GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF RESEARCH

A. PURPOSES OF RESEARCH
The principal goal of research is the preservation and improvement of the quality of human life. All kinds of research are directed toward this end. 1. To discover new facts about known phenomena. 2. To find answers to problems which are only partially solved by existing methods and information. 3. To improve existing techniques and develop new instruments or products. 4. To discover previously unrecognized substances or elements. 5. Discover pathways of action of known substances and elements. 6. To order related, valid generalizations into systematized science. 7. To provide basis for decision-making in business, industry, education, government and in other undertakings. 8. To satisfy the researchers curiosity. 9. To find answers to queries by means of scientific methods. 10. To acquire a better and deeper understanding about one phenomenon that can be known and understood better by research. 11. To expand or verify existing knowledge. 12. To improve educational practices for raising the quality of school products. 13. To promote health and prolong life. 14. To provide man with more of his basic needs more and better food, clothing, shelter, etc. 15. To make work, travel and communication faster, easier, and more comfortable. valid-data gathering instruments and valid data. He subjects his data to expert scrutiny.

11. Research is accurate investigation, observation and description. In fact, every research activity
must be done accurately so that the findings will lead to the formulation of scientific generalizations. All conclusions are based on actual evidence.

12. Research is patient and an unhurried activity.

This is to ensure accuracy. Research that is hurriedly done or conducted carelessly due to racing against time may lead to shaky conclusions and generalizations. 13. Research requires effort-making capacity. No research can be conducted without the exertion of much effort. No one without any effort-making capacity can conduct a research because research involves much work and time. 14. Research requires courage. Research requires courage because the researcher oftentimes undergoes hazards, discomforts and the like. At times the researcher encounters public and social disapproval. Also disagreements with colleagues may arise.

C. THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD OF RESEARCH

One of the characteristics of good research is that, it is systematic. It follows the scientific method of research which includes the following sequential steps (Treece and Treece, Jr., p. 47) Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION & STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM 1. Determining (recognizing) the problem 2. Forming a hypothesis Chapter 2: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES 3. Doing the library search Chapter 3: METHODS OF RESEARCH AND PROCEDURES 4. Designing the study 5. Developing the instruments for collecting data 6. Collecting the data Chapter 4: PRESENTATION OF DATA & RESULTS Chapter 5: ANALYSIS & INTERPRETATION OF DATA 7. Analyzing the data Chapter 6: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATIONS 8. Determining implications and conclusions from the findings; and 9. Making recommendations for further research.

B. CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD RESEARCH 1. Research is systematic. It follows an orderly and

sequential procedure that leads to the discovery of truth, solution of a problem, or whatever is aimed to be discovered. Research is controlled. All variables except those that are tested or being experimented upon are kept constant (nor allowed to change or vary) so that the changes made on the subjects of the study can be attributed only to the experimental variable. This is especially true in an experimental research. Research is empirical. All the procedures employed and the data gathered are perceived in the same manner by all observers. Research is analytical. There is critical analysis of all the data used so that there is no error in their interpretation. Research is objective, unbiased and logical. All the findings and conclusions are logically based on empirical data and no effort is made to alter the results of the research. Research employs hypothesis. This is to guide the investigation process. In experimental studies, hypotheses are expressly stated but in descriptive studies, the specific sub-problems or specific questions serve as hypotheses and the hypotheses are tested and not proved.

2.

3. 4. 5.

D. PRINCIPLES OF SCIENTIFIC METHOD (Ibid., p. 50)

1. Rigid control 2. Objectivity 3. Systematic Organization; & 4. Rigorous standards

6.

RIGID CONTROL refers to the manipulation of the research variable. Variables are those things that vary in quantity and quality, which are to be manipulated by the researcher. OBJECTIVITY means that there should be no bias or partiality in treating the results of the inquiry. The results should not be tampered with, whatever they may be. SYSTEMATIC ORGANIZATION refers to proper and accurate tabulation of data as well as presenting them in statistical tables ready for interpretation. RIGOROUS STANDARDS refers to the setting up of standards or principles for evaluating the findings of a study. Such standards should not be changed to suit the expectations of a researcher. This principle also refers to the accurate statistical computation and interpretation of quantified data. E. DESIGNING THE STUDY Designing the study must follow the scientific method of research. Aside from choosing the right problem, forming the hypotheses and library research, designing the study also

7. 8.

Research employs quantitative or statistical methods.

Data are transformed into numerical measures and are treated statistically to determine their significance or usefulness. 9. Research is original work. Except in historical research, data are gathered from primary sources or first-hand sources and not from secondary sources (usually printed materials such as books, or theses, etc.) 10. Research is done by an expert. The researcher uses valid and carefully designed procedures,

includes deciding on the method of research to be used, the study population, the instrument for gathering data and its preparation, the sampling design, statistical treatment of data, analysis and interpretation of data.

Different methods of collecting data are the interview, questionnaire, observations, tests, and others as well as the preparation of their respective instruments. Sampling designs include pure random, systematic, stratified, cluster and others types. b. The data must meet the standard of accuracy, objectivity and verifiability. c. Answers to the specific questions (sub-problems) can be found. The data to be collected must supply the necessary answers to the specific questions. d. The hypotheses formulated are testable, i.e.,

Chapter 1: THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

A. DEFINITION
A problem is (1) any significant, perplexing and challenging situation, real or artificial, the solution of which requires reflective thinking; (2) a perplexing situation after it has been translated into a question or series of questions that help determine the direction of subsequent inquiry. (Good, p.414) B. ELEMENTS OF A RESEARCH PROBLEM The term research problem implies that an investigation, inquiry or study is to be conducted, or that the problem is ready for investigation, inquiry or study. There are certain elements that a problem must possess before it becomes a research problem ready for investigation.

they can be accepted or rejected. Hypotheses are not proved, they are only determined as true or not. If the findings from the data do not conform to the hypotheses, the latter are rejected. If the findings conform to the hypotheses, the latter are accepted as true and valid. e. Equipments and instruments for research are available and can give valid and reliable results. f. It can be completed within a reasonable period of time
unless it is a longitudinal research which takes a long time for its completion. Although research is

1. AIM or PURPOSE OF THE PROBLEM FOR INVESTIGATION. This answers the question Why? Why is there an investigation, inquiry or study? 2. THE SUBJECT MATTER OR TOPIC TO BE INVESTIGATED. This answers the question What? What is to be investigated or to be studied? 3. THE PLACE OR LOCALE WHERE THE RESEARCH IS TO BE CONDUCTED. This answers the question Where? Where is the study to be conducted? 4. THE PERIOD OR TIME OF THE STUDY DURING WHICH THE DATA ARE TO BE GATHERED. This answers the question When? When is the the study to be carried out? 5. POPULATION OR UNIVERSE FROM WHOM THE DATA ARE TO BE COLLECTED. This answers the question Who? or From whom? Who are the respondents? From whom are the data to be gathered?
In formulating the title of a research inquiry, the aim is usually omitted and sometimes the population is not included.

unhurried, there must be a timetable for its completion. g. It is significant, important, and relevant to the present time and situation, timely and of current interest. The research project must be able to make a substantial impact upon situations and people it is intended for or addressed to. h. The results are practical and implementable.
i. It requires original, critical and reflective thinking to solve it. j. It can be delimited to suit the resources of the researcher but big or large enough to be able to give significant, valid and reliable results and generalizations. k. It must contribute to the national development goals for the improvement of the quality of human life. l. It must contribute to the fund of human knowledge. m. It must show or pave the way for the solution of the problem or problems intended to be solved. n. It must not undermine the moral and spiritual values of the people. It must not advocate the promotion of antisocial values such as drug addiction, cruelty, hatred, divisiveness, etc. As much as possible, it must advocate the promotion of divine values and those admirable human values such as love, peace, goodwill, etc. o. It must not advocate any change in the present order of things by means of violence but by peaceful means.

C. GUIDELINES IN THE SELECTION OF A RESEARCH PROBLEM OR TOPIC 1. The research problem or topic must be chosen by the researcher himself. 2. It must be within the interest of the researcher. 3. It must be within the specialization of the researcher. This will in some way make the work easier for him because he is working on familiar grounds. 4. It must be within the competence of the researcher to tackle. The researcher must know the method of research and other research procedures applicable to his problem and he must know how to apply them. He must have a workable understanding of his study. 5. It must be within the ability of the researcher to finance; otherwise he must be able to find funding for his research. There must be a budget, which he must be able to shoulder. 6. It is researchable and manageable: a. Data are available and accessible. The researcher
must be sure that the participants in his investigation possess the needed data and that they are within his reach. So, one must not choose a problem in which the locations of the data are not too far away, say foreign land.

p.There must be a consideration of hazards involved, physical, social or legal.

ON EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH, DEFINED
The experimental method of research is defined by Good as a method or procedure involving the control or manipulation of conditions for the purpose of studying the relative effects of various treatments applied to members of a sample, or of the same treatment applied to members of different samples. (Good, p. 216)

The basic purpose of experimental method of research

is to discover the influence of one or more factors upon a condition, group or situation, the purpose of which is to discover what will be. It describes and analyzes variables in carefully controlled conditions as a basis for inferring or concluding. An experimental research therefore, consists of manipulating an experimental variable under highly controlled conditions to determine how and why a particular event occurs. (Manuel and Medel, p. 37) Experimental Research is a highly controlled procedure in which manipulated treatments

or actions from a factor or condition (experimental or independent variable) are applied upon another factor or condition (the independent variable) to determine the effect of the former upon the latter, all other factors or variables being kept constant or equal so that any change in the dependent variable is attributable only to the experimental or independent variable. A variable is anything that may change or may be changed from one condition to another, either qualitatively or quantitatively. Examples are age, height, weight, method of teaching, language, time, etc. An independent variable is anything, condition or process which is controlled and manipulated by the experimenter and applied on another thing, condition or process (dependent variable) intended to have or produce a change in or reaction from the latter. A dependent variable is anything, a condition or process, exposed to or upon which treatments or actions from the independent variable are applied. The response of or change in the dependent variable is measured and some statistical methods are applied to determine the effects of the independent or experimental variable. CONCEPTS OF CAUSATION According to Estolas and Boquiren, there are three concepts of causation as follows: (Estolas and Boquiren,pp. 142-143)

markedly with the behavior of a rat fed with its normal food is considered caused by the drug. The defect of this design is the absence of control over the variables involved. This is why, when interpretation is made of the result, variables that may have undue influence in the experiment should be given due consideration. 2. Single group with a pre-test and a post-test design. In

this design, the group is exposed to a certain experimental factor. However, before the start of the experiment, the group is given a pre-test about the subject matter to be covered in the experiment. Then after the experimental period, the group is given the same pre-test but in a different form to avoid the effect of practice. This is the post-test. The excess of the results of the post-test over the results of the pre-test is considered caused by the experimental factor.
Example: In an animal production, a new swine feed is to be tested for its nutrition value. A group of piglets is used. Before feeding the piglets with the new feed, their weights are taken. Then they are fed with the new feed. After the experimental period of feeding, the weights of the piglets are taken again. The means of the two sets of weight are computed. After the application of certain statistical methods, it will be known whether the increase in the weights of the piglets is significant or not, that is, whether the new feed has a great nutritional value. 3. Matched Group Designs. In this design, two groups are matched in age, sex, grade level, mental ability, etc. One group, called the experimental group is exposed to the experimental or independent variable while the other group, called the control group, is not exposed to the experimental variable. After the experimental period, the two groups are given the same test covering the subject matter studied during the period. It must be noted that all other variables except the independent variable are kept constant or equal during the experimental period. Any excess of the achievement of the experimental group over the achievement of the control group is attributed to the experimental factor. (Garrett, pp. 213-217 for statistical treatment) Example: In agriculture, a farmer wanted to test the effectiveness of a fertilizer. So he prepared two plots of the same size with four replications in each plot. He planted the same variety of rice and kept all other agricultural practices equal such as weeding, irrigation, preparation of the soil, etc. He also saw to it that the fertility of the two plots was the same. After the harvest, it was found out that the average of the four replications in the experimental plot had a significant excess over the average production of the four replications of the control plot. This was due to the effectiveness of the fertilizer. 4. Randomized multi-group with a post-test design. In this design, there are two or more experimental variables to be tested. So groups are formed equal to the number of experimental variables. The members of each group are assigned randomly to their respective groups. Each experimental factor is applied on the group to which it is assigned. All other variables, whatever activities they are, are kept equal in all groups. After the experimental period, the same test on the lessons taken by all the groups is given to all of them. The experimental factor assigned to the group with the highest achievement is considered the most effective, the experimental factor assigned to the group with the second highest achievement is the next most effective, and so on. (Garrett, pp. 276-295 for statistical treatment) Example: In agriculture, suppose three kinds of fertilizer are to be tested for their relative effectiveness. Three blocks of land with the same fertility are prepared with four replication plots in each block. All other farming practices such as preparation of the soil, irrigation,

1. One-to-One Relationship.

According to this concept of causation, for every particular cause there is a corresponding particular effect. One independent variable causes an effect upon one dependent variable. This one-to-one relationship especially exists in the physical science field. 2. Two-Variable Relationship. This involves two variables causing an effect upon one variable. 3. Complex Relationship. This is a case where two or more variables cause a single effect. In addition to those relationships given by Estolas and Boquiren there are also cases where one variable causes two or more effects.

GENERAL DISTINGUISHING FEATURES OF EXPERIMENTS

1. Experimentation lends itself to easier manipulation because of quantitative entities. 2. Observations are done under controlled conditions. 3. Gathering of valid facts is rigorous. 4. Experimentation can be conducted in the laboratory, in the classroom, or in the field. 5. Laboratory experiments are intensive and exacting. 6. Most often experiments are limited to a small number of cases. 7. There is more thorough analysis of variable factors.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
A. Single Factor Experimental Designs
1. Single group with only a post-test design. This involves a thing, a person, or group subjected or exposed to certain experimental factor for a certain of period of time. Then after the experimental period, the subjects exposed to the experimental factor are given a post-test. The achievement of this experimental group is then compared with the achievement of another group with similar characteristics but unexposed to the experimental factor. Any excess of the achievement of the experimental group over the achievement of the normal group is considered due to the experimental factor. Example: In biology, if a rat is fed with a certain kind of drug, any abnormality in its behavior, which differs,

weeding, application of the same insecticide, etc., are kept equal. The blocks are planted with the same variety of rice and the three kinds of fertilizer in the same amount are applied to each block. The productions from the blocks with their replications are subjected to analysis of variance and the results of the computations will show the relative effectiveness of the three kinds of fertilizer. (Gomez and Gomez, pp. 9-24) 5. Randomized multi-group with a pre-test and a post-test design. This is the same as the design in No. 4. The only difference is that, there is a pre-test. After the experiment, the results of the pre-test and those of the post-test are subjected to some statistical methods, usually the analysis of covariance, and the relative effectiveness of the three methods will be revealed. (Garrett, pp 295-303)

6. Selecting the Sample.

The sample is composed of subjects or students to be used in the experiment. The sample should be representative, large enough, and selected properly to be able to give valid and reliable generalizations.

7. Selecting or constructing appropriate instruments to

measure the results of the experiment.
Choose or construct instruments that will measure accurately the outcomes of the experiment. Pretest the instruments to insure their validity and reliability. Conducting the Experiment. The experiment must be conducted according to the experimental design.

8.

9. Measuring the results and applying statistical

procedures. After the experiment, the results have to
be measured and statistical methods have to be applied to determine their significance. Writing the report of the experiment . Whatever the form, the report about the experiment must be made, either in thesis form or otherwise. The results or findings especially, are to be reported. There should be a complete report of the experiment from the selection of the problem to the reporting of the findings.

10.
B. Two-Factor Experiment Factorial Design. A factorial experimental design is a two-factor experiment in which there are two experimental factors involved. For instance, we want to know the performance of a group of males and females in a learning situation under the effects of varying amounts of the same drug. In this experiment, there are two factors sex, male or female; and dosage the amount of drug measured in milligrams. In our analysis, we are concerned with differences in learning related to (1) sex, (2) the amount of the drug taken, and (3) the interaction effect of sex and drug. In this experiment, we have to make a two-way classification: classification of data according to sex, and the classification of the same data according to the drug dosage. The achievement scores of the two groups after they have taken a posttest are subjected to analysis of variance which will reveal whether there is a significant difference between the learning capacity of males and that of females when under the effects of varying amounts of the drug, and whether there is a significant difference between the scores of the whole group under the effects of the varying amounts of the drug, and also the interaction between the sex and drug, that is if the two factors helped each other. (Downie and Heath, pp. 218-221)

HOW TO WRITE Chapter 1: THE PROBLEM & ITS SETTING

Chapter 1 should contain a discussion of each of the following topics: Introduction Statement of the Problem Assumptions and Hypotheses Significance or Importance of the Study Definition of Terms Scope and Delimitation of the Study Conceptual Framework

The Introduction
Guidelines in writing the Introduction:

1. 2.

Presentation of the Problem. The start of the Introduction is the presentation of the Problem, i.e., what the problem is all about. The existence of an unsatisfactory condition, a felt problem that needs a solution. 3. Rationale of the study. The reason or
reasons why it is necessary to conduct the study must be discussed.

THE EXPERIMENTAL PLAN

1. Determining the experimental problem or topic. This
is defining the problem.

2. Surveying related literature and studies.

3.

4.

5.

Reading about related literature and studies will give the experimenter a chance of better understanding of his problem and experimental design. The formulation of hypotheses, methodology, selection of samples, experimental design, statistical procedures, etc., utilized in related studies will serve as guides in conducting his experimental study. Formulating the hypothesis or hypotheses. These are questions, which are to be answered by the study; they are tentative conclusions about the outcomes of the experiment. They must be testable, that is, they may be accepted as true or rejected as not true. Hypotheses are usually stated in the null form in experimental studies. Identifying the experimental variables. The independent variable will be applied and expected to cause a change or effect on the dependent variable. Both the independent and dependent variables have to be identified. This will help the experimenter in making his experimental design. Select the appropriate experimental design. The selection of the experimental design depends upon the expected outcomes or what the experimenter wants to find out. In other words, the design that will best test the hypotheses should be selected.

4. 5.

Historical Background of the Problem. A desire to have a deeper and clearer understanding of a situation, circumstance or phenomenon. 6. A desire to find a better way of doing something or of improving a product. 7. A desire to discover something. 8. Geographical conditions of the study locale. This is necessary in anthropological and
economic studies. If the subject of the investigation is rice production, then the terrain, soil, climate, rainfall, etc., of the study locale have to be described.

9.

A link between the introduction and the statement of the problem. A sentence or two should
show the link between the Introduction and the conducting of the researcher.

Statement of the Problem

There should be a general statement of the whole problem followed by the specific questions or sub-problems into which the general problem is broken up.

Guidelines in Formulating the General Problem and the Specific Sub-problems or Specific Questions. The

following are suggested to guide the researcher in the formulation of her general as well as her specific subproblems or questions. These are the characteristics of specific questions: 1. The general statement of the problem and the specific sub-problems or questions should be formulated first before conducting the research. 2. It is customary to state specific sub-problems in the interrogative form. Hence, sub-problems are called specific questions. 3. Each specific question must be clear and unequivocal, i.e., it has only one meaning. It must not have dual meanings. 4. Each specific question is researchable apart from the other questions, i.e., answers to each specific question can be found even without considering the other questions. 5. Each specific question must be based upon known facts and phenomena. Besides, data from known facts and phenomena must be accessible to make the specific questions researchable. 6. Answers to each specific question can be interpreted apart from the answers to other specific questions. 7. Answers to each specific question must contribute to the development of the whole research problem or topic. 8. Summing up the answers to all the specific questions will give a complete development of the entire study. 9. The number of specific questions should be enough to cover the development of the whole research problem or study. Before writing down the specific questions, determine first the different aspects of the research problem to be studied and then for each aspect make one specific question with sub-questions if there is a need. 10. Usually, there should be a general statement of the problem and then this should be broken into as many sub-problems or specific questions as necessary.

GUIDELINES IN THE FORMULATION OF THE EXPLICIT HYPOTHESES:

1. In experimental investigations, hypotheses have to be explicit. They have to be expressed in comparative and correlational studies. 2. Hypotheses are usually stated in the null form because testing a null hypothesis is easier that a hypothesis in the operational form. Testing a hypothesis simply means gathering data to answer it. 3. Hypotheses are formulated from the specific questions upon which they are based.

PURPOSES, FUNCTION AND IMPORTANCE OF HYPOTHESES OR SPECIFIC QUESTIONS.

Hypotheses (specific questions) perform important functions in research such as the following: 1. They help the researcher in designing her study; what methods, research instruments, sampling design, and statistical treatments to use, what data to gather, etc. 2. They serve as bases for determining assumptions. 3. They serve as bases for determining the relevance of data. 4. They serve as bases for the explanation or discussion about the data gathered. 5. They help or guide the researcher in consolidating her findings and in formulating her conclusions. Generally, findings and conclusions are answers to the hypotheses or specific questions raised at the start of the investigation.

Importance or Significance of the Study

GUIDANCE IN EXPLAINING THE IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY. The importance of the whole study must contain explanations or discussions of any of the following:

1.

Assumptions
An Assumption is a self-evident truth, which is based upon a known fact or phenomenon. Oftentimes, especially in descriptive and historical researches, assumptions are not explicitly expressed but left implicit, that is they are unwritten. Generally, every specific question is implicitly based upon an assumption. If there is no assumption, expressed or implicit, there can be no specific question. GUIDELINES IN THE USE OF BASIC ASSUMPTIONS. (Sugden as cited by Manuel, p. 81) You cannot assume the value of your study. 2. You cannot assume the reliability of the instruments you propose to use in your research. You cannot assume the validity of basic data. You cannot assume that your population is typical. 5. An assumption is not tested, neither it is defended nor argued.

The rationale, timeliness, and/or relevance of the study. 2. Possible solutions to existing problems or improvement to unsatisfactory conditions. 3. Who are to be benefited and how are they going to be benefited. It must be shown who are the individuals, groups or communities who may be placed in a more advantageous position on account of the study. 4. Possible contribution to the fund of knowledge.

5.

Possible implications. It should be discussed here that the implications include the possible causes of the problems discovered, the possible effects of the problems, and the remedial measures to solve the problems. Implications also include the good points of a system, which ought to be continued or to be improved if possible.

1. 3. 4.

Definition of Terms GUIDELINES IN DEFINING TERMS:

1. Only terms, words, or phrases that have special or unique meanings in the study are defined. 2. Terms should be defined operationally, i.e., how they are used in the study. 3. The researcher may develop her own definition from the characteristics of the term defined. 4. Definitions may be taken from encyclopedias, books, magazines, and newspaper articles, dictionaries and other publications but the researcher must acknowledge her sources. Definitions taken from the published materials are called conceptual or

Hypotheses
A hypothesis is a tentative conclusion or answer to a specific question raised at the beginning of the investigation. It is an educated guess about the answer to a specific question.

FORMS OF HYPOTHESIS:
1. OPERATIONAL FORM stated in the affirmative, it states that there is a difference between two phenomena. 2. NULL FORM stated in the negative, it states that there is no difference between two phenomena. Hence, it expresses equality between two phenomena. This is more commonly used than the operational form.

theoretical definitions.
5. Definitions should be as brief, clear, and unequivocal as possible. 6. Acronyms should always be spelled out fully especially if it is not commonly known or if it is used for the first time.

Scope and Delimitations of the Study

GUIDELINES IN WRITING THE SCOPE AND DELIMITATIONS. The Scope and Delimitations of the
Study should include the following: 1. A brief statement of the general purpose of the study. 2. The subject matter and topics studied and discussed. The locale of the study, where the data were gathered or the entity to which the data belong. 4. The population or universe from which the respondents were selected. This must be large enough to make generalizations significant. 5. The period of the study. This is the time, either months or years, during which the data were gathered.

3.

Limitations of the Study

Limitations of the study include the weaknesses of the study beyond the control of the researcher. This is especially true in descriptive research where variables involved are uncountable or continuous variables such as adequacy, effectiveness, efficiency, extent, etc. The weaknesses spring out of the inaccuracies of the perceptions of the respondents.

Conceptual Framework
From the review of related literature and studies, the researcher may formulate a theoretical scheme for her research problem. This scheme is a tentative explanation or theoretical explanation of the phenomenon or problem and serves as the basis for the formulation of research hypotheses. Thus, the conceptual framework consists of the investigators own position on a problem after her exposure to various theories that have bearing on the problem. It is the researchers new model, which has its roots on the previous models, which the researcher has studied. (Sanchez, pp. 14-15) The conceptual framework becomes the central theme, the focus, the main thrust of the study. It serves a s a guide in conducting the investigation.

2. They help the investigator understand her topic for research better. Reviewing related literature and studies may clarify vague points about her problem. 3. They ensure that there will be no duplication of other studies. There is duplication if an investigation already made is conducted again in the same locale using practically the same respondents. This is avoided if a survey of related literature and studies be made first. 4. They help and guide the researcher in locating more sources of related information. This is because the bibliography of a study already conducted indicate references about similar studies. 5. They help and guide the researcher in making his research design especially in: a. the formulation of specific questions to be researched on; b. the formulation of assumptions and hypotheses if there should be any; c. the formulation of conceptual framework; d. the selection and application of the methods of research; e. the selection and application of sampling techniques; f. the selection and/or preparation and validation of research instruments for gathering data; g. the selection and application of statistical procedures; h. the analysis, organization, presentation and interpretation of data; i. the making of the summary of implications for the whole study; j. the formulation of the summary of findings, conclusions and recommendations. 6. They help and guide the researcher in making comparison between her findings with the findings of other researchers on similar studies with the end in view of formulating generalizations or principles which are contributions of the study to the fund of knowledge.

Chapter 2: RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES Related Literature is composed of discussions of

facts and principles to which the present study is related. These materials are usually printed and found in books, encyclopedias, professional journals, magazines, newspapers and other publications. These materials are classified as: 1. Local, if printed in the Philippines; and 2. Foreign, if printed in other lands.

CHARACTERISTICS OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

There are certain characteristics of related materials that make them of true value. Among these characteristics are:

1. The surveyed materials must be as recent as

possible. This is important because of the rapid social,
economic, scientific, and technological changes. Findings several years ago may be of little value today because of the fast changing lifestyle of the people. Except: Treaties, mathematical laws and formulas, statistical procedures, natural and physical laws. Also, comparison or contrast that are to be made between the conditions of today and those of the remote past. 2. Materials reviewed must be objective and unbiased. Some materials are extremely or subtly one-sided, political or religious, etc. Comparison with these materials cannot be made logically and validly. Distorted generalizations may result. 3. Materials surveyed must be relevant to the study. Only materials that have some bearing or similarity to the research problem at hand must be reviewed. 4. Surveyed materials must have been based upon genuinely original and true facts or data to make them valid and reliable. 5. Reviewed materials must not be too few nor too many. They must only be sufficient enough to give insight into the research problem or to indicate the nature of the present investigation. The number may also depend upon the availability of related materials.

Related Studies, on the other hand, are studies, inquiries, or investigations already conducted to which the present proposed study is related or has some bearing or similarity. They are usually unpublished materials such as manuscripts, theses and dissertations. They may be classified as: 1. Local, if printed in the Philippines; and 2. Foreign, if printed in other lands.
IMPORTANCE, PURPOSES AND FUNCTIONS OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES
A Survey or Review of Related Literature and Studies is very important because such reviewed literature and studies serve as a foundation of the proposed study. This is because related literature and studies guide the researcher in pursuing her research venture. Reviewed literature and studies help guide the researcher in the following ways. 1. They help or guide the researcher in searching for or in selecting a better research problem. By reviewing related materials, a replication of a similar problem may be found better than the problem already chosen. Replication is the study of a research problem already conducted but in another place.

SOURCES STUDIES

OF

RELATED

LITERATURE

AND

The sources of related literature and studies may include the following:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

7. 8.

Books, encyclopedias, almanacs, and other similar references. Articles published in professional journals, magazines, periodicals, newspapers and other publications. Manuscripts, monographs, memoirs, speeches, letters and diaries. Unpublished theses and dissertations. The Constitution and laws and statutes of the land. Bulletins, circulars and orders emanating from the government offices and departments, especially from the Office of the President of the Philippines and the Department of Education. Records of Schools, public and private, especially reports of their activities. Official reports of all kinds, educational, social, economic, scientific, technological, political, etc. from the government and other entities.

written later. This can be done especially when citation is by author or by writer. If citation is by topic, chronological citation can be done in the footnote.

WHAT TO CITE
It should be emphasized that only the major findings, ideas, generalizations, principles or conclusions in related materials relevant to the problem under investigation should be cited. Generally, such findings, ideas, generalizations, principles or conclusions are summarized, paraphrased or synthesized.

QUOTING A MATERIAL
A material may be quoted if the idea conveyed is so perfectly stated or controversial and it is not too long. It is written single spaced with wider margins at the left and at the right sides of the paper but without any quotation marks. EXAMPLE: Suppose the following is a quotation: Said Enriquez, Praise is an important factor in childrens learning. It encourages them to study their lessons harder. Praise, however, should be given very appropriately.2 FOOTNOTE: Ibid.

WHERE TO LOCATE THE SOURCES OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

Generally, the sources of Related Literature and Studies are located in the following places: 1. Libraries, either government, school or private libraries. 2. Government and private offices. 3. The National Library. 4. The Library of the Department of Education. The last two are especially rich depositories of related materials, particularly unpublished masters theses and doctoral dissertations.

WAYS OF CITING RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

The following are the ways of citing Related Literature and Studies: 1. By Author or Writer. In this method, the ideas, facts or principles, although they have the same meaning, are explained or discussed separately and cited in the footnote with their respective authors or writers. Examples: According to Enriquez, praise helps much in learning, etc., etc.1 Maglaque found out that opraise is an important factor in learning, etc., etc.,2 Footnotes:
1 Pedro Enriquez. The Dynamics of Teaching and Learning. Manila: Canlaon Publishing Company, Inc., 1981, p. 102.

JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY

It should be made clear that there is no duplication of other studies. The present inquiry may only be a replication of another study. It should be stressed also that inspite of similar studies, the present study is still necessary to find out if the findings of the studies in other places are also true in the locale of the present investigation to affirm or negate the findings of other inquiries about the same research problem or topic so that generalizations or principles may be formulated. These generalizations and principles would be the contributions of the present investigation together with other studies to the fund of knowledge. This is one of the more important purposes of research: the contribution that it can give to the fund of knowledge.

Juan Maglaque, Factors Affecting Childrens Learning in Pag-Asa District, (Unpublished Masters Thesis, San Gregorio College, San Gregorio City, 1984.) 2. By Topic. In this case, if different authors or writers have the same opinion about the same topic, the topic is discussed and cited under the names of the authors or writers. This is a summary of their opinions. This is to avoid separate and long discussions of the same topic. Example: It has been found out that praise is an important aid in the learning of children.1

3. Chronological. Related materials may also be cited chronologically, i.e., according to the year they were written. Materials, which were written earlier, should be cited first before those, which were