I Introduction

l.l Whot ls Mechqnics? Principles

15 I .I WHAT MECHANICS?
Mechanicscanbe defined asthat science which describes and predicts the conditionsof rest or motion of bodiesunder the action of firces. It is divided into three parts: mechanicsof rigid bodies, mechanicsof ani deformablebodi,es, mechanics Jtuids. of The mechanicsof riqid bodies is subdivided into statics and dynamics,t}e former dealingwith bodiesat rest,the latter with bodies in motion. In this part of the study of mechanics, bodies are assumed to be perfectly rigid. Actual structures and machines,however, are never absolutelyrigid and deform under the loads to which they are subjected.But thesedeformationsare usuallysmall and do not appreciably affect the conditions of equilibrium or motion of the structure under consideration.They are important, though, as far as the resistance of the structure to failure is concerned and are studied in whlch is apart of the mechanics deformable mechanics materials, of of bodies. The third division of mechanics,the mechanicsof fluids, is subdividedinto the studyof i,ncompressible fluids andof compressible An important subdivisionof the study of incompressiblefluids fluids. is hydraulics.which dealswith problemsinvolving water. Mechanicsis a physicalscience,since it dealswith the study of physicalphenomena.However,someassociate mechanics with mathematics,while many considerit as an engineeringsubject.Both these views are justi{ied in part. Mechanicsis the foundation of most engineering sciencesand is an indispensableprerequisite to their study, However,it doesnot have the empiricisrz found in someengineering i.e., sciences, it doesnot rely on experience observation or alone; its by rigor and the emphasisit placeson deductive reasoningit resembles mathematics. But, again,it is not an abstractor even apure science; mechanics anappliedscience. pu{pose mechanics to explain is The of is and predict physicalphenomenaand thus to lay the foundationsfor engineeringapplications.

1 . 2 Fundqmentol Concepts ond 1 . 3 Systems Units of 1 . 4 Conversion One System from of

to Units Another

1 . 5 Methodof Problem Solution t . 6 Numericql Accurocy

1.2 FUNDAMENTAT AND CONCEPTS PRINCIPTES

Although the study of mechanics goesback to the time of Aristotle (384-322e.c.) and Archimedes(287-212n.c.), one hasto wait until Newton (1642-1727)to find a satisfactory formulation of its fundamental principles.Theseprincipleswere later expressed a modiin fied form by d'Alembert, Lagrange,and Hamilton. Their validity remainedunchallenged, however,until Einstein formulated histheory of relatiaity (1905).While its limitationshavenow been recognized, nerptonianmechanicsstill remainsthe basisof todays engineering sciences. The basicconceptsusedin mechanicsarespace, ti,me,mass,and force.These conceptscannotbe truly de{ined;they shouldbe accepted on the basisof our intuition and experience and usedasa mental frame of referencefor our study of mechanics. The conceptof spaceis associated with the notion of the position of a point P. The position of P can be deffned by three lengths measured from a certain referencepoint, or origin, in three given directions. Theselengths are known as the coordi,nates P. of

To define an event, it is not sufficient to indicate its position in space.The time of the event should alsobe given. The conceptof mttssis usedto characterizeandcomparebodies on the basisof ce^rtain fundamentalmechanical experimentt.t*o bodies of the samemass,for example,will be attractedby the earth in the to samemanner;they will alsooffer the sameresistance a changein translational motion. Aforce represents actionof one body on another.It can be the exertedby actualcontactor at a distance,asin the caseofgravitational forces and magnetic forces. A force is characterizedby lts point of application, its magnitude,and its direction; a force is representedby aaector(Sec. 2.3). conIn newtonian mechanics, are space, time, and mass absolute cepts, independent of each other. (This is not tme in relatiaistic mechanics, where the time of an event dependsupon its position, and where the massof a body varieswith its velocity.) the other hand, On the conceptofforce is not independent ofthe otherthree.Indeed,one listed below of the fundamentalprinciplesof newtonianmechanics indicatesthat the resultantforce actingon a body is relatedto the mass of the body and to the manner in whiJh its velocity varieswith time, You will study the conditions of rest or motion of particles and rigid bodiesin termsof the four basicconcepts haveintroduced.By we particlewemeanaverysmallamountof matterwhichmaybe assumed to occupya singlepoint in space. rigid body is a combinationof a A large number of particles occupying fixed positions with respect to eachother. The study of the mechanicsof particlesis obviouslya prerequisiteto that of rigid bodies.Besides, the resultsobtainedfor a particle can be used directly in a large number of problems dealing with the conditions rest or motion of actualbodies. of The study of elementary mechanicsrests on six fundamental principlesbasedon experimental evidence. Th* Farafi**l*graw ilcw fsr t*n* &dditirlm ** F*ra**. This states that two forcesacting on a particle may be replacedby a singleforce, called their resultant, obtained by drawing the diagonalof the parallelogramwhlch hassidesequalto the givenforces(Sec.2.2). Yh* Frincipie a$ Tncnsmirslbility" This states that the conditions of equilibrium or of motion of a rigid body will remain unchangedif a force acting at a given point ofthe rigid body is replacedby a force of the samemagnitude andsame direction,but actingat a differentpoint, providedthat the two forceshavethe sameline of action(Sec.3.3). h.lewton's T$rre* frundsmentul l"sws. Formulatedby Sir Isaac Newton in the latter nart of the seventeenth century.theselawscan be statedasfollows: FIRSTLAW. If the resultant force acting on a particle is zero, the particle will remain at rest (if originally at rest) or will movewith constantspeedin a straightline (if originallyin motion) (Sec.2.10).

1 . 2 F u n d o m e n tC o n c e p to n d P r i n c i p l e s ol s

Introduction

gECCINStAW, If the resultantforce acting on a particle is not zero, the particle will havean acceleration proportional to the magnitudeof the resultantand in the direction of this resultantforce. As you will seein Sec.12.2,this law can be statedas F : ma (f.l)

where F,m, anda represent,respectively, resultantforce actingon the the particle, the massof the particle, and the acceleration the partiof in cle, expressed a consistent system ofunits. TI{IRD l-AW. The forces of action and reaction between bodies in contact have the samemagnitude, sameline of action, and opposite (Sec. sense 6.1).

k
M Fig. l.l

t'&*wt*n's Lsw ** &ravlrfafi*n" This statesthat two particles of massM andm are mutually attractedwith equaland oppositeforcesF and -F (Fig. 1.1)of magnitude givenby the formula F

,: ary
where r : distancebetweenthe two particles G : universalconstantcalled the constantof grauitati,on

(L.2)

Newton'slaw of gravitationintroducesthe idea of an action exertedat a distanceand eitends the range of applicationof Newton'sthird law: the actionF and the reaction-F in Fig. 1.1 are equal and opposite, and they havethe sameline of action. A particular caseof great importance is that of the attraction of the earth on a particle located on its surface.The force F exertedby the earth on the particle is then defined as the weighf W of the particle. TakingM equalto the massof the earth,m equalto the massof the particle, and r equal to the radius R of the earth, and introducing the constant GM
o R t

(1.3)

the magnitude W of the weight of a particle of massm may be exast pressed

W:*g

(r.4)

Photo l.l When in eorthorbit,peopleond obiectsore soid to be weightless eventhoughthe grovitotionol forceoclingis opproximofely ol 90% thot experienced the surfoce ihe eorfh.This on of opporent controdicfion be resolved Chopter will in l2 whenwe opply Newlon's second low fo the motion poriicles. of

The value of R in formula (1.3) dependsupon the elevationof the it point considered; alsodependsupon its latitude,sincethe earth is not truly spherical.The value of g therefore varieswith the position of As the point considered. long asthe point actuallyremainson the surfaceof the earth, it is sufficientlyaccuratein most engineeringcomputhat g equals9.81 m/s' or 32.2ftlsL. tationsto assume

tA more accurate de{inition of the weieht W should take into account the rotation of the earth.

The principleswe havejust listed will be introduced in the course of our study of mechanicsasthey are needed.The study of the statics of particlescarried out in Chap. 2, will be basedon the parallelogram law of addition and on Newton'sfirst law alone.The principle of transmissibility will be introduced in Chap. 3 aswe begin the study of the staticsof rigd bodies,and Newton'sthird law in Chap. 6 aswe analyze the forces exerted on each other by the various members forming a Newton'ssecondlaw and Newton's structure.In the studyof di,namics, law of gravitation be introduced.It will then be shownthat Newton's will first law ls a particular caseof Newton'ssecondlaw (Sec.12.2)and that the principle of transmissibilitycould be derived from the other principles and thus eliminated (Sec. 16.5). In the meantime,however, Newtons first and third laws, the parallelogramlaw of addition, and and the principle of transmissibilitywill provide us with the necessary sufficient foundation for the entire study of the statics of particles, rigid bodies,and systems rigid bodies. of As noted earlier,the six fundamentalprinciples listed aboveare basedon experimentalevidence.Except for Newton'sfirst law and the principle of transmissibility,they are independent principles which cannot be derived mathematicallyfrom each other or from any other elementaryphysicalprinciple. On these principles rests most of the For more than two centuintricate structure of newtonianmechanics. ries a tremendousnumber of problems dealingwith the conditionsof rest and motion of rigid bodies, deformable bo&es, and fluids have been solved by applying these fundamental principles. Many of the thus providing a solutionsobtained could be checkedexperimentally, further verification of the principles from which they were derived. It was found at is only in the twentieth century that Newton'smechanics fault, in the studyof the motion of atomsand in the studyof the motion of certain planeis, where it must be supplementedby the theory of relativity.But on the human or engineeringscale,where velocitiesare has smallcomparedwith the speedof hght, Newton'smechanics yet to be disproved.

1 . 3 S y s t e mo f U n i t s s

r.3 sYsTfMs uNrTS of

With the four fundamentalconceptsintroduced in the precedingsection are associated so-calledkinetic units, i.e., the units of length, the tim.e,mass,andforce. Theseunits cannot be chosenindependentlyif Eq. (1.1) is to be satisfied. Three of the units may be defined arbi trarily; they are then referred to asbasicunits. The fourth unit, howwith Eq. (1.1)and is referredto as in ever,mustbe chosen accordance a deriaed unit. Kinetic units selectedin this way are said to form a consistent stemof units. sy In?ernctionol $yst*m of LJn;?$ l"}nit*i}. In this system,which {SN will be in universaluse after the United Stateshas completedits conversion to SI units, the base units are the units of length, mass,and time, and they are called, respectively,the meter (m), the kilogram (kg), and the second(s).All three are arbitrarily defined. The second,
lSI stands for Sustdmelnternational d'Unitds (French).

lntroduclion

a=1m/s9

W*
Fis.1.2

. which was originally chosento represent I/86 400 of the mean solar day,is now defined asthe duration of9 192631 770 cyclesofthe radiation correspondingto the transition between two levels of the fundamental stateof the cesium-l33 atom. The meter, originally defined as one ten-millionth of the distancefrom the equator to either pole, is of now defined as 1 650 763.73wavelengths the orange-redlight correspondingto a certain transition in an atom of krypton-86. The hlogram, whiih is approximatelyequal to the massof 0.OOfm3 of water, ' is de{inedasthe massof a platinum-iridium standardkept at the InternearParis,France. at nationalBureauofWeights and Measures Sdvres, The unit of force is a derived unit. It is called the neu;ton (N) and is deffned asthe force which givesan accelerationof I m/szto a massof F = 1N r kg (Fig. L2). From Eq. (1-.1)we write 1 N : ( l k g X l m / s 2 ): l k g . m / s 2

(1.5)

mA'zl a=LSI
W=9.8IN

The SI units are said to form an absolutesystemof units. This means that the three baseunits chosenare independentof the locationwhere measurementsare made. The meter, the hlogram, and the second may be usedanywhereon the earth; they may evenbe usedon another planet. They will alwayshavethe tu-" tigttifi""t exertedon that body, The weight of a body,or theforce of graaity "". From Eq. (1.4) in should,like any other force,be expressed newtons. it follows that the weight of a body of mass1 kg (Fig. 1.3) is W:*g : (f kg)(9.81 /sz) m : 9 . 8 1N

Fig. 1.3

Multiples and submultiplesof the fundamental SI units may be obtained through the use of the prefixes defined in Table 1.1. The multiples and submultiplesof the units of length, mass,and force most frequently used in engineering are, respectively,the kilometer (km) and the milli,meter(mm); the megagraml (Mg) and the gram (g); and (kN). According to Table l.l, we have thekil.oneustorz 1mm:0.001m lkm:1000m r g : 0'001 kg I Mg : 1000kg lkN:1000N The conversionof these units into meters, hlograms, and newtons, respectively,can be effected by simply moving the decimal point three places to the right or to the left. For example, to convert 3.82 km into meters,one movesthe decimal point three placesto the right: 3.82km : 3820 m Similarly, 47.2 mm is converted into meters by moving the decimal point three placesto the left: m 47.2mm : 0.0472

lAlso l<nown as a nletric ton

TABTEl.l

Sl Prefixes
Prefixi
1012 10'v 106 103 102 10r 10-t 10-2 10-3 10-6 10-' 10-12 10-1s 10-18
tera giga mega hlo hecto{ dekaf . r I 0ec]+ centi{ milli micro nano pico femto atto

1.3 Systems Units of

Multiplicotion Foctor 1 000 000000000 : I 000000 000 : I 000 000 : I 000: 100: t0 : 0 . 1: 0.01: ' : 0.001 0.000 001 : 0.000 000001 : 0.000 000000001 : 0.000 000000000001 : 0.000000 000 000 000 001 :

Symbol _,/ T
G M k h da d c m p
1l

p f
a

tThe first syllable of every preffx is accented so that the prefu will retain its identity. Thus, the preferred pronunciation ofkilometer piacesthe accenton the first syllable,not the second. |The use ofthese preffxesshouldbe avoided,exceptfor the measurementof areasand volumes and for the nontechnicaluse of centlmeter,as for body and clothing measurements.

Using scientific notation, one may alsowrite 3.82km : 3.82 X 103m 47.2mm : 47.2 X 10-3m The multiples of the unit of time are the minute (min) and the hour (h).Since I min : 60 s and t h : 60 min : 3600s, thesemultiples cannotbe convertedas readily asthe others. By usingthe appropriatemultiple or submultiple of a given unit, one can avoidwdting very large or very small numbers. For example, one usuallywrites 427.2km rather than 427 200 m, and 2.16 mm ratherthan 0.00216 m.t Units of Arec snd Volume. The unit of areaisthe squaremeter (m2),which represents areaof a squareof side I m; the unit of volthe ume is the cubic meter (m"), equal to the volume of a cube of side I m. In order to avoid exceedinglylmall or large numerical valuesin the computation of areas and volumes, one uses systemsof subunits obtained by respectivelysquaringand cubing not only the millimeter but also two intermediate submultiples of the meter, namely, the (dm) and the centimeter(cm). Since,by definition, d.eci,meter I dm : 0.1m : l0-1m I c m : 0 . 0 1m : l 0 - 2 m I mm : 0.001m : l0-3 m

ilt should be noted that when more than four digits are used on either side ofthe decimal point to expressa quantity in SI units-as in 427 200 m or 0.002 16 m-spaces, never commas, should be used to separatethe digits into groups ofthree. This is to avoid confusion with the comma used in place of a decimal point, which is t1reconvention in many countries.

lnlroduction

the submultiplesof the unit of areaare : I d m 2: ( 1 d m ) 2: ( 1 0 - 1 m ) 2 1 0 - 2m 2 : ( 1 c m ) 2: ( 1 0 - 2m ) 2 : 1 0 - am 2 I cm2 I m m 2 : ( 1 m m ) 2 : ( I 0 - 3 m ) 2 : 1 0 - 6m 2 and the submultiplesof the unit of volume are : I d m 3: ( 1 d m ) 3 : ( 1 0 - 1 m ) 3 l 0 - 3 m 3 : ( 1 c m ) 3: ( 1 0 - 2m ) 3 : l 0 - o m 3 I cm3 I m m 3: ( 1 m m ) 3 : ( 1 0 - 3m ) 3 : 1 0 - em 3 It shouldbe noted that when the volume of a liquid is being measured, the cubic decimeter (dm3)is usuallyreferred to asa tlter (f). Other derived SI units used to measurethe moment of a force, the work of a force, etc., are shownin Table 1.2.While theseunits will be introduced in later chaptersasthey are needed,we shouldnote an important rule at this time: When a derived unit is obtainedby dividinf a base unit by another base unit, a prefix may be used in the numeratorof the derivedunit but not in its denominator.For example, the constantk of a spring which stretches20 mm under a load of 100 N will be expressed as

*:#H:#:5oooN/m
butneverask:5N/mm.

or

k:lkN/m

TABLE1.2 Principol 5l Units Used in lYlechqnics

Quontity Acceleration Angle Angularacceleration Angularvelocity Area Density Energlu Force Frequency Impulse Lengh Mass Momentof a force Power Pressure Stress Time Velocity Volume Solids Liquids Work
tBase unit.

Unit
Meter per secondsquared Radian Radian per second squared Radian per second Square meter Kilogram per cubic meter ]oule Newton Hertz Newton-second Meter Kilogram Nervton-meter Watt Pascal Pascal Second Meter per second Cubic meter Liter joule

Symbol

Formulo
rtt/s2

t
rad/s2 rad./s *' kgm" N.m kg' m/s2 s-r kg' m/s + + * + N'm I/t
N/m2 N/m2

+
3

m/s m10-3m3 N ' m

lSupplementary unit (1 revolution : 2zr rad : 360').

still U"$. Curlornory Unitr" Most practicingAmericanengineers commonlyuse a systemin which the baseunits are the units of length, force,and time. Theseunits are,respectively, thefoot (ft), the pound (lb), and lhe second(s),The secondis the sameasthe corresponding SI unit, The foot is definedas0,3048m. The nound is definedasthe weight of a platinum standard,called the stindard pound, which is kept at the National Institute of Standardsand Technologyoutside Wishington, the massof which is 0.453 59243 kg. SincethJweight of a body dependsupon the earth'sgravitationalattraction,which varies with location,it is specifiedthat the standardpound shouldbe placed at sealevel and at a latitude of 45' to properly define a force of I lb. Clearly the U.S. customary units do not form an absolutesystemof units. Because oftheir dependence upon the gravitationalattractionof the earth, they form agraoitational systemofunits. While the standardoound alsoserves the unit of massin comas mercialtransactions th-eUnited States, cannotbe so usedin engiit in s neering computations,since such a unit would not be consistentwith r 3 r r i rj l Indeed,when acted the baseunits defined in the precedingparagraph. upon by a force of 1 lb, that is, when subjectedto the force of gravity, the standardpound receivesthe accelerationof graviry,g : 32.2fVs' Fig. 1.4 (Fig. i.a), not the unit acceleration requiredby Eq. (i.1). The unit of is massconsistent with the foot, the pound, and the second the mass which receivesan acceleration I fVs'when a force of 1 lb is applied of from to it (Fig. 1.5),This unit, sometimes calledaslug,canbe-derived the equation F : ma after substituting I lb and I fVs' for F and a, respectirely.We write F:ma I l b : ( l s l u g ) ( lf V s 2 )
F i g .1 . 5 and obtain I slug :

I .J JySIemS OT Unrrs

IW
$n=rrr,
a = I ft/s2
+

rlb :1lb'sz/ft
I fVs2

(1.6)

32.2 ComparingFigs. 1.4and 1.5,we concludethat the slugis a mass pound. times larger than the massof the standard ThJfact that in the U.S. customarvivstemof units bodiesare characterized their weight in poundsruih"t than by their massin by where one constantly slugswill be a convenience the studyof statics, in seldom with masses. deals with weights and other forces and only However,in the study of dynamics, and where forces,masses, accelerin ations are involved, the massm of a body will be expressed slugs (1.a),we write when its weight W is givenin pounds.Recalling Eq.
f n : -

w
a
d

(r.7)

where g is the acceleration gravity (g : 32.2f+Js'). of in Other U.S.customary units frequentlyencountered engineering problemsarethe mile (mi), equalto 5280ft; theinch (in.),equalto $ ftr and the kilopound (hp), equal to a force of 1000lb. The fon is often usedto represent mass 2000Ib but, like the pound,must be a of convertedinto slugsin engineeringcomputations. The conversioninto feet, pounds, and secondsof quantities erpressed other U.S. customaryunits is generallymore involvedand in

r0

Introduction

requires greater attention than the corresponding operation in SI units. If, for example,the magnitude of a velocity is given as o : 30 milh. we convert it to fVs asfollows. First we write
n : i O ml n

Since we want to Set rid of the unit miles and introduce instead the unit feet, we should multiply the right-hand member of the equation by an expression containing miles in the denominator and feet in the numerator. But, since we do not want to change the value of the righthand member, the expression used should have a value equal to unity. The quotient (5280 ft)/(l mi) is such an expression. Operating in a similar way to transform the unit hour into seconds, we write

5280 rL) rt)f , : (romi)f

\ - - t r/ \ I m i / \ s 0 o o s /

Carryingout the numericalcomputations canceling unitswhich and out appearin both the numerator and the denominator,we obtain ft u : 44- : 44 It/s
S

FROM 1.4 CONVERSION ONESYSTEM UNITS OF TO ANOTHER

There are many instances when an engineerwishesto convert into SI units a numericalresultobtainedin U.S.customary unitsor viceversa. Because unit of time is the samein both svstems. the onlv two kinetic baseunits need be converted.Thus, sinceall other kinetic units can be derived from these base units, only two conversionfactors need be remembered. Unifs of Length. By definition the U.S. customaryunit of length is I ft : 0.3048m It follows that I mi : 5280ft : 5280(0.3048 : 1609rn m) I mi : 1.609 km Also (1.8)

(r.e)

1in.: #r t : #( o.soas ) : 0.0254 m m

I in. : 25.4mm (1.10)

Units of farce, Recallingthat the U.S. customaryunit of force (pound) is defined as the weight of the standard pound (of mass 0.4536kg) at sealevel and at a latitudeof 45' (whereg: 9.807m/s') and usingEq. (1.4),we write

W:-g m/s2): 4.449kg' m/sz kg)(9.S07 1 lb : (0.4536 or, recallingEq. (1.5),

L5 Method of ProblemSolution

II

=i]b#i ffi
4.448N 0.3048m/s2

(1,1)
: 14.59 's2lm N

Units of l$urs, The U.S. customaryunit of mass(slug)is a derived we unit. Thus,usingEqs.(1.6),(1.8),and (1.11), write

l.slug:1lb's2/ft:,}fu:
and,recallingEq, (1.5),

I slug = I lb ' s2lft-F,'i+'fO kg

(l'12)

Although it cannot be used asa consistentunit of mass,we recall that the massof the standardpound is, by de{inition, l pound mass : 0.4536kg

(r.13)

This constant may be used to determine fhe massin SI units (hlograms) of a body which has been characteized by its ueight in U.S. customaryunits (pounds). To convert a derived U.S. customaryunit into SI units, one simply multiplies or divides by the appropriate conversionfactors. For example,to convert the moment of a force which was found to be M : 47lb ' in. into SI units. we use formulas(1.10)and (1'11) and write N)(25.4mm) M : 47lb . in. : 47(4.448 : 5 3 1 0 N ' m m : 5 . 3 1N ' m The conversionfactorsgiven in this sectionmay alsobe used to convert a numerical result obtained in SI units into U.S. customary units. For example,if the moment of a force was found to be M : 40 N ' m, we write, following the procedureusedin the lastparagraph of Sec.1.3.

.m . -' M: 4oN : (4oNm)f l'l--)f . 3l+-)m / N/\0 048

\4.448 Carrying out the numerical computations and canceling out units which appearin both the numerator and the denominator,we obtain M :29.51b'ft The U.S. customaryunits most frequently usedin mechanicsare listed in Table 1.3 with their SI equivalents.

1.5 ttlETllOD PROBTEM SOLUTION Or

You should approacha problem in mechanicsasyou would approach an actual engineeringsituation. By drawing on your own experience and intuition. vou will ftnd it easierto understandand formulate the problem. Once the problem hasbeen clearly stated,however,there is

t2

Introduction

TIBLE1.9 U.$.Customqy Unifsand Their$l Egyiyqlgfls

Quontity
Acceleration Area Energy Force

U.S. Customory Unit

ftls2 in./sz tt' in2 ft.lb

Sl Equivolent
0.3048 m/s2 0.0254n/s2 0.0929 m2 645.2mm2 1.3561 4.448 kN 4.448N 0.2780 N 4.448 ' s N 0.3048 m 25.40mm 1.609 km 28.35g 0.4536 kg 14.59 kg kg 907.2 1.356 ' m N 0.1130 ' m N x 0.4162 106 mma 1.356 ' m2 kg 4.448kg'n/s 1.356 W 745.7W 47.88Pa kPa 6.895 0.3048 m/s 0.0254m/s 0.4470 n/s 1.609km/h m3 0.02832 16.39 cm3 3.785 L 0.s464L 1.356 J

hp 1b
oz lb's ft in. mi oz mass Ib mass slug ton lb.ft lb 'in.

Impulse Length

Mass

Moment of a force Moment of inertia Of an area Of a mass Momentum Power Pressure or stress Velocity

Volume Liquids Work

rnIb.ft.se Ib's ft .lb/s hp tb/ff lb/inz (psi) fVs in./s mi,rh(mph) milh (mph) ft3
tn gal qr ft.lb
. 3

no place in its solution for your particular fancy.The solution mast be basedon the sixfundnmental principles stated in Sec.7.2 or on theorems d,eriaed fro* them. Every step taken must be justi{ied on that basis.Strict rules must be followed, which lead to the solution in an almost automaticfashion,leavingno room for your intuition or "feeling." After an answerhas been o"btained. should be checked.Here it again,you may call upon your common sense and personalexperience. If not completelysatisffed with the resultobtained,you shouldcarefully check your formulation of the problem, the validity of the methods used for its solution,and the accuracyof your computations. Thestafem,enf a problemshouldb" cl"u. undprecise.It should of contain the given data and indicate what information is required. A neat drawingshowingall quantitiesinvolvedshouldbe included. Separate diagrams should be drawn for all bodies involved, indicating clearly the forces acting on each body. These diagramsare known ai and are describedin detail in Secs.2.LI and4.2. free-body d:iagrams

listed in Sec. L2 toi'll Thefundamental principles of mechanics the be usedto u:rite equati,ons expressing conditionsof rest or motion of the bodies considered.Each equation should be clearly related to one of the free-body diagrams.You will then proceed to solve the problem, observing strictly the usual rules of algebra and recording neatlv the variousstenstaken. After the answeihas beenobtained,it shouldbe carefullychecked. by inreasoni,ngcan oftenbe detected chechngthe units.For Mistakes example,to determine the moment of a force of 50 N about a point 0.60m from its line of action,we would havewritten (Sec.3.12) M : Fd: ( 5 0 N X 0 . 6 0m ) : 3 0 N ' m The unit N ' m obtainedby multiplying newtonsby metersis the correct unit for the moment of a force; if anotherunit had been obtained, we would haveknown that somemistakehad been made. Errors in computation vrlll usuallybe found by substituting the numerical values obtained into an equation which has not yet been used and verifying that the equation is satisfied.The importance of correct computationsin engineeringcannot be overemphasized.

L6 Numericol Accurocy

r3

I.6 NUMERICAL ACCURACY

The accuracy the solutionof a problem dependsupon two items: of (1) the accuracy ofthe computaofthe givendataand (2) the accuracy tionsoerformed. the solution cannot be more accuratethan the less accurateof thesetwo items. For example,if the loading of a bridge is known to be 75,000lb wlth a possibleerror of 100 lb either way, the relative error which measures degreeof accuracyof the data is the

r0 0 l b : : 0'0013 o'13 Percent ttPt*

In computing the reactionat one of the bridge supports,it would then The accuracyof the solution be meaningless record it as 14,3221b. to the cannotbe greaterthan 0.13percent,no matterhow accurate comatrd the possiLleerror in the answermay be aslarge as putations a"te, (0.13/100)(14,3221b)20Ib. The answer shouldbe properlyrecorded -r as 14,320 20Ib. In engineering problems, the data are seldom known with an accuracygreater than 0.2 percent. It is therefore seldomjustified to write the answersto suchproblemswith an accuracygreaterthan 0.2 percent.A practicalrule ii to use 4 figuresto recordiumbers beginindiUnlessotherwise ninq with a "1" and 3 figuresin all other cases. cated, the data given in a problem should be assumedknown with a A comparabledegree of accuracy. force of 40 lb, for example,should be read 40.0lb, and a force of 15 lb shouldbe read 15.00lb. Pocketelectronic calculatorsare widely usedby practicing engiolthesecalThe speed and accuracy neersand engineering students. culatorsfacilitate the numerical computationsin the solution of many problems.However,studentsshould not record more significantfigthey are easilyobtained.As ures than can be justified merely because noted above, accuracy an greaterthan 0.2percentis seldomnecessary or meaningfulin the solution of practical engineeringproblems.