The New Lithology Database

3 The new lithology database : Global view
3.1
Introduction................................................................................................................................ 52
3.2 Material and sources, existing global lithology / geology data............................................... 55 3.2.1 Existing lithology maps........................................................................................................... 55 3.2.2 Geology maps ......................................................................................................................... 59 3.2.3 Major sources used for the compilation of our map................................................................ 60 3.2.4 Conceptual problems and methodological remarks ................................................................ 62 3.2.5 Some problems of rock classification applied to hydrological fluxes..................................... 65 3.3 The new global lithology map for hydrological purposes....................................................... 75 3.3.1 Generalities ............................................................................................................................. 75 3.3.2 Lithological classification adopted for our map...................................................................... 76 3.3.2.1 Water bodies (Wb) and ice (Ig) ..................................................................................... 79 3.3.2.2 Generalities on magmatic rocks..................................................................................... 79 3.3.2.3 Basic-ultrabasic Plutonic rocks (Pb).............................................................................. 80 3.3.2.4 Acid Plutonic rocks (Pa)................................................................................................ 82 3.3.2.5 Basic Volcanic rocks (Vb)............................................................................................. 83 3.3.2.6 Acid Volcanic rocks (Va) .............................................................................................. 85 3.3.2.7 Shield (Precambrian) rocks (Pr) .................................................................................... 86 3.3.2.8 Metamorphic rocks (Mt)................................................................................................ 88 3.3.2.9 Complex lithology (Cl).................................................................................................. 89 3.3.2.10 Generalities on sedimentary rocks................................................................................. 90 3.3.2.11 Silici-clastic sedimentary rocks (Ss), consolidated..................................................... 92 3.3.2.12 Mixed siliciclastic carbonate sedimentary rocks (Sm), consolidated ...................... 95 3.3.2.13 Carbonate rocks (Sc), consolidated ............................................................................ 96 3.3.2.14 Evaporites (Ep) .............................................................................................................. 99 3.3.2.15 Semi- to unconsolidated sedimentary rocks (Su) ........................................................ 104 3.3.2.16 Alluvial deposits (Ad) ................................................................................................. 105 3.3.2.17 Loess (Lo).................................................................................................................... 106 3.3.2.18 Dunes and shifting sand (Ds)....................................................................................... 109 3.4 Global distribution of lithology, as seen on our new map .................................................... 110 3.4.1 Joint geologic features, common for all continents............................................................... 110 3.4.2 Global rock distribution characteristics................................................................................. 111 3.4.3 Latitudinal distribution of lithology on our new map ........................................................... 119 3.5 3.6 3.7 Comparison with existing global lithology maps .................................................................. 127 Error estimation....................................................................................................................... 129 Conclusions............................................................................................................................... 131
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3.1
Introduction
Fundamental for the organisation of river material fluxes on the continental area, and likewise for the typologies we try to achieve, is the bedrock as source for the material transported by water, as described briefly in the general introduction (chapter 1) (see also Figure 3-1). Thus we need to know the lithological and geological composition of the Earths continental surface. This major required database is not available in sufficiently exact detail and subdivision for our hydrological purposes and we have therefore made a new attempt in designing such a map in digital format. In this chapter we will describe our new global lithology map for hydrological purposes and discuss the following items (as far as not already explained) a) the general use of global lithology and geological data, with their inherent problems : - e.g. geological maps show sediments and sedimentary rocks not according to their lithologic nature but ordered chronologically ; why a new lithologic map for hydrological purposes is needed, which sources and concepts have been used ; major problems connected with lithology as a tool for hydrology ; the attributes of our lithological map ; the global distribution of lithology, as seen on our new map ; some results, comparisons with existing data, and problems.
b) c) d) e) f)
The process and successive steps of the conceptualisation of the new map are summarised in Figure 3-1. We first examined existing works on the lithological composition of the Earths crust as well as previous attempts in designing global lithologies. None of the existing prior studies that were done in digital form fulfil all our requirements for a map tool for hydrological purposes. The new approach should be able to distinguish the most important rock types, with regard to hydrologic questions. These are acid and basic plutonic rocks, acid and basic volcanic rocks, Precambrian shield rocks, metamorphic rocks, complex rocks in folded mountain belts, summarising called hard rocks, and furthermore the wide range of sedimentary rocks also called soft rocks. Within these, different types of consolidated rocks (from evaporites and more or less pure carbonate rocks to silici-clastic rocks) should be differentiated from incompletely or non-consolidated rocks, which are mostly of geologically young age. Our final map shows 15 distinct rock classes.
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3.1 Introduction
Silica DIC
Volcanics Mixed Lithologies Sandst. Metam. Rocks Gneiss Migmatite
Pyrite
DIC, Ca++, Mg++ TDS TSS

Loess
Shales
Dunes
Evap.
Carbonates
Ocean
Plutonics
Shelf Sea
Gneiss Granite Schists
Active orogen s.str. Active Margin
Precambrian Basement Stable Shield
Rifted Margin Passive Margin
Towards a new global map of surface lithologies important for hydrological purposes :
Examination of previous works
Reasons why existing works not useable Decision: new attempt of a digital lithologic map of the world
for our specific (limited) purposes
Base map: Digital geological world map (UNESCO, 1:25.000.000, Dottin et al. 1990), digitised at UNH; corrected and refined by Drr et al.
Rock types to be distinguished: Precambrian (Shields), complex (mountain belts), plutonic and metamorphic, volcanic, different sedimentary
Material and sources used for creating the new map (detailed maps, digital data, books, articles etc.)
Correction tools
(data, books, maps etc. )
Digital lithologic world map
Figure 3-1 : Overview of different lithologies to distinguish on a global map for hydrological purposes. Some examples of lithologies important for river fluxes : Volcanics : release of silica, dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) pump ; Shales : important for suspended sediments due to low resistance to mechanical weathering (pyrite occurrences) ; Evaporites : important salt releases (total dissolved solids = TDS) ; Carbonates : net release of DIC, Ca++, Mg++ ; Loess : important for suspended sediment fluxes (total suspended sediments = TSS) (low resistance to mechanical weathering). Conceptualisation process of the Lithologic World Map for hydrologic purposes.
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As base map we used the UNESCO Geological map of the world (DOTTIN et al. 1990), digitised at the University of New Hampshire. Detailed geological maps and other digital data as well as many books, articles and other sources have been used to define the rock class limits on the map. The references have been cross-checked and used as a correction tool not only for our map but also for the base map where major discrepancies arose with detailed regional data.
The fundamentals of genesis and recycling of rocks, and the role of water, as well as the general reasons to establish a new digital lithologic world map for hydrological purposes, have been explained in the general introduction (chapter 1). In this chapter, the role of water on the choice of the different lithology classes will be explained, and some results will be presented, concerning the global distribution of lithologies on our map. The patterns of distribution of the different lithologies on the different continents will be detailed in chapter 4. Coupling of the newly obtained lithology data with other data as relief, climate indicators, runoff etc. will be described and discussed in chapters 5 and 6. The basics of our approach, i.e. conventional / classical geology and lithology with the basic understandings of natural rock classifications in mineralogy-petrology, are explained in Annexe I.
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3.2 Material and sources, existing global lithology / geology data
3.2
Material and sources, existing global lithology / geology data
In order to create a new Lithological World Map we tried to incorporate as much information as available and possible in the time and work frame of our study from existing lithology maps, but furthermore had to use and translate existing geological maps.
3.2.1 Existing lithology maps

There are only a few global lithology maps, even fewer in digital format and they were not all available for us at the start of our study. All these maps did not match our requirements of a detailed lithology map (see general introduction, chapter 1). Existing maps include the digital lithologic map by AMIOTTE-SUCHET (1994), GIBBS & KUMP (1994), the UNESCO map of Hydrogeological conditions and groundwater flow (DZHAMALOV et al. 1999), lithological maps coming on paper with the FAO soil map (FAO-Unesco 1975) as well as the studies on proportions of exposed rocks by RONOV and coworkers (RONOV 1972 and 1976, RONOV & YAROSHEVSKIY 1976) or BLATT & JONES (1975). For better comparability the existing maps and their key characteristics have been listed in Table 3-1.
The work by GIBBS & KUMP (1994) is based on the map by BLUTH & KUMP (1991) which is itself derived from works by RONOV and coworkers (KHAIN et al. 1975 and 1979, RONOV & KHAIN 1961 and 1962, RONOV et al. 1978, 1980, 1983, 1984 and 1989) ; it has been refined by the authors using the UNESCO Geological Atlas of the World (CHOUBERT et al. 1980). BLUTH & KUMP (1991) reconstructed the global distribution of major rock types at 2 x 2 resolution, i.e. about 200 x 200 km at the equator, by an iterative procedure based on global paleo-geographic maps. Their results clearly underestimate the surface occurrences of shield rocks and overestimate the detrital sedimentary rocks (AMIOTTE-SUCHET 1994). Furthermore the resolution of 2 x 2 is not adequate for detailed river basin studies. Nonetheless we derived from this map the idea to develop a lithology class of complex rocks occurring in the inner part of mountain ranges.
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Table 3-1 : Existing lithology maps, their usefulness, availability and other characteristics.
Reference Type of map Format Subdivision / Detail 6 rock types : Carbonates, Shales, Sandstones, 2 x 2 grid Extrusive Igneous cells Rocks, Shields, Complex Lithology 6 rock types : Sandstones, Carbonates, Shales, Plutonic 1 x 1 grid and Metamorphic cells Rocks, Acid Volcanic Rocks, Basalts 4 principle types of groundwater Varying by flow media : latitude sedimentogenic between pore, 1 : 3 000 000 sedimentogenic and fracture, karst, 1 : 12 000 000 magmatogenic metamorphogenic Scale Varying Varying Varying on each map, common classes comprise unconsolidated sediments in several classes, Loess, shifting sand, Consolidated clastic sediments, Consolidated Carbonates, Metamorphic rocks, Acid and Basic intrusive and extrusive rocks Reliability OK for some parts, not enough detail for many others, major differences to other maps Based on the rather coarse and unreliable Lithology maps by FAO-Unesco Availability Remarks Scale too coarse, has been used for comparative studies, class subdivision not sufficient
GIBBS & KUMP 1994
Map of global lithology for 18 ka and the present day
Digital
Has been made available to us
AMIOTTESUCHET 1994, published by AMIOTTESUCHET et al. 2003 Global lithology map Digital
Available too late in digital format to be used in our study
Scale too coarse, class subdivision not sufficient Only 4 types of rock distinguished, often large areas depicted as mixtures of different rock types Useful for comparisons
DZHAMALOV et al. 1999
UNESCO Map of Hydrogeological Conditions and Groundwater Flow
Digital
Scale rather coarse, major discrepancies with other sources
Available on CDROM, usability difficult
RONOV and coworkers, BLATT & JONES 1975
Proportions of exposed rocks
Percentages of rock outcrop
Some data used as Available as reference data articles throughout the literature Restricted for Asia (the whole continent on 1 sheet of paper), seems good for Australia, South America, Insulinde (even if scale very coarse) Maps only on paper, map for North America not available to us, for Europe only map on Quaternary Sediments available
FAO-Unesco 1975
Lithology maps for the continents
Paper
Varying between 1 : 20 000 000 and 1 : 40 000 000, mostly one continent on one sheet of paper (A4 format)
Can be used as a first attempt
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The work by AMIOTTE-SUCHET (1994) is based on the lithological maps from FAOUnesco (1975). It is targeted on CO2 consumption by chemical erosion and the global carbon cycle in general. It has a 1 x 1 resolution and 6 major rock types are distinguished (Sandstones, Carbonate rocks, Shales, Plutonic and Metamorphic rocks, Volcanic Acid and Volcanic Basic rocks). The map is in good agreement with global values found by BLATT & JONES (1975) and MEYBECK (1987), the Canadian and Scandinavian shield rocks as well as the South American and African shields are for example well represented. Nonetheless, the subdivision seems not enough detailed for our purposes targeted on global denudation, the resolution only allows for analysis on major river basins and the map is based on the to our eyes inadequate FAO-Unesco (1975) lithological maps. Furthermore this map was not available for us in digital format at the time of our study and has only been published recently (AMIOTTE-SUCHET et al. 2003). The work by DZHAMALOV et al. (1999) is a map of hydrogeological conditions and groundwater flow of the Earth at scales varying by latitudes. It is designed to provide information on some practical problems as the determination of groundwater flow and natural groundwater resources as well as groundwater recharge amounts, the underground component of river runoff and the value of groundwater discharge to rivers and oceans. Four principal types of groundwater flow media are represented : sedimentogenic pore, sedimentogenic fracture, karst and magmatogenic metamorphogenic. The map is available in digital format but limited in its usability for our purposes. The scale is rather coarse and major discrepancies exist with other sources. As the map was principally compiled by Russian scientists we assume the map to be rather faithful for most parts of the former USSR but to have possible errors in regions like North and South America and others. Additionally the restriction to 4 types of media limits the use of the map for our purposes. Furthermore these types are often not well distinguished and many regions are represented as mixtures of 2 or more of the media. The results prepared by RONOV and coworkers (RONOV 1972 and 1976, RONOV & YAROSHEVSKIY 1976) and BLATT & JONES (1975) give proportions of exposed rocks as percentages of rock outcrop. The values presented in these works are still used as reference data throughout the literature and are thus also useful for us for comparison purposes. Other classic studies like the work by GARRELS & MACKENZIE (1969) present rock types (here only sedimentary) in relative proportions as a function of geological time. The lithological maps by FAO-Unesco (1975) accompany maps with the soil map of the world (FAO-Unesco 1975). They present lithologies for each of the continents at varying but all very coarse scale. Mostly one continent is represented on one sheet (A4 format) of paper so the usability for example for the South East Asian islands region represented on one map may still be satisfactory but the generalisations made for example for Russia and other major parts of Asia are not acceptable for our study. The rock type classification varies from map to map, common classes comprise unconsolidated sediments in several classes (e.g. loess, shifting sand) ; 57
consolidated clastic sediments, consolidated carbonates, metamorphic rocks, acid and basic intrusive and extrusive rocks are distinguished as well. The rock type classification seems useful for our kind of studies, but the generalisation level limits the attainable level of detail to continent-wide approaches. Furthermore the map is not available in digital format, the map for North America has not been available for us and for Europe only a map containing Quaternary sediment delimitations has been accessible. For a general description of the soil map see chapter 2.3.3. Some works on global geomorphology (e.g. SNEAD 1980, SUMMERFIELD 1991 and 2000) as well as works on the natural regions of the globe (e.g. BIROT 1970) include information and maps on lithology but are mostly not available in digital format. The map, presented in the work by SNEAD (1980), distinguishes 6 different rock types (ancient metamorphic and associated intrusive igneous rocks, well-consolidated sedimentary rocks, weakly-consolidated or unconsolidated sedimentary rocks, recent alluvium, extrusive igneous rocks fine-grained ashy or glassy, mixed or intermingled rock types mainly areas of complex folds and faults). The very general scale (about 1 : 100 000 000) only allows for very general appreciations, rock types important for hydrology, like carbonates or loess, are not distinguished. Global geomorphology works giving lithological information are either very general, e.g. the map of the global distribution of major loess occurrences in SUMMERFIELD (1991), or focused on distinct small regions particularly illustrating general patterns, supposedly well know to the author, e.g. information on New Zealand, the Japanese islands and Tibet in SUMMERFIELD (1991) or on the Andes in SUMMERFIELD (2000). BIROTs (1970) regional geologic and lithologic descriptions are very helpful but mostly only local vertical sections are presented. The continental maps in his work tend to be very general and are difficult to translate for our purposes. The European Soil Database (EUROPEAN SOIL BUREAU 1998), in addition to its main feature, the soil types, contains information on the underlying bedrock. 128 different rock types, similar to the classifications used by the FAO lithological maps (FAO-Unesco 1975), GIBBS & KUMP (1994), AMIOTTE-SUCHET et al. (2003) or in our study, but in greater detail, are distinguished. The database is at 1 : 1 000 000 and is the resulting product of a collaborative project involving all the European Union and neighbouring countries ; it is aimed to provide harmonised coverage of soil types and descriptions in the participating countries at resolutions compatible with the map scale. The methodology and terminology follows the FAO-Unesco (1975) Soil Map of the World. It can be used for soil spatial data query, extraction and thematic mapping, soil spatial data layer input to agro-environmental models, e.g. soil erosion risk, yield forecasting etc.. The database is not freely distributed and only late during our study the part on France has been available for us ; it could thus only been used for limited verification purposes. But in general this type of map would be required at global scale for the type of studies our map 58
is aimed for possibly at various generalisation levels following the scale used in a particular study.
Conclusions on available lithology maps In conclusion we can state that some of the global lithologic maps and works on lithology are useful for various general purposes but not detailed enough (e.g. SNEAD 1980), some are very detailed for special regions with good descriptions but difficult to use for our purposes (e.g. BIROT 1970), some are not available as one would wish (e.g. EUROPEAN SOIL BUREAU 1998). Nonetheless the information contained in these sources combined is very helpful for the design of our new map, and some material has been used as a starting point for our study (e.g. the FAO lithological maps, FAO-Unesco 1975) or to derive the idea to use a class of complex lithology for mixed rock types mainly in areas of complex folds and mountain regions (SNEAD 1980, GIBBS & KUMP 1994). When trying to achieve global sediment transport models with correlation attempts at 2 x 2 or 1 x 1 scale with maps as uncertain as e.g. the FAO lithological maps (FAO-Unesco 1975) or the GIBBS & KUMP (1994) lithology map, the results can generally only put into evidence the most important factors controlling river chemistry as there are the amount of water available, that is runoff, and the relief.
3.2.2 Geology maps

Because available lithologic maps, for the reasons just discussed, are not sufficiently detailed for our purposes, we had to rely essentially on global geologic maps. Most of the available geological world maps (scale 1 : 40 000 000 and smaller) are too coarse, i.e. they dont show enough detail. For our purposes we could use the UNESCO Geologic Map of the World (4 sheets, at 1 : 25 000 000, DOTTIN et al. 1990). This map is not commercially available in digital form, it has been digitised by our colleagues from the Water Systems Analysis Group at the University of New Hampshire (Durham, USA) and kindly made available to us within the framework of existing collaboration between their institution and our Paris research group. The smallest reasonable resolution to use this map is about 10 x 10 km, the smallest polygon length being around 7 km. Jointly we decided to use this digitised geological world map as base map for our purposes.
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3.2.3 Major sources used for the compilation of our map

The necessary process of translating geology into hydrologically useful lithology was coupled with a considerable amount of geometric and geologic-lithologic corrections polygons partly or totally not matching the occurrences as shown on other reliable maps (mostly geological maps at finer scale). Many refinements have been done : a considerable number of polygons has been shape-corrected and adjusted to match finer maps, other polygons have been subdivided to add necessary detail or have been newly added. From the initial ~7600 polygons digitised from the Geological World Map, we have now arrived at a map containing about 8300 polygons. Substantial polygon modifications have been made for example for New Zealand and Taiwan where the design of the Geological World Map contradicted to strongly with more detailed maps, these regions have thus been designed completely new. The modifications will be listed in detail in Annexe I. Some fundamental new lithology subdivisions were introduced namely to separate magmatic, plutonic as well as volcanic rocks according to their chemistry and vulnerability by weathering and some comprehensive classes added for regions with widely different rocks intimately mixed due to tectonic-orogenic (mountain-building) processes. The principal sources of information for our new approach are listed in Table 3-2. Corrections and refinements were mainly drawn from the UNESCO Geological Atlas of the World (at 1 : 10 000 000 scale, 22 sheets, CHOUBERT et al. 1980). Additionally we used individual geological maps of the different continents (at 1 : 5 000 000 scale or finer) as well as selected geological treatises, hand-books, and articles, concerning general aspects of Earths evolution and history, the regional geology of the continents and certain interesting regions (e.g. the Andes), or special rock classes e.g. carbonates, loess, evaporites etc. (for references see the concerning sections). Some personal communications were also helpful in the process. These different sources are of unequal quality, most of them being compilations themselves and not primary sources. We tried to trust only on reliable information but were not always able to discern such from erroneous statements especially those from poorly known fields of interest.
The general problems, specific difficulties and solutions or decisions adopted are treated with the necessary detail in chapter 3.3.2. The concepts and the specific methodology to create our new map are detailed in the following sections.
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Table 3-2 : Major available sources, used for the compilation of our map. Map
UNESCO Geological Map of the World UNESCO Geological Atlas of the World
Date
1990
Reference
DOTTIN et al. CHOUBERT et al.
Resolution / Scale
1 : 25 000 000
Layers Digitised by
1 4 sheets 1 22 sheets Several layers with varying detail UNH Unpublished
Used for
Digital base for our new map
1980
1 : 10 000 000
Partly by Hans Drr, directly Main decision tool for map refinements included into our map FAO Unesco Salt occurrences, Dunes and Shifting Sand occurrences, refinements on alluvium
FAO Soil Map of the World
1975
FAO Unesco
1 : 5 000 000 ; available as Digital Map
FAO Lithological Maps
1975
FAO Unesco
between 1 : 20 000 000 and 1 : 40 000 000)
1 as small maps
First approach for lithology classes Partly by Hans subdivision, first Drr, directly attempt of assigning included into lithology to polygons our map not already described in the Geological World Map Overall comparisons ; assignments for regions where no other information available Carbonate and Loess assignments for China
UNESCO World Map of Hydrogeological Conditions Map of Soluble Rocks of China
1999
DZHAMALOV et al.
Digital Map
UNESCO
1985
DATONG et al.
1 : 4 000 000
Partly by HD, dir. incl. into our map
World Map of Carbonate outcrops
1989
FORD & WILLIAMS
1 : 100 000 000
Carbonate Partly by HD, assignments where no dir. incl. into other information our map available, comparisons GIBBS & KUMP 1994 Idea to introduce rock class of complex lithology in fold belts, verifications and comparisons Detailed regional assignments
GIBBS & KUMP lithological map
1994
GIBBS & KUMP 1994
Digital Map, 2 x 2 resolution
Miscellaneous references : Various Fairbridge, Regional Maps,
Various
Varying
Partly by HD, dir. incl. into our map
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3.2.4 Conceptual problems and methodological remarks

The process of constructing the new Lithology World map for hydrological purposes is summarised in Figure 3-2 and will be detailed in the following sections.
A primordial problem concerned the choice of the digital format. Analysis of the global continental landmass by diverse coupling techniques being the aim of our study it had been decided to invest the necessary work to create our new map in vector format. This allows for easy area delimitation of different lithological regions and easy adjusting of these regions according to literature sources. Another advantage is that all map data can be transformed into raster format at various resolution allowing for easy adaptation for different purposes and requested levels of detail.
In a first attempt we tried to overlay the FAO-Unesco (1975) lithological maps on the Geological World Map (DOTTIN et al. 1990), assigning the sedimentary rock classes from these maps to the Geological World Map and conserving those classes which already were of lithologic nature in particular Plutonic, Metamorphic, Volcanic and Precambrian (shield) rocks from the Geological World Map. This approach showed major discrepancies with other reliable sources and a lack in subdivision for some rock classes. Therefore we had to redesign the whole map, still based as discussed already on the Geological World Map, but using other, mostly more detailed sources and findings, in order to achieve far better reliability. As described in section 3.2.3, information on geology was mainly derived from the UNESCO Geological World Atlas (at 1 : 10 000 000, CHOUBERT et al. 1980). Furthermore we used larger scale geological maps of the continents, information derived from geological treatises, regional geological handbooks, geological guides and personal communications. In the course of this process we controlled all polygons on the Geological World Map and modified those that seemed to be erroneous or generalising too much (see also section 3.2.3). By this procedure we also corrected our geology base map, and the resulting lithology map has exactly the same polygons as the geology map. The two maps differ however from each other with regard to the attributes especially for the sedimentary and also for volcanic polygons : (selected) ages are given on the geologic map and lithologies on our new map ; both can be coupled if required, and displayed easily for different purposes with GIS techniques.
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Examination of previous works:

Gibbs & Kump, Amiotte-Suchet, Lithologic map FAO, Ronov
Lithologic maps (FAO) too general Resolution too coarse, Decision: new attempt of a Lithologic map of the world
for hydrological purposes
Water & Ice Precambrian (Shield)

Base map: Digital Geological World Map (UNESCO, 1:25.000.000), digitised at UNH; corrected and refined by Drr et al.
(except Precambr. sediment. & complex)
Material & Sources used:

c Con
t ep
Gibbs & Kump
R O Complex C Metamorphic K T Volcanic Y P E S
Plutonic Acid
Basic Acid Basic Carbonates Mixed Silici-Clastic Non/semi-consolid. Alluvial Evaporites Dunes Loess
Geological Atlas of the world (UNESCO, 22 sheets) 1:10.000.000 UNESCO world map of hydrogeological conditions Lithologic maps FAO Soil map FAO
Other works, Regional studies, personal communications, Map of soluble rocks China
Sedimentary
Main tool for corrections: Geological Atlas of the World (UNESCO, 22 sheets, 1:10.000.000) Additional information: Glaciated / not glaciated during last Ice Ages, Regional works and studies, Encyclopaedias, personal communications...
New Digital Lithologic World Map

in vector format
Figure 3-2 : Conceptualisation process of the Lithologic World Map for hydrologic purposes.
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The map in vector format can be transformed for raster analysis in different resolutions. The resolution adopted for the databases used in this study is as mentioned (cf. chapter 1.6) at 30 x 30 or 0,5 x 0,5, about 50 km at the equator. The smallest polygons of the base map being of about 10 km length, the minimum resolution achievable will be around 10 km x 10 km or about 5 x 5 or 6 x 6 grid cell size finer resolutions not adding significant detail. The initial size of the grid cells when transforming our map from vector to raster mode has been set to a very fine size, corresponding to grid cells with a 1 x 1 km resolution. By this procedure, no information is lost, and a given 30 x 30 grid cell will not only contain the majority value of the lithology dominant in the cell, but percentages of all lithologies present in the cell.
One difficulty arising from using different sources is the heterogeneity of the sources. The information density and quality is often very different and the reliability changing. As already explained, sediments on most geologic maps are not ranked corresponding to their lithologic nature which can be extremely variable over short distances but according to their ages, as for example Lower Paleozoic or Jurassic. A translation method is required if no local description exists. As an illustration the case of northern North America can be cited. After all recent paleogeographic studies, it was situated in equatorial latitudes during early Paleozoic times. Consequently sediments of that age overall in this region are of more or less calcareous nature. Corroborated by some local studies this assumption can safely be made for the whole region. We have used this approach where we could not get enough information from our source materials, for example in northern, central and eastern Asia. The nature of the study being global pictures and the width of the problem would require encyclopaedic knowledge. The search for useful literature was feasible only to a limited degree and a complete compilation correct in all detail beyond the time- and work-frame of this study. The help of whole libraries of special regional literature or the employment of specialists with regional knowledge would be required for a complete in-depth analysis. This constraints limited us sometimes to use global studies which show the whole world at a scale that makes it difficult to use these sources for our scales, e.g. the works used on global loess occurrences.
For our detailed choices about the different lithology classes, the rocks contained in each class and the detailed methodology as well as the specific material and sources used see section 3.3.2.
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3.2.5 Some problems of rock classification applied to hydrological fluxes

One of the initial questions arising when addressing a new lithology map is the subdivision of rocks, which lithologic classes to choose. The classification should correspond to hydrologic problems and questions, such as the vulnerability of rocks by chemical or hydro-mechanical weathering and erosion, and their availability for surface water runoff transport, when fragmented and / or partially dissolved. As already explained, geologic maps serve a broader, geologic and thus evolutionary understanding of rocks and cannot be used directly, but need to be translated. These problems as well as related issues and their relevance are summoned in Table 3-3, Table 3-4, Table 3-5 and Table 3-6. The tables are separated for hard rocks (Table 3-3), soft rocks without Quaternary (Table 3-4), soft Quaternary rocks (Table 3-5) and diverse general problems not related to rock classification proper but concerning the map design and the problem of Quaternary glaciation extent concerning rock availability (Table 3-6). Our solutions offered to each of these problems will be treated within the description of our new rock classes (chapter 3.3).
I Sensitivity of rocks for transport by water With regards to the transport by water of rock material under different and changing conditions, our focus is directed primarily towards the availability of the rocks for such transport, a) as lithic fragments, or decomposed into mineral grains and tinsels, b) as chemical solution in ionic or colloidal form. Sediments normally are loose. Sedimentary rocks, and hard magmatic as well as metamorphic crystalline rocks suffer disintegration, decomposition and partial or complete transformation, e.g. into clay minerals, by physical and chemical (and biological) weathering. The modes of weathering depend on the chemistry of the rocks as well as on many other factors, mainly exogenic. Hydrologically a fundamental parameter of all sediments and sedimentary rocks is the degree of consolidation. Most sediments are just after deposition totally or rather loose aggregates and may stay in such state for geologic periods. However diagenesis is the normally occurring case when younger strata are accumulated over older ones. Lithification proceeds slowly and sometimes irregularly in lateral direction thus all possible intermediate states prior to complete consolidation exist. This feature is usually secondary to general geological mapping and only limited interest is carried upon. For normal geological purposes it is more important to know the composition and exact origin of e.g. a specific impure sandstone or a marly limestone than the 65
possibly locally fast changing porosity and diagenetic cementation and the rock strength. Alluvial sediments are mostly not at all consolidated. Tertiary sediments, as a whole and on the average, can be described as not yet to semi-consolidated except for accumulations in orogenic settings (e.g. the thrusted deeper parts of late-orogenic Alpidic foredeeps), which occasionally (e.g. parts of Tertiary syn-orogenic flysch successions) may even have suffered metamorphism, locally up to high grades.
II Aggregation states of volcanic rocks The state of aggregation of volcanic rocks deserves special mention. The relative scarcity of acid, SiO2-rich volcanic rocks can be explained with its petrological reasons (cf. Annexe I.1.1.2 and I.2.2). Rhyolitic lava domes or tongues are much too small to be mapped on geological-lithological world maps. The only relatively large occurrences of these rocks are the thick (often several tens of meters) ignimbrites and lapilli tuff covers a special type of sediments of volcanic origin, like other volcanic pyroclastics. They appear in our map, especially in the Andes. These ignimbrites are mostly of low consolidation and thus easily available for weathering and erosion. The mapping of such rock types depends on the chosen resolution. Different, but again geologically petrologically understandable, is the case of the basic, SiO2-poor volcanic rocks, mainly the different kinds of basalts, which are quantitatively important and abundant on the Earths surface. By far the most important are continental flood basalt plateaus, formed at hot spots over mantle plumes in early stages of divergent (rifting) plate tectonic settings. Numerous lava flows, each rapidly cooled at the surface, accumulate to several km thickness. They can dominate whole provinces like the Indian Deccan Highlands. Basalt normally is massive and stable, but can also be partly porous with many small cavities (former gas bubbles), which make these rocks mechanically less resistant and susceptible to water penetration and rapid chemical weathering. In fresh state these porous basalts are very effective filters and storage devices for water, as for example the waters of the Eau de Volvic in the French Auvergne region. More or less massive (lava-flow) basalts are often layers only some meters thin and can be interbedded with other, equally not very thick, coarse or fine grained basaltic breccias, tuffs and ashes. These pyroclastics are porous, possible aquifers, and easily erodable similar to the rhyolitic ignimbrites and tuffs. Basaltic pyroclastics are quantitatively not important compared to the mostly massive continental flood basalts. However they occupy an important place within basaltic volcano edifices. The proportion of pyroclastic rocks rises with the SiO2 content of lavas. In andesitic strata-volcanoes they may predominate over lava flows ; they clearly do so in the case of more acid andesitic to dacitic magmas. Due to the frequent alternation and comparatively 66
small volumes of solid flows vs. pyroclastics, they are normally differentiated only on small-scale geologic maps. It would be possible to show them on our map in some very small areas of some regions (e.g. Northeastern Asia along the Pacific). We decided nonetheless to omit them as they appeared of minor importance for our purposes.
III General hydrological aspects of hard rocks Some other questions as well as a summary of problems and issues including their relevance for chemical and hydro-mechanical weathering questions concerning hydrological aspects of rock classification for hard rocks are presented in Table 3-3.
Table 3-3 :
Problems and issues when addressing hydrological aspects of rock classification for hard rocks (crystalline and volcanic rocks). Related issue Chemical weathering Hydro-mechanical erosion x Acid vs. Basic to be subdivided for hydrological purposes ? Basic-ultrabasic Plutonics (mainly ophiolites) important for water chemistry (Mg/Ca ratio) (MEYBECK 1987) Precambrian rocks in shields often = metamorphic rocks Carbonates should be differentiated from other Precambrian rocks Marbles should be differentiated from other metamorphic rocks ; often not possible as occurrences too small xx x Acid vs. Basic Mapping of tuffs, how to differentiate from hard volcanic rocks ? impossible on global scale maps between hard acid volcanics and tuffs ! Concerning acid volcanics = mostly Ignimbrite occurrences (x) Put them into an own category ? no Weathered and folded in such a way that now closer to mixed sedimentary rocks or even metamorphics in orogens ? Greenstone belts difficult to map and often consisting of mixed lithologies containing basic and acid volcanics rocks, but also siliciclastic sediments and some metamorphics thus put them into category with Precambrian or metamorphic rocks ? some relevance x medium relevance xx high relevance xxx
Hard rocks Relevance1
Plutonic and metamorphic rocks
Issues
Relevance1 Volcanic rocks
Issues
Relevance1
Ancient volcanic rocks
Issues
Relevance :
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IV Solubility of carbonates and evaporites The chemical aspect of weathering for our new map leads to an important issue, the existing types and quantities of easily soluble rocks, in particular evaporites. For hydrology, these rock types are far more important than for normal geological studies. Out of the group of salt rocks, only halite NaCl has hydrologic importance. When exposed at the surface, it disappears, geologically seen instantaneously, in not totally arid climates. However, it can be effectively protected by relictic insoluble residues, e.g. admixed clay minerals, forming a cap over e.g. salt diapirs. Thus rock salt can remain at short distances from the surface and potentially / occasionally be accessible by groundwater. Gypsum CaSO4 2 H2O and anhydrite CaSO4 are much less soluble than halite and can therefore sometimes be seen as local outcrops even in regions with humid climates. In arid regions they are often forming at the present time as thin or m-thick layers within claystones, or are mixed with clay. They may also appear as diagenetic pore constituents of e.g. sandstones. Groundwater, when in prolonged contact with evaporites or other soluble material as for example in deeper storeys of sedimentary basins, becomes brine, playing then a distinctive role during diagenesis. Such mineralised groundwater can contribute to the chemistry of river water, but the influence is difficult to detect and has been studied in detail only in few cases as for example on the Mackenzie river and its catchment area (HITCHON et al. 1969, REEDER et al. 1972). The difficulties arising when addressing these questions are treated in more detail in chapter 6.
Carbonate rocks are much less soluble than sulphates, and dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2) less than calcium carbonate (CaCO3) limestone. Pure limestone, massive and thick up to hundreds of m or some km , mainly former reef platforms and reef debris slopes at the edge of shelves, appears at present as karst landscapes giving evidence of their solubility and selective solution. Not known generally is, that there were and are more than one group of reef-builders, and that they have changed during geologic history. In consequence there are various types of carbonate reefs ; coral reefs similar to those in actual tropical seas did not appear before Mesozoic times. Most limestones, however, sometimes occupying huge areas of former epicontinental seas, are more or less impure, mixed with some clay as marly limestones, alternating with marlstone or claystone in regular layers. Massive dolomites, and more or less dolomitic limestones are associated with limestones, in comparatively minor quantities. Nearly all are products of diagenesis, either very early, e.g. in lagoonal environments, or much more often rather late, by dolomitisation of limestones formed much earlier. Massive and somewhat porous limestones are especially prone to such late68
diagenetic secondary formation of comparatively coarse-crystalline dolomites. Weathering of such dolomites under arid conditions may produce dolomite sands.
V Availability of silicate rocks The most important group of sedimentary rocks concerning their quantities are silicate rocks. The fragmentation and solubility of these rocks is connected to the complex processes of weathering and soil formation (pedogenesis) (BERNER & BERNER 1997). The vulnerability of the different silicate groups following conventional understanding is explained in Annexe I.1.1.1. The transformation of crystalline rocks by chemical weathering usually means
a) preservation of some resistant minerals (in most cases only quartz), b) generation of clay minerals or some others, e.g. Fe- and Al-hydroxides, and c) production of solutions with certain ions and colloids. These pedogenetic processes are conditioned by many factors and controlled by many parameters mainly the mineralogic-lithologic nature of the rocks and their exposure due to the topographic relief on the one side, and the climate regime on the other side including the ambient temperatures and heat budget as well as the amount, movement and chemistry of the acting water which in turn is also influenced by the vegetation and animal life (soil organisms !) it sustains.
VI Problems of sedimentary rocks Table 3-4 presents a summary of the problems and issues when addressing sedimentary rocks. Some more problems are added and others as the problem of mixed lithologies have already been named and will be further treated in section 3.3.2.10 and in Annexe I.1.1.2.
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Table 3-4 :
Problems and issues when addressing hydrological aspects of rock classification for soft rocks (mostly consolidated sedimentary rocks without Quaternary). Related issue Chemical weathering Hydro-mechanical erosion xxxx Hydrologically important occurrences often hidden Salt diapirs / domes (halite) generally subsurface occurrences, where outcrops exist they are too small to be mapped in most geological maps Gypsum, anhydrite (sulphates in general) closely interlayered with mudstones, marl etc. Recent evaporites visible at surface (partly unconsolidated no chemical erosion but chemical deposition) in arid regions ; to be differentiated from non-quaternary evaporites xxx Exact content of carbonates in silici-clastics generally unknown Shales often not differentiated on maps Importance of shales / mudstones for mechanical weathering and carbon cycle Slates and Schists = Meta-shales are part of the metamorphic rocks x x In mountainous / folded areas : lithologic variety too great for a 30 x 30 or even finer resolution (e.g. Alps and practically all other Phanerozoic orogenic structures see GIBBS & KUMP 1994, UNESCO map of hydrogeological conditions DZHAMALOV et al. 1999) Volcanic outcrops with tuffs, ashes etc. (e.g. Andes) xxx Percentage of (Ca,Mg)CO3 varies from some 10 % to 100 % definition of a carbonate rock ? Precambrian carbonates often difficult to differentiate from other Precambrian sedimentary rocks Carbonate rocks with vertically and laterally rapid changing proportions of clay relatively frequent some relevance x medium relevance xx high relevance xxx extreme relevance xxxx
Soft rocks without Quaternary Relevance1
Recent evaporites, salt domes
Issues
Relevance1 Mudstones, shales, siltstones, sandstones, greywackes
Issues
Relevance1 Mixed and complex lithology
Issues
Relevance1 Carbonated rocks
Issues
Relevance :
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VII Specific sedimentary rocks Special problems pose Quaternary continental sediments. Terrestric and fluvial alluvia are mostly loose, rarely semi-consolidated ; the sorting processes are often not finished and deposition only temporary. Composition sometimes changes quickly, is often not well known and can only be surmised by knowledge on the upstream rocks (see also EHLERS 1994). Dunes clearly occur in zones with practically no erosion by water (see section 3.3.2.18). Their importance should not be underestimated, and they should be separated from other loose sediments. Very important but only exceptionally shown on small scale geological maps are loess occurrences, of prior importance for water sediment load and chemistry as seen for example for rivers draining the Chinese loess plateaus but the occurrences vary greatly in extent and thickness and are not easy to be seized (see section 3.3.2.17). Where these Quaternary sedimentary layers are thin, geological maps tend to omit them ; but they may still be of importance for water chemistry and erosion (e.g. loess). Data on thin surficial sedimentary deposits are often hard to be found, especially in the frame of our study. We had thus to find compromises between the necessary mapping of these units and their often only local importance. We have mapped these strata where they have important thickness (at least several meters). Guidelines were given by sources with continent-wide mapping as for example PCSI (1990) and PCSI & RICHTER (1996) for loess, or the FAO-Unesco (1975) soil map for dunes. Figure 3-3 illustrates the problems described we encountered with rock type classification and delimitation concerning Quaternary deposits.
A summary of problems and issues arising when addressing hydrological aspects of rock classification for soft Quaternary rocks is presented in Table 3-5. Concerned are mostly un- or hardly consolidated sedimentary rocks with various possible deposition patterns becoming an issue.
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Table 3-5 :
Problems and issues when addressing hydrological aspects of rock classification for soft Quaternary rocks. Soft rocks Quaternary Relevance1 Present-day processes Hydro-mechanical Chemical weathering Particulates sinks erosion To be separated from other sedimentary rocks By definition zone without erosion by water (q << 3 mm / y) By definition zone of aeolian deposition >> erosion / transport zone x xxx Chemical nature (carbonate) generally unknown due to their generation by mixing without sorting Far away sources for large Pleistocene glacier shields x xxxx xx From which depth on should we map loess ? For mechanical erosion > 2 m ? For chemical erosion : carbonated loess overlaying crystalline rocks leads to carbonated waters (ex. in Germany) x x xxxx Different detritic material depending on the sources minus the most soluble minerals Found by definition in present day deposition zone Carbonate content variable and badly defined some relevance x medium relevance xx high relevance xxx extreme relevance xxxx
Dunes
Issues Relevance1
Glacial till
Issues Relevance1
Loess
Issues Relevance1
Quaternary alluvial sediments

1
Issues
Relevance :
Present environment Surficial deposits
Arid Dunes
Lowlands Alluvial deposits
Periglacial dry Loess
Formerly glaciated Glacial till
Disco
ntinuity limit
Bedrock
Decision for mapping
always mapped
variable mapping
(1)(2)
(1) Surficial deposits only mapped when important thickness = important for water chemistry (2) Surficial deposits not mapped when not very deep = we suppose the underlying rock formations to be more important for water chemistry in this case
Figure 3-3 : Various Quaternary deposits covering hard rocks.
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VIII Continental water bodies Finally, diverse problems and issues, not directly related to rock classification proper, have to be addressed, summarised in Table 3-6. Lakes and reservoirs are effective sediment traps, so the lithology upstream is strongly masked or may not appear at all in alluvial sediments at the river mouth. Lakes naturally appear on geological maps, depending on the map scale. The question of mapping reservoirs however is a very general one and faced by many studies in Earth System sciences taking into account human influence. We have to omit the reservoir question for the time being ; the problem seems of minor importance for our specific study as we are mainly interested in the natural functioning of major geographic units.
IX Formerly glaciated regions Hydrologically important is furthermore the glaciation extent throughout the Quaternary (see also chapter 2.4.4 and chapter 6). Glacier abrasion and its cutting action leads to exposure of fresh rocks newly available for weathering and erosion, in contrast to regions where long contact of the rocks with the weathering and erosion elements results in nowadays poorly enriched waters as the exposed rocks, becoming soils, are extremely leached. Loose sediments are not concerned by this problem as they are only displaced by the glaciers action.
Table 3-6 :
Diverse hydrological problems and issues connected with the construction and interpretative use of our new lithologic map. Diverse Related issue Hydro-mechanical Chemical weathering Particulates sinks erosion xxxx Sediments trapped in lakes and reservoirs dont appear at river mouth xx xx xxx Peat formation in flat terrains Newly exposed parts of hard rocks by glacier abrasion and cutting action made susceptible for fresh erosion Limited soil formation Loose sediments not concerned by this problem as they are only displaced and mixed with other material some relevance x medium relevance xx high relevance xxx extreme relevance xxxx
Open water (lakes, reservoirs)
Relevance1 Issues Relevance1
Quaternary glaciation extent
Issues
Relevance :
73
X Additional remarks Crystalline rocks (Precambrian, Metamorphic, Plutonic), when at surface, are relatively easy to map. Old volcanic rocks may no longer show true volcanic characteristics concerning weathering properties they may be altered and / or folded in such a way that they are now closer to mixed sedimentary rocks or even metamorphic rocks. Problems could also arise when e.g. appearances of Precambrian limestones have to be delimited as they are not marked as such on geological maps. Some issues have to be retained concerning sedimentary rocks : The occurrence of minor minerals in rocks as for example pyrite in shales, carbonate cement in detrital rocks as well as evaporite in marl etc. may be difficult to appreciate. Already the distinction between major types of sedimentary rocks can be complicated. Small outcrops of highly relevant rocks as evaporites or fluvioglacial deposits formerly glaciated mountain areas may be fragmented in such a way that their mapping becomes difficult. Some occurrences of thin sedimentary covers may be relevant for erosion, but not mapped on geological maps, e.g. loess on crystalline rocks. Also local or minor outcrops may be problematical to seize on a global map. The full appreciation of water bodies, both natural and reservoirs, as particulates sinks, is hardly possible on a single lithology data layer, they can be seized only by special, separate, databases.
The solutions or compromises adopted for our new map, concerning the stated issues, will be detailed in the following sections.
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3.3 The new global lithology map for hydrological purposes
3.3
The new global lithology map for hydrological purposes
Here we will detail the lithology classification with respect to hydrological questions. For a better understanding and usability of the new map, regional examples for each of the new classes are given. This is supplemented by an overview of the global continental geologic lithologic picture in the following chapter 4.
3.3.1 Generalities
The fundamentals and problems of conventional lithologic classification are discussed in Annexe I.1. Influential for all decisions concerning the classification and representation on our new lithology world map were also the already mentioned constraints of the means we were able to employ for our work, the given time frame, and the quality of the different data and sources found. The available information should be of comparative equal quality, and sometimes we had to judge between contrary information from different sources. These constraints have determined the choice of the scale of our map as well as the achievable resolution and exactitude. As an unavoidable consequence, the necessary simplifications and generalisations appear as rather violent or violating in some cases to those who know complicated regional details. For example the maps of the Geological World Atlas (CHOUBERT et al. 1980) show intermediate volcanic rocks separated from basic and from acid volcanic rocks, as far as it was possible for the authors and in some details certainly questionable. Furthermore these maps also depict the occurrences of intermediate and basic tuffs in contrast to the corresponding massive volcanic rocks. Most of these occurrences are very small so delimiting them on our map would have been too time-consuming, given our work frame, and would have added only some detail, of little meaning if at all for our purposes. Moreover, because of the transitions between and close associations of basic and intermediate rocks, discussed in Annexe I.1.1 and below in the description of the different classes of our new map, the differentiation seems difficult and questionable, especially for generalising small-scale maps. Similar reasons determine the necessary generalisation and simplification in the case of aggregated lithology classes for metamorphic and Precambrian basement rocks, as well as for the complex inner zones of young orogens. For details see chapter 3.3.2 on the new classification adopted and also the regional geology lithology (chapter 3.4) as seen on our map. An analogous mixed or mixture class comprises all siliciclastic-carbonate sedimentary rocks. Such a class corresponds to naturally mixed rocks marls and marlstones. But again, to comply with the large, generalising scale of our map, we had to use it extensively, in a broad
75
sense, for e.g. alternating successions of siliciclastic and carbonate rocks, and for regions where the presence of both but not their relative proportions are known to us. A similar reservation is valid for the two classes on either side, silici-clastic and carbonate rocks. They may contain, when analysed with the help of detailed maps, up to 25 30 % of rocks from the other classes, in locally changing proportions.
Yet, how coarse and aggregating the level of our distinctions might be, it is finer than on any other global lithologic map available actually. Furthermore we present our map in digital form, thus enabling further studies coupling different databases, not possible in greater detail until now. Taking the map of former glaciation extents (see chapter 2.4.4) we superposed the information on our lithology map and are thus able to determine rocks attained by the effects of glacier coverage. As mentioned, rock availability and relative freshness of the rocks concerning the duration of weathering are affected by an eventual cover. The scraping action of glaciers exposes rocks at the surface once the glacial cover removed not yet affected by erosion, thus enabling fresh erosion and alteration. As loose sediments are only displaced by glaciers, this type of rocks has not been taken into account when classifying glacier effects. Resulting is thus a secondary attribute for all hard crystalline and soft sedimentary, but consolidated rocks, giving information whether the polygon in vector mode or grid cell in raster mode has been affected by glacier action. This feature is not expanded here but will be presented with the digital version yet to be made available to the scientific community.
3.3.2 Lithological classification adopted for our map

This section describes the lithologic classification and the individual rock classes we have adopted for the compilation of our new map. The conceptualisation process has been depicted in Figure 3-2. The classification follows principles of hydro-lithology (itself based on geo-lithology), developed in chapter 3.2.5 and further explained in Annexe I.1.1, and on the constraints mentioned above. The major available sources have been listed (Table 3-2) and discussed in chapter 3.2.3. For better comprehension of the quantities, the associations and the regional distribution of the different rock types see also chapter 3.4. All our classes are detailed in Table 3-7, in comparison to the corresponding classes from the Geological World Map (DOTTIN et al. 1990) the digital version of which we used as base map. The succession in the table, as in all our lithologic tables, does not follow the stratigraphic 76
order as in legends and lithologic columns on geologic maps where younger rocks are on top of the older ones, but the classification (also adopted in Annexe I.1) begins with hard rocks and descends via the mixed classes of complex lithology to the soft rocks and finishes with the unconsolidated and youngest rock types. The table should be read as follows : e.g. the class of Dunes and shifting sand abbreviated as Ds corresponds to the same polygons on the geology layer of Quaternary age. Carbonate Rocks consolidated abbreviated as Sc are found on our new map as being of all ages from the Precambrian to the Quaternary whereas all Semi- or unconsolidated Sedimentary Rocks abbreviated as Su are exclusively of Cenozoic age. Plutonic and Metamorphic rocks are shown as such on the geological base map. Introductory are mentioned the hydric agent on the continent glaciers / inland ice sheets and major lakes as depicted in the Geological World Map (DOTTIN et al. 1990). Concerning rocks, the customary distinction between crystalline or hard rocks magmatic and metamorphic rocks and sedimentary or soft rocks is made. We have distinguished four classes of magmatic rocks (ultrabasic-) basic and (intermediate-) acid, each in plutonic and volcanic form. A second group comprises metamorphic rocks and two comprehensive classes where different rock types cannot be separated for reasons to be explained Precambrian rocks and the Complex Lithology class. The third group contains the various classes of sedimentary rocks. Global figures are presented for each lithology class, including the proportion of the given rock type with respect to the total continental non-glaciated landmass (Figure 3-4 on p. 82, Figure 3-5 on p. 85, Figure 3-6 on p. 88, Figure 3-7 on p. 90, Figure 3-8 on p. 95, Figure 3-9 on p. 99, Figure 3-10 on p. 103, and Figure 3-11 on p. 105).
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Table 3-7 :
Lithology classes of our new map and the corresponding Geology classes from the Geological World Map (DOTTIN et al. 1990) our digital base map.
Lithology / Rock type Inland body of water Polar ice and glaciers Basic-ultrabasic Plutonic rocks Acid Plutonic rocks Basic Volcanic rocks Geology (classes from the Geological World Map (DOTTIN et al. 1990) except Evaporites class) Wb Body of water Ig Polar ice 60 Plutonic rocks of all ages 60 Plutonic rocks of all ages Recent volcanic formations, Quaternary volcanic 10, 20 formations, Cenozoic volcanic formations, Mesozoic 30, 40 volcanic formations, Paleozoic or older volcanic 50 formations Recent volcanic formations, Cenozoic volcanic 10, 30, formations, Mesozoic volcanic formations, Paleozoic 40 50 or older volcanic formations 70 Precambrian (Archean+Proterozoic) 60 Metamorphic formations of all ages Mesozoic Jurassic & Cretaceous, Mesozoic 41, 42, Triassic, Upper paleozoic (Dev,Car,Per), Lower 51, 52, paleozoic (Cam,Ord,Sil), Paleozoic or older volcanic 50, formations, Plutonic rocks, Metamorphic formations, 60, Precambrian (Archean+Proterozoic) 70 Cenozoic, Mesozoic Jurassic & Cretaceous, 30, 41, Mesozoic Triassic, Upper paleozoic (Dev,Car,Per), 42, 51, Lower paleozoic (Cam,Ord,Sil), Precambrian 52, 70 (Archean+Proterozoic) Cenozoic, Mesozoic Jurassic & Cretaceous, 30, 41, Mesozoic Triassic, Upper paleozoic (Dev,Car,Per), 42, 51, Lower paleozoic (Cam,Ord,Sil), Precambrian 52, 70 (Archean+Proterozoic) Quaternary, Cenozoic, Mesozoic Jurassic & 20, 30, 41, Cretaceous, Mesozoic Triassic, Upper paleozoic 42, 51, (Dev,Car,Per), Lower paleozoic (Cam,Ord,Sil), 52, 70 Precambrian (Archean+Proterozoic) Ep Evaporites Geology Code 30 20 20 20 Cenozoic Quaternary Quaternary Quaternary
Lithology Code Wb Ig Pb Pa Vb
Va Pr Mt Cl
Acid Volcanic rocks Precambrian rocks Metamorphic rocks Complex lithology
Ss
Siliciclastic sedimentary consolidated rocks Mixed sedimentary consolidated rocks
Sm
Sc Ep Su Ad Lo Ds
Carbonate rocks consolidated Evaporites Semi- or unconsolidated sedimentary rocks Alluvial deposits (Carbonated) Loess Dunes or shifting sand
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3.3.2.1 Water bodies (Wb) and ice (Ig) The hydric agent is structured as following : Inland bodies of water (abbreviated as Wb) are only major lakes (for example the Great Lakes in North America, Lake Victoria in the Upper Nile region etc.) as designed in the Geological World Map (DOTTIN et al. 1990). Some other lakes have been added where it seemed necessary or locally important. The Caspian and Aral (in about 1950 limit) Sea are included on the map but not in the resulting databases (data per continent, relief classes etc.) as they are not counted as parts of the continental landmass ; the corresponding river basins are counted as part of the endorheic parts of the continents (see the corresponding chapters). Polar ice and glaciers (abbreviated as Ig) are also mapped exclusively after the design of the Geological World Map (DOTTIN et al. 1990). Concerned are Greenland, glaciers on Novaya Zemlya island and some glacier occurrences in southern South America. As Antarctica is not represented on our map, the ice cap of this continent is not depicted. Himalayan and other small mountain glacier occurrences have not been mapped for being too small. Furthermore the base map gives geologic information on these regions. The supposed type of underlying rock formations are shown instead.
3.3.2.2 Generalities on magmatic rocks Magmatic rocks have been subdivided for our hydrological-lithological purposes into four classes : plutonic / volcanic and basic / acid rocks. For different reasons (explained in Annexe I.1.1) abundances and genetic associations of basic to intermediate volcanics on the one hand, of intermediate to acid plutonic rocks on the other we have grouped basalts together with andesites and in a similar way dacites with rhyolites, but diorites together with granodiorites and granites. Peridotites and gabbros are united in one group of plutonic rocks, also due to their genetic association and common occurrences. True ultrabasic volcanic rocks are very rare and quantitatively insignificant. Included within the two volcanic rock classes are all respective pyroclastic rocks (tephra, tuff, ashes etc.). Their proportion, compared to the lavas, rises with the SiO2 content of the magma. In fact, all occurrences of rhyolitic volcanics mapped are tuffs, mostly welded tuffs, ignimbrites. The hydrological importance of pyroclastic rocks and of certain porous volcanics has been treated in chapter 3.2.5. Table 3-8 visualises the four summarising classes of magmatic rocks ; Figure 3-4 for plutonic and Figure 3-5 for volcanic rocks correspondingly show the global distribution of these classes. 79
Table 3-8 :
The four classes of magmatites on our map, summarising differently volcanic and plutonic rocks, for reasons of genesis and associations. Letter sizes approximately correspond to the abundances.
MAGMATIC ROCKS Extrusive Volcanics
ultramafic
mafic / basic
intermediate
acid / salic Dacite Rhyolite Va
Basalt Vb
Andesite
DIORITE
Pb Intrusive GABBRO PLUTONITES PERIDOTITE
GRANODIORITE
GRANITE Pa
Full appreciation of the importance of magmatic rocks for the constitution and evolution of the Earth as a whole can be gathered in Annexe I.1.1 geologic lithology and I.1.2 evolution and constitution of the continents. Fundamentals are (cf. Annexe I.1.1) : Ultrabasic rocks constitute the Earths mantle. Within the upper mantle, partial melting generates basic magmas. These create the (simatic) crust of the oceans, from which, by means of subduction and further differentiation, evolve the intermediate and acid rocks forming the (sialic) crust of the continents. Plutonic rocks on our map are designated as such regardless of their age as often on geological maps. Ages can be given on our map (using the geology data layer) for volcanic rocks. Geological classes here reach from Paleozoic or older volcanic rocks over Mesozoic volcanic rocks to Cenozoic-, Quaternary-, and Recent volcanic rocks (see Table 3-7).
3.3.2.3 Basic-ultrabasic Plutonic rocks (Pb) Within this class the oceanic and the continental type of occurrences have to be distinguished. Ultrabasic-basic plutonic rocks constitute the lower part of oceanic crust, generated at midocean or back-arc ridges. The crust of actual oceans does not normally outcrop as it is hidden in the depths of the worldwide seas. Ophiolite Complexes named after the black and green, snake-like colours of their rocks are the remarkable exception visible at the surfaces sometimes. These complexes are slivers of oceanic lithosphere which escaped subduction and have been obducted upon continental crust and included as exotic elements within orogenic belts during subduction-collision cycles.
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Ophiolite complexes are constituted by basal ultramafic rocks (mostly peridotite, often metamorphosed into serpentinite), overlain by layered gabbros, then isotropic gabbros with many basaltic (sheeted) dykes in their upper parts, followed by basalts in pillows and strongly metasomatically altered, erupted under (sea-) water ; occasional sediments on top (cherts and abyssal clay) are negligible. In most cases, the plutonic portion of the complexes is volumetrically more important than the volcanic part, separable only on large scale maps. Most of the basic-ultrabasic plutonic rocks group (Pb) occurrences, shown on our map within the continents, actually are such oceanic complexes an approximate overview map of the occurrences can be found in MOORES & TWISS (1995). Ophiolites occur mainly in the Alpine-Himalayan orogenic system from Italy via the Alps to the Dinarides (former Yugoslavia) and Hellenides (Greece), in Turkey, on Cyprus and in Northern Syria, in the Iranian Zagros mountains, then as a big mass in Oman. There are many occurrences farther east in the peri-Indian chains, but most of them (e.g. in the Himalayas) are too small to be mapped at global scale. We find them again in the recent collisional chains of the Insulinde (Sulawesi, Halmahera etc.), Philippines, and in the South-West Pacific islands of New Guinea, New Caledonia and New Zealand. Further to the north, on Taiwan and the Japanese islands, ophiolites are rare and occurrences small. This holds true also for the eastern side of the Pacific. Older chains also contain ophiolite complexes the Paleozoic Caledonides-Appalachians (New Foundland), old parts of the Andes, the Uralides and chains in Central Asia, in South and East China ; and also the Proterozoic orogens in West, Central and East Africa, Arabia and North-West India. In general these ophiolite occurrences are rare, thus often not depicted on our map, and smaller than in the younger chains, probably because many of them have already been removed by erosion.
As a primary, normal constituent of continental crust, basic-ultrabasic plutonic rocks are rare. Magmas produced as partial melts in the upper mantle either seem to remain at the base of the crust or to rise up fast to the surface to erupt there as basalts. Mantle-derived peridotite intrusions, found for example in the west-Mediterranean Gibraltar Arc (Ronda and Beni-Bousera massifs) are too small to be shown on our map. Most occurrences are layered intrusions (bowl- or funnel-shaped lopoliths), with basal ultramafic cumulative rocks, gabbros as major constituent, and often intermediate to acid differentiation products (diorites granites) at the top. Examples are the well-known Bushveld Massif, exposed over an area of 65 000 km2 and up to 7 km thick, in South Africa, and the Great Dyke in Zimbabwe both are shown on our map (see Figure 3-4). 81
Figure 3-4 : Basic-ultrabasic and Acid Plutonic rocks as depicted on the new lithology map.
3.3.2.4 Acid Plutonic rocks (Pa) The class of acid plutonic rocks (Pa) comprises mainly granites, granodiorites and quartzdiorites (tonalites), but locally also diorites, with very minor proportions, as well as possibly some orthogneisses. Silica-rich magmas in the presence of water exist at much lower temperatures (ca. 650 750C) than their basic counterparts and have high viscosities. Therefore they move slowly and normally do not reach the surface but stay within the continental crust and solidify into coarse crystalline rocks. The major group of granodiorites granites, also called S-type (of sedimentary origin) granitoids, characteristically with white micas, is of palingenetic origin, former sediments of average sialic (approximately granodioritic) composition, remolten in lower storeys of orogens (cf. Annexe I.1.1 geo-lithology). We therefore find them nearly everywhere as a major constituent of the continents middle crustal basement, forming huge granodioritic granitic batholiths. Many of these granites are more or less deformed into orthogneiss. Another type of granites the I-type (of igneous origin) group evolves from subductiongenerated basic mantle magmas by way of differentiation and assimilation of normally quartz-rich sedimentary country rocks. Such occurrences can show successions from diorites to granites. 82
They tend to occur as smaller stocks in the upper crustal storeys. Early Precambrian occurrences within the old cratonic shields are known as Tonalite-Granodiorite-Granite Suites, with the Archean greenstone belts embedded. The distinction between the two groups (S-type and I-type) is rarely made during conventional geologic mapping, is usually not shown and never on small scale maps.
3.3.2.5 Basic Volcanic rocks (Vb) Within the basic volcanic rocks class, again two broad groups have to be distinguished. The first group are mainly basalts, generated during divergent upward mantle flow in continental rifting and ocean spreading processes. The most important volumes are produced over mantle plumes, a sort of vertical conduits or chimneys within the mantle, where material from depth, possibly even from the core-mantle boundary, hotter than the surroundings, rises slowly and segregates melts. The second group comprises basic and intermediate volcanic rocks and is produced by subduction of oceanic crust, i.e. in plate collision settings. I The divergence cycle of basalt genesis (the first group) begins with rifting (graben formation) within and the break-up of big continental lithospheric plates. Early stages are characterised by magmas produced rather deep in the mantle with more basic, alkali basaltic character, sometimes highly differentiated. Typical occurrences are in western and central Europe (French Massif Central, German Rhenic Shield and eastern prolongations), in central northern and in eastern Africa. With ongoing dilatation, the lithosphere is considerably thinned, the asthenosphere rises and SiO2-richer magmas are produced in only some tens of km mantle depth. Real continental break-up and transition to ocean spreading can be observed at the northern end of the East-African rift valleys, in the Afar region (eastern Ethiopia, Djibouti and Eritrea), where, as it seems in the innermost parts of the graben, ocean floor is actually produced on land. Volcanism here, characterised by fissure eruptions, is regarded as similar to the spreading processes ongoing in the northern continuation, in the Red Sea floor, which is, in plate tectonic terms, a true ocean in statu nascendi. Normal oceanic basaltic (dyke and pillow-lava) volcanism, ongoing at submarine mid-ocean (and back-arc basin) ridges, constitutes the upper part of oceanic crust. Many of such oceanic basalts are characteristically altered by interaction with sea water at high temperatures. Being submarine, they can and have been observed only by submersibles ; they do not appear on our map excepted for the already mentioned fossil oceanic basalts as parts of ophiolite complexes within orogenic belts. 83
Other exceptions and anomalies exist : The most prominent example is Iceland. Its central and volcanic active rift parts are regarded as an emerged part of the North-Atlantic mid-ocean ridge. However, the lavas show plume characteristics as analysed by trace element and isotope geochemistry, and the mantle plume underneath Iceland has seismically been shown to exist to about 600 km depth. Plumes appear to be rather stationary, compared to the drifting plates. In geological terms, the plumes locations are called hot spots. Plumes under continental lithosphere seem to be activity centres during early stages of continental rifting leading to ocean spreading and frequently are sites of flood basalt eruptions. Flood basalts are the most voluminous basalts on the continents. On the average they are rather SiO2-rich. They cover whole provinces, up to several km thick : e.g. in the Late Precambrian of North America (Keweenawan, Lake Superior now mostly covered by younger sediments) ; of Mesozoic age in Siberia (Tunguska plateau) and on both sides of the southern Atlantic (Paran/Brazil and Etendeka/Namibia) ; and Cenozoic in the North Atlantic (East Greenland, non-central parts of Iceland, submarine plateaus offshore Ireland-Scotland), in northwestern India (Deccan), in Ethiopia, and in northwestern North America (Columbia and Snake River plateaus). Periods of flood basalt eruptions evidently are rare and singular events in Earth history. Within the oceans, hot spot or plume volcanism is active at many points of the mid-ocean ridges (e.g. under the Azores islands and Tristan da Cunha in the Atlantic ocean). They also exist aside of the ridges, off-axis, building submarine seamounts / guyots and larger plateaus and volcanic islands, e.g. the Cape Verde islands in the Atlantic Ocean, the Kerguelen islands in the Indian Ocean, and quite a number of volcanic island and submarine seamount / guyot chains in the Pacific, the most prominent and active example being the Hawaiian group.
II The second group of basic volcanic rocks is related to convergent plate margins and comprises basalts, basaltic andesites and andesites generated above oceanic lithosphere being subducted to about 100 km depth within the mantle, where release of water leads to a special type of partial melting. The SiO2-content depends on the extent of assimilation and differentiation processes, controlled mainly by the nature of the crust (island arc or continental type) which is penetrated by and temporarily hosts the rising magmas. Most occurrences belong to the circum-Pacific fire belt. The island arcs in the West-Pacific region, generated by ocean ocean collision, predominantly show basalts and basaltic andesites. Active continental margins, under which oceanic crust disappears, are characterised by mainly andesitic (to dacitic) volcanism. In this group belong e.g. the strato-volcanoes of the South-American Andes and in the Middle Americas, the Cascades in North America, then the Alaskan and Aleutian volcanoes and on the 84
other side those of Kamchatka, the Kuriles, the Japanese and Philippines islands. Subduction of the Indian ocean is responsible for the Indonesian volcanoes. On Sumatra and western Java they are built on continental crust, in eastern Java and the small islands farther east they are built on oceanic crust, an example where the transition from overall intermediate to basic character of the magmas generated can be studied.
Figure 3-5 : Occurrences of Basic and Acid Volcanic rocks as depicted on the new lithology map.
3.3.2.6 Acid Volcanic rocks (Va) Acid volcanics (Va) are mostly rhyolitic to rhyodacitic, and also (K-feldspar-rich) trachytic rocks. They can be found mainly in collisional (orogenic) settings, seldom as products of extreme differentiation in divergent (rift) settings. Occurrences of massive rhyolitic lava, for reasons explained in the section on acid plutonic rocks, are very rare and always very small, too small to be shown on small scale maps. However, huge areas can be covered by ignimbrites (welded tuff or tuff-lava), a particular type of rhyolitic pyroclastics. When huge chambers of basic or intermediate orogenic-type magma, nested within the crust not far from the surface, come to develop fluid-rich rhyolitic 85
magma in the upper part of the chamber by way of differentiation and assimilation, a sudden earthquake choc may trigger a gigantic explosion. The magma then erupts as glowing foam, spreads around as glowing avalanches and settles as rhyolitic ignimbrites, covering hundreds or thousands of km2 in thickness of tens of m. Some of these ignimbrites have been mistaken for rhyolitic lavas. Others may be less massive, they disappear more easily by erosion. Such ignimbrite occurrences are rare, but large enough to be represented as acid volcanic rocks on global scale maps as ours. Ignimbrites have also been attributed to the eruption of large palingenetic granite-type magma chambers. So, on our map, all acid volcanic rock occurrences are in fact ignimbrites, real rhyolites being too small in their occurrences to be depicted in our map. Precambrian examples exist on the shields in northern South America (to be found on our map as Paleozoic or older volcanic rocks for geology and Va for lithology), Mesozoic and Cenozoic ignimbrites are found in the Andes (e.g. Triassic rocks west of Mendoza / Argentina, rocks south of Lima / Peru about halfway to Arequipa). Major ignimbrites of Mesozoic age occur within the successively developed continental and island volcanic arcs around the West Pacific, especially in eastern Siberia and China and on the Japanese islands. Youngest ignimbrites decorate the active volcanic region of North New Zealand. Ignimbrites around the Lake Toba caldera on Sumatra document the eruption of about 1 000 km3 of magma 71 000 years ago the biggest single volcanic eruption within the last 1 Ma known to geology.
The occurrences of volcanic rocks as they appear on our map are illustrated in Figure 3-5.
3.3.2.7 Shield (Precambrian) rocks (Pr) The Precambrian rocks (abbreviated as Pr) class encompasses rocks from the mid- and lower crust in the Precambrian cratons constituting the old cores of the continents. These are middle- to highly metamorphic rocks of predominantly granodioritic-granitic character (typically sialic) with few exceptions gneiss. Within these cratons big occurrences of (mostly metamagmatic) basic rocks and of late- to post-orogenic granite plutons, with hardly any exceptions also of Precambrian age, have been included in the corresponding lithology class (Pb and Pa). The length of Precambrian times, about 88 % of Earths history, compared to 12 % of the Phanerozoic erathem, explains the importance of Precambrian rocks for the building of the continental crust (see also Annexe I.1.2). As Precambrian rocks (Pr) in a first step have been assigned in our map all polygons from the Geological World Map (DOTTIN et al. 1990) designated there as Precambrian (Archean 86
+ Proterozoic), typically those rocks of Precambrian shield rocks which were not attributed to the metamorphic rocks class for being of mixed, not homogenously metamorphic nature. The Geologic World Map, however, makes no distinction to non-metamorphic platform sediments of later Precambrian age which may cover older folded and metamorphic rocks, if the cratonisation by orogeny happened during earlier Precambrian times. We have excluded, in a second step and wherever feasible, such non-metamorphic (postorogenic, platform-) sediments of Proterozoic age from our Precambrian rocks class. They have been assigned to the corresponding groups of sedimentary rocks instead. An example are Middle Proterozoic dolomitic carbonates (and underlying siliciclastic sediments) in the Canadian Shield south and east of Lake Athabasca and east of the Great Slave Lake. Extended Late Proterozoic platform sediments carbonate bearing border the earlier cratonised Precambrian of southwestern and southern Africa. Due to this exclusion of non-metamorphic Precambrian sediments, our class of Precambrian rocks represents mainly rocks of diverse metamorphic grades in the old shields. Many of these rocks have originally been siliciclastic sedimentary rocks, but voluminous shares of granitoid gneisses as well as basic, intermediate and acid volcanics are included, and also later intruded (mostly granodioritic granitic) plutonic rocks. These latter rocks have been separated only if their outcrop was large enough to be distinguishable on a global scale map. In western Australia the Archean greenstone belts with komatiitic basalts, intermediate and acid volcanics and sediments are part of our Precambrian rock areas. Due to the classification on our base map, as already mentioned, there is a lithologic overlap of the Precambrian with the Metamorphic rocks class. Where Precambrian (higher grade) metamorphic rocks have been mapped, the Precambrian rocks class contains mainly low grade metamorphic and sometimes non-metamorphic but folded rocks of younger orogenic cycles, e.g. in the Canadian Shield. The global distribution of shield (Precambrian) rocks is illustrated on Figure 3-6.
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Figure 3-6 : Shield (Precambrian) and Metamorphic rocks as depicted on the new lithology map.
3.3.2.8 Metamorphic rocks (Mt) Metamorphic rocks (abbreviated as Mt) are all mainly middle- to high- grade metamorphic rocks which were not attributed as Precambrian rocks to the Precambrian craton regions. They also have an average sialic composition. Metamorphic rocks (Mt) have been designated on the Geological World Map (DOTTIN et al. 1990) and accordingly on our map where not deformed and intimately mixed, mostly in Phanerozoic orogenic settings, with other rock types in such a way as to put them into our class of complex lithology. Metamorphic rocks are rocks transformed by regional metamorphism, occasionally under only low, mostly under medium, and sometimes under high grade conditions. Original protoliths are usually sedimentary (para-metamorphites) or mixed volcanosedimentary rocks. Ortho-metamorphites, derived from volcanic rocks, with on the average basic to intermediate character, or from plutonites, mostly granodioritic-granitic gneisses, are included, if not large enough to be shown separately as acid plutonic rocks (Pa) on our map. During metamorphism, fluid imbibition and beginning partial melting can lead to widespread mixing with granitic melt (migmatisation) and transition into granitic melts (granitisation). Due to the mixing processes in the middle and lower storeys of orogens (see also Annexe I.1.2.3 nature of continental crust), the overall composition of metamorphic rocks is sialic, i.e. the approximate granodioritic composition of continental crust in general. 88
The majority of the metamorphic rocks belongs to the deeply eroded basement of Precambrian cratons constituting the cores of all continents, often with migmatitic gneisses, e.g. in the Canadian Shield of North America, the Guyana and Brazilian cratons in South America, the cratonic crust of Africa and Australia. Minor non-Precambrian metamorphic rocks occur in younger, Phanerozoic orogens throughout the globe. Some of these occurrences on the Geologic World Map, e.g. in the Scandinavian Caledonides / northern Europe, were judged to be complex enough to assign them to the complex lithology class. The global distribution of Metamorphic rocks can be seen on Figure 3-6.
3.3.2.9 Complex lithology (Cl) The idea to introduce a class of Complex lithology (abbreviated as Cl) has been derived from the maps of BLUTH & KUMP (1991) and GIBBS & KUMP (1994). This class contains the intimately and sometimes extremely mixed rock associations in the inner zones of young and medium-aged orogens not yet eroded down to mid-crustal levels. Represented are mainly sediments, volcano-sedimentary and volcanic rocks, most of them tightly folded and flattened and / or involved in duplex formation by thrusting on a meter to few kilometre scale. High grade metamorphic and plutonic rocks can also be present, e.g. by way of thrusting and duplex formation, the strength of the orogeny being responsible for the mixing. Due to tectonic processes within these tectonically generated litho-communities, most rocks are highly deformed. They are often called tectonites, i.e. rocks pervaded by schistosity, foliation and / or lineation. Moreover, often and widespread they have been exposed to very low grade / anchizonal low grade / epizonal or medium grade / mesozonal metamorphism and are correspondingly transformed concerning their mineral facies. Due to the complexities just described, and in e.g. inner-Asian and Chinese orogenic regions also due to lack of sufficient detailed knowledge, complex lithology areas on our map characterise the inner zones of Phanerozoic (Paleozoic Mesozoic Cenozoic) orogens of all continents. The idea of a rock class for fold belts as used by GIBBS & KUMP (1994) has been somewhat contested by AMIOTTE-SUCHET et al. (2003) for being too large and encompassing to many areas in the worlds fold belts. Still, we believe such a class to be useful for our map as our areas are much more restricted to the really complex innermost parts of orogens where other rock class designations would not bear justice to the present lithological nature. The application of this category of rocks may be too coarse when working at 2 x 2 but is well adapted when working at 30 x 30. 89
The global distribution of this rock class is presented on Figure 3-7.
Figure 3-7 : Occurrences of Complex lithologies as depicted on the new lithology map.
3.3.2.10
Generalities on sedimentary rocks
Sedimentary rocks the Anglo-American soft rocks comprise, according to the geological broad definition, the whole range of non-consolidated, semi-consolidated and diagenetically more or less consolidated sediments. They are classified and variously named, following different principles. Concerning their composition, the majority are mixtures, mostly of sand, silt and clay (quartz and other minerals), with normally small carbonate shares. The remaining are more or less pure quartz sandstones, sometimes arkoses, and occasionally conglomerates. Comparatively rare are marls and marlstones (mixtures of clay with calcium carbonate) and more or less pure carbonate rocks (biologically produced limestone, sometimes transformed into dolomite by diagenesis). Evaporites (chemical precipitates) play a minor role but are very important for chemical weathering. Siliceous oozes (later to become chert) produced by radiolarians or diatoms and organic sediments (e.g. peat coal) are quantitatively negligible. Peat may be of some importance in northern regions, however it is considered in geological maps as a surficial formation and not mapped, somewhat similar to loess, but less important. In soil maps peat is of 90
importance. We have not mapped it here but it should probably be considered if organic carbon budgets are aimed in specific studies. Most sediments are clastic sediments (from the greek klastein to break). They consist of individual pieces or grains distinct single minerals, fragments of rocks or shells and skeletons of animals, biologically produced limestone grains transported and sedimented according to their size. Consequently their classification : psephites have boulder- to pebble- to gravel-sized components with > 2 mm diameter conglomerates with rounded components, breccias with angular fragments of rocks ; psammites with sand-size grains of 2 0,02 mm diameter mostly resistant quartz ; pelites with components < 0,02 mm diameter the ultrafine fraction being mostly clay minerals.
In between, silt consists of grains, mostly quartz, with 0,063 0,002 mm diameter. Siltand mudstones, including shales, alone make up three quarters of all sediments, sandstones, including some conglomerates, one of the remaining two eighth parts, the last being taken by all carbonate rocks, most of them also clastic sediments. In rare contrast to clastic sediments, reef limestone is constructed by living organisms, e.g. algae, sponges, molluscoids and molluscs or corals. For our purposes, we have subdivided the group of sedimentary rocks into the following distinct classes (see Figure 3-8, Figure 3-9 and Figure 3-10) : Consolidated sedimentary rocks are, with not always well defined limits between the classes (especially between siliciclastic, mixed sedimentary and carbonate rocks) : Siliciclastic rocks (abbreviated as Ss) carbonate shares are minimal, normally up to about 10 % in volume and maximally up to 20 % of Ca,MgCO3 ; Mixed siliciclastic carbonate rocks (Sm) with changing and distinct, but mostly small carbonate portions (median value estimated around 40 %, ranges from about 30 70 %) ; Carbonate rocks (Sc) ; this class contains more or less pure limestone, also in marly varieties, dolomitic limestone and dolomite ; massive limestone, sometimes dolomitised, are mostly carbonate clastics derived from reefs as well as biologically built reef carbonate rocks (not of sedimentary origin sensu stricto), carbonate shares in this class are generally > 50 % and mainly around 80 % ; Evaporites (Ep) are too easily soluble to survive at the surface for longer, geologic times. Therefore only Quaternary occurrences, if large enough, appear on our map ; sometimes, e.g. in eastern Iraq and in Iran in the Persian salt deserts, they develop upon outcrops of older evaporites (in Persia of Cambrian age) ; 91
A special sign a turquoise asterisk on our map designates some few hidden, subsurface evaporite occurrences considerably affecting surface river water chemistry.
Concerning un- or only semi-consolidated sedimentary rocks, we have distinguished the following lithologic classes (see Figure 3-9, Figure 3-10 and Figure 3-11) : Semi- or unconsolidated sedimentary rocks (Su) are hardly, to a small degree and semiconsolidated sediments of Cenozoic age ; Alluvial deposits (Ad) are ubiquitous unconsolidated Quaternary alluvia and locally also Quaternary moraines in Northern Europe and Northern Asia ; The Loess class (Lo) contains the eolian loess sediments as a distinguished Quaternary sediment they are mostly characterised by a certain slight carbonate content ; The Dunes or shifting sand class (Ds) contains occurrences of late Pleistocene and Holocene Dunes derived from the FAO-Unesco (1975) soil map.
It should be reminded here that our base map, the Geological World Map (DOTTIN et al. 1990) and likewise most generalising geological small-scale maps, show sediments and sedimentary rocks according to their age without regards to their lithologic composition. The reasons for this as well as the possibilities, problems and limitations of translating the chronologically (age-) different sediment groups or series of geologic maps into lithologic sediment classes have already been treated extensively (cf. introductory parts of this chapter and Annexe I.1). As an unavoidable corollary of the translation problem and the generalisation on smallscale maps as well all major sediment classes of our map except for the relatively clear-cut categories for Loess, Dunes or shifting sand, and Evaporites, may contain up to 25 30 % of rocks from other classes, in locally changing proportions.
3.3.2.11
Silici-clastic sedimentary rocks (Ss), consolidated
Included here are, in various proportions, pelitic psammitic psephitic siliciclastic rocks, mainly mudstones to sandstones, mudstones as well as shales, sandstones locally with subordinate carbonate content, and rare conglomerates. Siliciclastic sediments make up the major share of all sediments world-wide regarding the occupied surfaces, and even more so, the volumes. Two main domains can be distinguished : I Sedimentation processes in collisional orogenic settings with high topographic relief are characterised by rapid erosion, transport without much sorting and often speedy sedimentation in 92
nearby, mostly marine, depressions. Subduction-related volcanism may contribute much pyroclastic material. Especially in island arcs sediments often travel only short distances. Therefore immature sediments of very mixed compositions prevail : psephitic debris flows, polygenic conglomerates, psammitic greywackes with > 25 % of rock / lithic fragments, and siltbearing mudstones. A certain low carbonate content is quite common. Two specific types of orogenic siliciclastic sediment associations have been given special names : Flysch series are marine deep-water alternations of mudstones with greywackes, the latter showing graded bedding due to the sedimentation conditions in turbidity currents ; they are typically formed in subduction trenches where sediments are continuously shoved together in the adjacent accretionary wedges. Molasse series characterise foreland or intra-mountainous basins of orogens where fluvial sediments pass into and alternate with epicontinental marine shallow water sediments. Molasse basins also normally become partly incorporated into mountain ranges during proceeding orogenies. Both types of settings accumulate rapidly high volumes of sediments. A third setting where rather immature siliciclastic sediments may form at high rates are the flanks of rift valleys and later developed out of these rift valleys continental rises.
II Sedimentation in anorogenic settings, on cratonic platform areas, under either terrestrialfluvial-limnic or marine epeiric = epicontinental conditions, in contrast to orogenic sedimentation, is characterised by longer transport and efficient sorting, thereby producing mature sediments, especially pure quartz-sandstones and siltstones alternating with clay typical shales. Many of these sediments have been recycled several times.
A particular case of psammites has to be mentioned : Arkoses contain > 25 % feldspar aside of quartz ; they originate when physical weathering, e.g. in arid regions, disintegrates rocks without destroying their feldspars.
The consolidation and lithification process of sediments is called diagenesis. It begins with dewatering and compaction, followed by solution, precipitation and transformation of existing and formation of new minerals. The usually mixed compositions of most siliciclastic sediments lead to a great variety of diagenetic transformations. Especially in impure sandstones by interaction of intraformational pore- and groundwater , solution and precipitation can produce many new pore minerals, among them clay minerals, sulphates, carbonates, Fe-oxides and 93
hydroxides. Thus chemically consolidated sedimentary rocks may considerably deviate from the original sediment. Due to the mixtures prevailing in sedimentary rocks (see Annexe I.1.1 with Figure I-3), distinction between shales / clay- or mudstones, and pure sandstones, as attempted on prior lithological maps (AMIOTTE-SUCHET 1994, GIBBS & KUMP 1994, AMIOTTE-SUCHET et al. 2003) has not been made. Nonetheless an approximate distinction will be attempted due to the important differences with regards to mechanical weathering and the importance of shales for the carbon cycle. The estimated distribution (87 / 13 %) between silt clay shale and conglomerate sandstone as given (Annexe I.1.1 and Figure I-3 in this annexe) for total volume is somewhat biased at the surface. A rough evaluation for silici-clastic sedimentary rocks (Ss) as they appear at the surface can be made : Conglomerates / sandstones are more represented due to better resistance especially to mechanical weathering (clay or clay-stone layers are washed out faster than sandstone layers, sandstones are landform builders as they are more resistant). Big volumes of shales are especially formed in / on continental rises or in deep sea trenches where they are fast buried with other sediments (turbidity currents flysch sinks, rapidly disappearing in accretionary wedges), but also in molasse sinks, and in lakes. Surface occurrences should thus rather show a 70 50 % mudstone-clay-shale-silt to 30 50 % sand -sandstone -conglomerate distribution than the 87 to 13 % estimate for total volumes. For more detailed regional studies, see the remarks on the individual rock distribution on the continents (chapter 4.2), but more research is necessary for individual basins as the 70 50 to 30 50 % approximation is a global estimate ; more precise values will vary from region to region.
Siliciclastic sedimentary rocks as found in this class tend to be rather pure in general as, per definition, the main components are silicates, mineral quartz, clay minerals, and fragments of crystalline silicate rocks. Carbonate shares in this class normally do not exceed 10 %, maximally they may take up to 20 %. Carbonate clastics have been attributed to our Carbonate rocks class.
In warmer epicontinental seas and lakes as well higher rates of biologic carbonate production lead to sediments of the following two classes of sediments, Mixed siliciclastic carbonate sedimentary rocks (Sm), and Carbonate rocks consolidated (Sc).
The class of consolidated silici-clastic sedimentary rocks is depicted globally in Figure 3-8.
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Figure 3-8 : Consolidated Sedimentary rocks (except Carbonates) as depicted on the new lithology map.
3.3.2.12
Mixed siliciclastic carbonate sedimentary rocks (Sm), consolidated
Several types of mixtures between siliciclastic and carbonate sediments exist. The most common sort of proto-type are marl and marlstone, ideally composed of equal portions of clay and carbonate (CaCO3) ooze. Supply of both components changes rapidly with the climatic short and long-term cycles, as especially the carbonate ooze formerly regarded as inorganic precipitate only is produced by biological (bacterias and algaes) activity. Many, if not most, of the widely occurring rhythmic successions of overall marly beds (usually cm dm thick) with varying clay limestone portions nowadays are thought to be due to the Milankovich cycles (with ca. 21 / 41 / 54 / 100 / 413 ka durations), high carbonate content (biological productivity) corresponding to warmer periods. Rarer are siliciclastic rocks, mostly sandstones or greywackes, with higher carbonate contents, or, on the other side, e.g. bio-detritic limestones with higher clay and / or quartz sand admixtures. On our map, however, the areas occupied by mixed siliciclastic-carbonate sediments represent series of siliciclastic sediments with more or less considerable intercalations of marlstones and / or limestones. Commonly the presence of carbonates is known to exist, but
95
their portions can not or only approximately be quantified one of the aspects of our scale and generalisation problems. Median values for carbonate content are estimated around 40 %, ranging roughly from 30 to 70 %, but some rare parts may have even higher carbonate shares.
The class of consolidated mixed silici-clastic to carbonate sedimentary rocks is depicted in its global distribution as seen on our new map in Figure 3-8.
3.3.2.13
Carbonate rocks (Sc), consolidated
This lithology class contains rocks with clear predominance of calcium carbonate CaCO3, and / or dolomite MgCa(CO3)2, in general more than 50 % of carbonate minerals. Both minerals can be, but are only exceptionally, primary chemical precipitates. Most CaCO3 is formed by biological activity from bacteria, various groups of algae and animals, often primarily as the metastable modification aragonite, later converted into stable calcite. Calcites, in particular those produced in warm waters, may be Mg-calcites with 10 to > 20 % of Mg instead of Ca. Dolomite (see below) is normally generated during diagenesis. Marble outcrops, lithologically the metamorphic equivalents of carbonate sediments, are usually too small to be shown separately on our map. They are mostly included in the Complex lithology, Metamorphic rocks, and exceptionally in the Precambrian rocks classes. The general biologic origin of calcium carbonate rocks, i.e. limestone, implies that they are formed with few and minor exceptions in shallow and warm waters, mostly epeiric seas of low latitudes. A second implication of these statements infers that the production of carbonates was greatly enhanced from latest Precambrian times on by and with the Phanerozoic evolution of live, and favoured furthermore by globally warm times and sea level highstands. The great variety of carbonate sediments depends on their very diverse modes of origin. Bacteria, and nanoplanctonic organisms may produce particles of most tiny (micritic) size, algae and foraminifers microscopic ones, molluscs mm to cm, rarely bigger, shells, corals leave skeletons with dm to m dimensions. All these particles can be bound together by organic activity (autochthonous carbonates), e.g. in reefs. But most of the small particles first remain loose, can be fragmented, and then become components of carbonate-clastic sediments (allochthonous limestones).
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Due to these sedimentation resedimentation processes many carbonate rocks are impure. They contain locally variable contributions of siliceous (mostly siliciclastic) components, are more or less marly, or locally polluted with quartz-sand or silt. The most prominent and pure limestones are constructed in reefs, entirely by one or several coexisting and cooperating groups of living beings. Some of them characterise distinct periods of Earths history. In Precambrian times bacteria and primitive algae built stromatolite limestones, i.e. modest biostrom-layers resembling of reefs. During the Lower Paleozoic era various groups of sponges (sensu lato) archaeocyathides during the Cambrian, stromatoporoids later and in Upper Paleozoic times brachiopods, bryozoans and corals began to build true reefs, bioherms of moderate heights. From Mesozoic times on, aside of reefs built by sponges and certain molluscs, modern-type coral reefs began to dominate. When growing during geological long times at the same, slowly subsiding, place as the actual Bahamas reefs do since Jurassic times, they may attain heights of several km. In map view, most of such reefs develop on epeiric platforms as patches, or at continental edges like ribbons continuing over tens, hundreds or more than thousands of km as fringing reefs or barrier reefs. The front of reefs against the open sea being constantly attacked by waves, enormous amounts of reef detritus are produced, accumulating on the sea-side slopes. Behind, protected by the reef, lagoonal back-reef areas extend and are mainly filled by carbonate ooze often with climatically controlled changing biota and rhythmic layering. Another major place of carbonate production warm climate provided are open epeiric shallow seas, extending over many thousands of km2, particularly during periods of sea level highstands as for example during the Upper Cretaceous. From there, carbonate particles, sand and ooze can be transported by currents and become resedimented over submarine low-angle ramps into greater water depths. Dolomites and dolomitic limestones, with the mineral dolomite CaMg(CO3)2, are a particular group of carbonate rocks. They are distinguished from limestones only on large-scale geologic maps, due to frequent transitions and close associations. Nearly all dolomites with very rare exceptions were originally calcium carbonate (including Mg-calcite) sediments. Transformation takes place during diagenesis, either very early, before lithification, e.g. in lagoonal environments under arid conditions, or after lithification by late diagenetic metasomatism by saline pore solutions. Most of the late Precambrian carbonates are dolomites of seemingly lagoonal formation. Another frequent diagenetic process is the formation of chert nodules within limestones when the sediments at the origin contain some amount of SiO2, e.g. as siliceous skeletal spicules of sponges.
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In conclusion, related to the global picture, it can be stated : Mass carbonate production is a biological process, mainly in warm, tropical subtropical shallow seas, in reefs and adjacent areas on continental shelves. Plate tectonic processes being largely independent of Earths rotation and the plates drifting in virtually any global direction, ancient tropic carbonates may be found in nowadays arctic regions, e.g. Lower Paleozoic carbonates in Northern Canada and Siberia. Late Precambrian carbonates all over the world reflect the sedimentation conditions with changing snowball / greenhouse conditions at that time. Due to their frequent non- or semi-consolidated sedimentary nature, more young (e.g. Cenozoic) carbonates are preserved than older ones. Consequently corresponding to the Cenozoic repartition of warm shelf areas now fallen dry (continentalised) carbonates are actually found mainly in the Northern hemisphere, and partly in now temperate zones. The carbonates integrated in this class on our map reach over all ages from Precambrian carbonates (as for example in southern Africa Australia and in some parts of the Upper Mackenzie and Baker basins in Canada), to Cenozoic and Quaternary to Recent reef construction carbonates (as for example in Yucatan Mexico, and Florida). Following FORD & WILLIAMS (1989), carbonate rocks occupy about 12 % of the Earths dry and ice-free land when aggregated. The extent of carbonate terrains with distinctive karst landforms and / or karst groundwater circulation is estimated to be less, around 7 10 % of the area (FORD & WILLIAMS 1989). The parts of the continents consisting of old Gondwana parts i.e. mainly the old shields have comparatively small outcrops except around their margins where some large areas of Cretaceous or younger carbonate platforms, built during post-break-up times of the supercontinent, can be found. FORD & WILLIAMS (1989) also estimate that 25 % of the global population is supplied largely or entirely by karst waters, large numbers of people live on carbonate rocks. This fosters furthermore, additionally to the already great significance of river water chemistry, the special importance of carbonate rocks for mankind. Other sources used to create our map for Carbonate rocks include works by JENNINGS (1985), SWEETING (1981), TUCKER et al. (1990), WHITE (1988) on karst geomorphology and carbonate sedimentology, as well as regional studies by AVIAS (1972) on the karst in France, BELLONI et al. (1972) about the karst in Italy, BLEAHU (1972) on the karst of Romania, BYSTRICK et al. (1972) on the karst of Czechoslovakia, DARNYI (1972) about the karst of Hungary, GLAZEK et al. (1972) on the karst of Poland, HERAK (1972) on the karst of Yugoslavia, SWEETING (1972) on the karst of Great Britain, VERSEY (1972) on the karst of Jamaica, WILLIAMS (1972) on the karst in New Guinea, BAUER & ZTL (1972) on the karst in Austria, DAVIES & LEGRAND (1972) on the karst of the United States, HERAK & STRINGFIELD (1972) about the karst regions of the Northern Hemisphere in general, PFEIFFER & HAHN (1972) on the karst of Germany, POPOV et al. (1972) on the karst of the Former Soviet Union, and FORD (1983) on the karst of Canada. 98
As stated, the carbonate content in this class is generally > 50 % and mostly, as a rough estimate, around 80 %. Reef carbonates tend to be among the purest carbonates as for example parts of the Mesozoic carbonates in the Alps. Nonetheless many carbonate rocks, as is the case for example often concerning dolomites, are rather impure and have lower carbonate shares, leading to the estimated median value of 80 %. The global distribution of carbonate rocks, as on our new map, is illustrated in Figure 3-9. For actual comparisons of our map results with existing maps, the latitudinal distribution of these rocks etc., see our results in chapter 3.5.
Figure 3-9 : Occurrences of Carbonates and Loess as depicted on the new lithology map.
3.3.2.14
Evaporites (Ep)
Evaporite occurrences can be of primary importance for the chemistry of surface waters when affecting them. For example water in karstic regions with strata containing gypsum and halite, e.g. in the German Muschelkalk, is much harder than water from other regions with otherwise similar surface formations without evaporites. These water chemistry changes due to rock differences, mostly in the underground, cannot be properly captured by our approach, but 99
we have nevertheless carried out efforts to seize them due to their hydrologic importance see also Annexe I and chapter 6. Evaporites need saline waters and continuous evaporation to be formed and deposited effective in dry and hot climates. They may occur in a wide spectrum of environments from intra-continental (playas, Salinas, hypersaline lakes) to sea-coastal (sabkhas) and various types of marine basins. Accordingly, several types of evaporites can be distinguished. Quantitatively, marine evaporites (I) are the most important type by far. Controlled by various modes of incipient or more or less complete sea water concentration by evaporation (see below), they sometimes consist of only Ca-sulphates (anhydrite and gypsum, interbedded in mudstones) ; but these sulphates play a very minor role as soon as evaporation proceeds to the formation of massive rock salt (halite) and in extreme cases, rarely various K-salts. On the other side of the spectrum, intracontinental evaporites (II) in endorheic basins are highly variable in composition (mainly carbonates and sulphates, sometimes borates, nitrates ), depending on the chemistry of the surrounding and salt-providing lithologies.
I The normal and most common types of marine evaporites are rather uniform, due to the nearly constant salinity of sea water (3,5 %) since the beginning of Phanerozoic times. A 1000 m high column of sea water, completely evaporated, produces about 10 m of salt : first 3,4 cm CaCO3 and CaMg(CO3)2, then 35 cm CaSO4, followed by 780 cm NaCl the major share and finally 180 cm of various K-Mg-chlorides and sulphates (FCHTBAUER & MLLER 1977). Most evaporite sequences, however, do not show these ideal proportions ; parts of the evaporation sequence may appear repeatedly, carbonates and CaSO4 occur more frequently, K-salts very rarely (these also easily undergo diagenetic metamorphism). These characteristics indicate incomplete evaporation and replenishment by fresh seawater. Massive evaporites containing large shares of rock salt can only be built up under special conditions, in marginal sea basins where the climatic conditions given continuous strong evaporation leads to increasing concentration of the brines being kept within the deeper parts of the basin, whereas additional salt water from outside, continuously inflowing at the surface, feeds the process. As evaporites of former marine basins can be named most of the worlds most important salt deposits (WARREN 1999, LAGNY et al. 2001), within the Cambrian (Near East Asia, India, Australia, Siberia), Ordovician (Siberia), Middle and Upper Paleozoic (Sverdrup basin in the Arctic, Devonian basins in western Siberia and near Moscow, Permo-Carboniferous basins in North and South America and west of the Urals), Permo-Triassic (Europe), Jurassic (Mexico), Upper Mesozoic (Khorat basin Mekong) and Upper Miocene / Messinian (Mediterranean). 100
Few of these marine basins have been studied in detail. Probably the best-known cases (PERYT 1987) are the Miocene Mediterranean basin, the Upper Permian Zechstein basin in central and north-western Europe and the Upper Silurian basin of Michigan. Practically all of these evaporite deposits are now buried by hundreds or thousands meters of younger other sediments, often firstly by impermeable clay. However, mainly the rock salt is much less dense than the overlying normal sediments and therefore in a gravitationally unstable position ; able to flow it slowly begins to rise wherever favoured by undulations, fractures and similar tectonic features, actively forming first swells and later various types of domes or mushroom-shaped diapirs which tend to pierce up to the surface. In sufficiently humid climates outcrops of evaporites do not survive as they are dissolved and diluted too rapidly. Also evaporites in the underground in contact with groundwater begin to be dissolved, but simultaneously cover themselves with a seal of insoluble residues. These seals consist mostly of relict clays and gypsum / anhydrite hats and thus protect the evaporites efficiently against the contact with surface waters, e.g. in the thoroughly explored Zechstein diapir province of northern Germany (e.g. FCHTBAUER & MLLER 1977), Lower Carboniferous in northern France and Belgium (ROUCHY et al. 1987), Middle Muschelkalk in the eastern Paris basin (GEISSLER-CUSSEY 1987), Miocene in the Tarim basin in China (DONGZHOU 1987). Salt outcrops are restricted to the worlds arid regions (one European example existing in the Ebro basin). Well known are the diapirs of Cambrian salt in the inner Iranian Lut desert, and in the outer Zagros belt north-east of the Persian Gulf where even some salt glaciers occur. Non of the outcrops of original marine evaporites is large enough to appear on the small scale geological maps used in our study and on our map. Those few underground occurrences which affect surface waters have been marked with a turquoise asterisk on our map (see Figure 3-10). They are mentioned in greater detail in Annexe I.2.2.6. Concerned are occurrences in the eastern Peruvian Andes (GIBBS 1972, STALLARD & EDMOND 1983, STALLARD 1985, WARREN 1999), the Mackenzie river basin in NW Canada (HITCHON et al. 1969, REEDER et al. 1972, FORD & WILLIAMS 1989), in eastern Siberia (Lena basin, GORDEEV & SIDOROV 1993, TSIRKUNOV et al. 1998), in the Jordan basin in the Near East (VENGOSH et al. 2001), and in the Khorat basin in Thailand / SE-Asia (CARBONNEL & MEYBECK 1975, MEYBECK & CARBONNEL 1975, WARREN 1999, MEYBECK 2002 pers. comm.).
II All areas assigned to the evaporite sediments class on our map (Evaporites Ep, Figure 3-10) belong to the semi- and non-marine intra-continental type of evaporites. These present surface occurrences are all of Quaternary age and restricted to arid regions. We have mapped them mainly following the Geological Atlas of the World (CHOUBERT et al. 1980). Helpful was also the FAO-Unesco (1975) soil map with its delimitation of soils with strong salt influence. 101
Most of them occur in endorheic basins, and all are thin and quantitatively insignificant with respect to fossil marine evaporites. Notwithstanding, their hydrological role is locally of interest in certain arid regions, for human settlements, agriculture and forestry. The nature, description and classification of the intra-continental evaporites corresponds to the actual, Holocene conditions. Their evolution before, during late Tertiary and Pleistocene times, has obviously been controlled by the strongly varying climatic conditions, in particular the repeated southward shift of humid zones into now arid regions, where todays playas and Salinas have been fresh-water lakes during pluvial times of the ice ages. Fossil intra-continental evaporites exist, some of economic value (e.g. borates in California, nitrates in the Chilean nitrous desert), but without relevance for our considerations.
Several environments and corresponding types can be distinguished (FCHTBAUER & MLLER 1977, PERYT 1987), with transitions between them. The nomenclature is not uniform, intricate, sometimes equivocal, and will not be discussed in detail here. The spectrum can be classified according to the (often changing) presence of water, from dry to wet, i.e. from various (pedogenetic) salt-caliches (in salt-steppes and deserts, playas) and salt pans, to salt-swamps and marshes, and to hyper-saline end-lakes or hyper-saline lagoons. In endorheic depressions mostly dry alluvial sediments (in mud- and salt-flats, playas, salinas when flooded) and end-lakes in various (and normally cyclic changing) stages of evaporation are often closely connected, e.g. in the chotts of northern (Maghreb) Africa and the salares in the South American Andes. Also eolian transport of dry salt may play a certain role.
Equally important is a) the geographic-geologic situation (along or near coasts, in intracontinental lowlands, or in intra-mountainous settings) as well as b) the corresponding input of either sea-water (if possible) and / or of riverine waters (their chemistry, Cl-, SO4- or HCO3- dominated, changing with the lithologic nature of the catchment areas). Evaporites of more or less marine character are formed in depressions at or near the seashores, with former or still existing continuous / intermittent connection with sea- (mainly ground-) water. Examples are the sabkhas along the coasts of the Arabian-Persian Gulf. The large salt marshes between the Volga and the Ural river belong to the Caspian basin ; the Caspian Sea being a relic of the late Tertiary Para-Tethys ocean, strongly altered by sulphate bearing river-waters.
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Even far away from the sea, some end-lakes, e.g. the Near East Dead Sea and Salton Lake in California (newly formed in 1906), may have semi-marine chemistry by dissolution of fossil marine evaporites in the underground. Salt pans in the inner-Iranian deserts are mainly due to the intermittent dissolution of Cambrian salt diapir outcrops and their re-precipitation. Most intra-continental, hypersaline lakes and associated evaporites, however, are either dominated by carbonates (e.g. the East African sodium lakes, Van lake in eastern Turkey, some Andean lakes) or by sulphates (Caspian basin), more rarely by chlorides (Great Salt Lake in Utah, Tuz Gl in Turkey). Borates occur rather rarely.
Finally, an appreciation of the role which evaporites may play for global considerations on riverine transport of dissolved matter is beyond our scope here : Intra-continental evaporites in small endorheic basins with well defined and rather restricted ranges of lithologies (within the catchment area) can serve for detailed model system studies. Marine evaporites on the other hand allow to disclose the chemical history of the oceans ; rather uniform throughout the Phanerozoic, but showing an interesting evolution during Precambrian times, when all kinds of precipitates are concerned, also those of SiO2 and iron compounds.
Figure 3-10 : Distribution of Evaporites and Dunes on the new global lithology map.
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3.3.2.15
Semi- to unconsolidated sedimentary rocks (Su)
The main reason to establish the (extra and mixed) class of Semi- to unconsolidated sedimentary rocks are the many complexities of diagenetic processes (see also Annexe I.1.1.2). Dewatering and compaction depend on the applied load of overlying sediments in subsiding basins and proceed, together with the geothermal rise of temperatures, following rather simple laws. Much more rapid and effective, but also irregular is the cementation of loose sediments by complex interplay of solution and precipitation through the action of pore waters. This process can begin very early immediately after sedimentation, especially in the presence of evaporites and / or carbonates and / or unstable silicate minerals. It often proceeds, comparable to the growth of concretions, following very irregular / chaotic patterns in space, i.e. in patchy distributions. In our global, generalising view, the majority of all Cenozoic (Tertiary and Quaternary) terrestrial (eolian loess and dunes, fluvial / lacustrine alluvial where not separated in the special classes) and epicontinental (epeiric) marine sediments belongs to this class, except for those affected by compressional orogenic activities (e.g. non-recent flysch and molasses) and therefore normally consolidated. Most of the Su class sediments are siliciclastic in nature and often have some carbonate content (in the lower and medium latitudes) or alternate with marls and limestones as for example in the Paris basin in France (shallow marine facies). We have included also high latitude Pleistocene tills, designed as a special facies of Quaternary rocks on e.g. the World Atlas maps, of northern America, Europe and Asia. In low latitudes, regions with more or less pure carbonates of Quaternary and Tertiary age (in many cases on their way to lithification, as for example along the coasts of Florida and the Gulf of Mexico), have been separated and attributed to the carbonate rocks class.
As a special case have been treated and separated the late Pleistocene to Holocene nonconsolidated alluvial sediments in e.g. actual fluvial valleys, see the following section. In some regions (e.g. higher reaches of the Ob basin east of the Urals) we have narrowed Quaternary rocks from the geological base map (DOTTIN et al. 1990) to the actual river valleys and assigned the remaining rocks in the plains as Cenozoic and Semi- or unconsolidated rocks. The Semi- to unconsolidated sedimentary rocks are depicted in Figure 3-11.
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Figure 3-11 : Occurrences of Semi- to unconsolidated sedimentary rocks and Alluvial deposits as depicted on the new lithology map.
3.3.2.16
Alluvial deposits (Ad)
Alluvium, in early days of Geology, was used and nowadays is still used for the loose sediments washed together by running water in recent (Holocene) times in contrast to the Pleistocene (ice-age) Diluvium. We have assigned as Alluvial deposits all Quaternary (mainly Holocene but also Pleistocene) unconsolidated, mostly siliciclastic aquatic sediments in fluvial and coastal plains, as well as some glacial deposits as for example on the Tibetan plateau. Aquatic here implies here that the Quaternary eolian sediments Loess and Dunes or shifting sand appear in two separate lithological classes. We have delimitated alluvial areas on our map also with the help of the FAO-Unesco (1975) soil map, here alluvial soils are designed as Fluvisols. Additionally we have looked for soils presenting gleyic characteristics in river valleys with Quaternary deposits. We assume these deposits to be of alluvial nature. Quaternary rocks in higher latitudes (e.g. covering large regions East of the Ural) have been attributed on our map to the Alluvial deposits class only along the actual valleys where rivers actually deposit sediments. An example are the higher (more to the South) reaches of the Ob 105
basin east of the Ural. In these regions often Pleistocene moraines are covered and sometimes interbedded with alluvial deposits. Alluvial deposits also exist and have been mapped in arid regions where the Quaternary rocks have not been distinguished as Dunes or shifting sand. Here fluvial processes occur only once in many years but are still responsible for the shaping of the landscape and for the deposition of sediments. Even if precipitation is extremely rare sometimes only once in several hundred years the occurring precipitation is violent and can start debris avalanches and debrismud-flows that accumulates in valley floors with resulting enormous deposition of material which can thus be regarded as alluvial material. The composition of the deposits in these wadis in deserts is very variable as often nearly no or only partial material sorting is achieved in the process (mass movement by flash floods). Quaternary carbonates in low latitudes appear as Carbonate rocks (Sc), as mentioned already. Figure 3-11 shows the Alluvial deposits as adopted for our new map.
3.3.2.17
Loess (Lo)
The importance of mapping loess occurrences on a global lithology map is illustrated by the sediment load of the lower HuangHe (Yellow) river in China. It carries the largest sediment load of all world rivers and 85 % of the sediment transported by this river is derived from the loess regions of the middle Huang He (Yellow) river area (SHENGSHENG 1988). Loess is a peculiar dust sediment, a slightly clayey and carbonated silt (to locally fine sand = Sand-loess), semi-consolidated and easily erodable, of eolian origin and mostly Pleistocene (to locally Holocene) age (e.g. TAYLOR et al. 1983). Loess is a peri-glacial sediment whose occurrences have been formed mainly during the cold periods of the Quaternary in the steppes in front of the vast inland-ice shields. During the Tertiary era the conditions for loess forming were not given except maybe for regions in the southern continents near Antarctica already glaciated from the Oligocene era on. Older occurrences have not been preserved. The majority of loess deposits has a thickness of only decimeters to some meters, varying strongly with the topographic relief, due to the transport and deposition by wind, preferably in lee-situations. Loess is shown even on detailed geologic maps (e.g. 1 : 50 000) normally only if thicker than at least 1 m. It is omitted on generalising small scale maps (1 : 200 000 or coarser) or shown 106
only in regions where its importance can not be neglected because of exceptional thickness and large area occupied, e.g. in middle eastern Europe and China. We had thus often to find other sources to design loess occurrences on our map. Several sources give us the loess occurrences in the world (e.g. PCSI 1990, PCSI & RICHTER 1996) but the global maps given are relatively coarse in their design and their usability restricted. Others have been found for certain regions (e.g. HILGEMANN & KETTERMANN 1975 for China, SHENGSHENG 1988 on the loess regions of the Yellow River, MOORES & FAIRBRIDGE 1997 with regional studies, ROUSSEAU & WU 1997 with a map of Chinese loess occurrences, etc.). Separated on our new lithology map are the unusually thick Chinese loess covers, but also European, North American and South American occurrences. The loess thickness is very variable and varies from a few meters or some decimetres up to 150 200 m for some of the Chinese loess. PCSI (1990) and PCSI & RICHTER (1996) also mapped loess-similar occurrences but these have not been taken into account in our study in order to have a clear lithologic loess signature. Loess in South America is rather uncertain to be real loess (SEMMEL 2001) and is not mapped in the Geological Atlas of the World (CHOUBERT et al. 1980). Nonetheless we added the occurrences in Argentina and Paraguay in the Lower Parana region following the maps given by PCSI (1996) and PCSI & RICHTER (1996). Occurrences in North America are mainly found in the lower Mississippi region and seem to be real loess (SEMMEL 2001). In North America the conditions for the building of loess formations were similar to those at the origin of the formations in Europe, so most likely true loess exists. However they are not identified in the Geological Atlas of the World (CHOUBERT et al. 1980) ; the loess depth seems to be not very important. Even so we have mapped the occurrences for the most part following PCSI (1990) and PCSI & RICHTER (1996). The covers in the Mississippi region have been designed smaller than proposed by PCSI (1990) and PCSI & RICHTER (1996) and have been split in some parts in order to keep recognizable the other rock units. Only where the loess seems important we designed some cover over Paleozoic rocks ; elsewhere this was done only where the covers proposed by our sources were matching with Quaternary covers designed in our base map (DOTTIN et al. 1990). In the region of the Columbia / Snake river confluence some rather small occurrences of loess have been added. South of the Salt Lake we added some loess cover similar to some of the Chinese occurrences where they can cover e.g. Precambrian rocks. In Europe, many of the loess occurrences are too small or locally restricted to be taken into account in our map, but others can attain up to 40 50 m, especially in South East Europe. Most covers in Northern France and Middle Southern Germany make up only few meters in maximal thickness (MOORES & FAIRBRIDGE 1997). The local occurrences we delimited near Frankfurt in Germany (Mainzer Loess), ~40 m thick, and those in Hungary in the Pannonian 107
plain up to > 50 m are exceptional. Also north of the Black Sea and east of the Carpathian mountains important loess occurrences can be found. In our map we have distinguished covers following the world map of loess occurrences in PCSI (1990) and PCSI & RICHTER (1996) starting in Hungary and proceeding East until North West of the Black Sea and between Black and Caspian Sea. East of the Caspian Sea we have limited the loess polygons to the higher laying parts ; we have not designed the small youngest and thin occurrences in river valleys, probably of very limited importance. In some cases we also designed the occurrences smaller than proposed by PCSI (1990) and PCSI & RICHTER (1996) in order not to collide with the geological base map (DOTTIN et al. 1990) and to limit the loess to the Quaternary spaces. In some regions, e.g. North of the Caspian Sea, we added some Tertiary spots as covered by loess. East of the Ural, in the border region between Kazakhstan and Russia and extending towards the upper Ob regions we added loess polygons mainly following PCSI (1990) and PCSI & RICHTER (1996). We limited them nonetheless following the STN30-5.12a active river network and Hydro1K river reaches (see chapter 2.5) to well represent the limits of the occurrences the loess being washed out where rivers flow and to delimit the loess from the Alluvial deposits. The Siberian loess is said to be different in composition (SEMMEL 2001) and probably contains important quantities of sand. It has thus not been taken into account in our map. Regarding China the thick loess occurrences mostly of late Pleistocene = Wuerm Weichsel Wisconsin age have been mapped following HILGEMANN & KETTERMANN (1975), SHENSHENG (1988), PCSI (1990), PCSI & RICHTER (1996) and ROUSSEAU & WU (1997). In a first attempt we had only designed loess on Quaternary surfaces already distinguished in our geological base map (DOTTIN et al. 1990). In our current approach we also delimited loess covering older bedrock due to its importance for denudation (see also Annexe I). The loess deposition in the plateau region of the Middle Yellow River (or Huang He) began during the early Pleistocene epoch of the Quaternary period. At present the depth of the loess deposits is about 100 to 200 m (SHENGSHENG 1988). They are primarily important for the sediment load of the Yellow River being the largest of all major world rivers. These finding are also supported and corroborated by HILGEMANN & KETTERMANN (1975). Their delimitations also show the presences of thick loess covers in the Huang He regions identified by SHENGSHENG (1988) and ROUSSEAU & WU (1997). These latter sources seem to be more detailed for the lower Huang He regions. The presence of re-deposited loess in the Alluvial deposits of the Chinese deep plains seems natural but these have been qualified as Alluvial deposits in our lithology map. The presence of a small stripe of loess just North of the Nanshan mountains is also identified by HILGEMANN & KETTERMANN (1975) whereas the further extent of this stripe towards the South of the Tarim basin assumed by the other sources has not been
108
identified by HILGEMANN & KETTERMANN (1975). But as their work presents a very general map of landscape forms of China we believe the other sources to be more trustworthy. The endorheic Tarim basin West of the Chinese loess plateau and the middle East China regions also have some loess covers which have been identified on our map. The Loess occurrences as separated on our new map are shown in Figure 3-9.
3.3.2.18
Dunes and shifting sand (Ds)
We have distinguished on our map areas with major occurrences of Dunes and shifting sand following the delimitation from the FAO-Unesco (1975) soil map (Figure 3-10). This has been done in order to reflect zones where actually no hydric erosion but eolian accumulation is happening in arid zones. In order to do so we have added to our lithology map new polygons overlapping with the Dunes and shifting sands derived from the FAO-Unesco (1975) soil map. Most of these occurrences cover Quaternary or Cenozoic geology from the Geological World Map (DOTTIN et al. 1990). As only Quaternary occurrences are delimited in the FAO-Unesco (1975) soil map we have assumed them to be of Quaternary age and have assigned them as such in the geology base map. In the FAO-Unesco (1975) soil map Dunes and shifting sand occur only in Africa, Asia and very few in Europe north of the Caspian Sea. Nearly all of these dunes match with Quaternary areas already delimited in our map. Few minor occurrences covering older rocks have been omitted as we think the lithology of the underlying rocks is more important to know in these cases. This concerns also few occurrences covering Cenozoic semi-consolidated rocks where they are not adjacent to Quaternary geology. In general the level of detail of the FAO soil map is similar to our map polygons and the occurrences have been designed to follow roughly the level of detail achieved in our map.
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3.4
Global distribution of lithology, as seen on our new map
3.4.1 Joint geologic features, common for all continents

The lithological design of our new map tries to represent closely the geological picture, and examples of the subsequent lithology designations will be given. The geological descriptions follow works by BEDERKE & WUNDERLICH (1968), WILSON (1988), KEAREY & VINE (1990), STANLEY (1994), MOORES & TWISS (1995), and DAVIS & REYNOLDS (1996). These works have also been used to assign lithologies, together with regional works by ZEIL (1986) on South America, EISBACHER (1988) on North America, CHAIN & KORONOVSKIJ (1995) on northern Asia and WOPFNER (1997) on Australia. Additional references are given where they have been used for a specific continent. Certain features are shared by all continents heritage of their common past as supercontinent (this section), and global rock distribution characteristics (section 3.4.2) are treated first.
Common to all continents is the existence of Precambrian cratons assigned mostly as Pr in our map of fundamentally similar nature. In North America (even if slightly different in its lithologic structure here) and likewise on all southern (Gondwana) continents they occupy by far the largest areas. As explained in Annexe I.1.2, the oldest known (continental type) minerals and rocks date back to more than 4 000 Ma. The Archean core cratons are well exposed and studied in northern North America, southern Africa and Australia. Many of them are older than 3 000 Ma. They are characterised by huge volumes of intermediate (tonalitic) to acid (granitic) plutonic rocks. In between greenstone-belts are to be found with their unique successions of ultramafic mafic (among them the peculiar Archaean MgO-rich komatiitic basalts chemically interesting but too small in their occurrences to be mapped in our map) to acid volcanics, followed by special sediments. For our map scale, most of the greenstone belts are too small to be mapped, when they are mapped they have been added to the group of oldest volcanic rocks (Paleozoic or older volcanic rocks Vb for lithology) or if they have undergone metamorphism they are to be found in the group of Metamorphic rocks (Mt), sometimes also in the Precambrian rock group (Pr) or in the Complex lithology group (Cl) following the locally prevailing rock types. The oldest core cratons then grew, in later Archaean and during Proterozoic times, by successions of plate tectonic cycles and associated orogenies which produced one orogenic belt aside of another. These belts were accreted to the core cratons and eventually welded them together to form progressively larger proto-continents. Towards the end of Proterozoic times 110
3.4 Global distribution of lithology, as seen on our new map
by means of what is now usually called the Panafrican orogeny, as it was first recognised in Africa the diverse Precambrian continents became united to build up the global supercontinent of Rodinia. Its exact evolution and configuration are disputed, since only partially known. A first disintegration separated the North American part (Laurentia) from the rest of the supercontinent with the beginning of the Paleozoic. The southern megacontinent has been recognised as such by geologists in the late 19th century and named Gondwana after a region in central India. During Paleozoic times plate tectonic drift shifted Gondwana from Cambrian low latitudes into southern hemispheric high latitudes. Thus parts of todays western Sahara became heavily glaciated during late Ordovician times. Later the plate movement was such that the South pole (relatively) migrated to southern Africa from where another glaciation spread onto neighbouring regions (now eastern South America, southern India and Australia) during Carboniferous-Permian times. The remains of this glaciation served as first proofs for WEGENERs (1915, 1936) continental drift hypothesis, later corroborated and expanded as plate tectonic theory. Plate tectonic history of the Paleozoic ended by means of the Variscan (= Hercynian) orogeny with the formation of Pangaea, a supercontinent comparable to Rodinia, surrounded by the worldwide ocean Panthalassa with its huge western open bay, the Tethys. The disintegration of Pangaea, and namely its southern part Gondwana, by spreading of first the Atlantic, then the Indian and Arctic oceans, accounts for the Mesozoic-Cenozoic and ultimately the actual configuration of continents and oceans. The lithosphere of oceans disappears by subduction and is thus recycled at the latest when it is about 200 Ma old ; even the oldest parts of the actual Pacific, Atlantic and Indian ocean date back to not more than Jurassic times. Older oceanic lithosphere is conserved only locally and in fragmented form, as ophiolite complexes, when they are included by orogenic accretion into continental crust they are thus sometimes to be found in nowadays high mountainous regions. The crust of continents however, normally not heavy enough to be subducted, remains at the surface, virtually immortal, and documents what is known from their and Earths history, in some instances back to Archaean times.
3.4.2 Global rock distribution characteristics

The global distribution of the 15 rock types, as depicted on the new map, is illustrated in Figure 3-12 ; Table 3-9 summarises the present distribution of lithologies over the continents except Antarctica as represented on our new map for the 17 classes adopted. Numbers are given as area occupied (in M km2) as well as proportions detailed for the continents (as % of the global total and % of the individual continents) and as global values. 111
The one / two decimal digits of many numbers as adopted in most of the tables mostly represents an only arithmetical exactitude. The mostly only schematic definition of class or fields of the data, overlapping fields belonging to different categories, and the necessary big scale of our study generally allow for only rough, first order approximate statements regarding the relations and typologies. The delimitation of the continents follows the thoughts discussed in chapter 2.5.
Table 3-9 :
Present lithology dry for the non glaciated globe (without Greenland and Antarctica) and detailed for the continent (area in M km2 and proportions in % of the global total and % of the individual continents). Continental values above the double of the global mean are enhanced, values below half of the global mean have smaller font size. South America
Area
0,007 0,02 0,59 1,24 0,41 3,85 0,37
North America
Area % of
global continent
Australasia
Area
0,002 0,01 0,93 0,31 0,04 0,46 0,49 1,61 0,61 0,03
Africa
Area
0,17 0,02 1,31 5,83 0,22 0,27
Asia
continent
Europe
continent
Global
continent
% of
global continent 0,04
% of
global continent 0,03
% of
global
Area
0,10 0,17 3,23 2,78 0,85 0,87 3,78 4,95 0,09
% of
global
Area
0,04 0,002 0,06 0,61 0,13 0,005 0,72 0,008 0,87
% of
global
Area global
0,68 0,03 0,27 9,61 7,64 1,31 15,37 5,36 7,21 10,33 0,16 20,62 3,49 2,06 0,51 0,02 0,20 7,23 5,75 0,98 11,56 4,03 5,42 16,28 7,77 10,38 0,12 10,06 15,51 2,63 1,55 100,0
Wb Ig Pb Pa Vb Va Pr Mt Cl Ss Sm Sc Ep Su Ad Lo Ds %
%
M km2
0,35 0,01 0,008 1,37 1,87 1,01 3,76 1,47 3,17 2,36 3,42 1,34 1,51 0,69 -
0,27 0,01 0,01 1,03 1,40 0,76 2,82 1,10 2,38 1,78 2,57 1,01 1,13 0,53 16,8
1,60 0,06
0,04
0,01 0,01 0,44 0,93 0,31 2,89 0,07 0,28 2,04 0,43 0,26 0,01 1,53 3,54 0,70 13,5
0,01 0,01 0,70 0,23 0,03 0,67 0,35 0,37 0,96 1,21 0,46 0,02 1,20 0,56 6,8
0,13 0,02 2,16 0,98 4,38 0,16 0,20 4,33 0,57 2,49 0,02 3,31 2,95 0,91 22,6
0,57 0,08 9,57 4,35 0,72 0,88
0,08 0,13 2,43 2,09 0,64 2,27 0,65 2,84 4,64 3,75 3,16 0,07 2,04 6,78 0,78 0,61 33,0
0,23 0,38 7,36 6,35 1,94 6,90 1,98 8,62
0,03 0,01 0,04 0,46 0,10 0,01 0,54 0,01 0,65 1,92 0,06 1,47 0,95 0,51 0,63 0,02 7,4
0,37 0,02
0,58
0,09 3,28
0,13 3,44 0,40 9,84 5,15 5,42
6,16 8,36 4,51
10,29 2,88
6,24
1,31 0,05
6,94 2,31
0,55
21,52 0,89 2,05 3,19

1,90
19,38 3,02
7,32
0,08
16,80 0,09 6,56 14,17 2,71 10,58 0,57 15,28 0,34 6,00
6,75
8,82
0,75
15,16 1,28
14,25 5,75 17,90 0,75 6,76 0,37 8,23 100,0 3,30 0,03 3,93 1,21
19,13 6,18
2,50
14,08 2,56 11,37 0,07 9,58 0,20 6,20 2,38 1,86 100,0 1,96 1,26 0,83 0,02
26,05 21,66 19,94 13,80 6,93 8,48 0,22 100,0 12,84 13,38
10,99 4,20 0,09 14,63 2,72 13,07 9,02 4,04 100,0 1,04 0,82
0,01 2,04 4,70 0,92 -
0,08
11,39 1,60 26,31 0,74 5,17 100,0 -
17,79 4,40
20,57 0,68
3,13 100,0
22,3
17,9
9,0
30,1
43,8
9,8
133,0
112
Global Lithology analysis

Hard rocks
35,1
Soft rocks
64,4
Plut. basic Complex Metamorphic

4,0 5,4 0,2 7,2
Plut. acid
Loess Dunes Alluvial deposits

15,5 2,6 1,6
Volc. basic
5,7 1,0
Siliciclastic cons.
16,3
Shield (Precambr.)
11,6
Volc. acid
Semito uncons.
10,1 0,1 10,4
7,8
Hard rocks
Evaporites
Mixed sed. cons.
Carbonates
Soft rocks
Figure 3-12 : Global distribution (% of the global total) of the 15 rock types distinguished on our new map, differentiated into hard and soft rocks.
Some general observations can be made :
Plutonic basic-ultrabasic rocks (Pb) are globally rare, as explained by the mineralogicalpetrological conditions determining their presence (see Annexe I.1.1 as well as chapters 3.3.2.2 and 3.3.2.3,). Plutonic acid rocks (Pa) (see 3.3.2.4) are much more abundant, they are most abundant in Australia Australasia and Africa, and to a lesser extent than on global average in South America. Basic Volcanic rocks (Vb) are much more abundant than Acid Volcanic rocks (Va), also explained by mineralogical-petrological reasons (see Annexe I.1.1 as well as chapters 3.3.2.2, 3.3.2.5, and 3.3.2.6). Basic Volcanic rocks are most abundant in North America, whereas they are less frequent in Europe and Australasia. Acid Volcanic rocks only cover significant parts in South America and Asia.
113
Precambrian (shield) rocks (Pr) are well represented on all the shields except for the North American shield which is more to be found in the Metamorphic rocks (Mt) category. Precambrian rocks (Pr) cover large parts of South America and Africa and are less to be found on the other continents. Metamorphic rocks as adopted on our map are only to be found in large proportions in North America, they are also quite important in Australasia on all other continents they are less important. As expected by its class definition (chapter 3.3.2.9), Complex lithology (Cl) is mostly to be found in younger collisional orogenic belts. This will further be shown when linking lithology with relief chapter 5. Rocks of this type are of minor importance only in Africa and Australasia due to the less frequent presence of younger fold belts than on the other continents. Siliciclastic sedimentary consolidated rocks (Ss) as represented on our map are important on all continents, they are especially important in Europe. Mixed sedimentary consolidated rocks (Sm) have important shares on all continents except South America, Africa and Europe, possibly also due to the better lithological knowledge in these regions permitting classification in the Siliciclastic (Ss) or Carbonate (Sc) rocks class. Important carbonate shares in these mixed rocks are known for the Mixed sedimentary rocks in China, they are nonetheless not significant enough to be included in our Carbonate rocks class. Carbonate rocks (Sc) are important especially in North America, they are rather few in South America, but again very important in Europe. Surface Evaporite (Ep) occurrences on our map are only to be found in South America, Australasia, Africa and Asia. Semi- or unconsolidated sedimentary rocks (Su) take important parts of Australasia, Africa and Europe, they are less significant on the other continents. Alluvial deposits (Ad) are ubiquitously important, minor shares appear only in North America, Australasia and Europe, but they still take important parts. Considerable Loess (Lo) occurrences on our map appear in North and South America as well as in Europe. The regionally very important and thick Chinese loess seems minor at the continental scale of Asia as other parts of this huge continent show less occurrences. Dunes and shifting sand (Ds) occur only in Africa, Asia and Europe. They appear most important in Africa, then in Asia ; for Europe they are very minor.
114
For the individual continents the data will be presented in tables combining lithology with the geologic ages grouped or clustered following the scheme of our base map (DOTTIN et al. 1990), as developed in Table 3-7.
The codes for lithology are explained in Table 3-7, the codes for the aggregated geologic ages are repeated here as follows : 10 Recent (for Volcanic rocks), 20 Quaternary, 30 Cenozoic, 40 Mesozoic (for Volcanic rocks) no further differentiation, 41 Mesozoic Jurassic & Cretaceous, 42 Mesozoic Triassic, 50 Paleozoic or older (for Volcanic rocks and Complex lithology derived from Paleozoic volcanic rocks on the base map) no further differentiation, 51 Upper Paleozoic (Devonian, Carboniferous, Permian), 52 Lower Paleozoic (Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian), 60 All ages (for Plutonic and Metamorphic rocks as well as Complex lithology derived from on the base map one of the two classes just mentioned), 70 Precambrian (Archean + Proterozoic).
The possible combinations as they appear in our database are shown in Table 3-10.
115
Table 3-10 : Explanatory table for lithology combined with geology.

Ages Lithology Water Polar Ice Basic Plutonic Acid Plutonic Basic Volcanic Acid Volcanic Precambrian Metamorphic Complex (Folded) Silici-Clastic sedimentary consolidated Mixed sedimentary consolidated Carbonates consolidated Evaporites Semi- or unconsolidated sedimentary Alluvial deposits Loess Dunes Wb Ig Pb Pa Vb Va Pr Mt Cl Ss Sm Sc Ep Su Ad Lo Ds
Ad-20 Lo-20 Ds-20 Su-30 Sc-20 Ss-30 Sm30 Sc-30 Cl-41 Ss-41 Cl-42 Ss-42 Cl-51 Ss-51 Cl-52 Ss-52 Cl-50 Mt-60 Cl-60 Cl-70 Ss-70 Vb-10 Va-10 Vb-20 Vb-30 Va-30 Vb-40 Va-40 Vb50 Va-50 Pr-70 Pb-60 Pa-60
Recent / Quaternary
Mesozoic Ceno Tri- zoic Jurassic &

Cretac.
Paleozoic
Upper Lower
assic
Pal. or older
Plutonic all ages
Metamorph all ages
Precambrian
Sm-41 Sc-41
Sm-42 Sc-42
Sm-51 Sc-51
Sm-52 Sc-52
Sm-70 Sc-70
The detailed results for the globe combining lithology with geology, the proportions and areas (M km2) are shown in Table 3-11.
116
Table 3-11 : Detailed results for the globe lithology combined with geology percent and area (M km2).
Age Litho Wb Ig Pb Pa Vb Va Pr Mt Cl Ss Sm Sc Ep Su Ad Lo Ds Total
% Area % Area % Area % Area % Area % Area % Area % Area % Area % Area % Area % Area % Area % Area % Area % Area % Area % Area Recent Quat. Cenoz. Mesoz. J.&Cr. Triass. Paleoz.
10
20
30
40
41
42
50
Up.Pal.
51
Low.P.
52
60
all
Prec.
70
Total
0,51 0,68 0,02 0,03 0,20 0,27 7,23 9,61 5,75 7,64 0,98 1,31 11,56 15,37 4,03 5,36 5,42 7,21 16,28 21,66 7,77 10,33 10,38 13,80 0,12 0,16 10,06 13,38 15,51 20,62 2,63 3,49 1,55 2,06 100,0 133,0
0,20 0,27 7,23 9,61 1,57 2,09 0,03 0,04 0,01 0,02 2,48 3,30 0,14 0,19 1,41 1,88 0,58 0,77 0,26 0,35 0,23 0,31 11,56 15,37 0,35 0,47 7,88 10,47 2,33 3,10 4,06 5,40 0,18 0,24 1,69 2,25 0,71 0,95 0,36 0,48 0,34 0,45 1,49 1,98 3,76 5,01 2,32 3,09 1,06 1,41 2,05 2,73 1,59 2,12 0,71 0,94 2,02 2,69 4,03 5,36 0,96 1,28 0,04 0,05 0,16 0,22 0,18 0,24 1,16 1,54
0,12 0,16
1,20 1,59 1,51 2,01 1,59 2,12 10,06 13,38
1,61 2,14
15,51 20,62 2,63 3,49 1,55 2,06 19,82 26,35
16,99 22,59
1,99 2,65
14,62 19,44
2,95 3,92
0,84 1,11
8,64 11,49
6,37 8,47
12,42 16,52
13,10 17,42
As already stated, Acid Plutonic rocks (Pa) are much more important than Basic-ultrabasic Plutonic rocks (Pb). Similarly already explained as well Basic Volcanic rocks (Vb) are more important than Acid Volcanic rocks (Va). Precambrian (shield) rocks (Pr) in general take more parts of the cratons than Metamorphic rocks (Mt) and are thus more represented on our map. Complex lithology (Cl) appears more restrained to the actual fold belts. Siliciclastic sedimentary consolidated rocks (Ss) take important shares in general and are more important than Mixed sedimentary rocks (Sm). Carbonate rocks (Sc) are also important as sedimentary rocks. Semi- or unconsolidated rocks from the Cenozoic (Su-30) take important parts, but Alluvial deposits (Ad) are still more important these mixed sedimentary loose deposits are to be found as expected in many downstream river regions, compare also with chapter 5 on linking lithology to relief. Loess (Lo) and Evaporites (Ep) are more important on a local scale than at global scale, they are very 117
important for the river chemistry where rivers are concerned by occurrences. Dunes and shifting sand (Ds) occurrences show regions with eolian deposition, they are globally of limited importance. In general, sediments and loosely consolidated sedimentary rocks are widely overrepresented at the surface with respect to the lower storeys of the continents. Worldwide the most commonly found rocks are of Recent or Quaternary origin, the second most are from the Cenozoic. Important parts are from the Jurassic & Cretaceous period, much less from the Triassic. Upper Paleozoic rocks are slightly more important than Lower Paleozoic rocks. An important share has no ages assigned these are rocks assigned as Plutonic and as Metamorphic rocks in the base map, some of which have been assigned into our Complex lithology class (Cl). Precambrian rocks as found on the cratons also take significant shares, in total they make up only few percent less than the sum of the Mesozoic or the sum of the Paleozoic rocks.
Most Basic Volcanic rocks (Vb) are Recent or from the Cenozoic, they originate to a slightly lesser extent from the Mesozoic, minor shares are from the Paleozoic era. Acid Volcanic rocks are mostly of older origin, they are mainly from the Mesozoic and Paleozoic periods and less are younger. Important shares of Complex lithology (Cl) involved in orogenic processes are rocks of Paleozoic age, these make up nearly the double of all other Complex lithology rocks together. Siliciclastic sedimentary consolidated rocks (Ss) are mostly from the Jurassic & Cretaceous period, they originate less from the Upper Paleozoic, and still less from the Lower Paleozoic and Cenozoic periods. Mixed sedimentary consolidated rocks (Sm) on our map originate mostly in nearly equal shares from the Jurassic & Cretaceous and from the Upper Paleozoic, slightly less shares are from the Cenozoic. Rocks of this type from the remaining ages are globally minor. Carbonate rocks on our map are mainly from the Jurassic & Cretaceous, less than half but still important parts are from the Lower Paleozoic. Other significant shares are from the Cenozoic, the Upper Paleozoic as well as from the Precambrian, less important shares from the Mesozoic Triassic. Quaternary parts are globally minor. All remaining rocks are either not differentiated for age or are only from one age, their shares have already been mentioned. Concerned are Semi- or unconsolidated rocks from the Cenozoic (Su-30) and Alluvial deposits, Loess as well as Dunes and shifting sand from the Quaternary (Ad-20, Lo-20, Ds-20).
118
3.4.3 Latitudinal distribution of lithology on our new map

Global values have been presented and detailed numbers for each continent will be presented in chapter 4 ; the results shown here show the latitudinal distribution of the different lithology classes on our map. This section advances the appreciation of the distribution of the different rock types and examines the eventual preferences of certain rock types for certain latitudinal ranges. Questions arising concern for example the distribution of carbonate rocks : do recent carbonate rock developments provide for preferential distribution in relatively low northern latitudes, or are the massive carbonates from the Lower Paleozoic responsible for a second maximum of carbonate distribution in higher northern latitudes ? Are loess occurrences restricted to certain latitudes showing their glacial origin ? For better comparability with results by AMIOTTE-SUCHET et al. (2003) we have adopted a similar representation style of the rock type distribution by latitude. Again, here will be presented only values for lithology without influence of water. This means that results combining lithology with former glaciation extents, but also results by ocean basins or regional sea basins as well as differentiations for endorheic and exorheic parts of the world can be found in chapter 6.
The latitudinal distribution of the rock types as seen on our new map is depicted, with the area occupied by a given rock type in a given 5 latitudinal band in Figure 3-13, percentages of rock class area to total area in a given 5 latitudinal band in Figure 3-14. Figure 3-15 and Figure 3-16 depict the distribution in a similar way as AMIOTTE-SUCHET et al. (2003) for comparability. Figure 3-17 summarises the latitudinal distribution of the different rock types.
Not all rock types are present at all latitudes and the relative abundance of the rock types is highly variable. Some rock types show distinct occurrences maxima. Two main factors drive the appearance of this picture : I The uneven distribution of the continental landmass on the globe (73,8 % of the landmass in the northern hemisphere, only 26,2 % in the southern hemisphere) see Figure 3-13, Figure 3-14, and Figure 3-16 lower right diagram as well as Figure 3-17. II The southern (Gondwana) continents during most of Paleozoic Mesozoic times (until the collision of greater India and Asia in early Tertiary times) had an evolution separated from that of North America and Eurasia. In particular Eurasia with 40,4 % (33,0 % for 119
Asia and 7,4 % for Europe) of the total landmass is geologically quite different from the other continents
The distribution of Basic-ultrabasic Plutonic rocks (Pb) is highly variable, mostly due to the rarity of the occurrences. Acid Plutonic rocks (Pa) have relative maxima around 55N igneous intrusions in north-eastern Asia, just north of the equator mostly igneous intrusions in the West African shield regions, and towards high southern latitudes but here the landmass is very small and only the southern tip of South America is concerned with some igneous intrusions. Basic Volcanic rocks (Vb) show a highly variable latitudinal distribution. The southern latitude maximum is due to the Andes volcanism and the Paran basalts. The relative minimum occurs around 10S as nearly exclusively basic-intermediate volcanics in the Andes are concerned in this latitudinal band. In other regions they are variable but always present, in contrast to the findings by AMIOTTE-SUCHET et al. (2003) who find relatively distinct maxima for basalts. They have probably not depicted all, sometimes minor, occurrences represented on our map, for example they show few basalts for the North American cordilleras. Acid Volcanic rocks (Va) are highly variable, probably mostly due to the scarcity of the occurrences. Precambrian (shield) rocks (Pr) are present with very distinct maxima just North and South of the equator representing the South American and African shields. A secondary maximum can be observed in high northern latitudes with the Scandinavian and Siberian cratons, exhumed partly by the Pleistocene glaciers. Metamorphic rocks (Mt) show a clear high northern latitudes maximum due to the slightly different composition of the Canadian shield consisting more of rocks corresponding to our Metamorphic rocks class (Mt), compared to the other shield regions with more rocks represented in our Precambrian (shield) rocks class (Pr). The latitudinal distribution of our class of Complex lithology (Cl) shows a distinct maximum around 50N, these are mainly the old, now very complex chains of Paleozoic age in Asia North of the Himalayas. This rock class is also over-represented in high southern latitudes with the South African chains, the New Zealand complex lithology, but mostly the South American southern tip with complex lithology due to the Andes orogenic evolution. Siliciclastic Sedimentary consolidated rocks (Ss) are highly variable and show significant proportions in nearly all latitudes. Maxima can be observed around 65N for the Russian platform Upper Paleozoic sediments and North and East Siberia Jurassic & Cretaceous sediments as well as around 25N for African Siliciclastic Sedimentary rocks, e.g. the Nubian sandstone. They are also over-represented towards high northern and southern latitudes. Mixed Sedimentary consolidated rocks (Sm) show two latitudinal maxima, one very clear around 25N with the North American Mississippi basin Paleozoic and Mesozoic sediments as 120
well as South China Mesozoic sediments with certain carbonate shares but also significant siliciclastic parts. Carbonate rocks (Sc) are variable in their latitudinal distribution. They show relatively low shares in southern latitudes, a maximum, also found by AMIOTTE-SUCHET et al. 2003, can be observed around 35N with carbonates in northern Africa, China, North America Florida. Carbonate rocks are also clearly over-represented at high northern latitudes. At Lower Paleozoic times large parts of the continental landmasses (factors I and II combined) lay in tropical latitudes, and the carbonates produced at these times were shifted by pate tectonic processes to nowadays arctic latitudes. Late Precambrian, relative short global greenhouse conditions reversing the global snowball produce amounts of carbonates now also found in high northern latitudes. Evaporites (Ep) are only to be found in the arid regions around 30N and 30S, as only Quaternary occurrences are represented. The subsurface occurrences important for water chemistry are not depicted in our diagrams. Semi- or unconsolidated Sedimentary rocks (Su) show important shares at all latitudes except for clear minimas towards high northern latitudes and around 25N this minimum being due to the areas occupied otherwise : Middle America carbonates and complex as well as volcanic rocks in the mountain chains, for Africa the Sahara with many Dunes, the India shield rocks and Deccan traps. A maximum can be observed around 55N with mainly the Upper Ob region with Cenozoic sediments being slightly more consolidated than the Alluvial deposits further downstream. Alluvial deposits (Ad) are variable in general and show low shares in southern latitudes but are nonetheless clearly over-represented. A maximum can be observed around 30N due mainly to the Ganges-Brahmaputra and the Mississippi river system deposits. In total the vast Ob system Alluvial deposits are more important than the just mentioned ones, but relatively they appear to be less as they spread over several bands of latitude and are to be found in latitudes with high shares of the total continental landmass. Distinct Loess (Lo) belts are to be found around 40N and 40S with higher shares on the Northern hemisphere. This distribution clearly shows the deposition conditions during Pleistocene glacial times in the cold dry foreland regions of the large ice shields. Occurrences of Dunes and shifting sand (Ds) are only observed on our map for the northern hemisphere and are only to be found in Africa, Asia and some parts of Europe. The maximum is shown around 20N and decreasing to the North the Sahara dunes being responsible for the maximum.
121
Basic-ultrabasic Plutonic rocks

80 70 60 50
Acid Plutonic rocks

80 70 60 50
Basic Volcanic rocks

80 70 60 50
80 70 60 50
Latitude (degree)
Acid Volcanic rocks
Latitude (degree)
Latitude (degree)
30 20 10 0 -10 -20 -30 -40 -50 -60 0,00 0,02 0,04

2
Latitude (degree)
40
40 30 20 10 0 -10 -20 -30 -40 -50 -60
40 30 20 10 0 -10 -20 -30 -40 -50 -60
40 30 20 10 0 -10 -20 -30 -40 -50 -60
0,06
0,0
0,5
1,0
2
1,5
0,0
0,2
0,4
0,6
2
0,8
0,0
0,1
0,2
2
0,3
Area occupied (M km )
Precambrian (shield) rocks

80 70 60 50
Latitude (degree) Latitude (degree)
Metamorphic rocks
80 70 60 50
Complex lithology
80 70 60 50
Latitude (degree)
Latitude (degree)
80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 -10 -20 -30 -40 -50 -60
Siliciclastic Sedimentary consolidated rocks
40 30 20 10 0 -10 -20 -30 -40 -50 -60 0,0 0,5 1,0 1,5
2
40 30 20 10 0 -10 -20 -30 -40 -50 -60
40 30 20 10 0 -10 -20 -30 -40 -50 -60
2,0
0,0
0,5 Area occupied (M km )

2
1,0
0,0
0,5
1,0
2
1,5
2
2
80 70 60 50
Mixed Sedimentary consolidated rocks
Carbonate rocks
80 70 60 50
Evaporites
80 70 60 50 30 20 10 0 -10 -20 -30 -40 -50 -60 0,00
Latitude (degree)
80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 -10 -20 -30 -40 -50 -60
Semi- or unconsolidated Sedimentary rocks
Latitude (degree)
40 30 20 10 0 -10 -20 -30 -40 -50 -60 0,0 0,5 1,0 1,5
2
40 30 20 10 0 -10 -20 -30 -40 -50 -60
40
2,0
0,0
0,5
1,0
1,5
2
2,0
0,02
0,04
0,06
2
0,08
0,0
0,5
1,0
2
1,5
Alluvial deposits
80 70 60 50
Loess
80 70 60 50
Latitude (degree)
Dunes and shifting sand

80 70 60 50 30 20 10 0 -10 -20 -30 -40 -50 -60
Latitude (degree)
Continental landmass
80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 -10 -20 -30 -40 -50 -60
40 30 20 10 0 -10 -20 -30 -40 -50 -60 0,0 0,5 1,0 1,5
2
40 30 20 10 0 -10 -20 -30 -40 -50 -60
40
2,0
0,0
0,5 Area occupied (M km )

2
1,0
0,0
0,2
0,4
2
0,6
6
2
10
Figure 3-13 : Total area occupied by a given rock type in a given 5 latitude band.
122

80 70 60 50 40 30
Acid Plutonic rocks

80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 -10 -20 -30 -40 -50 -60 0 10 20 30

80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 -10 -20 -30 -40 -50 -60 0 10 20 30 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 -10 -20 -30 -40 -50 -60
Acid Volcanic rocks
Latitude
Latitude
10 0 -10 -20 -30 -40 -50 -60 0,0 0,5 1,0 1,5
Latitude
20
Latitude
% Basic-ultrabasic Plutonic rocks
% Acid Plutonic rocks
% Basic Volcanic rocks
% Acid Volcanic rocks

80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 -10 -20 -30 -40 -50 -60 0 10 20 30 40 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 -10 -20 -30 -40 -50 -60 0
Metamorphic rocks
80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 -10 -20 -30 -40 -50 -60
Complex lithology
80 70 60 50 40 30
Siliciclastic Sedimentary consolidated rocks
Latitude
Latitude
Latitude
Latitude
0 5 10 15
20 10 0 -10 -20 -30 -40 -50 -60 0 20 40 60
10
15
% Precambrian (shield) rocks
% Metamorphic rocks
% Complex lithology rocks
% Siliciclastic rocks
Mixed Sedimentary consolidated rocks

80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 -10 -20 -30 -40 -50 -60 0 10 20 30 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 -10 -20 -30 -40 -50 -60 0
Carbonate rocks
80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 -10 -20 -30 -40 -50 -60 0,0
Evaporites
80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 -10 -20 -30 -40 -50 -60 0
Latitude
Latitude
Latitude
Latitude
10
20
30
0,5
1,0
10
15
20
% Mixed Sedimentary rocks
% Carbonate rocks
% Evaporites
% Semi- or unconsolidated sedimentary rocks
Alluvial deposits
80 70 60 50 40 30 80 70 60 50 40 30
Loess
80 70 60 50 40 30

80 70 60 50 40 30
Continental landmass distribution
Latitude
Latitude
10 0 -10 -20 -30 -40 -50 -60 0 10 20 30 40
10 0 -10 -20 -30 -40 -50 -60 0 10 20 30
Latitude
20
Latitude
20
20 10 0 -10 -20 -30 -40 -50 -60 0 5 10
20 10 0 -10 -20 -30 -40 -50 -60 0 2 4 6 8
% Alluvial deposits
% Loess
% Dunes or shifting sand
% Continental landmass
Figure 3-14 : Percentages of rock class area to total area in a given 5 latitudinal band, for comparison also the continental landmass distribution in % is given.
123
%
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12
%
10 12 14 16 18
%
10 15 20 25
0 2 4 6 8
> 75 70 - 75 65 - 70
> 75 > 75 70 - 75 65 - 70
> 75 70 - 75 65 - 70 60 - 65 55 - 60 50 - 55 45 - 50 40 - 45 35 - 40 30 - 35 25 - 30 20 - 25 15 - 20 10 - 15 5 - 10 0-5 -5 - 0 -10 - -5 -15 - -10 -20 - -15 -25 - -20 -30 - -25 -35 - -30 -40 - -35 -45 - -40 -50 - -45 > -50
1 10
1
70 - 75 65 - 70 60 - 65 60 - 65 55 - 60 50 - 55 45 - 50 40 - 45 35 - 40 30 - 35 25 - 30 20 - 25 15 - 20 10 - 15 5 - 10 0-5 -5 - 0 -10 - -5 -15 - -10 -20 - -15 -25 - -20 -30 - -25 -35 - -30 -40 - -35 -45 - -40 -50 - -45 > -50
1 10
60 - 65 55 - 60 50 - 55 45 - 50 40 - 45 35 - 40 30 - 35 25 - 30 20 - 25 15 - 20 10 - 15 5 - 10 0-5 -5 - 0 -10 - -5 -15 - -10 -20 - -15 -25 - -20 -30 - -25 -35 - -30 -40 - -35 -45 - -40 -50 - -45 > -50
1 10 0,1 0,1
55 - 60 50 - 55 45 - 50 40 - 45 35 - 40 30 - 35 25 - 30 20 - 25 15 - 20 10 - 15 5 - 10 0-5 -5 - 0 -10 - -5 -15 - -10 -20 - -15 -25 - -20 -30 - -25 -35 - -30 -40 - -35 -45 - -40 -50 - -45 > -50
0,1
100 100
Water bodies
Latitude (degrees)
Equator Equator
Latitude (degrees)
Latitude (degrees)
Latitude (degrees)
Equator
0,1
100
0,01
10
100
LRA %
10 12 14 16 18
10 12 14 16
LRA
%
2 4 6 8
LRA
%
2 4 6 8
LRA
%
10 12 14 0 5 > 75 70 - 75 65 - 70 10 15 20 25
Figure 3-15 : Latitudinal distribution of major rock types outcropping on land areas. For better comparison with AMIOTTE-SUCHET et al. 2003 the same figure style has been chosen except for the inversing of the latitudes (northern latitudes to the left and southern latitudes to the right of the individual figures). Left Y axis and bar chart : ratio (in percent) of the rock type area at a given latitude to its worldwide area. Right Y axis and blue curve : Latitudinal Relative Abundance (LRA) : ratio (in percent) of the latitudinal proportion of rock type area (i.e. the percentage of the latitudinal land area occupied by a given rock type) to the latitudinal proportion of total land areas (i.e. the percentage of the world wide land area located at the given latitude). A LRA ratio below 1 means that the rock type is underrepresented ; when it is above 1, the rock type is over-represented.
124
0 > 75 70 - 75 65 - 70 60 - 65 60 - 65 55 - 60 50 - 55 45 - 50 40 - 45 35 - 40 30 - 35 25 - 30 20 - 25 15 - 20 10 - 15 5 - 10 0-5 -5 - 0 -10 - -5 -15 - -10 -20 - -15 -25 - -20 -30 - -25 -35 - -30 -40 - -35 -45 - -40 -50 - -45 > -50 1
1
30
35
40
2 > 75 70 - 75 65 - 70 > 75 70 - 75 65 - 70 60 - 65 55 - 60 50 - 55 45 - 50 40 - 45 35 - 40 30 - 35 25 - 30 20 - 25 15 - 20 10 - 15 5 - 10 Equator 0-5 -5 - 0 -10 - -5 -15 - -10 -20 - -15 -25 - -20 -30 - -25 -35 - -30 -40 - -35 -45 - -40 -50 - -45 > -50 Equator
60 - 65 55 - 60 50 - 55 45 - 50 40 - 45 35 - 40 30 - 35 25 - 30 20 - 25 15 - 20 10 - 15 5 - 10 Equator 0-5 -5 - 0 -10 - -5 -15 - -10 -20 - -15 -25 - -20 -30 - -25 -35 - -30 -40 - -35 -45 - -40 -50 - -45 > -50 1 1 Equator
55 - 60 50 - 55 45 - 50 40 - 45 35 - 40 30 - 35 25 - 30 20 - 25 15 - 20 10 - 15 5 - 10 0-5 -5 - 0 -10 - -5 -15 - -10 -20 - -15 -25 - -20 -30 - -25 -35 - -30 -40 - -35 -45 - -40 -50 - -45 > -50 10 0,1 100 0,01
Acid Plutonic rocks
Polar ice and glaciers
Acid Volcanic rocks
Metamorphic rocks
Latitude (degrees)
Latitude (degrees)
0,1
Latitude (degrees)
Latitude (degrees)
10
0,1
100
0,01
10
10
0,1
100
100
LRA
LRA
LRA
LRA
%
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 20 18 16 14 12 10 12 14 16 18 10 9 8 7 6 10 8 6 4 2 0 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 5 0 2 4 6 8
> 75 70 - 75 65 - 70 60 - 65 60 - 65 55 - 60 50 - 55 45 - 50 40 - 45 35 - 40 30 - 35 25 - 30 20 - 25 15 - 20 10 - 15 5 - 10 0-5 -5 - 0 -10 - -5 -15 - -10 -20 - -15 -25 - -20 -30 - -25 -35 - -30 -40 - -35 -45 - -40 -50 - -45 > -50 > -50 -50 - -45 -45 - -40 -40 - -35 -35 - -30 -30 - -25 -25 - -20 -20 - -15 -15 - -10 -10 - -5 -5 - 0 Equator 0-5 Equator 5 - 10 5 - 10 0-5 -5 - 0 -10 - -5 -15 - -10 -20 - -15 -25 - -20 -30 - -25 -35 - -30 -40 - -35 -45 - -40 -50 - -45 > -50 Equator 10 - 15 10 - 15 15 - 20 15 - 20 20 - 25 20 - 25 25 - 30 25 - 30 30 - 35 30 - 35 35 - 40 35 - 40 40 - 45 40 - 45 45 - 50 45 - 50 50 - 55 50 - 55 55 - 60 55 - 60 60 - 65 55 - 60 50 - 55 45 - 50 40 - 45 35 - 40 30 - 35 25 - 30 20 - 25 15 - 20 10 - 15 5 - 10 0-5 Equator -5 - 0 -10 - -5 -15 - -10 -20 - -15 -25 - -20 -30 - -25 -35 - -30 -40 - -35 -45 - -40 -50 - -45 > -50 60 - 65 65 - 70 65 - 70 65 - 70 70 - 75 70 - 75 70 - 75 > 75 > 75 > 75
10
15
20
25
30
> 75
70 - 75
65 - 70
60 - 65
55 - 60
50 - 55
45 - 50
40 - 45
35 - 40
30 - 35
25 - 30
20 - 25
15 - 20
10 - 15
5 - 10
Evaporites
0-5
Equator
Latitude (degrees)
Latitude (degrees)
Complex lithology
Alluvial deposits
Mixed Sedimentary Consolidated rocks
Latitude (degrees)
1 1 1 1 10 10 10 0,1 0,1 100 100 0,1 0,1 100 0,01 0,01
Latitude (degrees)
Latitude (degrees)
-5 - 0
-10 - -5
-15 - -10
-20 - -15
-25 - -20
-30 - -25
-35 - -30
-40 - -35
-45 - -40
-50 - -45
> -50
10
10
0,1
100
100
LRA %
10 15 20 25 30 10 9 8 7 6 0 5 5 4 3 2 1 0 0
> 75 70 - 75 65 - 70 60 - 65 55 - 60 50 - 55 45 - 50 40 - 45 35 - 40 30 - 35 25 - 30 20 - 25 15 - 20 10 - 15 5 - 10 0-5 Equator -5 - 0 -10 - -5 -15 - -10 -20 - -15 -25 - -20 -30 - -25 -35 - -30 -40 - -35 -45 - -40 -50 - -45 > -50 -5 - 0 -10 - -5 -15 - -10 -20 - -15 -25 - -20 -30 - -25 -35 - -30 -40 - -35 -45 - -40 -50 - -45 > -50 0-5 5 - 10 Equator 10 - 15 15 - 20 20 - 25 25 - 30 30 - 35 35 - 40 40 - 45 45 - 50 50 - 55 55 - 60 60 - 65 65 - 70 70 - 75 > 75 > 75 70 - 75 65 - 70 60 - 65 55 - 60 50 - 55 45 - 50 40 - 45 35 - 40 30 - 35 25 - 30 20 - 25 15 - 20 10 - 15 5 - 10 0-5 -5 - 0 -10 - -5 -15 - -10 -20 - -15 -25 - -20 -30 - -25 -35 - -30 -40 - -35 -45 - -40 -50 - -45 > -50
LRA %
2
LRA
LRA %
4 6 8
LRA
10 12 14
0 2 4 6
Figure 3-16 : Continued from prior figure : Latitudinal distribution of major rock types outcropping on land areas. For legends see Figure 3-15.
%
8 10 12
125
Loess
Latitude (degrees) Latitude (degrees) Latitude (degrees)
> 75
> 75 70 - 75 65 - 70 60 - 65 55 - 60 50 - 55 45 - 50 40 - 45 35 - 40 30 - 35 25 - 30 20 - 25 15 - 20 10 - 15 5 - 10 Equator 0-5 -5 - 0 -10 - -5 -15 - -10 -20 - -15 -25 - -20 -30 - -25 -35 - -30 -40 - -35 -45 - -40 -50 - -45 > -50 Equator
70 - 75
65 - 70
60 - 65
55 - 60
50 - 55
45 - 50
40 - 45
35 - 40
30 - 35
25 - 30
20 - 25
15 - 20
10 - 15
5 - 10
Latitude (degrees)
Carbonate rocks
0-5
Equator
Continental landmass
Siliciclastic Sedimentary Consolidated rocks
Latitude (degrees)
1 10 0,1 0,1 100 0,01 0,01
-5 - 0
-10 - -5
-15 - -10
-20 - -15
-25 - -20
-30 - -25
-35 - -30
-40 - -35
-45 - -40
-50 - -45
10
100
> -50
10
10
0,1
0,1
100
100
LRA
LRA
LRA
LRA
The latitudinal distribution of the rock types on our new map is summarised in Figure 3-17.
Latitudinal distribution of lithology

9
6
Rock outcrop (M km2)
0
5 - 10 -5 - 0 0-5 -10 - -5 70 - 75 65 - 70 60 - 65 55 - 60 50 - 55 45 - 50 40 - 45 35 - 40 30 - 35 25 - 30 20 - 25 15 - 20 10 - 15 -15 - -10 -20 - -15 -25 - -20 -30 - -25 -35 - -30 -40 - -35 -45 - -40 -50 - -45 > -50 > 75
Latitude (degree) Wb (%) Ss (%) Ig (%) Sm (%) Pb (%) Sc (%) Pa (%) Ep (%) Vb (%) Su (%) Va (%) Ad (%) Pr (%) Lo (%) Mt (%) Ds (%) Cl (%)
Figure 3-17 : Summary of rock type outcrops (area in M km2) in a given 5 latitudinal band, illustrating the relative occurrences of different lithologies as well as the effective significance of the continental landmass distribution.
126
3.5 Comparison with existing global lithology maps
3.5
Comparison with existing global lithology maps
Detailed results for each of the continents as well as the global values and the latitudinal distribution of the different rock types have been presented, the results shown here serve principally for comparison purposes with existing maps. The main results from our new map, compared to existing maps and data, are illustrated in Table 3-12, we have chosen a similar approach as AMIOTTE-SUCHET et al. (2003) for better comparability. Concerned are surface area occurrences in % (and M km2 for our map), not abundances or volumes as e.g. depicted in Figure I-1 and Figure I-3 of Annexe I.
Table 3-12 : Comparison of proportions (%, also M km2 for our map) of different rock types exposed on the continents as calculated for our new map and compared to results from other studies.
Rock type Water bodies, Ice and glaciers Sandstones, sands Shales Sedimentary rocks without carbonates and evaporites Carbonate rocks Total sedimentary rocks Intrusive igneous rocks Metamorphic rocks Total shield rocks (intrusive igneous + metamorphic) Acid volcanic rocks Basic volcanic rocks, Basalts Total volcanic rocks Total crystalline rocks Complex lithology / Fold belts Total Our new map Code on Area (M km2) our map Wb, Ig 0,7 AMIOTTESUCHET et al. (2003) 26,2 25,4 13,4 65,0 27,5 2,3 5,2 7,5 35,0 100,0 BLATT MEYBECK & JONES (1987) (1975) 66,0 9,0 17,0 26,0 8,0 34,0 100,0 15,8 34,4 15,9 66,1 11,0 15,0 26,0 3,8 4,1 7,9 33,9 100,0 GIBBS & KUMP (1994) 23,9 12,6 9,3 45,8 20,0 6,8 26,8 27,5 100,1
% 0,5
Ss, Sm, Su, Ad, Lo, Ds Sc Ss, Sm Sc, Ep, Su, Ad, Lo, Ds Pa, Pb Mt Pa, Pb, Mt, Pr Va Vb Va, Vb Pa, Pb, Va, Vb, Mt, Pr Cl
71,5 13,8 85,5 9,9 5,4 30,7 1,3 7,6 8,9 39,6 7,2 133,0
53,8 10,4 64,3 7,4 4,0 23,0 1,0 5,8 6,8 29,8 5,4 100,0
127
The following observations can be made : Similarities, but also many differences are shown by these general results. The values for total sedimentary rocks are close to the values found by all authors, except GIBBS & KUMP (1994). The values for total shield rocks are close to the values found by all authors. Our carbonate shares are lower than the values found by MEYBECK (1987) and AMIOTTESUCHET et al. (2003). This is due to the inclusion of some important carbonate shares (e.g. China) into our Mixed Sedimentary rocks class, our class for carbonate rocks showing relatively pure carbonates (> 50 % carbonate share). Acid volcanic rocks appear less important on our map, basic volcanic rocks slightly more important, compared to the results by MEYBECK (1987) and AMIOTTE-SUCHET et al. (2003). Total crystalline rocks on our map appear a little less important than the findings by BLATT & JONES (1975), MEYBECK (1987) and AMIOTTE-SUCHET et al. (2003). This is probably due to rocks to be found on our map as Complex lithology. GIBBS & KUMP (1994) have very high shares of complex lithogies / fold belts. Our rock class for Complex lithology holds much more true to the actual, intimately folded parts of mountain belts than the map by GIBBS & KUMP (1994). We thus see the new constrained definition of such a rock class as justified. Our map does not depict shales, for reasons determined in the concerning chapters as there are chapters 3.3.2.10 and 3.3.2.11 as well as Annexe I.1.1. Evaporites are over-estimated by GIBBS & KUMP (1994) for some regions, due to the coarse resolution of the map, and not shown for others ; AMIOTTE-SUCHET et al. (2003) included them in their shales class. Our map shows surface Evaporite occurrences, mostly of Quaternary origin, but also some hydrologically very important subsurface occurrences affecting water chemistry of the rivers concerned.
128
3.6 Error estimation
3.6
Error estimation
The degree of uncertainty for each of the lithology classes adopted for our new map is listed in Table 3-13. Errors are probably still frequent on our map, as we had to rely mostly on generalising works and personal knowledge on distinct regions was limited. Generalisation errors may still occur in many regions as the Geological World Map (DOTTIN et al. 1990) often omits complete polygons present e.g. in the Geological World Atlas (CHOUBERT et al. 1980) in order to preserve important features. The choice of these important features is often difficult and can be rather arbitrary in regions where different features are important but not all could be preserved. Substantial errors remain in regions with complex geology. Uncertainties exist in regions where scientific knowledge is still limited and different maps or sources show different lithologies, e.g. for carbonate distribution in the Himalayas. Areas with few information available are often arid regions here the error in lithological classification will be limited for hydrological purposes as these regions have limited influence on river chemistry (see also importance of runoff weighted lithologies and regions in chapter 6).
Table 3-13 : Degree of uncertainty in data base : A very good, B good, C fair, D poor. Lithology Water Polar Ice Basic-ultrabasic Plutonic rocks Acid Plutonic rocks Basic Volcanic rocks Acid Volcanic rocks Precambrian (shield) rocks Metamorphic rocks Complex lithology (folded) Silici-Clastic sedimentary consolidated Mixed sedimentary consolidated Carbonate rocks consolidated Evaporites Semi- or unconsolidated sedimentary Alluvial deposits Loess Dunes Wb Ig Pb Pa Vb Va Pr Mt Cl Ss Sm Sc Ep Su Ad Lo Ds Uncertainty A A B B A to B B B B C B to C C B / C depending on regions D B / C depending on regions B B / C depending on regions B
As only major bodies of water and ice (without Antarctica and Greenland) are depicted directly as illustrated in the Geological World Map (DOTTIN et al. 1990), the error seems comparatively small. 129
Plutonic and Volcanic rocks are also depicted mainly as shown on the base map, with some refinements as stated. Due to the greater occurrences and the good delimitation of major basalt plateaus the relative uncertainty for Basic Volcanic rocks seems slightly better. Precambrian and Metamorphic rocks seem also well depicted, the two classes being very similar, and cratons normally being well defined. Complex lithologies shown with more uncertainty, mostly where complex inner centres of orogens are concerned and placing in other lithology classes was not possible due to strong variations in narrow space. Nonetheless, it is not a rock class for undefined rocks as rock types in these regions show distinct characteristics, see the concerning section 3.3.2.9. Thickness of sedimentary rock layers if often only thin and the type of rock can change rapidly vertically and horizontally. As water movement is not restricted to the surface and water is flowing in subsurface strata with different lithology to that mapped for the surface, many aspects concerning water chemistry can not be captured properly by our approach. However, as the purpose of the map is for global hydrological studies and river chemistry data in the database we used (MEYBECK & RAGU 1997) is for stations at river mouth integrating the different processes in the basins, we hope to capture the lithological distribution in a satisfying way at the scale of at least medium to large basins. Silici-clastic sedimentary rocks are more or less well defined, the difficulty of separating siltclay-stones and shales from other rocks (mainly conglomerates and sandstones) in this class has been explained (section 3.3.2.11 and Annexe I.1.1.1). Carbonate rocks are rather well explained, depending on regions. Uncertainties concern mainly the rock definitions between Carbonate rocks and Mixed sedimentary rocks in Asia, mainly for the Tibet highlands where the differentiation, shown on larger scale maps, e.g. DATONG et al. (1985), was not possible on our map. Dunes are well delimited on the FAO-Unesco (1975) soil map used for the design of this rock class on our map. Alluvial deposits are normally shown on geological maps ; locally we could them morphologically along fluvial valleys, or otherwise with the help of the soil map. For the lithology classes of Semi- or unconsolidated rocks (Su) as well as for Alluvial deposits (Ad) we can for the time being not give the exact rock composition. Evidently, granite abundance upstream the alluvial deposits will lead to high granite shares in the sediments, and in a similar way for the other rock types. As explained (section 3.3.2.16) the composition of the sediments in general is often silici-clastic, but may change locally. Loess delimitation was sometimes more problematic due to many occurrences too small or too thin to be mapped at global scale ; in many cases the decision to depict (or not) particular 130
3.7 Conclusions
occurrences on our map was difficult. Thickness of the deposits mapped varies greatly, as explained. We have Separation from Alluvial deposits or other rock classes was sometimes also difficult for the class of Semi- or unconsolidated sedimentary rocks.
3.7
Conclusions
The key rule for establishing a hydrologically useful lithology map is the orientation of rock classification towards influence on surficial fluxes by waters sources, transfers and sinks. For the reasons stated we decided do set up a new digital lithological world map based on the Geological World Map (DOTTIN et al. 1990). The map includes the present continental landmass without Antarctica and currently glaciated parts of Greenland the total area represented in the map thus is 133 M km2. In the process no basic information has been lost e.g. information on geology is available as a separate data layer and can be combined with lithology in order to give ages of different rock types. The map has been established in vector mode allowing transformation to raster format with varying resolutions. Rock classes have been established with respect to the natural classification of rocks (geolithology) and with respect to the sensitivity of rocks to chemical and mechanical weathering (hydro-lithology) with the separation of e.g. carbonates, but also the discussion of non-recent evaporites. Rock classes important for mechanical erosion sinks i.e. deposition, have been introduced (Dunes, Alluvial deposits). Clusters of different rock types in one class are allowed for dispersed outcrops with the introduction of classes for complex lithology and mixed sedimentary rocks. In total 15 distinct rock classes have been established, comprising hard crystalline rocks (Basic and Acid Plutonic, Basic and Acid Volcanic, Precambrian rocks, Metamorphic rocks, and Complex lithologies), soft sedimentary consolidated rocks (Silici-clastic, Mixed sedimentary, Carbonate rocks, and Evaporites) and sediments (Semi- or unconsolidated sedimentary rocks, Alluvial deposits, Loess and Dunes). Geological reasons for the characteristic distribution of the different rock types on the continents as well as problems concerning some rock types in distinct regions have been discussed, and the distribution on the different continents will be further detailed in chapter 4.
131
Wishful for even more detailed approaches and given an appropriate time frame and the necessary manpower, an ameliorated new version of a lithological map for hydrological purposes should be based on a digitalised and geo-referenced version of the maps of the UNESCO Geological Atlas of the World (CHOUBERT et al. 1980) at 1 : 10 000 000 scale. Such a version could also incorporate new distinct lithology classes. A new mapping could better take into account the distribution of Pr (Precambrian), Mt (Metamorphic) and Cl (Complex lithology) within the continental basement, especially the highly and medium metamorphised Precambrian basement. Separation in distinct new lithology classes could be achieved for basic volcanic rocks derived from divergent activities (mantle plumes and rift basalts) as well as for intermediate volcanics derived from collisional activities (orogenic andesites etc.) they have both for the time being assigned as Vb (Basic Volcanic rocks) on our map. In general, finer differentiations could be achieved between pyroclastics and massive volcanics ; each of them could include distinctions between basic, intermediate (young orogenic basic-intermediate volcanics), and acid types. Glacial till in northern latitudes could be separated in a new lithology class from other loose rocks for the time being assigned as Su (Semi- or unconsolidated sedimentary) or Ad (Alluvial deposits).
132

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3 The new lithology database : Global view

3 The new lithology database : Global view

DIC, Ca++, Mg++ TDS TSS

Active orogen s.str. Active Margin

Precambrian Basement Stable Shield

Rifted Margin Passive Margin

(data, books, maps etc. )

Digital lithologic world map

3 The new lithology database : Global view

3.2 Material and sources, existing global lithology / geology data

Material and sources, existing global lithology / geology data

3.2.1 Existing lithology maps

3 The new lithology database : Global view

GIBBS & KUMP 1994

Map of global lithology for 18 ka and the present day

Has been made available to us

Available too late in digital format to be used in our study

DZHAMALOV et al. 1999

UNESCO Map of Hydrogeological Conditions and Groundwater Flow

Scale rather coarse, major discrepancies with other sources

Available on CDROM, usability difficult

RONOV and coworkers, BLATT & JONES 1975

Proportions of exposed rocks

Percentages of rock outcrop

Lithology maps for the continents

Can be used as a first attempt

3.2 Material and sources, existing global lithology / geology data

3 The new lithology database : Global view

3.2 Material and sources, existing global lithology / geology data

3.2.2 Geology maps

3 The new lithology database : Global view

3.2.3 Major sources used for the compilation of our map

3.2 Material and sources, existing global lithology / geology data

FAO Soil Map of the World

1 : 5 000 000 ; available as Digital Map

FAO Lithological Maps

between 1 : 20 000 000 and 1 : 40 000 000)

UNESCO World Map of Hydrogeological Conditions Map of Soluble Rocks of China

Partly by HD, dir. incl. into our map

World Map of Carbonate outcrops

FORD & WILLIAMS

1 : 100 000 000

GIBBS & KUMP lithological map

GIBBS & KUMP 1994

Digital Map, 2 x 2 resolution

Miscellaneous references : Various Fairbridge, Regional Maps,

Partly by HD, dir. incl. into our map

3 The new lithology database : Global view

3.2.4 Conceptual problems and methodological remarks

3.2 Material and sources, existing global lithology / geology data

Examination of previous works:

Water & Ice Precambrian (Shield)

Material & Sources used:

Gibbs & Kump

R O Complex C Metamorphic K T Volcanic Y P E S

New Digital Lithologic World Map

3 The new lithology database : Global view

3.2 Material and sources, existing global lithology / geology data

3.2.5 Some problems of rock classification applied to hydrological fluxes

3 The new lithology database : Global view

3.2 Material and sources, existing global lithology / geology data

Hard rocks Relevance1

Plutonic and metamorphic rocks

Relevance1 Volcanic rocks