CHAPTER VI

THE KLEIN-GORDON EQUATION

VI.1 DERIVATION AND COVARIANCE
The requirements which special relativity imposes upon quantum mechanics are
both fascinating and far-reaching

We begin our discussion of these eects by consider-

ing the wave equation obeyed by particles of zero spin, examples of which are provided
by , K, mesons, etc.
Relativistic Schrodinger Equation
We review rst the heuristic derivation of the Schrodinger equation which results
from writing the standard non-relativistic relation between energy and momentum
E =
p
2
2m
(1.1)
and making the correspondence between the energy-momentum four-vector p

= (E,p)
and the four-dimensional gradient operator

= i

t
,

= (E,p) . (1.2)
We have then
i

t
=
1
2m

2
(1.3)
which is the Schrodinger equation for a free particle. [Recall that if we make a Lorentz
transformation to a frame S

moving with velocity v

k with respect to frame S, then

t

=
t vz

1 v
2
, z

=
z vt

1 v
2
, x

= x , y

= y . (1.4)
According to the chain rule

0
=

t

=
t
t

t
+
z
t

z
=
t
t

z
t

3
=

z

=
t
z

t

z
z

z
=
t
z

0
+
z
t

1
=
1

2
=
2
.
(1.5)

Much of our discussion in this section is based on corresponding material found in

Gordon Bayms Lectures on Quantum Mechanics [Ba69].
254
VI.1 DERIVATION AND COVARIANCE 255
From the inverse Lorentz transformation
t =
t

+vz

1 v
2
, z =
z

+vt

1 v
2
, x = x

, y = y

(1.6)
we nd
t
t

=
z
z

=
1

1 v
2
,
t
z

=
z
t

=
v

1 v
2
. (1.7)
Hence

0
=

0
v
3

1 v
2
,

3
=

3
v
0

1 v
2
,

1
=
1
,

2
=
2
(1.8)
so that

is indeed a four-vector. Note that

t
,

does not have this property.

The minus sign in Eq. 1.2 is essential.]
Now consider how Eq. 1.3 might be modied by the strictures of special relativity,
wherein the relation between energy and momentum is
E =

m
2
+p
2
. (1.9)
As a rst guess, we might try the wave equation
i

t
=

m
2

2
. (1.10)
Seeing the square root with an operator inside is a bit peculiar, but this operation is
well-dened if we write as a Fourier transform
(x, t) =

d
3
p
(2)
3
e
ipx
(p, t) . (1.11)
Then
i

t
(x, t) =

d
3
p
(2)
3
e
ipx

m
2
+p
2
(p, t)
=

d
3
p
(2)
3
e
ipx

m
2
+p
2

d
3
x

e
ipx

(x

, t) .
(1.12)
Interchanging orders of integration, this becomes
i

t
(x, t) =

d
3
x

K(x,x

)(x

, t) (1.13)
with
K(x,x

) =

d
3
p
(2)
3
e
ip(xx

m
2
+p
2
. (1.14)
256 VI THE KLEIN-GORDON EQUATION
For large |x x

| most values of p except for those with p

<

1
|xx

|
will lead to rapid
oscillation of the exponential and consequently a very small value for the integral.
In fact, the integral will be sizable only for |x x

|
<

1
m
, but this leads to a severe
problem. Eq. 1.13 may be used via Taylors expansion to relate (x, t + t) to values
of

x
1
m
, t

(x, t +t) = (x, t) +t

(x, t)
t
= (x, t) it

d
3
x

K(x,x

)(x

t) .
(1.15)
This means that values of

x
1
m
, t

are aecting (x, t +t) even though these

two spacetime points are outside the forward light cone, i.e., since t can be made very
small,

t
2

1
m
2

< 0 (1.16)
which violates causality. We must then abandon Eq. 1.10 as a possible relativistic wave
equation.
Klein-Gordon Equation
Next try squaring the energy, momentum relation, yielding
E
2
=p
2
+m
2
. (1.17)
The quantum mechanical analog becomes

2
t
2
(x, t) =

2
+m
2

(x, t) (1.18)
or

+m
2

(x, t) = 0 (1.19)
where
=

2
t
2

2
(1.20)
is the DAlembertian. We see that Eq. 1.19 is simply the wave equation with the
addition of a term involving m
2
. This dierential equation is properly relativistic and is
called the KleinGordon equation.
That it is relativistically covariant can be seen by transforming from the original
frame S to a new frame S

. Since

is a four-vector
=

=

(1.21)
then according to an observer in S

, the equation reads

+m
2

(x

, t

) = 0 (1.22)
VI.1 DERIVATION AND COVARIANCE 257
which has the same form as in the original frame S. This covariance of the equation is
required by special relativity, since otherwise the form of the equation could be used in
order to determine how fast one is moving.
We rst look for plane wave solutions of the KleinGordon equation, having the
form
(x, t) = exp (ip x iEt) = exp(ip

) . (1.23)
Since
0 =

2
t
2

2
+m
2

exp (ip x iEt)

=

E
2
+p
2
+m
2

exp (ip x iEt)

(1.24)
we see that (x, t) does indeed satisfy the KleinGordon equation provided
E
2
=p
2
+m
2
(1.25)
which was our starting point. However, the wavefunction (x, t) depends not upon E
2
,
but rather upon E, which has the values
E =

p
2
+m
2
. (1.26)
The energy can be positive or negative, which was somewhat disconcerting to the
researchers rst studying this equation. An additional problem was the inability to
construct a conserved probability density. For the Schrodinger equation one has a
probability density
=

(1.27)
and probability current density

j =
i
2m

(1.28)
with the property that

t
+

j = 0 . (1.29)
This insures that
d
dt

V
d
3
r =

j d

S (1.30)
and says that any probability which ows out of the volume V must pass through the
surface. Thus probability is locally conserved, which is also required in a relativistic
theory. (Simultaneous appearance and disappearance of probability at two spacelike
separated points in one frame would not be simultaneous in another and would thus
lead to trouble.)
It is easy to construct a conserved current density for the relativistic case via
j

= (,

j) =
i
2m
(

) ) . (1.31)
258 VI THE KLEIN-GORDON EQUATION
We observe that

=

t
+

j =
i
2m
((

) (

)
=
i
2m

m
2

+m
2

= 0
(1.32)
and since,

is a scalar, this local conservation holds in all frames. The problem is

that if we calculate j

for the plane wave solution (x, t) we nd

j

E
m
,
p
m

=
p

m
, (1.33)
whereby
=
E
m
(1.34)
can be either positive or negative, depending upon the sign of the energy. Such a
negative probability density is obviously unsatisfactory.
Another peculiar feature of the relativistic wave equation is that it is second order
in time, as opposed to the Schrodinger equation which is rst order. This dierence
is an important one. For the Schrodinger equation, this means that, given the state
vector |(0) > at time t = 0, one can determine the state at all future times, via
|(t) = e
i

Ht
|(0) . (1.35)
On the other hand, for the KleinGordon equation one requires two initial conditions
both the wavefunction (x, 0) and its time derivative

(x, 0).
These problems are resolved by the realization that a properly relativistic wave
equation involves of necessity both particle and antiparticle degrees of freedom. If we
identify the positive energy solution
E>0
(x, t) with the particle, then the corresponding
antiparticle solution is constructed from the negative energy solution via

antiparticle
(x, t) =

E<0
(x, t) . (1.36)
Then, for example, in the case of a plane wave

antiparticle
(x, t) =

e
ipx+i|E|t

= e
ipxi|E|t
(1.37)
which corresponds to positive energy time development.
This identication is made secure by writing the KleinGordon equation in the
presence of a vector potential A

. Via the aforementioned minimal substitution

i

eA

(1.38)
where e is the particle charge, the KleinGordon equation becomes, for a particle (pos-
itive energy) solution

+ieA

) (

+ieA

) +m
2

E>0
(x, t) = 0 . (1.39)
VI.1 DERIVATION AND COVARIANCE 259
Taking the complex conjugate equation for a negative energy solution, we nd

+ieA

+ieA

+m
2

E<0
(x, t)
=

ieA

) (

ieA

) +m
2

antiparticle
(x, t) = 0
(1.40)
which is the KleinGordon equation for a particle of opposite charge. The existence
of both particle and antiparticle degrees of freedom in the wavefunction is the reason
that one needs two boundary conditions at time t = 0 in order to predict the future
behavior.
The antiparticle degrees of freedom also resolve the problem of the negative prob-
ability density. Multiplying by the particle charge e, we identify
j

=
ie
2m
(

) ) (1.41)
as the electromagnetic current density. Then is the charge density which is posi-
tive (negative) for positive (negative) energy, i.e., particle (antiparticle) solutions, as
expected.
Returning to the plane wave solutions, we note that they are clearly Lorentz invari-
ant since p

is a Lorentz scalar. Thus an observer in the particle rest frame (E = m,

p = 0) writes the solution as e
imt
, while an observer in a frame moving with velocity
v = v

k with respect to the rest frame sees

E

=
m

1 v
2
, p

=
mv

1 v
2
(1.42)
and writes the wave function as
e
ip

iE

(1.43)
which is identical since p

has the same value in both frames.

The form of the current density is as expected since if we consider a region of space
d
3
x in the rest frame containing charge
dq = (x, t)d
3
x (1.44)
then in the primed frame the corresponding volume is
d
3
x

1 v
2
d
3
x (1.45)
since the dimension of the volume in the direction of the boost is reduced by Lorentz
contraction. The same amount of charge must be contained in this contracted region
so
dq =

(x

, t

)d
3
x

. (1.46)
We nd then

(x

, t

)
(x, t)
=
1

1 v
2
=
E

m
. (1.47)
260 VI THE KLEIN-GORDON EQUATION
Also, we expect the spatial current density to be given by

(x

, t

) = (x

, t

)v = (x

, t

)
p

=
p

m
(x, t) .
(1.48)
These anticipated behaviors are obviously satised by the form
j

= e
p

m
(1.49)
arising from the plane wave solution.
Two-Component Form
In order to deal with a more general class of solutions it is useful to write the
KleinGordon equation in two-component form

1
=
1
2

+
i
m

0
+ieA
0

2
=
1
2

i
m

0
+ieA
0

.
(1.50)
In terms of this notation the charge density becomes
=
ie
2m

0
+ieA
0

0
ieA
0

=
ie
2m

im(
1

2
) (
1
+
2
)

im(
1

2
)

(
1
+
2
)

= e

|
1
|
2
|
2
|
2

.
(1.51)
The components
1
,
2
obey the coupled equations

i
0
eA
0

1
=

1
2m

2
+
m
2

(
1
+
2
) +
m
2
(
1

2
)
=
1
2m

2
(
1
+
2
) +m
1
(1.52)

i
0
eA
0

2
=

1
2m

2
+
m
2

(
1
+
2
) +
m
2
(
1

2
)
=
1
2m

2
(
1
+
2
) m
2
(1.53)
These results are displayed most conveniently by dening a two-component spinor
=

(1.54)
VI.1 DERIVATION AND COVARIANCE 261
in terms of which the KleinGordon equation has the form

i
0
eA
0

1
2m

2
(
3
+i
2
) +m
3

(1.55)
where

1
=

0 1
1 0

,
2
=

0 i
i 0

,
3
=

1 0
0 1

(1.56)
are the Pauli matrices. The charge density may be written as
= e

3
(1.57)
and the normalization condition becomes
| =

d
3
x

3
= 1, (1.58)
the sign being determined by whether we start with particles (+) or antiparticles ().
The KleinGordon Hamiltonian
H =
1
2m

2
(
3
+i
2
) +m
3
+eA
0
(1.59)
does not appear to be Hermitian since
(
3
+i
2
)

=
3
i
2
=
3
+i
2
. (1.60)
However, since the norm is dened using
3
cf. Eq. 1.58 we have

|H| =

d
3
x

(x)
3
H(x) (1.61)
and

|H|

d
3
x

(x)
3
H(x)

d
3
x

(x)H

(x) =

d
3
x

(x)
3

3
H

(x)
=

|
3
H

3
|

.
(1.62)
The Hamiltonian is thus Hermitian provided

3
H

3
= H , (1.63)
and since

3
(
3
+i
2
)

3
=
3
(
3
i
2
)
3
=
3
+i
2
(1.64)
this condition is satised.
262 VI THE KLEIN-GORDON EQUATION
Now lets take a look at the free particle solutions (A
0
= 0,

A = 0) in terms of this
notation. A positive energy solution with momentump and normalized to unit density
is given by
(x) =

m
E
e
ipxiEt

m
E
e
ipx
. (1.65)
This can be written in two component form as
(x) =
(+)
(p) e
ipx
(1.66)
where

(+)
(p) =
1
2

mE

m+E
mE

. (1.67)
A corresponding negative energy solution
(x) =

m
|E|
e
ipx+i|E|t
(1.68)
has the two component form

()
(p) =
1
2

m|E|

m|E|
m+|E|

. (1.69)
Of course,
(+)
(p) is orthogonal to
()
(p)

(+)
(p)|
()
(p)

=
(+)
(p)
3

()
(p) = 0 (1.70)
and, by completeness, any wavepacket can be expanded in terms of a linear combination
of positive and negative energy solutions. That is, we can write
(x, t) =

d
3
p
(2)
3
e
ipx

a
(+)
p
(t)
(+)
(p) +a
()
p
(t)
()
(p)

d
3
p
(2)
3

a
(+)
p
(t)
(+)
(p)e
ipx
+a
()
p
(t)
()
(p)e
ipx

.
(1.71)
Clearly then a
(+)
p
(t) is the amplitude to be in the positive charge, positive energy state

(+)
(p) while a
()
p
(t) is the amplitude to be in negative charge, negative energy state

()
(p). These amplitudes are given by
a
(+)
p
(t) =

d
3
xe
ipx

(+)
(p)
3
(x, t)
a
()
p
(t) =

d
3
xe
ipx

()
(p)
3
(x, t) .
(1.72)
VI.1 DERIVATION AND COVARIANCE 263
If the wavefunction is normalized to 1 we have
1 = | =

d
3
x

(x, t)
3
(x, t)
=

d
3
p
(2)
3

a
(+)
p
(t)

a
()
p
(t)

2
(1.73)
while the energy and momentum expectation values are given by
E = |H
0
| =

d
3
x

(x, t)
3
H
0
(x, t)
=

d
3
p
(2)
3

m
2
+p
2

a
(+)
p
(t)

2
+

a
()
p
(t)

2
(1.74)

P =

| i

d
3
x

(x, t)
3
(i

x
)(x, t)
=

d
3
p
(2)
3
p

a
(+)
p
(t)

2
+

a
()
p
(t)

.
(1.75)
PROBLEM VI.1.1
The Free Klein-Gordon Particle in a Magnetic Field
Consider a free charged Klein-Gordon particle of mass m and charge e immersed
in a uniform magnetic eld B in the z direction. Using the gauge

A =
1
2
(

B r)
show that motion is quantized with energy
E
n
=

m
2
+p
2
z
+eB(2n + 1) n = 0, 1, 2, ...
PROBLEM VI.1.2
Pair Production by a Time Varying Electric Field
A rapidly varying electric eld can lead to the creation of particle-antiparticle pairs.
Calculate to lowest order in the probability per unit volume per unit time of producing
such pairs in the presence of an external electric eld

E(t) = e
x
acost
and show that
Prob. = V T
a
2
24
(1
4m
2

2
)
3
2
( 2m)
Suggestion: Use as an interaction potential the usual form
H
int
= e

d
3
xj

264 VI THE KLEIN-GORDON EQUATION

where
j

=
i
2m
(

A(t) = e
x
a

sint
Utilize normalized plane wave solutions of the Klein-Gordon equation
(x) =

m
E
exp(ip x iEt) with E =

p
2
+m
2
and simple rst order perturbation theory
Amp = i
T
2

T
2
< f|H
int
(t)|0 > dt
VI.2 KLEINS PARADOX AND ZITTERBEWEGUNG
So far everything seems quite reasonable. However, there exist at least a few
unexpected results within this formalism.
Zitterbewegung
Consider the construction of a wavepacket containing only positive energy compo-
nents.
(x, t) =

d
3
p
(2)
3
e
ipx
a
(+)
p
(t)
(+)
(p) (2.1)
with
a
(+)
p
(t) = e
iE
p
t
f

(p p
0
)
2

. (2.2)
We choose some function f which is peaked about the origin, say
f

(p p
0
)
2

N exp
(p p
0
)
2

2
. (2.3)
and consider the expectation value of the position operator x

X(t) = |x| =

d
3
x

(x, t)
3
x(x, t)
=

d
3
x

d
3
p
(2)
3

d
3
p

(2)
3
xe
i(p

p)x
a
(+)
p
(t)a
(+)
p
(t)

(+)
(p)
3

(+)
(p

) .
(2.4)
If we write xe
ip

x
= i

p
e
ip

x
and integrate by parts

X(t) = i

d
3
p
(2)
3
a
(+)
p
(t)

p
a
(+)
p
(t)
+i

d
3
p
(2)
3

a
(+)
p
(t)

(+)
(p)
3

(+)
(p) .
(2.5)
VI.2 KLEINS PARADOX AND ZITTERBEWEGUNG 265
However,

(+)
(p) =
1
2

mE
p
p
E
p

1
1

1
4

mE
3
p
p
E
p

m+E
p
mE
p

=
p
2E
2
p

()
(p)
(2.6)
so that the term
(+)
(p)
3

(+)
(p) vanishes by orthogonality. Then

X(t) = i

d
3
p
(2)
3
a
(+)
p
(t)

p
a
(+)
p
(t)
=

d
3
p
(2)
3

p
E
p
tf
2

(p p
0
)
2

+i2 (p p
0
) f

(p p
0
)
2

(p p
0
)
2

=
p
0
E
p
0
t .
(2.7)
Thus the wave packet begins from the origin at t = 0 and moves with uniform velocity
v
0
=
p
0
E
p
0
, as expected. Now consider the width of the packet. For simplicity pick
p = 0. Then

|x
2
|

d
3
p
(2)
3

a
(+)
p
(t)

2
p
a
(+)
p
(t) +
p
2
4E
4
p

a
(+)
p
(t)

(2.8)
which has two components. By dimensional analysis the rst piece gives the expected
result

d
3
p
(2)
3
a
(+)
p
(t)

2
p
a
(+)
p
(t)
1

2
(2.9)
where is determined by the functional form of f(p
2
). The second piece is more
interesting, yielding

d
3
p
(2)
3
p
2
4E
4
p

a
(+)
p
(t)

1
m
2
K

. (2.10)
where K is a function depending on the specic form of a
(+)
p
(t). We see that even if
is very large so that the rst component of the width is very small, there is still a
contribution x
1
m
of order the Compton wavelength of the particle. This represents a
minimum width of the wavepacket and cannot be made smaller so long as only positive
energy components are present.
We may explore this point further by attempting to construct a wavepacket local-
ized at the origin
(x, t = 0) =
3
(x)

(2.11)
266 VI THE KLEIN-GORDON EQUATION
where , are arbitrary numbers. We nd then
a
(+)
p
(t) = e
iE
p
t
1
2

mE
p
[(E
p
+m) + (E
p
m)]
a
()
p
(t) = e
iE
p
t
1
2

mE
p
[(E
p
m) + (E
p
+m)] ,
(2.12)
so that a
()
p
(t) = 0. That is, if one wishes to localize a wavepacket within a distance
smaller than a Compton wavelength negative energy components are required.
Such negative energy components arise naturally in another way as well. Suppose
we start with a positive-energy-only wavepacket and apply the position operator x.
Then, as shown earlier
x(x, t) =x

d
3
p
(2)
3
e
ipx
a
(+)
p
(t)
(+)
(p)
= i

d
3
p
(2)
3
e
ipx

(+)
(p)

p
a
(+)
p
(t)
()
(p)
p
2E
2
p
a
(+)
p
(t)

.
(2.13)
so that the position operator introduces a negative energy piece into the wavefunction
even if there was none present originally. Equivalently, multiplication by the potential
energy eA
0
(x) introduces such negative energy states, so that whenever a wavepacket
interacts with a potential we should not be surprised to nd negative energy states
appearing.
This mixture of positive and negative energy components in the wavepacket has an
interesting consequence if we evaluate the expectation value of the position operator
(t)|x|(t) =

d
3
p
(2)
3
p
E
p
t

a
(+)
p
(t)

2
+

a
()
p
(t)

Re

d
3
p
(2)
3
p
E
2
p
a
(+)
p
(t)a
()
p
(t) .
(2.14)
The rst component represents just the expected uniform velocity motion of the packet.
However, the second piece is more interesting. Since
a
(+)
p
(t)a
()
p
(t) e
2i|E
p
|t
(2.15)
this term represents a rapid 2mwiggling of the position of the particle about
its central location due to the interference of positive and negative energy components.
This rapid movement called zitterbewegung or jitter motion is the price one pays
for localization with x
<

1
m
, or for interaction with a potential. In the latter case, since
positive and negative energies correspond to positive and negative charges, the particle
and antiparticle components of the wavepacket travel in opposite directions. Thus the
interference damps out after a time t
1
m
once interaction with the potential has
ceased. An exception is when the potential is very strong V E > m. This problem
is called Kleins paradox for reasons which will become apparent.
VI.2 KLEINS PARADOX AND ZITTERBEWEGUNG 267
Kleins Paradox
Imagine a KleinGordon particle of mass m, charge e, and energy E =

p
2
+m
2
incident from the left upon a potential step
V (x) = V
0
(x) = eA
0
(x) (2.16)
located at the origin, as shown in Figure VI.1. Since the potential
Fig. VI.1: Step potential used for the discussion of the Klein paradox.
is constant, the solutions can be represented in terms of plane waves. We look for
stationary state solutions
(x) =

a e
ikx
+b e
ikx
x < 0 k =

E
2
m
2
c e
iqx
x > 0 q =

(E V
0
)
2
m
2
.
(2.17)
These are seen to be solutions of the KleinGordon equation in the regions x > 0, x < 0,
respectively. Now, as usual, match the wavefunction and its rst spatial derivative at
the origin, yielding
(0
+
) = c = a +b = (0

(0
+
) = iqc = ik(a b) =

(0

)
(2.18)
whose solution is
c
a
=
2
1 +
q
k
,
b
a
=
1
q
k
1 +
q
k
. (2.19)
The transmission and reection coecients are calculated as
T =
q
k

c
a

2
= 4
q
k
1

1 +
q
k

2
R =

b
a

2
=

1
q
k
1 +
q
k

2
.
(2.20)
If the kinetic energy E m is above the height of the barrier E m > V
0
then
k, q are both real and positive, yielding
T = 4
qk
(k +q)
2
, R =

k q
k +q

2
, R +T = 1 . (2.21)
268 VI THE KLEIN-GORDON EQUATION
Thus the incident beam is partly reected and partly transmitted, as expected from
our experience in the corresponding non-relativistic problem. On the other hand, if the
incident kinetic energy is less than the height of the barrier, but |V
0
E| < m we see
that q is imaginary. Then
R = 1 , T = 0 , R +T = 1 (2.22)
which again agrees with the non-relativistic analog.
Suppose, however, that there exists a very strong potential V
0
> E + m. In
this case q becomes real again but negative. Then
R =

k +|q|
k |q|

2
> 1 , T =
4k|q|
(k |q|)
2
< 0 (2.23)
but
R +T = 1 . (2.24)
Probability is still conserved, but only at the cost of a negative transmission coecient
and a reection coecient which exceeds unity. This is the paradoxical result which
confronted Klein and others.
In light of our present knowledge there exists no paradox. In the case that
V
0
E > m (2.25)
the potential is suciently strong to create particle-antiparticle pairs. The antiparticles
are attracted by the potential and create a negatively charged current moving to the
right. This is the origin of the negative transmission coecient. The particles, on the
other hand, are reected from the barrier and combine with the incident particle beam
(which is completely reected) leading to a positively charged current, moving to the
left and with magnitude greater than that of the incident beam. Thus R > 1, as found.
Another way of thinking of this is in terms of what happens to the energy spectrum
of the KleinGordon equation when a potential V > 0 is turned on adiabatically [Sa
67]. When V = 0 this spectrum ranges from m < E < and < E < m.
Now consider a positive energy solution as shown in Figure VI.2. As V is increased
from zero, this energy level rst nds itself in the forbidden region where solutions are
strongly damped. However, when E < V m we are again in a region of oscillatory
solutions. From Figure VI.2 it is clear that even though E > 0 this is essentially an
antiparticle solution. The tunneling from region I to region III should be considered a
transition from a particle state (when V = 0) to an antiparticle state (when V > E+m)
VI.3 THE COULOMB SOLUTION: MESONIC ATOMS 269
as described above.
Fig. VI.2 Klein-Gordon energy levels in the presence of a potential.
There is no mystery then. Any problems which arise come from attempting to
apply a simple single-particle wavefunction picture to what is obviously a many-body
situation. The correct way in which to handle all the subtlety of this problem is via the
formalism of quantum eld theory. Nevertheless, the elementary wavefunction paradigm
allows a reasonable sketch of the physics involved.
VI.3 THE COULOMB SOLUTION: MESONIC ATOMS
The Coulomb bound state problem can also straightforwardly analyzed. Before
looking at the exact solution, however, it is useful to make the connection with the
Schrodinger formalism by deriving an eective Hamiltonian for the situation that the
KleinGordon particle is non-relativistic.
Eective Schrodinger Equation
Consider the two component formalism
1
,
2
and look for a stationary state
solution with
i
0

j
(m+W)
j
j = 1, 2 (3.1)
where W << m. Then
(m+W e)
1
=

m+
1
2m
(p e

A)
2

1
+
1
2m
(p e

A)
2

2
(m+W e)
2
=

m+
1
2m
(p e

A)
2

1
2m
(p e

A)
2

1
.
(3.2)
Solving the second equation for
2
we nd

2

1
2m+W e
1
2m
(p e

A)
2

1

1
4m
2

1
W e
2m

(p e

A)
2

1
.
(3.3)
270 VI THE KLEIN-GORDON EQUATION
Substitution into the top equation yields
(W e)
1

=
1
2m
(p e

A)
2

1
8m
3
(p e

A)
2

1
W e
2m

(p e

A)
2

1
(3.4)
or
W

1
1
16m
4
(p e

A)
4

1
=

(p e

A)
2
2m
+e
(p e

A)
4
8m
3
(p e

A)
2
e
16m
4
(p e

A)
2

1
. (3.5)
However,
1
is not normalized to unity. Rather
1 =

d
3
x

d
3
x

1
(p e

A)
4
16m
4

d
3
x

1
(3.6)
where we have dened

1
=

1
(p e

A)
4
32m
4

1
. (3.7)
Thus multiply Eq. 3.5 by the factor

1 +
(pe

A)
4
32m
4

, yielding
W

1
=

(p e

A)
2
2m

(p e

A)
4
8m
3

1
16m
4
(p e

A)
2
e(p e

A)
2
+

1 +
(p e

A)
4
32m
4

1 +
(p e

A)
4
32m
4

1
+. . .
=

(p e

A)
2
2m

(p e

A)
4
8m
3
+e +
1
32m
4

(p e

A)
2
,

(p e

A)
2
, e

1
.
(3.8)
The eective Schrodinger Hamiltonian is then
H =
1
2m
(i

A)
2

1
8m
3
(i

A)
4
+e
+
1
32m
4

(i

A)
2
,

(i

eA)
2
, e

.
(3.9)
and we can identify its various components as follows:
a) The terms
(p e

A)
2
2m
+e (3.10)
represent the usual non-relativistic energy.
VI.3 THE COULOMB SOLUTION: MESONIC ATOMS 271
b) Relativistically the kinetic energy is
T =

m
2
+ (p e

A)
2
m (3.11)
whose non-relativistic approximation is
T =
(p e

A)
2
2m

(p e

A)
4
8m
3
+. . . . (3.12)
Thus the piece
1
8m
3
(p e

A)
4
represents a relativistic O

v
2
c
2

correction to the
usual kinetic energy.
c) The origin of the double commutator term is more subtle and is associated with the
zitterbewegung motion discussed earlier. By completeness we can expand a bound
state solution in terms of plane wave solutions. This expansion will involve, in
general, a combination of positive and negative energy solutions and will thus lead
to zitterbewegung motion of magnitude (x)
2

1
m
2
about the usual trajectory.
This leads, in general, to a shift in the energy of magnitude
V (x +x) V (x)
i
V (x) x
i
+
1
2!

j
V (x) x
i
x
j
+. . .

1
6m
2

2
V (x) +. . .
(3.13)
In the case of spin-1/2 we shall see that a term of precisely this form the Darwin
term appears in the eective Hamiltonian. For the case of spinless particles the
zitterbewegung term arises, however, in O

v
4
c
4

.
Mesonic Atoms
A spin-zero atom actually exists in nature when a

or K

meson is captured
by a nucleus. This object is called a pionic or kaonic atom. We can calculate the
energy levels of such a system approximately by treating the p
4
term as a perturbation.
In lowest order we have
H
0
=
p
2
2m

Z
r
(3.14)
which is simply hydrogen-like atomic Hamiltonian, yielding eigenvalues
E
n
=
Z
2

2
2n
2
m (3.15)
and eigenfunctions
n
(r) with
H
0

n
(r) =

p
2
2m

Z
r

n
(r) = E
n

n
(r). (3.16)
272 VI THE KLEIN-GORDON EQUATION
Then
p
4
8m
3

n
(r) =
1
2m

E
n
+
Z
r

n
(r)
=
1
2m

m
2
Z
4

4
4n
4
m
Z
3

3
n
2
r
+
Z
2

2
r
2

n
(r) .
(3.17)
Since

1
r

= m
Z
n
2
,

1
r
2

= m
2
Z
2

2
n
3

+
1
2
(3.18)
we nd

p
4
8m
3

=
1
2m

m
2
Z
4

4
4n
4
m
2
Z
4

4
n
4
+m
2
Z
4

4
n
3

+
1
2

=
mZ
4

4
2n
3

1
+
1
2

3
4n

.
(3.19)
Also, we note that

p
2
, (r)

= Ze
3
(r) . (3.20)
Then

n
|

p
2
,

p
2
,

|
n

= Ze

d
3
r
3
(r)

n
(r)

n
(r)

n
(r)

n
(r)

= 0
(3.21)
so the Darwin term does not contribute.
The energy levels become
E
n
= m
Z
2

2
2n
2

1 +
Z
2

2
n
2

n
+
1
2

3
4

+. . .

. (3.22)
We observe that the p
4
term acts as a ne structure term, removing the degeneracy
of the hydrogen atom and lowering the energy for states of smaller angular momentum.
We can also solve this system exactly. Using
e(r) =
Z
r
(3.23)
the KleinGordon equation becomes

E +
Z
r

2
+

2
m
2

(r) = 0 . (3.24)
If we look for solutions having a denite angular momentum
(r) =

(r)Y
m

( r) . (3.25)
VI.3 THE COULOMB SOLUTION: MESONIC ATOMS 273
we require

E +
Z
r

2
+
1
r

2
r
2
r
( + 1)
r
2
m
2

(r)
=

E
2
m
2
+ 2
ZE
r
+
1
r

2
r
2
r
( + 1) Z
2

2
r
2

(r) = 0 .
(3.26)
Then making the identication
( + 1) Z
2

2
=

+ 1)
E
2
m
2
= k
2
= 2m

E = m

(3.27)
Eq. 3.26 becomes

1
r

2
r
2
r

+ 1)
r
2
+
2m

Z
r
+k
2

(r) = 0 (3.28)
which is identical to the dierential equation which arises in the usual Schrodinger
equation solution of the hydrogen atom, except that in the present case

is not an
integer. It is necessary then to analytically continue the hydrogen solutions in order to
apply them here. We have
E

s
=
Z
2

2
2s
2
m

(3.29)
and
E =
m

1 +
Z
2

2
s
2

1/2
. (3.30)
However, s is not an integer but is dened rather in terms of

s = n +

, (3.31)
with

determined by

+ 1) +
1
4
=

+
1
2

2
= ( + 1) Z
2

2
+
1
4
i.e.,

=
1
2

+
1
2

2
Z
2

2
. (3.32)
Although mathematically either sign is allowed, only the positive sign allows a normal-
izable solution as 0. Then
s = n
1
2
+

+
1
2

2
Z
2

2
(3.33)

The positive sign in front of

is determined by the hydrogen atom condition

that n is a non-negative integer.
274 VI THE KLEIN-GORDON EQUATION
so that
E = m

1 +
Z
2

n
1
2
+

+
1
2

2
Z
2

1/2
(3.34)
Noting that
s n
1
2
Z
2

2
+
1
2
(3.35)
we nd
E m

1
1
2
Z
2

2
s
2
+
3
8
Z
4

4
s
4
+. . .

1
1
2
Z
2

2
n
2

1 +
Z
2

2
n
2

n
+
1
2

3
4

. . .

.
(3.36)
which is in complete agreement with Eq. 3.22 obtained perturbatively.
In comparing this prediction to experimental data on pionic atoms, various correc-
tions are required:
i) the reduced mass
=
mM
m+M
(3.37)
must be utilized in place of the pion mass m;
ii) account must be taken of the fact that the central nucleus is not a point charge
but has a radius R 1.2 A
1
3
fm;
iii) correction must be made for the so-called vacuum polarization, wherein a virtual
photon, responsible for the Coulomb potential between pion and nucleus, trans-
forms temporarily into an electronpositron pair;
iv) nally, since the radius of the lowest Bohr orbit
r

=
1
Zm

(3.38)
is m

/m
e
300 times smaller than the corresponding electron Bohr radius, the
pion wavefunction has signicant overlap with the central nucleus, requiring a
correction factor for the strong pion-nuclear interaction.
When these modications are made, agreement is excellent over a wide range of nuclei.
VI.3 THE COULOMB SOLUTION: MESONIC ATOMS 275
PROBLEM VI.3.1
Relativistic Zeeman Eect
Suppose a pionic atom is placed in a uniform magnetic eld, described by the
vector potential

A =
1
2
(

B r) .
i) Neglecting the quadratic term (justify this) show that this problem can be exactly
solved to yield the energy levels
E = E
B=0
(1 2
L
m
m

)
1
2
where
L
= eB/2m

is the Larmor frequency and m is the eigenvalue of L along

the direction of the magnetic eld.
ii) Evaluate the nonrelativistic limit of the Klein-Gordon equation in this case and
show that the eective Hamiltonian is
H = H
B=0

e
2m

B(1
p
2
2m
2

+...)
Thus the usual Bohr magneton e/2m

is reduced by relativistic eects to

e
2m

(1
p
2
2m
2

)
.
iii) Calculate the energy shift induced by the magnetic eld using perturbation theory
and show that this result agrees with the exact answer to rst order in

B.
PROBLEM VI.3.2
High Z Mesonic Atoms
We have seen that the energy levels of a mesonic atom are given by
E = m

1 +
Z
2

2
(n
1
2
+

( +
1
2
)
2
Z
2

2
)
2

1
2
.
i) Show that the ground state energy for any mesonic atom heavier that Z=69 is
complex. Explain what this complex energy means.
ii) Mesonic atoms have been well studied at places like Los Alamos and it has been
found that the ground states of atoms as heavy as lead (Z=82) or Uranium (Z=92)
are quite stable. How do you reconcile this fact with the result obtained above?
Be as quantitative as you can.