580: 1992 Specification for minimum requirements for industrial radiographic illuminators for nondestructive testing

This standard specifies the minimum requirements for industrial illuminators used for viewing radiographs.
BS EN ISO 3452 Nondestructive testing. Penetrant testing

Part 2: 2006 Testing of penetrant materials

The technical requirements and test procedures for penetrant materials for their type testing and batch testing are specified. It also details on site testing requirements and methods.

Part 3: 1999 Reference test blocks

Two types of reference blocks are described: Type 1 reference blocks are used to determine the sensitivity levels of both fluorescent and colour contrast penetrant product families; Type 2 reference blocks are used for routine assessment of the performance of both fluorescent and colour contrast penetrant facilities and part-used containers. The reference blocks are used in the same conditions as the pieces to be tested according to EN 571-1.

Part 4: 1999 Equipment

This standard specifies the characteristics of equipment used in penetrant testing. The characteristics of equipment required for carrying out penetrant testing depend on the number of tests to be made and on the size of the components to be tested. Two types of equipment are included in this standard: a) equipment suitable for carrying out in situ penetrant testing techniques; b) fixed installations.
BS EN ISO 9934 Nondestructive testing. Magnetic particle testing

Part 2: 2002 Detection media

The significant properties of magnetic particle testing products (including magnetic ink, powder, carrier liquid, contrast aid paints) and the methods for checking their properties are specified.

Part 3: 2002 Equipment

Three types of equipment for magnetic particle testing are described - portable or transportable equipment, fixed installations, and specialized testing systems for testing components on a continuous basis, comprising a series of processing stations placed in sequence to form a process line. Equipment for magnetizing, demagnetizing, illumination, metering and monitoring are also described. The properties to be provided by the equipment supplier, minimum requirements for application and the method of measuring certain parameters are specified. Where appropriate, measuring and calibration requirements and in-service checks are also specified.
BS EN ISO 15548 Nondestructive testing. Equipment for eddy current examination

Part 1: 2008 Instrument characteristics and verification

Supersedes BS EN 13860-1:2003 The functional characteristics of a general-purpose eddy current instrument are identified and methods for their measurement and verification are provided.

Part 2: 2008 Probe characteristics and verification

Supersedes BS EN 13860-2:2003 The functional characteristics of a probe and its interconnecting elements are identified and methods for their measurement and verification are provided.

Part 3: 2008 System characteristics and verification

Supersedes BS EN 1386031:2003 The functional characteristics of a general-purpose eddy current system are identified and methods for their measurement and verification are provided.
BS ISO 3058: 1998 Nondestructive testing. Aids to visual inspection. Selection of low power magnifiers

This standard specifies the characteristics of the following types of low-power magnifiers and gives recommendations for their selection for the inspection of surfaces. Single-element magnifiers of magnification typically up to 4 (Type A); multi-element magnifiers of magnification typically up to 10 (Type B); twin-system magnifiers of magnification typically up to 15 (Type C), categorized as follows: a) binocular, normally with a long working distance (Type C.1), b) bi-ocular1), including those refined with stops or other attachments, for quasi-stereoscopic vision (Type C.2); concave-mirror magnifiers with frontsurface reflectors in powers typically up to 6 (Type D).
BS ISO 24497 Nondestructive testing. Metal magnetic memory

Part 2: 2007 General requirements

General requirements for the application of the method of metal magnetic memory of components, units, equipment, and structures for various application purposes are specified.
IEC 61391 Ultrasonics. Pulse-echo scanners

Part 2: 2010 Measurement of maximum depth of penetration and local dynamic range
ISO 7963: 2006 Nondestructive testing. Ultrasonic testing. Specification for calibration block number 2

ISO 11699 Nondestructive testing. Industrial radiographic film

Part 1: 2008 Classification of film systems for industrial radiography Part 2: 1998 Control of film processing by means of reference values
ISO/TR 16060: 2003 Destructive tests on welds in metallic materials. Etchants for macroscopic and microscopic examination PD 6513: 1985 Magnetic particle flaw detection. A guide to the principles and practice of applying magnetic particle flaw detection in accordance with BS 6072

The standard covers the selection of test equipment and consumables for flaw detection, specimen preparation, surface treatment and magnetisation.
PD CEN/TR 15134: 2005 Nondestructive testing. Automated ultrasonic examination. Selection and applications of systems

Stationary and mobile automatic ultrasonic test systems are discussed, as used for preservice testing (testing during manufacture) and in-service testing (testing after manufacture, including regular safety assurance testing). The information in this Technical Report covers all tests and testing on all component parts or complete manufactured systems for either correctness of geometry, material properties (quality or defects) and fabrication methodology (e.g. welds).