01/09/2010

Freedom of Expression: Historical Overview

Freedom of expression, historical development

Relatively recent concept? A i t belief i Ancient b li f in sacred d

monarch
Egypt
Maxims of Ptahhotep (2300 BCE,

Egypt)
Sumerian tablet, c. 2400 BCE

Image: http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/wisdom.htm

Freedom of Expression, historical development

Greeks, c. 500 BCE Parrhesia Blasphemy & libel Romans, c. 1st century CE Only persons in authority enjoyed free speech China Burning of Confucius books, 213 BCE Native Americans Iroquois Council Arab society Heresy

Parrhesia: freedom to speak publicly. Blasphemy: sacreligious (disrispectful) comments. Libel: defamation of character. Roman politicians, could talk freely and question things.

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Freedom of Expression, historical development

Heavy restrictions on

freedom of speech in Europe from 1st century CE y

Blasphemy Heresy Inquisition, c. 13th century CE

Image: http://users.ox.ac.uk/~exet1371/Spanish_Research/Inquisition_in_Europe.html

Historical development of Freedom of Expression in the U.K.

Magna Carta, 1215 CE Idea that power of the government is not unlimited 1275 CE, sedition is outlawed Star Chamber Heavy governmental restriction of free speech Treason Act, 1351 CE Bloody Statute, 1539 CE 1689 English Bill of Rights

magna carta: the idea that the kings power is not absolute. Sedition is talking trash about the king. Treason act, was created in case that someone could kill the king, and decide what to do with the murder. (death row). Bloody statue: basically everyone who could be oposed to the church of the king, could be burned at stake. English bill of right would allow only the parliament to speak freely.

Historical development of Freedom of Expression in the U.K.

More restrictions after

invention of the printing pressWhy?

1450 CE, advent of printing in

UK

1529 CE, Henry VIIIs banned

book list

1538 CE, advent of book

licensing

Stationers Company

Areopagitica

Image: http://www.dartmouth.edu/~toxmetal/TXSHpb.shtml

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Historical development of Freedom of Expression in the U.K.

Licensing system lasted until 1694 CE Freed from prior restraint Sir William Blackstone But, other restrictions remained: Four major types of libel in English courts:
Seditious libel Obscene libel Private libel Blasphemy

Seditious: yer causing friction between the government and the people. Obscene: Private libel: when ye attack the reputation of a person. Blasphemy:

Taxation

Historical development of freedom of speech in the U.S.

U.S. political and legal traditions evolved from U.K. systems
Colonies had many of same restrictions 1610, Gov. Dales Code 1630s, Body of Liberties published 1649 Act of Liberation 1649, 1682, Great Law enacted License systems, censors, sedition laws

The regulation of freedom of speech in the colonies was harsher. Dale's code: talking agains cristians was death penalty. Body of liberty: Act of liberation: when ye were cristian, ye couldn't be burned at stake.

Historical development of freedom of speech in the U.S.

Such censorship began to be challenged in the press Publick Occurences Both Foreign and Domestic Franklins New England Courant 1734, landmark Zenger case

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Historical development of freedom of speech in the U.S.

End of English rule

Immediate shift to free

speech?

Image: http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/declara/images/dunlap.jpg

Historical development of freedom of speech in the U.S

1787, Constitutional Convention draft did not include a Bill

of Rights
Became political issue Federalists v. Anti-Federalists

1789, Bill of Rights drafted Not universally applied

First Amendment
Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the g government for a redress of g grievances.

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Sedition Act of 1798 (excerpt)

If any person shall write, print, utter or publish . . . any false,

scandalous and malicious writing or writings against the government of the United States, or either house of the Congress of the United States, or the President of the United States, with intent to defame . . . or to bring them . . . into contempt or disrepute; or to excite against them . . . the hatred of the good people of the United States, or to stir up sedition within the United States . . . then such person . . . shall be punished by a fine not exceeding two thousand dollars, and by imprisonment not exceeding two years.

19th century freedom of speech

Limited freedom of speech Civil War saw government restriction of free speech
Control of telegraph lines S Suspension of h b corpus i f habeas Arrest of journalists and closure of papers

Late 19th-Early 20th century freedom of speech

Post-Civil War, changing environment in the U.S. Urbanization Industrialization Immigration New media not protected Courts allowed Congressional infringement of freedom of speech World War I Sedition & Espionage Acts

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Discussion
The First Amendment was rewritten to limit Congress

power to restrict speech. Is this fair? How would you improve the wording of the First Amendment? Is the First Amendment necessary, in your opinion?

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Why a class on law and ethics? What can understanding the law provide you?

What are ethics? Why are they important in communication? Values and norms

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News

Immediacy Independence Disclosure

RTNDA [Radio and Television News Directors Association]

Public Relations

Honesty Loyalty Advocacy

J [Society of y SPJ [ Professional Journalists]

Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct

Advertising

Truth Substantiation Comparison

PRSA [Public Relations Society of America]

Code of Ethics

AAF [American Advertising Federation]

Member Code of Ethics Advertising Ethics and Principles

Moral reasoning Analysis of involved components

Whos involved
Parties

Whats involved
Ethical principles Stakes Possible consequences

Golden Rule Golden Mean Kants Categorical Imperative Mill s Utilitarianism Mills Potters Box

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Define the problem State values/principles Possible outcomes Make a decision

Professional Loyalties, values and principles Organizational philosophies, values and principles Moral values, principles and obligations

What happens when they conflict?

Duty to ourselves Duty to our clients/audience Duty to our organization Duty to our colleagues Duty to society

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Wikileaks What leads to different outcomes? Do you agree or disagree with organizational decisions?

Crises in PR

When the organization is you. Blogging & the Fourth Estate

Same ethics apply to bloggers as to journalists for an organization?

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U.S.LEGALSYSTEM

TheU.S.LegalSystem
Areyougoingtobeanattorney?
No? Thenwhyshouldyoucare?

Natureofcommunicationindustries

TheU.S.LegalSystem
Sourcesoflaw
Constitutions
U.S.Constitution Stateconstitutions

Statutes
U.S.C.

Administrative

regulations&decisions
C.F.R.

constitution is the law of the land. it can only be amended by the special request by the people. State also have constitutions, and can be different laws, but they cannot be contradicting the federal constitution. Statues are the laws passed by the congress. Administrative agencies can pass regulations that can also be considered laws.

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Sourcesoflaw&Courtsystems
Sourcesoflaw
Caselaw
Precedent Samejurisdiction Hierarchyofcourts

CourtSystems
Jurisdiction
Personal Subjectmatter

Case law. Jurisdiction is the authority and guvernmental law. Personal is when one state laws is applicable only in that state. Subject matter, when the federal government and the state government strive to use their laws.

CourtSystem

Categorizationsoflaw
Typesoflitigation
Criminal Beyondareasonabledoubt Ci il Civil

Preponderanceoftheevidence Tort
Negligence

Contracts

Criminal: the state against a person or corporations. Public law. Jail can be an option. you need to prove yer innocence beyond a reasonable doubt. Civil: Private law. Usually people look for money. Jail not an option. Tort: Anything else than a contract. Mostly defamation and negligence. You have to show that the other party acted with negligence. Contracts: Enforcing contracts. Are legally binding promises.

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SpecialTopics
JurisdictionandtheInternet
Physicallypresent Minimumcontacts P Purposefullydirected f ll di t d

In terms of internet, the court cannot claim they jurisdiction over you. The only way is that if you have property within the state, purposefully directed contact with people of the state.

Verynuanced,growingarea

SpecialTopics
InternationalJurisdiction
Treaties Unions EU NAFTA

Whataboutinternationallawsuits?
Ownpropertyorresidethere Consistency

Judicialprocess
Civil
Complaint Answer Discovery
Pretrialmotions Settlement

Criminal
Arrest Criminalcomplaint Arraignment/Initial

appearance
Preliminaryhearing
Grandjuryindictment

Trial Decision Appeal?

Pretrialmotions Trial Sentencing Appeal?

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U.S.SupremeCourt
Discretionaryreview Writofcertiorari Majorityopinion
Concurringopinions Dissentingopinions

ChallengestoFreeSpeech
Standardprocess
Messagesent,orannouncementofmessage Righttosendmessagechallenged T i l h i h ld Trialorhearingheld Decisionmade Decisionappealed?

FreedomofExpression
Judicialapproachestofreespeech
Absolutionism Hierarchicalprotection

Evaluationofgovernmentregulationsof l f l f

speech
Tests Doctrines

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Issues
Lawsuits
Highlylitigiousnation

Implications
ImplicationsforU.S.media

business? b i ?

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Introduction to the First Amendment

Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances grievances.

First Amendment

What does freedom of speech mean?

Freedom Speech

Congress Abridge

Freedom of the press?

Not necessarily the right to gather AND publish

Freedom of Expression and the First Amendment

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In favor: Vital in the democratic process Promotes truth discovery Promotes individual agency and g y autonomy Curbs government power

Against: Individual rights versus community rights Speech rights dont equal true, real speech freedoms

Why is freedom of expression important? (or not)?

Marketplace of ideas metaphor

To protect diversity of ideas Remedy for bad ideas is more speech, not more restrictions

Freedom of Expression

Freedom from government censorship? Freedom from compulsory speech or coercion? Freedom of access to channels of communication? Freedom from government domination of communication?

Dimensions of freedom of speech

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Prior restraint
Licensing Coercion

Time, Place, and Manner

Content neutral Narrowly tailored Significant government interest Alternative available channels

After the fact punishment Financial burdens

Compulsory speech
Access Public funds Attribution

Taxes Fees?

Major restrictions

Vagueness & overbreadth Balancing tests Intermediate scrutiny

Strict scrutiny When speech has less FA protection Time, place and manner restrictions Chilling effect

Tests and Doctrines

Public forums
Place designed or traditionally used for communication Parks, streets, sidewalks. All public property?
Military bases, airports, schools? Student newspapers? University press?

First Amendment and public forums

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Issues relating to the First Amendment are not always clear:

Zyprexa case
Judge Tries to Unring Bell Hanging Around Neck of Horse Already Out of Barn Being Carried on Ship That Has Sailed.

C b b ll i Cyberbullying

Discussion

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Clear&PresentDanger,IncitementtoIllegalConduct,&NationalSecurity

Refinementofconceptbycourts LargelyignoredbycourtspriortoWWI
Rightnotextendedtoentirepopulation
Slaves Women Abolitionists

Abridgementsofspeechtolerated
States Privatecitizens Governmentownedplaceormeansofcommunication

WorldWarI
U.S.decidedtoenterthewar AntiwarsentimentscouldcauserisktoU.S.

militarycapabilitiesorpolicy
Legislationpassedprovidedthebasisfor

developmentofnewdoctrine

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Prohibitedawidevarietyofantigovernmentspeech Prohibitionsextendedto:
Anyonemakingfalsereportsorfalsestatementswithintentto

interferewiththeoperationorsuccessofthemilitary,orintendingto obstructsaleofU.S.bonds.
Anyonewho,whentheUnitedStatesisatwar,causesorattemptsto

inciteinsubordination,disloyalty,mutiny,orrefusalofdutyinthe military,orwhoattemptstodisrupttherecruitingorenlistment Anyonewhowillfullyprints,writers,uttersorpublisheslanguage intendedtoencourageresistanceagainsttheU.S. Anyonedisplayingtheflagofaforeignnation Anyonewhoadvocatesthecurtailmentofproductionofproducts necessarytotheU.S.warcause.

AggressivelyenforcedduringWWI Morethan2,000peopleprosecutedforantiwar expressions AppealstoSupremeCourthelpeddelineate FreedomofExpression

Schenckv.UnitedStates (1919)
Schenckprinted15,000ofpamphletsintendedfor

distribution.
Pamphletsdeclaredthedraftwas

unconstitutional,andurgeddrafteesnotto submittointimidationbyauthorities ArrestedandconvictedundertheEspionageAct AppealedtoSupremeCourt

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SupremeCourtupheldconviction Newtestcreated:ClearandPresentDangerTest
JusticeOliverWendellHolmes:
Themoststringentprotectionoffreespeechwouldnotprotecta Themoststringentprotectionoffreespeechwouldnotprotecta maninfalselyshoutingfireinatheater,andcausingapanic.The questionineverycaseiswhetherthewordsusedareusedinsuch circumstancesandareofsuchanaturetocreateaclearandpresent dangerthattheywillbringaboutthesubstantiveevilsthat Congresshasarighttoprevent.

Characterofspeechdependsoncircumstances Isspeechacalltoaction?

Brandenburgv.Ohio (1969) ClarenceBrandenburgwastheleaderoftheKKKin Ohio

Statedpubliclythathemighthavetotakerevengeonthe

government,ifthegovernmentdidntstopsuppressing thewhiterace ConvictedforviolatingtheOHCriminalSyndicalism statute

Courtoverturnedconviction,andrefinedtestfor incitementtoillegalconduct

3partsofthetestmustbemet:
Thespeechmustbedirectedtoincitingillegal

action
Thespeechmustbecallingforimminentaction,

notjustconductatsomelatertime
Thespeechmustbelikelytoproducesuch

conduct

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Whathappenswhenyourexpressionis perceivedtodirectlythreatenthesecurityof theUnitedStates TheFirstAmendmentandNationalSecurity

Whatispriorrestraint?
Prohibitiononexpressionwhichisimposedbefore

themessageiscommunicated.

Whatarereasonsforuseofpriorrestraint? Wh f f i i ?
Whengovernmentofficialsfearthatreleaseof

certaininfowillharmnationalsecurity.

Ispriorrestraintthenorm?
NO,heavypresumptionagainstit.

Nearv.Minnesota (1931)
NearwasanewspapereditorinMN,goingto

publishscandalousmaterial.
ThegovernorofMNtriedtostophimfrom

publishing
SupremeCourtsaidthatpriorrestraintis

unconstitutional
Justicesnotedthatpriorrestraintscouldbe

acceptableincasesofnationalsecurity

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USv.WashingtonPost (1971) AlsoknownasPentagonPapers DanielEllsburgfoundpapersthatwerepotential embarrassmentsforU.S.government. embarrassmentsforU S government Nixonadministrationtriedtostopthepapers publicationonthegroundsthatitwouldharm nationalsecurity. Federaljudgegavetheminjunction SupremeCourtruledpriorrestraintis unconstitutional

USvProgressive (1979) Ajournalwasgoingtopublishanarticledetailing howtomakeahydrogenbomb Governmentsoughtinjunction,ongroundsitwould Governmentsoughtinjunction ongroundsitwould causeirreparableharmtonationalsecurity CasewenttoWIFederalDistrictCourt,andthe judgeruledforgovernment
Informationonconstructionofahydrogenbombfallswithin

extremelynarrowexceptiontoruleagainstpriorrestraint

Sneppv.U.S. (1980) SneppformerCIAagentwhowrotebook describingCIAactivitiesinVietnam. CIAsuedforviolationofSneppscontractual df l f l agreementagainstdisclosure. SupremeCourtdecidedthepublicationof thisbookandotherslikeitcausedirreparable harmtoeffictivenessofU.S.intelligence operations.

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BurdenofProof Values SocietalConsiderations

Negligence
Legaldutytoshowreasonablecare Failuretodoso Resultedininjury

Withexpression,oftenmustshowadditional pointsofincitementtest Zamorav.ColumbiaBroadcastingSystem (1979)

Doyouagreethatafterthefactpunishmentsshouldbe preferredtopriorrestraints? Shouldpriorrestraintsbesustainedagainstspeechthat threatensspecificindividuals,suchasastoryheadlined, WitnessesintheFederalWitnessRelocationProgram WitnessesintheFederalWitnessRelocationProgram WhereAreTheyNow? Theinternethasmadealotofinformationavailabletothe public.Woulditbeappropriateforthegovernmenttoseeka priorrestraintpreventingthefollowingfrombeingpostedto websites:

Instructionsonhowtocounterfeitmoneyorcommitcreditcardfraud Instructionsonhowtomakeillegaldrugs

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FreedomofExpression
Restrictions:Defamationofcharacter

DefamationofCharacter
Defamationisanothercategoryofrestrictedspeech
Usedtobepunishedascriminal Now,civilmatter
Somecriminalstatutesremain

Defamation
FAdoesnotprotectdefamatoryspeech Whatconstitutesdefamatoryspeech?

Afalsestatement(writtenororal)thatlowersthe reputationofanotherpersonorsubjectshimor reputation of another person or subjects him or hertoridicule,shame,ostracismordisgrace.

Speechoflowvalue Maysuefordefamation

Compensatorydamages Maybeawardofpunitivedamages

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Defamation
Longhistoryofprohibitinglibelousexpression. Twoclassesofdefamation,thatnowareusedasone: LibelLanguageusedintortlawtorefertononspokenexpression thatinjuresthereputationofanother SlanderOraldefamation,speechthatinjuresthereputationof anotherperson. I it d f Isitadefamationcase? ti ? Defamatorystatement? True? Published? Identified? Notanhonestmistake? Causedharm?

DefamationTest
Sixelements:
whatwasexpressedisfalse thestatementwasactuallydefamatory;i.e.itput someoneinanegativelight someone in a negative light Thestatementwaspublished Theplaintiffwasidentified theplaintiffwasactuallydamagedorharmedby thestatement Notanhonestmistake.

Defamation
Whenissomethingactuallydefamatory?
Context Naturaleffect Implication

Whoprovesfalsity?Andhowfalse?
Faircommentprivilege

Whenissomethingpublished? Howissomeoneidentified?

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Damages
Compensatory

Punitive

CaseStudy
NewYorkTimesv.Sullivan (1964) SullivansuedtheNYTforlibel Someofchargesnottrue Statementsweredefamatory DistrictcourtawardedSullivandamages S SupremeCourtoverturnedthejudgement C d h j d Addedadditionaltestelement Actualmalicestatementsmadewithknowledgethattheyarefalse orwithrecklessdisregardforthetruth Tosaythatpeoplecanbepunishedformakingfalsestatements,even iftheywerentawareofit,wouldhavetoogreatofachillingeffecton freepoliticalexpression.

ActualMalice
Falsestatementsaboutpublicfigures deservedFirstAmendmentprotectioninform ofactualmalicerule Complicated to prove Complicatedtoprove
Example:acommunicatorknewastatementwas false,oractedwithrecklessdisregardforthe truth.

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PublicFigures
Whyarepublicfigurestreateddifferentlyintermsof defamationthanordinarycitizens?

Theychosetoputthemselvesinpubliceye Higherthresholdofcriticism g Moreopportunitiestorespondtocharges Societyisbetterservedbyhavingmoreinfoabout publicservants Presshastobeabletocriticize.Needsroomfor honestmistakes.

CaseStudy
AssociatedPressv.Walker (1967) WalkersuedtheAPaftertheyreportedthatWalkerhad ledaviolentcrowdduringriotsattheUofMississippi afterafederalcourthadorderedtheenrollmentofan AfricanAmerican Walkerreceivedcompensatoryandpunitivedamages. SupremeCourtsaidthatalthoughhewasretired,Walker wasstillapublicfigure.

Fault
Gertzv.RobertWelch,Inc.(1974) Establishedactualmaliceruleonlyappliesto publicfiguresorpublicofficials public figures or public officials Negligence ReasonableCare

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PublicFigures
Whoisapublicfigure?
Allpurpose Limitedpurpose

Di ti ti b t Distinctionbetweenpublicandprivatefigures bli d i t fi MonicaLewinskypublicfigure? Instancesofindividualswhoareinvolvedin publicissueswhoarenotlegallyclassifiedas publicfigures

Protectionsagainstlibelsuits
Publicrecordprivilege
Qualified Wireservices

Retractions Statuteoflimitations Neutralreportage?

Mediastrikeback
AntiSLAPP Maliciousprosecution

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Internetlibel
Libelsuitsagainst:
Authorsofcontent Distributors Common carriers/ISPs Commoncarriers/ISPs

Problemsofdefinitionofterms TelecommunicationsAct1996

Libelsuits
Casesalwaysinthenews
MSUformerfootballcoach JeffGreene Libeltourism

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Privacy

Privacy
Verycomplicated,growingareaoflegalstudy

Lawschangeassocietychanges

Privacy
In18th and19th centuries,littleattentionpaidto privacyinlaw y , g By1900s,timeshadchanged
Why?

Civillawrightofprivacy Criminallawstoprotectprivacy

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Privacy
Fourprivacytorts:
Commercialappropriation Publicdisclosure bli di l Falselight Intrusion

Appropriation
Usingsomeonesnameorlikenessforcommercial purposeswithouttheirpermission
Forcommercialpurposes
NewYorkercover?

Consent
Nestlcase

Nameorlikeness

Alsoknownasmisappropriationorinfringementof anindividualsrightofprivacy

Disclosure
Disclosure
Concernspublicityaboutembarrassingprivate mattersthatareofnolegitimateconcerntothe publicandwouldbehighlyoffensivetoa reasonableperson bl Highlyoffensive Trueinformation Newsworthy Privatefacts
CoxBroadcastingCorp.v.Cohn(1975)

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Falselightinvasions
Publicrepresentationofsomeoneinafalse andhighlyoffensiveway
Similarto,butnotsameas,defamation
Damages Individuals

Forpublicfigures,mustalsoshowactual malice Florida

Intrusion
Intentionalinvasionofapersonsphysicalspaceor privateaffairsinawaythatwouldbepatently offensivetoareasonableperson
P bli Publicversusprivateplaces i t l Offensive Newsworthiness
Dietemannv.Time,Inc.(1971)

CompanionTorts
Fraud Intentionalinflictionofemotionaldistress Trespass

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Defensestoprivacytorts
Appropriation:consent Disclosure:newsworthiness Falselight:truth/absenceofactualmalice Intrusion:noexpectationofprivacy

Privacyandcriminalstatutes
Somestateshavemadeitcriminaltoengage incertainmethodsofinformationgathering, ordisclosingcertaintypesofinformation or disclosing certain types of information

Criminalstatutes
Identitybetrayal
Releasingconfidentialinformation Statutes are usually unconstitutional to prevent Statutesareusuallyunconstitutionaltoprevent mediafromdisclosingtruthfulinformation,ifonly purposeistoprotectindividualprivacy

Wiretapping
Crimetointerceptorrecordprivateconversations electronically Florida

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Internetandprivacy
Email

Spyware KidsandtheInternet:LivingOnline

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Access to Information & Places

Why is it important?
A popular government without popular information or the means of acquiring it, is but a Prologue to a Farce or a Tragedy; or, p g g y perhaps p both. Knowledge will forever govern ignorance: And a people who mean to be their own Governors, must arm themselves with the power which knowledge gives. --James Madison, Fourth President of the United States

Access to Information
Not generally a First Amendment issue Media not guaranteed more access than the general public Public and media depend on legislation passed to provide access to government information and places

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Federal Legislation
Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) Applies to federal agencies Any person may request information Reno: greater disclosure Ashcroft: new standard for assessing requests Holder: rescinded Ashcroft memo; presumption toward disclosure Exemptions:
National security Agency personnel rules/practices Exemptions required by federal law Trade secrets Privileged gov. comm. Confidential personnel & medical files Confidential law enforcement records Records concerning regulation of financial institutions Oil well information

Federal Legislation
Federal Sunshine Act To give access to government g meetings
Definition of a meeting

Exemptions similar to those of the FOIA If exempted from the Sunshine p Act, a meeting may be closed
Transcripts Obtaining copies of closed session transcripts

Agencies must provide advance notice of a meeting, and conduct the meeting openly

Access to public records held by state

Open records statutes Balance of public right to know with personal privacy
Jailhouse phone calls

Issues with police records

Routine incidents/arrests record Progress of ongoing investigation Criminal histories

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State Legislation
State Sunshine Laws Apply to agencies funded by tax dollars y Vary state to state Definitions Exemptions FL Sunshine Act One of the best in terms of promoting openness Constitutional right of access g to meetings in legislative branch

Open meetings laws

States Federal

When having a meeting, a state agency must: Provide advance public notice Conduct meetings openly Generally applies to agencies, councils, commissions and boards at local and state levels Executive sessions Florida

Sunshine Act of 1976 Advance public notice C d Conduct meetings openly i l Only applies to executive branch and to certain agencies Examples of exceptions: National defense Internal personnel practices Trade secrets Personal information/invasion of privacy

Trespass & Consent

Trespass
Intentional, unauthorized entry upon property possessed b others d by th Entry without consent Concern for media when entering private property (i.e. with police) Criminal trespass Confiscation

Consent
Express Implied
Custom and usage Does not extend to all activities

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Access to publicly-owned places

Accident, crime, or natural disaster scenes
May limit access

Government property
Difference with private property

Jails and prisons

Houchins v. KQED, Inc. (1978)

Selective Access
If no statute governing disclosure for a particular office of government or type of information, then government has discretion to restrict access But once they voluntarily grant access to certain members of the media, then trying to restrict access to others can be termed selective access Selective access is frowned upon, without a compelling government interest

Issues with Selective Access

Allow access to some individuals or entities, but not others Equal Protection Clause
Fourteenth Amendment

Due Process Clause

Fifth Amendment

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Cases in the News

Carl Paladino Forest Chief s gag order Chiefs