Some notes about the boiling heat transfer

in
consideration
of the
positioning of the evaporator pipe









by

Dipl.- Ing. (FH) Klaus Hoffmann













Neuss,
28.03.2009













1
Table of contents

Chapter Page

1 Overview 2

1.1 Boiling point and thermo- physical properties 3

1.2 Steam volume fraction 4

2 Formation of damage of evaporator pipes 5

3 Critical boiling conditions 7

3.1 Vertical upward flow through pipes 10

3.2 Thermo- convection-flow inside of pipes 12

3.3 The growth of the heat absorption of the evaporator surface and its influence
on the critical heat- flux. 12

3.4 Horizontal and inclined evaporator pipes 13

4 Inlet velocity as criteria for the avoidance of layering of the water steam mixture 16

5 The circulation ratio as criteria of the water steam mixture 17

6 Heat transfer by nucleate boiling 19

7 Instability of the natural circulation 20

7.1 One approach of calculating of the appearance of instability 22

7.2 Remedial measures to avoid the instability of the natural circulation (DWO) 22

8 Summary 23

9 Nomenclature 25

10 Literature 26

Abstract

The paper deals with special questions regarding the arrangement of evaporation systems of
gravity circulation boilers. General terms like (e.g.) the critical heat flux are described with
the focus to optimize the evaporation process in the case of inclined and horizontal arranged
evaporator pipes. The focus was to optimize the cooling- process of these pipes and the
avoiding of dynamic instabilities, especially the generation of density wave oscillations
(DWO). The text depicts ways to avoid and calculate the appearance density wave oscillations
and predicts possibilities to optimize the flow conditions and therefore the cooling conditions
in the case of inclined and horizontal arranged evaporator pipes. The result of the text should
be to enable the designer to design, optimise and judge inclined and horizontal arranged
evaporator pipes properly.



2
1 Overview

It is necessary to distinguish the focus of this paper from papers which deal with once-
through boilers,


























Chart 1 / Comparison between the once- through boiler (Benson- Boiler) and
gravity circulation boiler (Drum boiler)[8].















Chart 2 / Comparison of the evaporation areas (steam mass fraction) between the
once- through boiler and gravity circulation boiler (Drum boiler)[8].


3
especially in respect of the steam mass fraction (steam quality) inside of the evaporators. This
paper is focused on one of the classical problems of gravity circulation boilers, the horizontal
or declined arranged evaporator pipes. The chart above shows the differences in respect of the
steam mass fraction (steam quality) between the once- through boiler and gravity circulation
boiler (Drum boiler). In the case of gravity circulation boilers, the chart demonstrates that
only two-phase conditions are possible, when the circulation system is well designed. Under
normal conditions the cooling of the evaporator surfaces are ensured under all loads [8]. From
particular interest in the case of heat transfer and flow in steam- generators is the process of
boiling and the steam- water flow. The boiling or evaporation of water is a familiar
phenomenon. In general terms, boiling is the heat- transfer process where heat will be added
to a liquid which no longer caused a rising of its temperature under constant pressure
conditions; the heat is absorbed such that the liquid changed from the liquid to the gaseous
stage. The heat transfer rates are generally high, this makes boiling to an ideal cooling method
for surfaces exposed to the high heat input rates found in fossil fuel boilers especially in the
areas of combustion chamber. However, the boiling phenomenon poses special challenges
such as: 1/ the sudden breakdown of the boiling behaviour at very high heat input rates, 2/ the
potential flow rate fluctuation which may occur in steam- water flows, and 3/ the efficient
separation of the steam from the water. An additional feature of boiling and the two- phase
flow is the creation of significant density differences of the media between the heated and the
unheated tubes. These density differences result in the water flow towards to the heated tubes
in a well designed boiler when its work according to the principle of natural circulation. Most
fossil fuel steam generators and all commercial nuclear steam supply systems operate in the
pressure range where boiling is a key element of the heat- transfer process. Therefore, a
comprehensive understanding of boiling and its various related phenomena are essential in the
design of these units [1].

1.1 Boiling point and thermo- physical properties

The boiling point, or saturation temperature, of a liquid can be defined as the temperature at
which its vapour- pressure is equal to the total local pressure. The saturation temperature for
water at atmospheric pressure is 100 C. This is the point at which vapour generation occurs
and free steam bubbles are formed from a liquid undergoing continuous heating. This
saturation temperature is a unique function of pressure. The American Society of Mechanical
Engineers (ASME) and the international Association for the Properties of Steam (IAPS) have
compiled extensive correlations of thermo-physical characteristics of water. These
characteristics include the enthalpy (or heat content) of water, the enthalpy of evaporation
(also referred to as the latent heat of vaporization), and the enthalpy of steam. As the pressure
is increased to the critical pressure (221,2 bar), the latent heat of vaporization declines to zero
and the bubble formation associated with boiling no longer occurs. Instead, a smooth
transition from liquid to gaseous behaviour occurs with a continuous increase in temperature
as energy is applied. Two other definitions are also helpful in discussing boiling heat transfer:

1. Sub- cooling

For water below the local saturation temperature, this is the difference between the saturation
temperature and the local water temperature (
sat
. - ).

2. Steam mass fraction (Quality)

This is the flowing mass fraction of steam (frequently stated as percent steam by weight or
SBW after multiplying by 100%)

4

steam water
steam
m m
m
x
+
= (1)

Thermodynamically, this can also be defined as

on vaporizati of heat latent h
saturation at steam of enthalpy h
saturation at water of enthalpy h
enthalpy fluid average local h
h h
h h
h
h h
x
fg
g
f
f g
f
fg
f
=
=
=
=

=
(2)

When boiling is occurring at saturated, thermal equilibrium conditions, equation 2 provides
the fraction steam flow by mass. For sub- cooled conditions where h < h
f
quality (x) can be
negative and is an indication of liquid sub- cooling. For conditions where h > h
g
, this value
can be greater than 1 and represents the amount of average superheated steam [1, 20].

1.2 Steam volume fraction

In steam applications below the critical point (p= 221,2 [bar], = 374,15[C]) respectively in
the sub-critical range and thus interesting in respect of gravity circulation boilers, the specific
volume of steam () is larger than the specific volume of water () [20].
Consequently x
volume
is larger than x, and therefore the volume fraction has to be taken into
consideration.



(3)


[20]

The displacement of water by steam during the whole evaporation process can only be
described with the volume fraction (x
volume
). The following chart 3 shows the curve
progressions of the mass fraction (black line) and volume fraction (red line).
The calculation of the curves based on the following parameters:

Pressure: 140 bar, sub- cooling: 200 kJ/kg.

Furthermore the chart 3 based on an uniform increase of energy, from the beginning of the
evaporation in the sub- cooled range up to the completed evaporation. It is necessary to
mention that an uniform increase of energy is generally an idealisation, because the heat
transfer and other influences are not constant over the whole length of the evaporator pipe
respectively heating surface. The difference of the gradients of both curves represents the
strong influence of the volume fraction (red line) in comparison to the mass fraction (black
line) especially at the beginning of the evaporation.


( )
steam volume spec
water volume spec
fraction mass steam x
x x
x
x
volume
. ' '
. '
' '
'
1
=
=
=
+
=

5



















Chart 3/ Comparison of the volume fraction (red line) and mass fraction (black line)

In principle below the critical point the curve progression shows the same characteristics, but
with the approximation toward the critical point the curve of the volume fraction (red line)
tends toward the linear increase of the mass fraction (black line).

2 Formation of damage of evaporator pipes

For the avoidance of damages inside of water- and steam touched components the existence
of an oxide- coating also mentioned magnetite (Fe
3
O
4
) is essential [3; 4; 9]. Without this
oxide- coating the material would not be resident against water and steam. Based on
experiences it is known that the damaging of the oxide- coating is caused by a superposition
of corrosive action and mechanical load [9].



Chart 4/ Damaged evaporator pipes

A break of the continuous generation or the continuous destruction of the oxide- coating can
effect by the following mechanisms:
-1
-0,5
0
0,5
1
1,5
1400 1900 2400 2900 3400 3900 4400
enthalpy kJ/kg
x

a
n
d

x
v
o
l
u
m
e

6
- Thermal shock

Caused by a frequent fluctuation of the inner- wall temperature the oxide- coating will be
dismantled and due to that a material removal occurs [4, 17, 37]. The dismantling occurs
when the heat flux reached the level where the heat transfer left the nucleate boiling, due to
that change an oscillation of the pipe wall temperature occurs [9]. Because of the different
cooling on the upper part in relation to the lower part in the case of horizontal or sloped
arranged evaporator pipes additional heat stress will be generated. This additional stress
supports the destruction of the oxide- coating and therefore the removal of the wall- material
[4].

- Hide- Out- effect

The hide- out- effect represents the load-dependent reversible precipitation of soluble salts
out of the boiling water in the areas of high heat- flux- densities and low mass flow rates.
(The concentration of the solute materials in the water equals the temperature profile.
Accordingly the content of the salt has its maximum at the pipe wall [3]. The concentration of
the solute material can be raise up to a factor of 10
4
in comparison to the concentration in the
middle of the flow. Caused by this phenomenon it is necessary to avoid a high heat flux and
the corresponding high wall temperature. Because deposits can support corrosion processes
and can also advance the wall temperature due to the increase of the wall thickness based on
the sediments, which thermal conductivity is relatively low [2]). Beside the obstruction of the
heat- transfer the salts can react with the oxide- coating or with the basic material and
therefore local corrosion can occur.

- On load corrosion

On load corrosion represents the corrosion in the areas of high thermal loaded surfaces
caused by salts, acids and bases in connection with deposited solid matters [4].
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
Heat flux
Nucleate boiling
instable Film boiling
(DNB) Film boiling
(DNB)
C
r
i
t
i
c
a
l

h
e
a
t

f
l
u
x
O
s
c
i
l
l
a
t
i
o
n

Chart 5/ Alternating temperature loading (temperature oscillation) [9]

For the avoidance of the described damages the knowledge of the critical conditions in respect
of the cooling of the evaporator pipes and the avoiding of these conditions are essential.

7
3 Critical boiling conditions

By boiling of liquids it is possible to transfer large heat- fluxes with small temperature-
differences between the covered walls and the liquids. The maximal possible heat- fluxes are
limited however. During the excess of certain limiting- conditions a change of the heat-
transfer- mechanisms occur, this will be named in following the boiling- crisis.
The critical boiling conditions are characterised, that

- in the case of a system with an impressed heat- flux (electrical- heating, radiant-
heating, nuclear- heat- generation) a heat- flux of q
cr.
exists that causes an increase of q
which leads to a jump of the wall- temperature.
- Or the boiling conditions are characterised, that at a given wall- temperature (heat
exchanger, condenser) a marginal increase of the wall- temperature leads to a strong
reduction of the heat- flux.

The degradation of the heat- transfer is founded in the loss of the instantaneous direct contact
of the liquid phase with the wall. The heat- transfer in the stage of the boiling- crisis is only
possible within the vaporous phase. The chart 6 shows the boiling- curve of the system
heating- surface and liquid. The shape of the boiling- curve and following on that the critical
heat- flux q
cr.
depends on the following points
- kind of liquid
- kind of flow (boiling in the case of a static liquid or drifty liquid)
- the thermodynamic stage of the liquid (super- cooling, steam mass fraction)
- the geometrical configuration of the heating surface
- material of the heating surface
- and the state of the surface



















Chart 6/ Mechanisms of heat transfer: A-B) convection, B- C) This section of the chart
represents the most important area because the nucleate boiling represents the main and
the targeted heat transfer in the chase of the natural circulated boiler (evaporator), C D-
E) film boiling (DNB), The condition between C and D are not in a steady- state,
because the conditions can move from the point C to one point between D and E. The
critical heat transfer is characterised by C which also often named burn out [12]
A
B
C
D
E
H
e
a
t

f
l
u
x
Wall temperature

8

It is possible to differentiate the physical occurrences which affect the boiling- crisis into two
mechanisms:

- Film boiling (1. Mode of boiling crisis) [38]

The steam mass- fraction in the flow is marginal viz. the liquid exists in a continuous phase at
the point when the boiling- crisis occurs a steam-film will be generated between the wall and
the liquid. Caused by the poor thermal conductivity of the steam the heat transfer will be
highly reduced. The heat will be transferred via film boiling from the wall to the liquid. The
procedure will be clarified on the chart 7a. This process will be mostly named Departure
from Nucleate Boiling (DNB) An increase of the heat- flux displaces the beginning of the
boiling- crisis towards smaller steam mass- fractions.

- Dry-out (2. Mode of boiling crisis) [38]

Then the media- flow exhibits a high steam mass- fraction and the shape of the flow generates
an annular- flow up to a point that the liquid- film tears at the boiling- crisis according to chart
7b respectively the film dried-out. This process will be mostly named dry- out. The heat-
transfer will be less reduced as in the case of the film- boiling, because the higher steam mass-
fraction in the flow generates a cooling effect by the steam- convection. The critical steam
mass- fraction (steam quality) is almost independent from the heat- flux. It can be happen in
the area of minor heat- fluxes that liquid- droplets can be formed increasingly. These droplets
can separate out of the flow and can accumulate on the heating- surface. In this case the
boiling- crisis will be mostly named Deposition Controlled Burnout (DCB).















Chart 7/ Mechanisms of boiling crisis: a) film boiling (DNB), b) drying-out of the
heating surface [2]

According to the application the following information are of general interest:

- The steam- mass- fraction respectively the critical steam- mass- fraction
or
- the heat- flux respectively the critical heat- flux at the boiling- crisis begins.

The curve of the critical heat- flux depending on the critical steam mass fraction can be
characterized in three different curve- sections. This is shown in chart 8. The consequences of

9
a boiling- crisis regarding the heating surface depends- next to the combination of the
thermodynamically parameters- also on the combination of the liquid and the heating surface.


















Chart 8/ Typical run of the curve of the critical heat flux as function of the steam
fraction steel (x-coordinate equals the steam contend, y- coordinate equals the critical
heat flux) [2]





















Chart 9/ Consequence of boiling crisis on the heating surface of the system water steel
(x-coordinate equals the steam contend, y- coordinate equals the critical heat flux) [2]

The consequences of a boiling- crisis for the combination water- steel are shown in chart 9 in
a simplified form. When the value of the heat flux is above the continuous line viz. above the
red curve of chart 9, it has to be figured on the destruction of the heating surface [2].

C
r
i
t
i
c
a
l

h
e
a
t

f
l
u
x
Steam mass fraction
Drying- out of the heating surf ace
(Dry-out)
Film boiling
(DNB)
Deposition controlled
burnout
0
1
C
r
i
t
i
c
a
l

h
e
a
t

f
l
u
x

d
e
n
s
i
t
y
Steam mass fraction
Dryout
Film boiling
(DNB)
Post- Dryout
0
Subcooled
nucleate boiling
Destruction of heating surface
Nucleate boiling
Critical heat- flux
Annular- flow
1

10
3.1 Vertical upward flow through pipes

There are two principle difficulties regarding the evaluation of the critical heat- flux, namely

- the decision which boiling- crisis occurs, the film boiling or dry-out
and
- the choice of the valid equations from multiplicity of empirical correlations which are
mostly limited in respect of the application and the parameter scopes.

The VDI- Wrmeatlas advises the mentioned formula for the calculation for the critical heat-
flux in case of film boiling:
x
x
p
p
c c
cr
e
m
d p
p
p
p
q
c
5 , 1
3 , 0 2 , 1 68 , 0
3
2
3
.
1000
10 8
8 5 , 17 3 , 10 10


|
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
= (4)

Area of validity
m d m
K K
s m kg m s m kg
bar p bar
3 3
10 25 10 4
75 0
/ 5000 / 500
200 29

(In principle the appearance of film boiling is limited to electrically- or nuclear heated
surfaces. For this reason this paper is focused on the phenomenon of dry out [26].)
When the critical steam mass- fraction should be calculated the following equation will be
recommended:
5 , 1
1000
ln 2 , 1
ln ln 3 , 0 68 , 0
1000
ln
.
.
+
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|
=
m
C q
p
p m
x
cr
c
cr
(5)
Whereas

5 , 0
3
2
10 8
8 5 , 17 3 , 10 10
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

d p
p
p
p
C
c c
(5.1)

The area of validity of equation 4 is equivalent to equation 5; 5.1.

In the case of dry-out the following equations developed by Kon kov (equation 6) are
recommended:

( )
p
cr
e d m x q
1372 , 0 56 , 0 664 , 2 8 8
.
1000 10 8447 , 1

= pressure range 4,9 bar up to 29,4 bar
(6)
( )
p
cr
e d m x q
0204 , 0 56 , 0 664 , 2 8 10
.
1000 10 0048 , 2

= pressure range 29,4 bar up to 98 bar
(6.1)
( )
p
cr
e d m x q
0636 , 0 56 , 0 664 , 2 8 12
.
1000 10 1853 , 1

= pressure range 98 bar up to 200 bar
(6.2)



11
Area of validity
m d m
s m kg m s m kg
3 3
10 32 10 4
/ 5000 / 200





When the critical steam mass- fraction should be calculated the following equation (equation
7) will be recommended:

( )
p
cr
e d m q x
01715 , 0 07 , 0 333 , 0 125 , 0
.
1000 795 , 10

= pressure range 4,9 bar up to 29,4 bar (7)

( )
p
cr
e d m q x
00255 , 0 07 , 0 333 , 0 125 , 0
.
1000 398 , 19

= pressure range 29,4 bar up to 98 bar (7.1)

( )
p
cr
e d m q x
00795 , 0 07 , 0 333 , 0 125 , 0
.
1000 302 , 32

= pressure range 98 bar up to 200 bar (7.2)

The application of the equations assumes stable flow conditions. A fluctuation of the mass-
flow can cause that the critical conditions can be reached much earlier. Based on
measurement and described by the different equations the critical- heat- flux decreases -
depending on the increasing steam mass- fraction stronger in the area of film- boiling as in the
area of dry-out. The limitation between the mechanisms of film- boiling and dry-out is given
by the intersection of the curves of both formulas (4; 6). That implies that the critical- heat-
flux has to be calculated for both mechanisms, the lower value is the valid value.





















Chart 10/ Schematic course of wall temperature and pressure loss in a uniformly heated
vertical smooth evaporator pipe [5]

The following calculation rule describes the procedure:
q
cr.
the lower value of equation 4 respectively equation 6 is the relevant value.
x
cr.
the lower value of equation 5 respectively equation 7 is the relevant value [2].
(Until now, procedures of boiling are not possible to describe in an analytic way, thus only
empirical derived equations are available [38].)

12

3.2 Thermo- convection- flow inside of pipes

In the case of a horizontal arranged evaporator pipe, great temperature differences - regarding
the upper part and the bottom of the pipe- can occur, already when the media is only water
without any steam and when the pipe is uniformly heated. The differences in respect of the
temperatures caused consequently different wall temperatures. This temperature distribution
based on the thermo- convection- flow, this flow superposed the forced convection. The
following chart visualizes this effect, in the case of a uniformly heated pipe.

Measured wall temperature















Chart 11/ Thermo- convection-flow inside a horizontal arranged and uniformly heated pipe

Near the wall the warmed- up water rises based on the gravidity up to the upper part of the
pipe. At that point (=0) an accumulation zone will be generated. This area will only
marginally influenced by the thermo convection flow. Due to that stagnation the temperature
of the wall and the media rises faster in this area than in all the other sections of the pipe.
Consequently this phenomenon supports the generation of a temperature profile which
supports the generation of steam at the upper part of the pipe [7]. The non- uniform heat
transfer can also cause the distortion of the evaporator and due to that additional stress to the
surrounding construction [32].

3.3 The growth of the heat absorption of the evaporator surface and its influence on the
critical heat- flux.

Generally it is possible to point out that a rapid increase of the heat flux allows a higher
critical heat flux as under stationary conditions. The possible critical heat flux can increase up
to a value between 1,5 times up to 3 times. The increase of the critical value had been
measured under conditions which are generally not possible in the case of boilers, because of
the storage properties respectively the characteristic of the evaporation system as a heat
buffer [37] caused by the steal mass and water mass. But the tendency can be taken to
describe the increasing effect in the case of common boilers. Due to that the general trend
under transient conditions - e.g. during the start-up period causes that the critical heat flux is
above the heat flux under stationary conditions [26]. The transition from the nucleate boiling
to the film boiling takes a certain time, because time is needed for the evaporation of the
liquid layer at the pipe wall. Effected by the vaporization process up- stream the crisis, an
Accumulation- zone

13
acceleration of the stream during the short-termed increase of the heat- flux causes a
beneficial effect in respect of the heat transfer. The liquid layers at the wall are accelerated,
due to that the flow has a sharper gradient in respect of the temperature- and flow profile as in
the case of stationary conditions. On the other hand the acceleration of the flow affects an
increase of the pressure loss and therefore a weakening of the acceleration. The weakening of
the flow caused a backflow of the steam which also needs a certain time to reach the original
area where the crisis began. These effects cause an increase of the critical heat flux in the case
of transient conditions [26].

3.4 Horizontal and inclined evaporator pipes

The flow conditions of an inclined or horizontal arranged evaporator pipe would be different,
but tends to the same phenomenon with the increase of the angle. The relative velocity
between the steam and the water influences also the flow. This phenomenon would be
described in the case of water- air mixture flow and can be described with the mixture Froude
number [27]. Thus the slip forward of the steam influences (this influence in respect of the
flow is calculable with the mixture Froude number) as well the flow next to the effects which
are described with the use of the modified Froude number. The slip forward at itself can effect
a slug flow or the most critical plug flow and as well dispersed bubble flow. An abrupt rise of
steam generation inside of a horizontal arranged pipe can therefore cause a change of the flow
condition. The mentioned slip forward of the steam and the movement of the water at itself
can -next to the mentioned effect- cause a kind of wave oscillation respectively fluctuation,
which is also recognizable in the diagram below (chart 12). The relationship between the two
fluctuations (waves) depends strongly on the vapor generation in the two - phase region. This
leads to a relaxation type oscillation at the exit of the considered section effect by the increase
of the steam mass fraction [17, 28]. The critical heat flux decreases with the increase of the
amplitude of the mass flow, thus by the amplitude of the wave. The longer wave period
causes a larger temperature rise during the dry out phase and therefore the increase in the
amplitude in respect of the wall temperature and these results in a decrease concerning the
critical heat flux at the upper part of the pipe. The difference in respect of the oscillation
period on the critical heat flux ratio becomes less significant with the increase of the tube wall
heat capacity, but the increase of the oscillation period is more critical toward the end of the
evaporation process, because of the longer wave period caused by the increase of the seam
fraction (steam quality) [28]. In the case of horizontal and inclined evaporator pipes the
boiling crisis occurs earlier in respect of the steam mass fraction or in other words at lower
values of the steam mass fractions. This effect is caused by the phase- separation and this
based on the gravitation.







Chart 12/ Flow- forms of the whole evaporation process [16]

The boiling crisis mostly takes place at the upper side of the pipes as the underside is still
moistened. Chart 12 shows exemplarily the run of the media flow of a horizontal evaporation
pipe in the case of a uniform heating. Whereas at vertical pipes the boiling crisis in the case of
axial uniform heating begins - for example- at the outlet of the pipe, the crisis moves at an
increase of the heat towards the flow- direction. In the case of horizontal evaporator pipes the

14
crisis can begin at lower steam- mass- fraction and the exact determination of the crisis is
more difficult, because the crisis can disappear after its first appearances. The beginning of
the crisis can be described by the transition from the saturated- nuclear- billing to a layered
flow. An ongoing heating caused an increase of the steam- mass- fraction and consequently
an increase of the flow velocity. The increase of the steam- mass- fraction is attended by a
higher velocity at the upper part in comparison to the bottom of the pipe; this is caused by the
lower specific weight respectively larger specific volume of the vapour phase [17]. The
increase of the flow- velocity effected a change of the flow form a layered- flow to a flush-
respectively annular- flow and caused by this the upper side of the pipe is moistened again.
But the thickness of the annular- layer of the boiling- water is thinner at the upper side then at
the underside of the pipe. Because of the ongoing evaporation of the water the upper side will
be at firstly run dry.






























Chart 13/ Influence on the heat transfer regarding both wall temperatures at the upper
part and the lower part caused by the gravity in the case of a horizontal and inclined
arranged pipe. [5]

As shown in chart 12 and 13 the differences of the appearance of the first- and the last boiling
crisis -in respect of the geometrical distance and the steam content- can be very large. The
difference between the vertical flow and the horizontal flow grows the larger the ratio of the
gravity and the mixing forces is, caused by the flow. This happens when the mass flow of the
media will be reduced and the inner- diameter of the pipe will be enlarged. When the density

15
of the mass flow reaches a value between 4000 up to 6000 [kg/ms] (Whereas m represents
the cross section of the evaporator pipe) the positioning of the pipe has no further influence on
the place where the boiling crisis occurs. Based on research into layering inside of
evaporators the VDI- Wrmeatlas advises the approach from Wallis. This approach includes
the group of dimensionless influencing variables where the numerator includes the inert force
and the denominator the lifting force. When the identification- number will be formed with
the steam mass fraction (x) at that point where the boiling crisis occur the following modified
Froude- number (Fr) respectively formula is obtained:
( )

cos " '
"
*
.

=
d g
m x
Fr
cr
(8)
The value represents the angle of elevation which is built between the pipe and the
horizontal.





















Chart 14/ Differences between the critical steam mass fraction at the upper part and the
lower part of the pipe in respect of the dryout, as function of the angle of inclination,
respectively of the Froude- number [2].

When the calculated value of Fr- number is above 10 the angle of elevation has no influence
on the place where the boiling crisis occurs. When the calculated value of Fr- number is less
than 3 it has to be figured on a strong layering of the water steam mixture. In the case of
horizontal arranged pipes the boiling crisis occurs at low values of the steam mass fraction
and at first at the upper part of the pipe whereas the bottom of the pipe is still moistened with
water up to that point where the evaporation is completed. Based on verifications by Kefer -
and advised by the VDI- Wrmeatlas - it is possible to calculate the difference between the
critical steam mass fraction on the upper part of the pipe and the bottom of the pipe with the
application of the modified Froude- number.
( )
2 , , .
* 1
16
Fr
x x x
U cr B cr cr
+
= = (9)

16

Area of validity
2
2
/ 600 200
/ 2500 500
200 25
m kW q
s m kg m
bar p





In the range of the Fr- number between 4 up to 5 the chart 7 shows a strong increase of the
layering effects and also an increase of the variance of measurements. Due to these facts it is
recommended to reach at least the Fr- number greater than 10. The value of the critical steam
mass fraction (x
cr.
) which is used to calculate the modified Fr- number can be looked upon the
arithmetic mean of the critical steam mass fraction at the upper part of the pipe and the
bottom of the pipe in the case of a horizontal or inclined arrangement.

(10)

(10.1)

In the case that x
cr,B
>1, the value x
cr,B
has to be equalized with 1.

In comparison regarding the conditions inside of a vertical pass through pipe the boiling crisis
in the case of a horizontal pipe doesnt cause such a high rise of temperature.
This result comes from the heat flux inside of the pipe wall from the no moistened upper part
toward the moistened bottom of the pipe [2].

4 Inlet velocity as criteria for the avoidance of layering of the water steam mixture

Another reference value in addition to Froude- number (Fr) for the avoidance of layering of
the water steam mixture is the inlet velocity of the water into the evaporator pipes.
The following empirical equations are quoted:

76 , 0 42 , 0
min i
d q B w = (11)

The factor q represents the heat flow density and d
i
the inner diameter of the pipe like in the
mentioned formulas before. The influence of the pressure is given by an additional formula.
Up to a pressure of 45 [bar] the formula

25 , 0 4
45
10 963 , 0 p B

= (11.1)

is recommended. Between the pressures of 45 [bar] up to 137 [bar] the following formula is
recommended:
65 , 0 4
137
10 209 , 0 p B

= (11.2)

For reasons of operating reliability the result of the calculation of the inlet velocity should be
multiplied by 1,5 up to 2 [6]. The inlet velocity by itself cannot give a complete survey of all
components of the circulation system thus further analyses are necessary, like the mentioned
modified Froude- number.



2
2
,
,
cr
cr B cr
cr
cr U cr
x
x x
x
x x

+ =

=

17

5 The circulation ratio as criteria of the water steam mixture

The intensity of the circulation respectively of the flow condition inside of an evaporator is
often described with the circulation ratio (CR). This parameter is defined as the weight ratio
of the circulating water mass flow to the generated steam mass flow:

(12)

(12.1)

This parameter can also be interpreted as the number of circulations which are necessary to
evaporate one water particle up to 100% [17]. Based on bibliographical references the
following graph has been approximated [20, 21].




















Chart 15/ Circulation ratio (black curve) and steam ratio (blue curve)

To obtain a well designed evaporator, the curve of the circulation ratio (black curve) has to be
exceeded. The blue line represents the increase of the steam ratio accordingly to the decrease
of the circulation ratio. The accuracy or the closeness to the reality of the curve could be
discussed in general, because the different boiler engineering companies have their own
special databases regarding that frequently used parameter. The showing of the general curve
progression is the reason for displaying this diagram. The important point here is that the
curve of the circulation ratio aspires to a limiting value with the increase of the pressure. This
tendency is based upon the change of the ration of the specific weight of the steam and water,
because this ratio impels the circulation inside of the evaporation systems. The in practice
proven maximal pressure of up to approx. 180 [bar] makes it possible to show the influence of
the pressure in respect of the circulation ratio with the ratio of the specific weight of water and
steam.

0
0,05
0,1
0,15
0,2
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
0 50 100 150 200 250
S
t
e
a
m

m
a
s
s

r
a
t
i
o

[
k
g
/
k
g
]
R
i
r
c
u
l
a
t
i
o
n

r
a
t
i
o

[
-
]
Pressure [bar]
CR
x
x m
m
CR
steam
steam water
1
1
=
= =
+

18
075 , 4
369 , 133
507 , 543
' '
'
= =

(13)

This quotient can be generally interpreted as the minimal necessary propulsion quotient for
the gravity circulation system [17].

The following diagram (Chart16) shows the influence of the pressure on the specific weight
of the water and the steam and on the ratio of the specific weight of the water and the steam.





























Chart 16 / Influence of the pressure on the specific weight of the water and the steam and on
the ratio of the specific weight of the water and the steam.

The blue line represents the reduction of the specific weight of water and the red line the
increase of the specific weight of steam. Both curves meet each other at the critical point
(p=221,2 [bar], = 374,15[C]), and effected by that, the ratio of the specific weight of water
and steam (black curve) reaches its minimum of 1. The limiting pressure of approx. 180 [bar]
is represented with red lines (on the right side below). The circulation ratio (CR) must be used
in conjunction - next to the influence of the pressure - with the heat flux, tube size,
orientation, roughness of the tubes water quality etc., because this ration by itself cannot give
a complete survey of all components of the circulation system [22] thus further analyses are
necessary, like the mentioned modified Froude- number.

p = 221,2 [bar];
= 315,5 [kg/m]
180; 4,08
0
20
40
60
80
100
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240
R
a
t
i
o

o
f

t
h
e

d
e
s
i
t
i
e
s

o
f

w
a
t
e
r

a
n
d

s
t
e
a
m

[
-
]
D
e
n
s
i
t
y

o
f

w
a
t
e
r

a
n
d

s
t
e
a
m
;

d
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
t

o
f

b
o
t
h

d
e
n
s
i
t
i
e
s

[
k
g
/
m

]
Pressure [bar]

19



6 Heat transfer by nucleate boiling

In spite of the multiplicity of publications in terms of the heat transfer by nucleate boiling no
satisfactory approach is available. The reason is the complexity of the boiling process. Next to
the properties and states of the liquid, the properties of the heating surface, the temperature
differences between the liquid and the surface, all these points are vitally influencing
variables. Basically for the phase transition an excess energy or more precisely a minimal
superheating is necessary to overcome the surface tension of the vapour bubbles [10]. This
phenomenon on the surface is also known as surface evaporation. This process transferred
with the increase of the temperature difference between the water and the steam to the
nucleate boiling. The development of bubbles required the availability of an minimal
temperature difference and accordingly a minimal heat flux respectively heat flux density
[13]. The presence of impurities of dissolved gas or the presence of solids can act as an
evaporation nucleus and thus can cause a reduction of the mentioned superheating to generate
vapour bubbles. The surface roughness of the heating surface can also influence the
generation of vapour bubbles in that way that the roughness acts as an evaporation nucleus.
Due to the dependence of the properties of the liquids from the pressure, the influence of the
heating surface regarding the surface tension is an additional influence caused by the pressure
loss. Because an increase of the pressure caused a reduction of the surface tension and vice
versa [17]. Because of the local process character of the generation of vapour bubbles the heat
conduction of the heating surface, the roughness and the material properties in general have
an effect on the evaporation process. The imported microstructure of the surface of the
evaporator pipes regarding the evaporation process is not describable as the defined surface
roughness which in use e.g. in the field of machine construction. Due to that difficulty the
term thermal- roughness or other special definitions are used [14], which has to be
determined by the measurement of the heat transfer coefficient during the evaporation process
- analogously to hydrodynamic- roughness which has to be determined by the measurement of
the pressure loss- has been established. As a basic principle, at rough surfaces where will be
more bubbles generated and more heat transferred as in the case of smooth surfaces, [14] next
to that the heat transmission increases with the heat flux [17]. The mentioned various
influences indicate the complexity to set up equations which make the evaluation of the heat
transfer possible. [10] In general the increase of the temperature difference between the pipe
wall and the water affects a rise of the generation of bubbles. For the area of the nucleate
boiling the temperature difference between the pipe wall and the water can vary from 1,6 K
up to a difference of 20 K in the case of a pressure of approx. 170 bar [17]. Simplified it is
possible to say that the heat transfer will be supported by the generation of bubbles in that
way that the bubbles affect a mixture of the different temperature layers at the pipe wall and
effects the influx of water to that area where the bubbles disperse from the wall caused by
eddying which are forced by the buoyancy of the bubbles [14, 17]. Based on the law of the
natural convection - and the general dependence of the heat transfer from the heat transfer
density, pressure respectively the boiling temperature - the following characteristic equation is
commonly used [10; 11; 14]:

(14)

For water between a pressure range from 0,5 [bar] up to 20 [bar] the following equation is
applicable:
(15) [11]
8 , 0 5 , 0 < <
=
n
q c
n

24 , 0 72 , 0
95 , 1 p q =

20

The approach to apply the natural convection to calculate the heat transfer inside of

evaporator pipes can not take the superposition of the different flows like the natural
convection (thermo convection flow) and the main flow into consideration [1, 14]. But in the
case of nucleate boiling the velocity of flow has only a marginal influence on the heat
transfer, thus this approach is applicable [17]. The most imported influences are the heat flux,
mass flow, the steam mass fraction (steam quality), the diameter of the evaporator pipe, and
the roughness [14]. One aspect which influences also the heat transfer is the increase of the
vapour phase during the evaporation process. This effects reaches a maximum in respect of
the heat flux at approx.
kg
kg
x 8 , 0 = ,and thus is beyond the scope of this paper. (Please see
chart 2)
Due to that the following empirical equations are often used in the field of steam generators
and recommended by Dr. Scheffknecht:

(15)

(15.1)

(15.2)[12]

Next to the cited formulas there are furthermore applicable approaches for the heat transfer
inside of evaporators of gravity circulation boiler (drum boiler), respectively for the nucleate
boiling [1, 18]. Also a combination of formulas is possible and recommended by one of the
authors [18]. The maximum of the results of the following equations are used to compute the
heat transfer:

(16)


(16.1)


There are further approaches available which take the influence of the main flow of the media
into consideration [19]. But the influence is generally insignificant especially when the
difference of the heat transfer at the water-steam-side is compared to the heat transfer on the
gas respectively the waste gas side. Generally the heat transfer on the steam side is much
larger than the heat transfer on the waste gas side and due to that the determinative value
concerning the whole heat transfer is on the waste gas side [10].

7 Instability of the natural circulation

Most steady boiling flow processes involve small- scale instabilities: Bubbles from the
collapse, a given point in the flow may be occurred by the liquid phase in one instant of time
and by vapour in the next instant, and then by liquid again, these are called microscopic
instabilities that occur locally at the liquid interface. These microscopic instabilities involve
the entire two- phase flow. Microscopic oscillations do not lead to sustained oscillation of
considerable amplitude by themselves. But microscopic oscillations may trigger the actual
system oscillation. If the small- scale local instabilities do not cause any sustained oscillation,
0 , 62 75 , 0
87 , 86 5 , 0
hom
266 , 1
4 , 44
p
Lottes and Jens
p
T
e q
e q
=
=

( ) ( ) / 116 0197 , 1 860 10 86 , 1

3 , 0 7 , 0 3
m kW q p q =

( ) ( ) / 290 174 0197 , 1 860 10 20875 , 2

23 , 0 7 , 0 3
m kW q p q =

( ) ( ) / 290 0197 , 1 860 10 67375 , 2

175 , 0 7 , 0 3
m kW q p q > =

21
such flows are called stable flows. In other words, a flow is stable if when momentarily
disturbed, its new operation conditions tend towards the initial operating point. Sometimes
another steady- state point may not be possible in the vicinity of the original point.
Perturbation may grow and a new operation point is obtained. These instabilities are called
static instabilities. Known types of instabilities include flow excursions (Ledinegg instability),
flow pattern transitions, nucleation instabilities, bumping. A flow is said to be subject to a
dynamic instability when the inertia and feedback effects have an essential part in the process.
The most common dynamic instabilities are characterized as (1) density- wave type
oscillations (DWO), (2) pressure- drop type oscillations, and (3) acoustic oscillations.
(Acoustic oscillations do not constitute an important category of the two phase flow
instabilities.) [31] The most important type of instability is caused by the propagation of
density waves, this is also often named dynamic instability or more precisely density wave
oscillations (DWO) [29]. The generation of steam bubbles leads to an increase of buoyancy
and due to that to an increase of the mass flow. Furthermore the convective heat transfers
increases and accordingly the boiling process ends. The following reduction of the steam
volume caused a deceleration of the mass flow and to the restart of the boiling process. (On
the other hand the vaporization affects - owing to the increase of the volume also an
increase of the pressure loss in the area where the evaporation takes place. This additional
pressure loss weaks the buoyancy and can support the instability if the pressure loss is too
high [26].) The influence of the increase of the volume and consequently the pressure loss can
be described by chart 6. The characteristic of chart 6 equals the characteristic of the curve
progression of the pressure loss. The increase of the pressure loss is represented by the points
A-B-C and the decrease down to D in particular represents the instability in the case of drum
boiler. The instability is characterized by the movement between B C and D. The movement
describes the collapse of the flow (D-B represents the moistening of the heating surface
respectively the collapse of the flow) and its rebuilding (B-C) [26]. This periodic process
(DWO) equals a low frequency flow oscillation, the period which is of the same order of
magnitude as the transient time of a fluid particle in the steam generator tube. There is a "rule
of thumb" in the literature that the period of the DWO is approximately one or two times the
transit time of a fluid particle in a tube [29, 31], although Yadigaroglu and Bergles have
reported that it may be only a smaller fraction of the transit time [29]. The precondition for
the appearance of this periodic process -respectively flow oscillation- is the existence of two
flows with wide difference densities. The inertia of the media the friction and other losses
damp that cyclic process [25, 31]. The slope of the evaporate pipe has a strong influence on
the flow condition and for this reason a strong influence on the instability. To reduce or avoid
the instability -in the case of sloped pipes- it is necessary to reach a stage in which the friction
between the gaseous phase and the liquid phase caused the dispersion of the water over the
whole cross-section of the pipe. The evaporator has to be designed in the way so that an
intermittent flow like the plug flow is not possible [23]. In addition to the problem of the
cooling of the pipes (oscillation of the wall temperature), the fluctuation of the mass flow has
an essential influence on the dimensions of the drum and due to that an influence on the
temperature gradient etc. and can cause vibrations [24, 25]. Caused by the mentioned, the
obtaining of a Froude- number larger than 10 has an essential influence on the homogenizing
of the natural circulation. A Froude value larger than 10 avoid the generation of the critical
wavy- and intermittent flows, the only possible flow is the annular and bubble flow, thus the
critical flow conditions are avoided [7]. (Especially affected by the high heat fluxes in the
case of evaporators an explicit and uniform flow condition inside the pipes is necessary [37].)
Is has been observed that the vertical upward flows were more stable than the horizontal
flows. According to the accumulated experimental data, the Standard of Hydraulic
Calculation for Steam Boilers (1961) proposed parameters to determine the oscillation in

22
horizontal pipes. Next to this source Yesin (1975) and Yc (1982) also studied two phase
instabilities in horizontal boiling pipes [31].


7.1 One approach of calculating the appearance of density wave oscillations (DWO)

The approach based on the steam quality at the outlet of the evaporation system if the
predicted steam quality exceeds the outlet steam quality predicted by the below mentioned
equations at density wave oscillations (DWO) will occur. The advantage of this approach is
the simplicity of its application in comparison to detailed analyses like the described in the
publication from S. Kakac, T.N. Veziroglu [31] and Siemens AG Power Generation [8].
Especially some influences can be simulated in an easy way, but the tendency has to go
toward the detailed analyses by the quoted literature/ software.


17


17.1


17.2



17.3



17.4


17.5



17.6



17.7


7.2 Remedial measures to avoid the instability of the natural circulation (DWO)

The variables affecting the DWO are geometry, pressure, inlet sub-cooling, heat flux, thermal
conductivity and specific heat of the tube material, and axial pressure and heat flux
distributions in the pipe. Following approaches are possible to reduce the appearance of
instability inside of natural circulation systems.

k
c
h
h h
H
d g
m
Fr
Fr
d
L
y
y
y
Fr y
y y y d
L
y X
L
f f
Fr
A
A
Fr H
u

=
=

|
.
|

\
|
+ =
+ =
=
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

Pr
10 03 , 2 1
10 12 , 0 1
10 13 , 1 13 , 2
Pr
1
Pr 8
25 , 3
5 , 0 4
4
] ) 1 ( 76 , 2 [
3
586
2
5 , 0 88 , 1
1
4 3 2
64 , 1
22 , 0
1
7 , 0 0
3

23
The covering of the critical evaporator area with panels e.g. made of ceramic.
The assembly of throttles at the inlet header of the evaporator.
The reduction of the outlet losses.
The reduction of the heated length.
The decrease of inlet sub- cooling at low sub- cooling and the increase of the inlet sub-
cooling at high and medium sub-cooling
The increase of the pressure inside of the evaporator system.
The increase of the mass flow and
the influence on the combustion process (distribution of the heat flux).
And in the case of a vertical adjusted pipes, the increase of the pipe- diameter.

The shown points are approaches to reduce the likelihood of the development of instabilities.
But, some of them have a strong influence on the whole circulation ratio of the water steam
mixture. Especially the increase of the mass flow is the most common way to reduce the
generation of the described instability [25, 29].

8 Summary

The phase change from water toward steam caused the absorption of a large heat quantity.
This heat quantity is included as latent heat of vaporization in the steam. The possibility of
heat storage as latent heat in steam works stabilizing in respect of a change of the heat flux
caused by the combustion process for example [26]. In general it is possible to say an angle of
inclination
o
10 has no influence of layering of the media [6]. On the other hand one other
author gives a minimal angle of inclination of 10 up to 15 to avoid the separation of the
flows [17]. But neither of the authors gives background information, like pressure, mass flow,
steam mass fraction or heat flux. In the case of larger diameters another way to avoid the
decomposition of the phases is the installation of a twist generation devices as shown in the
chart below [13].





Chart 17/ Twist generation device [13]

One possible option to increase the velocity of the water- steam mixture respectively the
cooling and an increase of the Foude- number is the installation of displacers in straight
sections inside of evaporator pipes. The displacer affects an increase of the velocity, caused
by the reduction of the free cross section, but it also caused an increase of the pressure loss of
the evaporator and consequently a weakening of the circulation. The other negative point is
that the fastening of the displacer can cause dead spot and consequently hot spots at the wall
of the pipe. It is important to emphasise that some uncertainties have to be taken into
consideration to get a proper result of the whole evaluation. There are especially the heating-
profile and the tolerances of the pipes and the other equipment. Additionally it is important to
emphasise the interaction between the physical effects (heat flux) and the chemically effects
(constituents of the water). Among other things (Especially the load change in respect of a
decrease of the operating pressure shows a tendency to support the generation of instabilities
as mentioned above [32].) the interaction can cause the generation of layers at the wall which
affects an increase of the wall temperature up to high temperatures of e.g. 720 C. This fact
should show the possible dramatic impact [15]. Axiomatically it is necessary regarding the

24
gravity propelled circulation to avoid the horizontal or the inclined adjustment of evaporators,
because this arrangement effects the reduction of the static pressure difference and due to that
a reduction of the buoyancy which is needed to make the circulation inside of the evaporators
possible. In the areas of the maximal heat flux (approx. 410 kW/m [1] up to 560 kW/m [22]
) - e.g. around the burner - the maximal steam content -in the case of drum boilers- reaches
its maximum of approx. 18,4%. Based on the value of 18,4 % the circulation number will
reache its minimum with value of approx. 5,4. Based on the precondition that the pipe is
horizontally arranged, the value of the heat flux has in consideration of a safety factor of S=
1,5 - a maximum of 840 kW/m. The value of the circulation number (CR) has its minimum -
in consideration of a safety factor of S= 1,5 - of 3,6 [20]. Using the limiting values makes it
roughly possible to border the most critical conditions from the uncritical conditions with
variations of the mass flux, diameter and pressure. Based on the quoted formulas - in the case
of the Froude- number and the calculation of the necessary inlet velocity- the higher the steam
mass fraction and the pressure the higher the inlet velocity has to be. If the necessary velocity
is unapproachable without a change of design, the reduction of the inner diameter is a
common way to reach better conditions regarding the inlet velocity. But it has also to be taken
into consideration that the chance of the inner diameter has a negative influence regarding the
pressure loss and consequently on the hole water circulation of the evaporator system. This
solution is also applicable in the case of twisted arranged pipes and the generations of hot
spots at the wall of the pipe are not possible when the angels of the diminution of the diameter
and especially the angle of the enhancement of the diameter do not cause turbulences near the
wall. Based on researches there are lot of information concerning the applications of inner
ribbed pipes in the case of evaporators available. There are also a lot of information available
on the coefficient of friction and the necessary mass fluxes to achieve a well cooled wall, thus
it seems to be the solution. The dilemma is that the acceleration caused by the swirling action
has to overcome the gravitational acceleration and the ribs probably act only as a roughened
surface. In other words a transition mass velocity is necessary to overcome the gravitational
acceleration. The mass flux at the start up phase of gravity circulation boiler (Drum boiler) is
very low and consequently the necessary acceleration can not be generated to overcome the
gravitational acceleration. When the circulation system is properly designed, the most critical
point is at the start up phase hence in a phase at which the inner ribbed pipes cannot cause a
positive effect. Contrariwise the mentioned additional roughness would weaken the start up of
the circulation system [30]. In the case of a circulation system with sufficient reserves
concerning additional pressure losses it would be possible to apply modified pipes especially
in imperiled regions. Comparing to bare pipes with ordinary pipes it has been found out that
the time average local heat transfer coefficients during oscillation increases 1% up to 8 % for
different spring configurations, about 20 % for the internally threaded pipes and up to 94 for
coated pipes [31]. In addition to spring shaped, netting elements were also tested. The heat
transfer increases to a factor from 1,5 up to 1,8; but the pressure losses increase accordingly.
The application of springs and netting elements seem only possible in critical areas, but it
could be a way to enhance the heat transfer belated. The roughening of pipes like by sand
blasting or other methods can enhance the heat transfer inside the pipes up to a factor of 5.
The disadvantage is that rough surfaces tend more to generate fouling than smooth surfaces.
[36] There are also possibilities to apply internals, a little similar to the twist generation
device shown in chart 17. In the case of low pressure evaporator systems it could potentially
also possible to apply e.g. pipes with buckle in the future. The buckles affect additional
turbulences and a disturbance of the boundary layer [33, 34]. The best solution is the grading
of the inner diameter of evaporator pipes from a less inner diameter at the area of the critical
heat flux (CHF) to larger diameters especially at the outlet of the evaporator, is the best and
the cheapest opportunity to optimize the flow conditions and a way to support the whole
circulation of the system [6]. Finally and bases on the fact that straight perpendicular arranged

25
evaporator pipes caused the lowest pressure loss and the maximal buoyancy, the angle of
evaporator pipes should be tend to 90 [35]. In addition to all the above mentioned points:
The instability of evaporation systems is - in any case- an issue which has to discuss
respectively calculated e.g. with the stated equations in chapter 7.1, because the instability at
itself can damage the system.

9 Nomenclature

Abbr. Nomenclature Unit

x Fraction of steam (steam quality) kg/kg
xc Criticat fraction of steam kg/kg
x Differences of the fraction of steam kg/kg
c Spec. heat capacity J/kgK
m Mass flow kg/ms
h Enthalpy kJ/kg
hf Enthalpy of water saturation kJ/kg
hg Enthalpy of steam at saturation kJ/kg
hfg Latent heat of vaporization kJ/kg
hi Inlet enthalpy kJ/kg
DH Dimensionless inlet subcooling enthalpy -
v Spec. volume water m/kg
v Spec. volume steam m/kg
q Heat flux kW/m
qc Critical heat flux kW/m
p Pressure N/m
pc Critical pressure N/m
d Inner diameter m
C Factor -
Spec. weight water kg/m

Spec. weight steam kg/m
Fr* Modified Froude- number -
Fr Froude- number -
Pr Prandtl number -
B Factor -
CR Circulation ratio -
Temperature K,C
Temperature difference K,C
n Exponent -
Heat transfer coefficient W/mK
Pr Prandl- number -
A Cross-section m
L Length m
wmin Minimal flow velocity m/s
m Dyn. Viscosity kg/ms
k Themal conductivity W/mK





26
9 Literature

[1] Babcock & Wilcox: Steam its generation and use 40
th
edition, 1992
[2] VDI- Wrmeatlas; 9. Auflage 2002
[3] Prof. Dr.- Ing. R. Dolezal: Hochdruck- Heidampf. Vulkan- Verlag. Essen
[4] VdTV- Merkblatt 1453, Ausgabe 4.83
[5] Siemens economic flexible innovative Benson Boiler, Siemens Power Generation, 2001
[6] B. Gericke: Der natrliche Wasserumlauf in Abhitzedampferzeugern, BWK 30 (1978)
Nr. 12
[7] Volker Kefer: Strmungsformen und Wrmebergang in Verdampferrohren
unterschiedlicher Neigung, Lehrstuhl A fr Thermodynamik Technische Universitt
Mnchen. 1989
[8] Siemens AG Power Generation: BENSON Boilers Basic Principles and Design
Guidelines for BENSON Evaporators, March 2003
[9] G. Ldenbach: Bedeutung der Deckschichtzerstrung bei rauchgas und wasser-/
dampfseitigen Korrosionsvorgngen, Vortrag VGB Seminar Chemie im Kraftwerk, 6-
7 Mrz 2007
[10] F. Brand: Wrmebergang in Dampferzeugern und Wrmetauschern, Vulkan- Verlag
1985
[11] W. Beitz, K.- H. Grote: Dubbel 19. Auflage, Springer, 1997
[12] Dr. Scheffknecht: Vorlesung Dampferzeugung, WS 2007/8, Institut fr
Verfahrenstechnik und Dampfkesselwesen, Universitt Stuttgart
[13] H. Vorkauf: Der Zwangsumlauf im Wasserrohrkesselbau, Mitteilungen der VGB, Heft
94 1965
[14] F. Hell: Grundlagen der Wrmebertragung, VDI- Verlag, 1982
[15] Dr. H. H. Reichel: Verdampferschden durch Ablagerungen in Verbindung mit
Feuerungsnderungen VGB Kraftwerkstechnik 10/99
[16] Institut fr Thermische Verfahrenstechnik, Universitt Karlsuhe (TH), 2009
[17] Dolezal: Hochdruck- Heidampf, Vulkan- Verlag, 1957
[18] DVO- Datenverarbeitung- Service Oberhausen GmbH: KESFDB- Handbuch, 1990
[19] FDBR Handbuch: Wrme und Strmungstechnik, 1998
[20] Dr. H. Effenberger: Dampferzeuger, VEB, 1988
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