Wysk chapter 17 07/01/11

CHAPTER 17
COMPUTER INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING
_______________________________________
Introduction Automated Manufacturing Systems
Computer-aided Design Workpiece Handling
Using CAD for Manufactured Component
Design Continuous Transfer
Design Using CAD Systems Intermittent Transfer
Geometric Modeling Nonsynchronous Transfer
Engineering Analysis Hardware for Automation
Data Storage and Retrieval The Geneva Mechanism
Automated Drafting The Walking Beam
CAD Hardware Questions
Computer-Aided Manufacturing Problems
References
_________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION
Throughout the history of our industrial society, many inventions have been patented and whole new
technologies have evolved. Whitney's concept of interchangeable parts, Watt's steam engine, and Ford's
assembly line are but a few developments that are most noteworthy during our industrial period. Each of
these developments has impacted manufacturing as we know it, and has earned these individuals deserved
recognition in our history books. Perhaps the single development that has impacted manufacturing more
quickly and significantly than any previous technology is the digital computer.
Today, only 35 years after its commercial development, the computer is used for a variety of manufacturing
control functions. Manufacturing facilities without a computer are the exception rather than the rule today.
Facilities employing as few as a hundred people may have half that number of computers or
computer-based controllers performing a variety of activities. Today's modern factory environment has
become an example of computer controlled manufacturing. Facilities currently exist in which parts are
created on a computer (on a computer-aided design (CAD) system). Production plans are created from the
CAD data using an automated process planning system. Numerically controlled part programs are created
using the tool path requirements on the CAD system, and the parts are manufactured under the control of a
computer.
In this chapter, the basics of CAD and CAM will be discussed. The chapter is intended to provide an
introduction to CAD and CAM and create a vocabulary for future chapters. A limited discussion of CAD is
provided in t his book, but a reasonably detailed presentation of CAM is provided in Chapters 18 through
21.
17.1 COMPUTER-AIDED DESIGN
Computer-aided design, or CAD as it is more commonly known, has grown from a narrow activity and
concept to a methodology of design activities that include a computer or group of computers used to assist
in the analysis, development, and drawing of product components. The original CAD systems developed
and used in industry could more realistically be classified as computer-aided drafting systems. However,
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the benefits of using basic geometric information for structural analysis and planning for manufacturing
were quickly recognized and included in many CAD systems. Today, as in the past, the basis for CAD is
still the drafting features or interactive computer graphics (ICG) that these systems were originally
designed to perform. However, the scope of these systems has taken on a new meaning. A typical CAD
system is illustrated in Figure 17.1. As can be seen, the graphics display portion of the system is the most
noticeable feature. Computational processes have, however, been added to the system for increased
capabilities.
In general, there are four basic reasons for implementing CAD system!
1. A reduction in design time. The total time required from inception of an idea to its complete
specification can be reduced by an order of magnitude by using easily alterable geometric models.
Design perturbations/changes can be completed in minimal time. Whole scenarios of design
possibilities can be constructed quickly.
2. Improved product design. Because CAD systems allow the designer to alter the product without major
redrawing with considerable time commitment , many final designs can be constructed in a reasonable
period of time. Similarly, these designs can be automatically analyzed for structural characteristics by
using computer-aided engineering (CAE) software such as finite-element modeling (FEM).
3. Improved information access. Because CAD drawings are stored in a large computer database, they can
be accessed quickly and easily. Parts can be coded on the basis of geometric shape, and similar parts
can be called up to assist in the design and specification of new parts. "Standard parts" can be
employed whenever possible, rather than having to re-invent the wheel over and over again.
4. Manufacturing data creation. With the advent of numerical control (NC) came the need to automatically
generate the tool path required for machining. Since the part geometry dictates the machining required,
knowing the part shape can allow for (semi-)automatic part-program preparation. CAD data can also be
used for automated process planning.
Figure 17.1 Some of the important components in a computer-aided design system. (Courtesy of
Computervision Corp.)
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It is interesting to note that twenty years ago if a part of reasonable geometric and manufacturing
sophistication was created, hundreds of design and drafting hours would be required. After the part was
specified, manufacture would begin. This planning would normally require some minor design changes
(back to the designer and draftsman), and might take as long as the original design process. Special tooling,
fixturing, etc., might also be specified during the planning for manufacture. In all, the entire process of
product and process design could take several weeks or months. With today's CAD systems, designing
(again a reasonably sophisticated component) and generating manufacturing plans, preparing part programs
and producing the part is possible in days rather than weeks. In general, the total engineering and
manufacturing time has been cut markedly using integrated CAD/CAM methodologies.
17. USING CAD FOR MANUFACTURED COMPONENT DESIGN
Although CAD represents the integrated use of a computer in the design process, the use of CAD
does not change the design process requirements. As in the past, the designer is still responsible for
1. Developing the geometric detail required for the product (shape, dimension, tolerance, etc.)
2. Performing the necessary analysis on the design
3. Reviewing and altering the design on the basis of functional and economic characteristics
4. Communicating the design via an understandable drafting system
Independent of whether a CAD system was employed in the design or whether the designer used a
standard drafting table, each of these design steps must be addressed either formally or informally. An
example of these activities would be an engineer who needs a special wrench to adjust a positioning nut
that is located in a place not accessible using a standard straight-shank tool. Several bends must be
manufactured into a standard open-end wrench.
In order to obtain the wrench in the most expeditious manner, the engineer would most likely walk to
the tool fabrication shop and explain his needs to one of the machinists. If the number of bends required in
the wrench are few and simple, the engineer may simply explain his needs verbally to the machinist. Using
this description, the machinist may be able to understand the geometric requirements and select the material
based on the physical requirements (maximum torque conditions, length of the shaft, etc.). Without a
drawing ever being made, the part may be designed and conveyed in the heads of the engineer and
machinist and never take form on paper. As the part is being bent, the machinist may alter his initial
conception of the part to ease the manufacturing requirements.
As the complexity of the part increases, the likelihood of the process requiring a sketch or drawing
also increases. If a very complex tool was necessary, then a detailed engineering drawing with specific
tolerances would be required.
17. DESIGN USING CAD SYSTEMS
The basic tasks that are performed automatically or semi-automatically using CAD systems include
1. Geometric modeling
2. Engineering analysis
3. Data storage and retrieval
4. Automated drafting
The functions performed by the CAD system are those functions that are normally employed in the
design of any product, independently of whether a CAD system is used. Again, these design functions
might be employed formally or might be employed as part of an informal design and manufacturing
system.
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17. GEOMETRIC MODELING
The geometric model that a designer creates represents the basic geometry of the object being
modeled. When drawn by hand, this model can be represented as a traditional multiview drawing, as shown
in Figure 17.2. This drawing usually consists of two or three views (top, front, and right side). The same
drawing, however, can be represented as a three-dimensional isometric representation: see Figure 17.3.
Figure 17.2 Multiview drawing of a bracket.
Figure 17.3 Isometric view of bracket.
In a CAD system, the geometry of the object is not stored in the same manner as it is represented on
paper. Instead, the object is represented using computer-compatible mathematical symbology. The
mathematical description allows the object not only to be stored in the computer efficiently (the part could
also have been digitized as a series of zeros or ones representing locations on the paper), but also allows the
user to display an image of the object on his graphics display terminal in different ways. The traditional
multiview representation as well as three-dimensional perspective representation can normally be
constructed with little difficulty on a CAD system. In CAD, the computer's internal representation of the
system is usually referred to as the geometric model.
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Designers normally create their geometric model at a terminal using three types of constructs. The
first construct is used to create the basic geometric elements such as points, lines, circles, etc. The second
type of construct is used to scale, rotate, or transform the basic constructs in some way. The third type of
construct allows the designer to combine two or more shape elements into one item. During the process of
creating the part, the designer normally interacts with the CAD system using a menu keypad, and a mouse
or light pen. The items called out onto the screen are converted to the internal geometric model within the
CAD system.
The object that the designer creates can be represented internally to the computer in several methods.
The most basic of these methods is called a wire-frame model. Wire-frame models are normally classified
as one of three types: 2D (two-dimensional models), 2D (two-and-a-half-dimensional models, and 3D
(three-dimensional models). Figure 17.4 shows examples of a wireframe boundary and solid modeling.
Note that in a 2D isometric projection, hidden lines are not removed. In a 2D model, the hidden lines can
be automatically "clipped" from the drawing. 3D models normally employ a different internal geometric
model from 2D systems.
In a 2D drawing system, a set of drawing primitives are normally used to create a drawing. These
drawing primitives normally consist of entities like line, circle, arc, point, etc. These one- and
two-dimensional features are combined to form complex 2D drawings. Figure 17.5 illustrates the drawing
menus used for AutoCAD. Since AutoCAD (version 2.6x or lower) is a 2D drawing system, features like
solid are used to denote solid objects that can be "extruded" to take on a third dimension. Extruding the part
in a CAD system is limited to linear elongation of the part, just as in a physical extrusion process.
Figure 17.4 Wireframe boundary and solid drawing of a part.
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The same drawing constructs can be used in a 3D system to construct polygonal faces on a part.
The inside or outside (surface vector) of the part is then defined by the user, so that the solid portion of the
part can be identified, i.e., a hole and cylinder are identical geometric features with opposite surface
vectors. This type of drawing is called a boundary model. Drawings can also be constructed using building
blocks much like toy blocks that can be scaled. Solid components such as: box, sphere, cylinder, cone, etc.,
are used to assemble a complex part. This type of 3D system is called constructive solid geometry (CSG).
Figure 17.5 AutoCAD menus used in drawing.
17. ENGINEERING ANALYSIS
Virtually all products and parts produced today are specified for a particular application, and must
meet some minimum functional specification. The product must undergo some type of engineering
analysis, ranging from simple stress calculations to dynamic system behavior calculations. In order to
perform the majority of these analysis calculations, the part geometry is required. Furthermore, the
calculations are usually cumbersome enough to necessitate the use of a computer to perform the
computations. Since the part geometry is available along with a computer on the CAD system, it makes
engineering analysis as part of a CAD system an ideal marriage. Many CAD systems either have their own
software or can be interfaced to engineering analysis software. The most common analysis employed on
these systems includes analysis of mass properties and finite-element modeling. Mass calculations are
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important to determine the surface area, mass, weight, and center of gravity of various parts. When
performed by hand, these calculations can take several hours, compared to a few seconds on a CAD
system. Finite-element analysis modeling is normally employed to decompose a part into a finite set of
locations at which the structural and dynamic characteristics of the part can be determined. Figure 17.6
contains a view of a typical component decomposed into finite components.
Figure 17.6 Finite-element modeling for stress-strain analysis. Graphics display shows strained
part superimposed on unstrained part for comparison. (Courtesy of Applicon Inc.)
17. DATA STORAGE AND RETRIEVAL
Any drawing, created either on a manual drafting system or on a CAD system, must be stored so
that it can be retrieved when needed. Conventional drawing rooms for reasonably sized industries may have
contained 2 to 10 people to simply file, retrieve, and copy drawings. In addition, thousands of square feet of
floor space were required to physically store the drawings. The retrieval time needed to obtain a drawing to
review is not insignificant. If a designer felt compelled to review several similar drawings to compare his
concept to existing components, hours could be consumed simply trying to locate existing drawings.
Retrieving these drawings could then take several additional hours.
Today's CAD systems employ sophisticated database-management systems that allow the designer
and planner access not only to the part in question, but also to a variety of similar components that can be
identified by type or part code. Drawings can be reviewed at a CAD drafting station without ever having
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to leave the room. Since many alternative components can be reviewed, the final part drawing on a CAD
system is normally more fully developed than if the part were created on a manual drawing system.
17. AUTOMATED DRAFTING
Although there are many forms in which product information can be transmitted (recall the
example of the engineer in need of a special wrench), the standard communication medium today is still the
engineering drawing. Today's CAD systems are capable of depicting a part drawing in many different
ways. Once a part has been created on a CAD system, the internal geometric model can be used to generate
several alternative drawings. Virtually every existing commercial CAD system is capable of producing
multiview drawings of a part. In addition, oblique, isometric, and perspective views can also be created; see
Figs 17.7 and 17.8. Many systems are capable of generating drawings from as many as six different views.
Scaling, dimensioning, and rotating the part are also possible on many CAD systems.
FIGURE 17.7 Engineering drawing with four views generated automatically by a CAD system.
(From W. Fitzgerald, F. Gracer, and R. Wolfe, "GRIN: Interactive Graphics for Modeling
Solids," IBM Journal of Research and Development, vol. 25, no. 4, July, 1981. Copyright 1981 by
International Business Machines Corporation; reprinted with permission.)
FIGURE 17.8 Three views of a wire frame block: (a) oblique, (b) isometric, (c) perspective.
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17. CAD HARDWARE
Today's CAD systems consist of various hardware components. Figure 17.9 depicts some typical
components employed in a CAD system. Input devices are generally used to transfer information from the
designer to a computer on which CAD functions are conducted. A keyboard is still the standard input
device used to transmit alphanumeric data to the system. In many systems, a function keypad is also used to
make input less tedious. Joysticks, track balls, and mouses are used to manipulate and position a cursor on
the screen. These devices are used to manipulate a graphic cursor on the CRT display and feed back this
information to the computer. Using these devices (or perhaps a light pen), the designer is able to address
terminal locations interactively.
Depending on the manufacturer as well as the CAD capabilities, the CAD system can look very
different. Some CAD systems are still stored in large air-conditioned rooms filled with large storage
peripherals. However, systems are also available today that are self-contained workstations containing all
or most of the hardware shown in Figure 17.9.
Figure 17.9 I/O peripherals of a CAD system.
17. COMPUTER-AIDED MANUFACTURING
The scientific study of metal-cutting and automation techniques are products of the twentieth
century. Two pioneers of these techniques were Frederick Taylor and Henry Ford. During the early 1900s,
the improving U.S. standard of living brought a new high in personal wealth. The major result was the
increased demand for durable goods. This increased demand meant that manufacturing could no longer be
treated as a blacksmith trade, and the use of scientific study was employed in manufacturing analysis.
Taylor pioneered studies in "scientific management" in which methods for production by both men and
machines were studied. Taylor also conducted metal-cutting experiments at the Midvale Steel Company
that lasted 26 years and produced 400 tons of metal chips. The result of Taylor's metal-cutting experiments
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was the development of the Taylor tool-life equation that is still used in industry today. This tool-life
equation is still the basis of determining economic metal cutting and has been used in adaptive controlled
machining.
Henry Ford's contributions took a different turn from Taylor's. Ford refined and developed the use
of assembly lines for the major component manufacturer of his automobile. Ford felt that every American
family should have an automobile, and if they could be manufactured inexpensively enough then every
family would buy one. Several mechanisms were developed at Ford to accommodate assembly lines. The
automation that Ford developed was built into the hardware, and Ford realized that significant demand was
necessary to offset the initial development and production costs of such systems.
Although manufacturing industries continued to evolve, it was not until the 1950s that the next
major development occurred. For some time, strides to reduce human involvement in manufacturing were
being taken. Specialty machines using cams and other "hardwired" logic controllers had been developed.
The U.S. Air Force recognized the development time required to produce this special equipment and that
the time required to make only small sequence changes was excessive. As a result, the Air Force
commissioned the Massachusetts Institute of Technology to demonstrate programmable or numerically
controlled (NQ machines (also known as "softwired" machines). With this first demonstration in 1952
came the beginning of a new era in manufacturing. Since then, digital computers have been used to produce
input either in a directed manner to many NC machines, direct numerical control (DNC), or in a more
dedicated control sense, computer numerical control (CNQ. Today, machine control languages such as
APT (Automatic Programming Tool) have become the standard for creating tool control for NC machines.
It is interesting to note that much of the evolution in manufacturing has come as a response to
particular changes during different periods. For instance, the technology that evolved in the nineteenth
century brought with it the need for higher-precision machining. (This resulted in the creation of many new
machine tools, a more refined machine design, and new production processes.) The early twentieth century
became an era of prosperity and industrialization that created the demand necessary for mass-production
techniques. In the 1950s it was estimated that as the speed of an aircraft increased, the cost of
manufacturing the aircraft (because of geometric complexity) increased proportionately with the speed. The
result of this was the development of NC technology.
A few tangential notes on this history include the following. As the volume of parts manufactured
increases, the production cost for the parts decrease (this is generally known as "economy of scale"). Some
of the change in production cost is due to fixed versus variable costs. For instance, if only a single part is to
be produced (such as a space vehicle), all of the fixed costs for planning and design (both product and
process) must be absorbed by the single item. If, however, several parts are produced, the fixed charges can
be distributed over several parts. Changes in production cost, not reflected in this simple fixed- versus
variable-cost relationship, are usually the result of different manufacturing procedures-transfer-line
techniques for high-volume items versus job-shop procedures for low-volume items. Figure 17.10
illustrates the fundamental relationship of volume versus production system, and Figure 17.11 depicts cost
versus volume for different types of systems.
The U.S. Department of Commerce has pointed out that in the United States, 95% of all products
are produced in lots of size 50 or fewer. This indicates that although high-volume techniques are desirable
from a consumer standpoint (lower cost), these techniques are not appropriate from a manufacturing
standpoint (lower cost); the reason being the volume will not offset the setup expenses. The manufacturing
alternative to produce those parts is through the use of flexible manufacturing systems (FMSs). These
systems are nothing more than programmable job shops. However, a major economic expense still exists
before one can begin employing such systems more fully. This obstacle is that a considerable setup
(planning) expense is still required. The alternative to eliminate this expensive setup is through integration
of computer-aided design and computer-aided manufacturing (CAD/CAM). In an integrated CAD/CAM
system, parts will be detailed using a CAD system. This system will store the geometric information
necessary to create process plans and generate the machine instructions necessary to control the machine
tools. Some estimates suggest that this approach will reduce planning time for FMS parts by more than
95%.
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Figure 17.10 System selection versus volume and variety of parts.
Figure 17.11 Comparison of the average cost of various machining systems as a function of the
number of pieces per production run.
17. AUTOMATED MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS
An automated manufacturing system consists of a collection of automatic or semiautomatic
machines linked together by a "intrasystem" material-handling system. These systems have been around
since before Henry Ford began to manufacture his Model T on his moving assembly line. These automated
systems have been used to produce machined components, assemblies, electrical components, food
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products, chemical products, etc. The total number of products produced on a single system varies with the
production method. However, the principles of designing the production systems are the same
independently of the product being manufactured. Figure 17.12 contains a schematic of the symbology for
production flow diagrams along with a typical production system. The workstations in a production
system can be manual, semiautomatic or fully automatic. The automatic stations can be programmable or
hardwired.
The purpose of any production system is to produce a product or family of products in the most
economical manner. Automated production systems are no different from any other type of manufacturing
system. In order to
FIGURE 17.12 Schematic diagram of a production system.
employ any form of automation, the implementation must be economically justifiable. Automation has
traditionally been most appropriate for high volume products. However, flexible automation equipment has
brought automation to some relatively low-volume products. In general, automated manufacturing is
employed to:
1. Reduce labor cost
2. Improve product quality
3. Increase production rates
4. Reduce in-process inventory
5. Reduce material handling cost and time
6. Increase manufacturing control
17. WORKPIECE HANDLING
In an automated manufacturing system that consists of more than one machine or processing
station, a transfer mechanism between stations is required. The transfer mechanism must move a part from
one machine to the next and orient and locate the part accurately enough so that the necessary processing
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can be performed with the required accuracy. Although many mechanisms can be used for the transfer,
these mechanisms fall into the following three categories:
1. Continuous transfer
2. Intermittent or synchronous transfer
3. Nonsynchronous or power-and-free transfer
The type of transfer used normally dictates many of the other system characteristics. The control
of the system for these basic transfer procedures also changes significantly, and many different mechanisms
can be used to accommodate this transfer.
17. Continuous Transfer
As the name implies, in a continuous-transfer system the parts are moved at a constant speed through the
system. Because the parts are constantly in motion, the processing stations must be able to follow the part.
In order to accommodate this movement, stations workheads are frequently set in rotary shells that are
timed to rotate at the same speed as the transfer system. An example of this type of system is a
beer-bottling facility, where the bottles flow at constant speed through the system and are filled by a head
that rotates to the speed of the line. Some automotive assembly plants currently employ robots on
continuous transfer systems. On these systems, timing marks are normally employed to signal the robot
with a reference position, and the program for the robot's activities accounts for the additional movement of
the product.
Continuous-transfer systems are usually employed on relative highvolume products with few options
or changes occurring over time.
17. Intermittent Transfer
Intermittent transfer moves the parts through a system in an intermittent or timed discrete motion.
All parts move at the same time, as in the case of the continuous transfer systems; however, the parts dwell
motionless at the processing stations. This allows the processing stations to work on parts in a fixed
position. However, it also requires that unbalanced processing stations will wait for the transfer to occur.
17. Nonsynchronous Transfer
The use of continuous and intermittent transfer mechanisms requires a good "line balance" where
all station workloads are approximately equal. If this is not the case, parallel workstations or additional
shifts must be employed. Because of the imbalance, in-process queues are required and the transfer of parts
through the system must be conducted independently of other processing stations. Examples of
nonsynchronous systems include "power-and-free conveyors" used to cycle parts through a production
facility, or a robot that moves parts between several processing stations.
17. HARDWARE FOR AUTOMATION
Automated production systems have been around for many years and take on many different appearances.
In general, an automated manufacturing system can be described as a collection of mechanical, electric, and
electronic components coupled together to perform one or more manufacturing tasks. In early automated
systems, most of the functions to be automated were automated using a variety of mechanical devices.
These mechanisms were integrated into a large system using cams, timing chains, and a variety of other
mechanical integrating devices. The early screw machine, as shown in Figure 17.13, was a typical example
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of mechanical automation. One general characteristic of these systems was that they could normally only
be used to produce one type of part or a very few types, and the set-up time required to change over from
one part to another was usually orders of magnitude greater than the cycle time. This type of automation
could be used effectively to produce large production runs. The second generation of automation equipment
integrated more flexible electric controls such as relays, timers, and counters into the system. These
systems could be set-up for different parts production far more quickly than the first-generation systems.
Finally, today's manufacturing systems employ programmable electronic controls that in some cases can
FIGURE 17.13 Automatic screw machine.
FIGURE 17.14 The Geneva mechanism.
be set up for random parts sequences without incurring any set-up time between different runs of parts.
Second- and third-generation systems will be covered in detail in Chapters 18 and 19.
It would be impractical within the scope of this book to present a treatise of mechanisms used for
automation. Only two basic mechanisms will be covered in this chapter-one a rotary mechanism and the
other a linear mechanism. Depending on the size of the components being manufactured, the number of
operations required, the accuracy requirements, and the weight of the parts, either a rotary or linear system
may be more appropriate. In general, if few operations are required on relatively small parts, then rotary
transfer mechanisms are usually employed. In this case, parts are fixtured on a rotary table and move
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intermittently through the system. A common device employed in these systems is the Geneva Mechanism
shown in Figure 17.14. The Geneva Mechanism has several characteristics that make it ideal for use in
automation.
17. THE GENEVA MECHANISM
The Geneva mechanism is a cam-like mechanism that is widely used in both low- and high-speed
machinery. It has widespread use where a spindle, turret, or worktable must be indexed. Although the
Geneva mechanism shown in Figure 17.14 has six slots, these mechanisms can have between three and a
large number of slots or indexing positions. (A more realistic upper limit for the number of indexing
positions is 12.) A feature that makes these mechanisms most valuable is that the centerlines of the drive
crank and indexer are perpendicular at initial engagement and disengagement. This feature allows the use
of constant-velocity motors without acceleration and deceleration problems.
In designing these mechanisms, a known drive radius or indexing positioner radius, and the
number of indexing positions required is usually the logical starting point. As shown in Figure 17.15, the
rotation required for an n-position table can be calculated as
n
Q
i

360

(17.1)
The indexer radius can then be expressed as

,
`

.
|

2
sin
i
i
Q
d r
(17.2)
The drive radius can also be expressed as

,
`

.
|

2
sin
d
d
Q
d r
(17.3)
The ratio of ri to rd can then be expressed as
( )
( ) 2 / sin
2 / sin
d
i
d
i
Q
Q
r
r

(17.4)
This ratio is important both for the design as well as for the operation of the Geneva mechanism. The ratio
provides the ratio of drive to dwell time, and a given dwell requirement dictates the drive crank speed.
Figure 17.16 illustrates the position of the roller in the slot during the drive cycle. From the Figure, the
indexing angle can be calculated as
( )
( ) ( ) 2 / cos /
2 / sin
tan
d d
d
i
Q r d
Q
Q

(17.5)
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FIGURE 17.15 A Geneva mechanism in the drive cycle.
The angular velocity of the wheel can be determined for any value Of Qd by differentiating Eq. (17.5) with
FIGURE 17.16 A six-slot Geneva mechanism.
respect to time. This produces
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( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
]
]
]
]

d d i
d d
d i
Q r d r d
Q r d
cos / / 1
1 2 / cos /
2 2

(17.6)
The maximum wheel velocity occurs when the crank drive angle is zero, or when
d
d
d i
r d
r

max
(17.7)
If a system is being planned that requires six stations and a station cycle time of minute, for an
indexer of radius 12in., the indexing angle can be computed as

60
6
360

i
Q
The distance between drive and index centers is
( )
in. 86 . 13
30 cos
12
2 / cos

i
i
Q
r
d (17.8)
The drive diameter is
( ) in. 93 . 6
2 / 1
2 2

i d
r d r
(17.9)
The drive angle is

120
2
90 2
,
`

.
|

i
d
Q
Q
Since the nondrive time must correspond to the cycle time, the rotation of the drive motor can be
calculated as
s
d
d
t
Q

360
360
RPM
where ts, is the cycle time. In our case, the drive motor would rotate one revolution every 45 seconds. The
ratio of time spent processing to time spent indexing would be 30:15 if a constant speed motor were used,
17. THE WALKING BEAM
Conveyors undoubtedly comprise the majority of linear-transfer devices used today. However,
today's conveyor systems can take on a variety of control characteristics, ranging from simple to
programmable control. Chapter 18 will discuss some of the merit of programmable applications. As a result,
the walking beam transfer device will be illustrated as the linear device of choice. The walking beam is a
reasonably simple device used for the intermittent transfer of parts to stations laid out in a linear manner.
The power drive for the walking beam is typically a pneumatic or hydraulic driven two-stroke piston.
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FIGURE 17.17 Walking beam transfer system, showing various stages during parts transfer cycle.
(Reprinted from [5].)
The walking beam is illustrated in Figure 17.17. As can be seen in the Figure, the piston provides
both the horizontal as well as vertical drive for the system. As such, the drive stroke of the piston must be
greater than the distance that the transfer rail and parts will travel. The action, as seen in the Figure, begins
with withdrawal of the piston. The transfer rail moves backward until the rail makes contact with the back
stop. The rail is then driven up by the walking beams until the rail falls to rest on the forward rest. The
piston then drives the transfer rail forward until the forward stop is impacted. The forward stop inhibits the
forward movement of the transfer rail, driving it back off the beams.
Figure 17.18 shows the geometry of the walking beam. To design a walking beam, the designer normally
begins with the distance between workstations, Dx, and the required lifting height, hz. A walking beam size,
b, is then selected (usually about 10 times the lifting height). From the geometry in the Figure, the
following can be determined
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FIGURE 17.18 A walking beam, with geometric detail.
Dx, = b sin(90 - B) (17.10)
hz = b - b cos(90- B) (17.11)
The minimum and maximum piston stroke can then be computed. The minimum piston stroke
corresponds to the stroke required to lift the beams to a vertical position. This can be expressed as
Smin = Dx + b sin(90 - B) + b sin(90 - a) (17.12)
The maximum piston stroke corresponds to that driven from stop to stop and can be expressed as
Smax= Dx + 2[b sin(90 - B) + b sin(90 - a)] (17.13)
A piston whose stroke falls somewhere between these values is then specified.
The type of hardware selected for any manufacturing system usually depends on many parameters.
The mechanisms described here are simple mechanisms that are frequently used in transfer devices. These
mechanisms can be embellished in many ways to improve their performance. For instance, a Geneva
mechanism will frequently employ a motor and timer. By doing so, the efficiency of the transfer device can
normally be improved. This control adds to the complexity of the system and may or may not be justifiable.
This type of control will be discussed in the next chapter.
17. QUESTIONS
17.1. Briefly describe the benefits of using CAD, of using CAM, and of using CAD/CAM.
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17.2. What are the basic functions that a designer must perform? How can these functions be assisted
using a CAD system?
17.3. What is a Geometric model? What is its role in CAD? How does engineering analysis interface with
the geometric model?
17.4. Create a schematic diagram of an automated assembly system for your version of a lawn-mower
production line. The major components to consider are: the motor, the chassis, the wheels, the
handle, and the fasteners. Assume whatever order you feel is logical.
17. PROBLEMS
17.1. Create a Geneva mechanism for an eight-station automated table. The indexer diameter is set to 22
in. The station cycle time (time required for each operation) is 35 s. Show both your engineering
design and your calculations.
17.2. Create a walking beam mechanism for the system described in Problem 17.1 that will set the
workstations "in-line" rather than in a circle. Space the workstations 2 feet apart.
17.3. Many "fast food" restaurants use a variety of automated devices in the preparation of their
hamburgers. Design a rotary type of system that might be used to make hamburgers. Try to make
some reasonable time estimates of the activities at each station. Your concept should include
approximate dimensions for the workstations.
17.4. Many "service-related" activities involve repeated processing of checks, bills, licences, etc. Describe
a service system that you are familiar with and develop an automation conception for the system. Do
you think that there is an opportunity to apply your design to the system? Why?
17. REFERENCES
1. Groover, M. P.: Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing,
Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J. 1987.
2. AutoCAD Reference Manual, Autodesk, Inc. Sausalito, Calif., 1986.
3. Groover, M. P., and Zimmers, E. W.: CADICAM: Computer-Aided Design and Manufacturing,
Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1984.
4. Chang, T. C., and Wysk, R. A.: An Introduction to Automated Process Planning Systems,
Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1985.
5. Boothroyd, G., and Redford, A. H.: Mechanized Assembly, McGraw-Hill, London, 1968.
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