Renaissance Sculpture (15-16th century) Renaissance art evolved in the city state of Florence under peculiar economic, political

and cultural conditions around 1420 and it appeared North of the Alps in the early 16th century. Hungary constitutes an exception in this respect: Renaissance became firmly enrooted in Hungary due to King Matthias and several bishops with classical education, patrons of art, as early as 1460-70. Apparently, conditions had become suitable to accept the new style: dynastic and cultural contacts of Hungary to Italy had been growing stronger and stronger from the 14th century onwards. Several Italian patrons of art were appointed high ranking ecclesiastical and secular posts from the early 15th century. They arranged for artists to settle down in Hungary who knew new ideas in Florence. King Matthias who first got in touch with Lega crowned cultural contacts by engaging and later marrying Beatrice of Aragona, the daughter of the King of Naples. Later, King Matthias developed close contacts to the Duke of Milan. Political contacts were later made complete by humanism which turned out to be perfect breeding ground for Renaissance art. (Gothic stonework with an inscription in roman letters, deeds of gift and vestments, first motifs of real Renaissance are associated with Albert Vetsi, bishop of Veszprm.) Besides Veszprm, Esztergom, Vc, Pcs and Nagyvrad were episcopal seats where patrons of humanism and Renaissance lived. In addition to Italian prelates, it was King Matthias himself who contributed to the fast spread of Renaissance. It was probably Janus Pannonius, a humanist bishop and poet in Pcs who first drew the attention of Matthias to works of Renaissance and who arranged for the King that Mantegna was entrusted with the task of painting a portrait (unfortunately, it was lost). This was how Matthias established a collection which included pictures by Filippino Lippi, too. The collection was later described by Bonfini, Matthias' historian. The King employed miniature painters, too, as he was an enthusiastic collector of gems. The bust of Matthias and Beatrice indicate his passion for the genre. It was Francesco Bandini, a neo-platonist from Florence who in his capacity of the King's counsellor encouraged Matthias to support Renaissance architecture after his arrival in Hungary in 1476. Matthias who never visited Italy himself was influenced in this respect by the humanists and the tract of Filarete. Sculptures some of which still exist were mainly related to buildings. It is important to note that Hungarian early Renaissance architecture had features different from European Renaissance architecture North of the Alps: classicising Renaissance following Italian art (all' antica) appeared in Hungary relatively early. What makes it even more remarkable is that Gothic architecture was the prevailing the style in Hungary at the time, just like in other countries of Europe. Size and dimensions of buildings make it very unlikely that early Renaissance works involved only Italian masters although documents mention that a group of Italian and Dalmatian artists worked in Hungary. In their capacity of architects and stone cutters, they were probably appointed to direct the work of Hungarian master builders and marble cutters. It was Chimenti Camicia, an inlay maker from Florence who drew ground plans of Royal buildings. Vasari mentioned his name as an architect. Besides Renaissance fragments of buildings, several excellent statues are listed below which have survived the centuries. The most valuable statues of the Royal Palaces in Buda and Visegrd were probably bronze statues. Life size statues of Herakles, Jnos, Lszl and Mtys Hunyadi (King Matthias) were modelled and cast in Buda. The Madonna of Visegrd, a beautiful statue in the palace, is thought to have been created by the Master of Marble Madonnas. The Madonna of Disgy r and a fountain involving Herakles, a child riding on Hydra, made of red marble, were the works of Giovanni Dalmata who was in charge of marble cutters in Buda. Buildings started by Matthias were continued by Wladislas (of Jagello) II who succeeded him on the throne. He built residences in Nyk which represented a continuous transition to the evolution of the Renaissance in Transdanubia which is best exemplified by fragments found during excavations in the Castle of Nagyvzsony around 1500. The first completely Renaissance ecclesiastical building was the Chapel of Bakcz. It was Tams Bakcz, Archbishop of Esztergom, who laid the foundations of the building in 1506. The Chapel followed a new pattern, i.e. that of a central type which was worked out experimentally by Brunelleschi in Florence. Sculptures in the Chapel are closely related to the tabernacle of the City Church (Belvrosi Templom), Buda, and the monstrance in the Church of Egyhzasgerge in style. The tabernacle of Gyrgy Szathmry (Cathedral, Pcs) represents a more mature style. The style introduced to Hungary by Italian masters prevailed in workshops of red marble cutters in the 16th century and became more and more popular in the country (e.g. Sikls, Mez keszi, Nyirbtor, and Gyulafehrvr). One of the most beautiful works from the period is the Bthory Madonna (1526). The period following the Mohcs Disaster was richer in fortresses (the reconstruction of the castle Mrvr reflects Renaissance taste). The centre of secular Renaissance architecture was Kolozsvr at the time as indicated by carvings in the Wolphard House (1534-36) and the door of the sacristy in the St. Michael Church (1532). One of the most excellent examples for Renaissance in the North is the flat-stone of the epitaph in Nyitra which shows Christ's farewell from his mother (1520-30). After the death of Szapolyai in 1540, Gyrgy Martinuzzi continued building fortresses. Frames around openings are best related to the works of stone cutters in Kolozsvr. Tombs In the case of tombs, Gothic was still present for a long time. Jnos Vitz, a humanist ( 1472) who according to Bonfini had his palace decorated with a Renaissance arcade, commissioned masters the create him a tomb in Gothic. Tombs of Imre Szapolyai, palatine (1487), and Istvn Szapolyai (1499) were arranged in Gothic style but they showed elements of Renaissance, too. The earliest Renaissance tomb was that of Bernardino Monelli, Beatrice's Lord Chief Treasurer ( 1496). Changes of style took place slowly in the age of Jagello: traditional heraldry and figures appeared in archaising elements and illusionistic compositions. Their early groups are associated with Esztergom. The tomb stone of Blint Bakcz (around 1497-98) with a standing figure indicates that the family already supported art in the Renaissance period. Flat tombstones involving figures with coats-of-arms or simply lying were works of Hungarian masters. Renaissance very often portrayed the deceased in a more realistic way. The 16th century was particularly rich in tombstones of several new types (e.g. monuments with columns where the figure of the deceased is standing or kneeling).

One of the most beautiful tombs with a statue was that of Jnos Pisendorfi Rueber, captain-general from Kassa: the statue which anticipated tombs of the 17th century reflected the influence of German Renaissance. History of Sculpture Ancient Times Sculpture as an art form goes back to Prehistoric times. Most Stone Age statuettes were made of ivory or soft stone, however some clay human and animal figures have been found. Small female statues known as Venus figurines have been found mainly in central Europe. The Venus of Willendorf (30,000 - 25,000 BC), from the area of Willendorf, Austria, is a well-known example. Later, in the Near East, (the area between the Tigris and the Euphrates Rivers), the Sumerian, Akkadian, and Babylonian kingdoms flourished. Materials used for sculpture during this time included basalt, diorite (a type of dark, coarse-grained stone), sandstone, and alabaster. Copper, gold, silver, shells, and a variety of precious stones were used for high quality sculpture and inlays. Clay was used for pottery and terra cotta sculpture. Stone was generally rare and had to be imported from other locations. Sculptures from the Sumerian and Akkadian period generally had large, staring eyes, and long beards on the men. Votive stone sculptures of this type from 2700 BC were discovered at Tell Asmar. Many masterpieces have also been found at the Royal Cemetery at Ur (2650 BC). Among them are a wooden harp with gold and mosaic inlay with a black-bearded golden bull's head. Sculpture in Babylonian Times The history of the Babylonian period is considered to begin with the reign of Hammurabi, in 1750 BC. Hammurabi was famous for his code of law. A bearded head, made of diorite, is believed to represent Hammurabi. The head has the wide open eyes, typical of the time period. Also well-known is the lamassu, a human-headed winged lion from 883-859 BC. A unique feature of this piece is that it is carved with five legs, so that it can have four legs visible if viewed from the side. The piece was excavated at Nimrud (in northern Mesopotamia), and was donated to the New York Metropolitan Museum of Art by John D. Rockefeller, Jr. in 1932. Sculpture in Ancient Egypt One of the earliest examples of Egyptian sculpture is the Palette of King Narmer, from 3100 BC. The palette, which was used for mixing eye make-up, was carved in relief, and portrayed the victory of Upper Egypt over Lower Egypt. The Sphinxes are another form of Egyptian sculpture. The Sphinxes were statues of deities with the body of a lion and the head of an animal or a man, often made to look like the Pharaoh. The most famous is the Great Sphinx of Giza, located near the pyramids. It is about 60 feet high and 240 feet long, and was built in 2500 BC. Another example of Egyptian sculpture are the statues of the Pharaoh Akhenaton and his Queen, Nefertiti (1350 BC). The statues are carved from limestone and are painted. There is also a very famous statue of Nefertiti from the same time period. These are only a few of the many sculptures produced in ancient Egypt. Many sculptures can now be seen at the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. Aegean Sculpture Aegean civilization covers the time period of 3000-1200 BC, during the Bronze Age, in the area of the Aegean Sea. The Aegean civilization can be broken down into three main divisions, the Cycladic, the Minoan and the Mycenaean. The Cycladic culture developed on the Cycladic Islands, a group of islands in the Aegean Sea, southeast of Athens. Cycladic culture developed pottery, often decorated with rectangular, circular, or spiral designs. They also produced silver jewelry. Characteristic of their sculpture are marble sculptures of the human figure ranging from a few inches in size to life-size. The figures are usually nude females with their arms crossed over their abdomen. Other sculptures included seated or standing musicians. Examples of sculptures of musicians include a seated lyre player from 2000 BC. Statues of a lute player and a harpist were found together in a single grave on Keros, dating from 2700 - 2750 BC. The Minoan culture developed mainly on Crete, especially at Knossos and Phaistos. The civilization was named after King Minos and reached its peak in the second millennium BC. Minoan sculpture consists mainly of a few statuettes and carved semi-precious stone seals. One of the most well-known sculptures is that of a snake goddess, of a goddess holding a snake in each hand, from Knossos, 1600 BC. Bulls were also depicted in both paintings and sculptures of Minoan times. A rhyton (drinking horn) in the shape of a bull was found in Knossos from 1500-1450 BC. In addition, there are many double-bladed axes, called "labrys", probably related to sacrifice. Some of the axes are taller than an adult. The Mycenaen culture flourished in the late Bronze Age, on the mainland of Greece. According to legend, it was the Greeks of Mycenae under King Agamemnon that fought the Trojan War. The Mycenaeans adorned their architecture with relief carvings. A relief is a design or scene that is carved into a flat area, so it is like a three dimensional picture. A famous example of this is the Lion Gate in the outer wall of the Palace of Mycenae (14th & 15th centuries BC). Above the lintel (top of the doorway), two lions are carved to fit into a triangular shape. The Mycenaeans also produced funeral masks. A famous example is a gold mask found in the royal tombs of Mycenae from ca. 1500 BC. Also found in a tomb were gold cups from Vaphio, with bulls portrayed in relief. Sculpture of Ancient Rome Ancient Roman sculpture was inspired by the sculpture of ancient Greece. The Romans admired Greek art and tended to copy the Greek style. Ancient Roman sculpture can be divided into different types: 1. Relief - shallow three dimensional carvings on flat surfaces, used for architectural works such as columns, arches and Temples. An example of this type of sculpture would be the Ara Pacis (Altar of Peace)from 13 - 9 B.C. The Ara Pacis was a momument to the Rax Romana (The Roman Peace), 200 years of peace and prosperity ushered in by Emperor Augustus. Another example of relief sculpture would be Trajan's column, dating from 106 - 113 A.D. adorned with scenes of Trajan's battles in a continuous spiral around the column. 2. Funeral reliefs - Many of the more well-to-do Romans had elaborate coffins called sarcophagi (singular - sarcophagus), adorned with elaborate carvings. Popular subjects includes scenes of the gods, battle scenes or marriage. 3. Free standing sculpture - such as statues. An example would be the Equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius (Marcus Aurelius on a horse), dating from 161 - 180 A.D. Common locations for statues were in the temples, the public baths or the city Forum (the social and commercial center of the town).

4. Portrait sculpture - often busts of famous Romans. Subjects for these sculptures would include the gods, generals and emperors. The portrait statues were usually very detailed and realistic, however, one well known example was the bust of Emperor Constantine, which seemed to be idealized and meant to convey strength and power. History of Sculpture This article traces the history of Western sculpture from prehistoric times to the present day; for non-Western sculpture, see African Art; Chinese Art; Indian Art; Iranian Art; Islamic Art; Japanese Art; Korean Art; Oceanian Art; Pre-Columbian. A. PrehistoricSculpture Venus of Willendorf This so-called Venus figurine from the area of Willendorf, Austria, is one of the earliest known examples of sculpture, dating from between 30,000 and 25,000 bc. The figure, which is carved out of limestone, is only 11.25 cm (4.5 in) high, and was probably designed to be held in the hand. It is believed the Venus may be a fertility symbol, which would explain the exaggerated female anatomy. The earliest sculptured objects, cut from ivory, horn, bone, or stone, are 27,000 to 32,000 years old. A small ivory horse with graceful, curving lines is among the oldest of these objects; it was found in a cave in Germany. Also found on cave floors are little stone female figurines carved with emphasis on the reproductive organs, the breasts, and the buttocks. These figures are thought to represent fertility goddesses and therefore are given the name Venus. One such figure, the Venus figurine from the area of Willendorf, Austria (30,000?25,000? bc, Naturhistorisches Museum, Vienna, Austria), with bulbous proportions although a mere 11.5 cm (4.5 in) high, was painted red to resemble blood, thereby signifying life. In Jericho, human skulls covered with plaster were naturalistically rendered some 9000 years ago. B. EgyptianSculpture Akhenaton and Nefertiti This painted limestone statuette depicts King Akhenaton and Queen Nefertiti, rulers of Egypt during the Amarna period. During this period, the Egyptians worshiped one god, Aton,... who embodied both the male and female principles of the universe. Artists therefore portrayed Akhenaton, who was the representative of Aton on earth, with characteristics they regarded as feminine, such as narrow shoulders, a high waist, and pronounced belly, buttocks, and thighs.Bridgeman Art Library, London/New York

Among the oldest Egyptian sculptures is a piece of slate carved in low relief, known as the Palette of King Narmer (3100? bc), Egyptian Museum, Cairo). It portrays the victory of Upper over Lower Egypt, depicting the kings, armies, servants, and various animals. The kings (pharaohs) were also commemorated in magnificent life-size statues, set in funerary temples and tombs (see Egyptian Art and Architecture). Not true portraits, these sculptures are idealized representations, immobile of features and always frontal in pose. Strong geometric emphasis was given to the body, with the shoulders and chest plane resembling an inverted triangle, as in a carved diorite sculpture (2500? bc, Egyptian Museum) of the pharaoh Khafre. During the reign of Akhenaton, greater naturalism of representation was attained, as seen in the exquisite painted limestone portrait bust (1350? bc, Staatliche Museen, Berlin) of his queen Nefertiti. C. MesopotamianSculpture Art of Sculpture Revitalized Mesopotamian art includes several civilizations: Sumerian, Akkadian, Babylonian, and Assyrian (see Mesopotamian Art and Architecture). About 2600 bc the Sumerians carved small marble deities noted for their wide, staring eyes. Other detailshair, facial expression, body, clothingwere schematically treated with little interest in achieving a likeness. These qualities remained characteristic of later Mesopotamian sculpture. The Mesopotamians were also fond of portraying animals and did so with great skill, as can be seen on palace gates and reliefs on walls during the Assyrian period (1000-612 bc, examples in British Museum, London, and Metropolitan Museum, New York City). D. Aegean and Greek Sculpture Nike of Samothrace Nike of Samothrace (also known as Winged Victory), created about 200 bc, is one of the most famous Greek sculptures from the Hellenistic period. The marble statue, which stands about 2.4 m (about 8 ft) high, was originally part of a much larger monument that featured a large sculpture of a warship with the goddess of victory on the prow. The monument also included a two-tiered fountain. Formerly located on the island of Samothrki (Samothrace), the sculpture is now part of the collection of the Louvre Museum, Paris, France.Giraudon/Bridgeman Art Library, London/New York Aegean art includes Minoan sculpture, such as terra-cotta and ivory statuettes of goddesses, and Mycenaean works, consisting of small carved ivory deities. The Greeks, masters of stone carving and bronze casting, created some of the greatest sculpture known. Working on a monumental scale, they brought depiction of the human form to perfection between the 7th and 1st centuries bc. In the earliest period, the Archaic, figures appeared rigid and bodies were schematized along geometric lines, as in Egyptian art. By the Classical period, in the 5th and 4th centuries bc, however, naturalism was attained; figures were well proportioned and shown in movement, although faces remained immobile. Gods and athletes were favorite subjects during this period; the most famous sculptors were Phidias, Polyclitus, Praxiteles, and Lysippus. Highly esteemed is the architectural sculpture made for the Parthenon on the Acropolis in Athens, such as Three Goddesses (British Museum), whose rhythmically swirling drapery clings to their reclining bodies. During the Hellenistic period (4th-1st century bc), works became increasingly expressive, as reflected in the facial features and complicated body positions. The Nike of Samothrki, or Winged Victory (190? bc, Louvre, Paris), is a highly dramatic masterpiece from this time. See Aegean Civilization; Greek Art and Architecture. E. Etruscan and Roman Sculpture

She-Wolf of the Capitol Although She-Wolf of the Capitol (circa 500 bc) is actually an Etruscan sculpture, it is associated with Roman art. The bronze statue, which stands 85 cm (33 in) high, is the symbol of the city of Rome. The mythological Romulus and Remus were supposed to

have been kept alive by a wolf in order to fulfill their destiny as founders of the city. The figures of the infants were created during the Renaissance, but the wolf is Etruscan.Capitoline Museums, Rome/Canali PhotoBank, Milan/SuperStock The Etruscans, who inhabited the area of Italy between Florence and Rome from the 8th to the 3rd century bc, made life-size terra-cotta sculptures portraying the gods; they also depicted themselves, in reclining positions, on the lids of terra-cotta sarcophagi (coffins). Superb bronze sculptures were also created, such as the She-Wolf (500? bc, Museo Capitolino, Rome), which became the symbol of Rome. Greek Artists Represent the Human Figure

The Romans were avid collectors and imitators of Greek sculpture, and modern historians are indebted to their copies for knowledge of lost Greek originals. Their distinctive contribution to the art of sculpture was realistic portraiture, in which they recorded even the homeliest facial details. The Romans' sense of the importance of historic events is evident in many sculptured commemorative monuments in Rome, such as the Arch of Titus (ad 81?), Trajan's Column (106?-113 AD), and the equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius (175?); the last- named became the prototype for most later equestrian sculptures.