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Bradley D. Miller, P.E. Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Houston, Houston, TX 77204, USA Abstract
To implement the lean manufacturing philosophy, engineers utilize kaizen: a structured process for continuous improvement that heavily involves the floor operator. The successful implementation of lean requires kaizen to motivate floor operators to both learn and apply industrial engineering principles to their individual tasks. The implied motivational power of the kaizen process has not been studied using modern psychological motivation theories. This paper describes expectancy-value motivation theory from a social-cognitive perspective and proposes how the kaizen process fits within this theoretical framework to increase worker motivation. Keywords: Kaizen, Lean Manufacturing, Psychology, Expectancy-Value Theory, Motivation
1.0 Introduction
Lean manufacturing has attracted increased attention in the industrial engineering community over the past decade. In order to implement the lean manufacturing philosophy, engineers utilize kaizen blitz: a structured process for continuous improvement that heavily involves floor operators [8, 29]. The successful implementation of lean requires the kaizen blitz process to motivate floor operators to both learn and apply industrial engineering principles to their individual tasks [1, 15 25, 31]. Industrial engineering researchers have extensively studied the utility and frequency of the use of lean tools [21, 22]. These researchers have assumed the motivational influences within kaizen blitz to change employee behavior. This assumed and implied motivational power of the kaizen process has not been studied using modern psychological motivation theories. Psychologists have studied motivation extensively over the past 100 years [28]. Expectancy-value theory has been robustly tested and recently explored within the context of academic motivation. This theory proposes that expectancy and task value beliefs predict and correlate with persistence, effort, choice, and performance at a goaldirected task. Expectancy-value motivation theory from a social-cognitive perspective provides a framework for describing the motivational process involved during a kaizen blitz.
Expectancy Beliefs Expectation for success Self-perception of ability Achievement Behavior Persistence Effort Choice of activity Performance figure 1
4.2 Expectancy beliefs Eccles and Wigfield define two primary expectancy beliefs: (1) expectation for success at an activity and (2) selfperception of competence at performing that task [11, 12, 13, 35, 36]. Expectation for success refers to an individuals belief that their behavior will result in favorable outcomes. An example of a statement of expectation for success in a kaizen blitz event would be I am certain that kaizen blitz events I am a part of will be successful. Self-perception of competence refers to an individuals belief that they are capable and competent to exhibit a particular behavior successfully [35, 37]. An example of a statement of self-perception of competence in a kaizen blitz event would be I am capable of doing the work involved in a kaizen event. In studies involving these two beliefs, they consistently emerge as a single statistical construct [10, 11]. The single construct of expectancy beliefs relates closely to Banduras [2] concept of self-efficacy [12, 13, 28]. Self-efficacy,
the belief individuals have of themselves that they can competently learn and complete a task successfully [2, 23], has been associated with the achievement behaviors persistence, effort, and actual performance [9, 28]. Educational psychologists also assume that expectancy beliefs are positively correlated with an individuals effort, persistence, and performance in specific academic subjects [9]. In Eccles and Wigfields expectancy-value model of motivation, expectancy beliefs are directly associated with achievement behaviors [28]. However, expectancy beliefs have been shown to exist in conjunction with and parallel to task value beliefs to influence achievement behavior and motivation [11, 12, 13, 35, 36]. 4.3 Task value beliefs Task value beliefs refer to an individuals beliefs that a specific task or behavior will be worthwhile [11, 12, 13, 35, 36]. These researchers describe task value beliefs as falling into four separate [10, 11] categories: (1) importance or attainment value, (2) enjoyment or interest value, (3) usefulness and utility value, and (4) perceived cost. Importance or attainment value is defined as the importance of performing well or achieving success on a task. An example of an importance value belief related to kaizen blitz events would be When I am participating in a kaizen blitz event, it is important for that event to be successful. Enjoyment or interest value is defined as how enjoyable or satisfying the individual finds the experience of performing a task. An example of an interest value belief related to kaizen blitz events would be I enjoy working on a kaizen blitz team. Usefulness and utility value refers to how useful the task is perceived to be in enabling the individual to reach future personal goals. An example of a usefulness value belief related to kaizen blitz would be Participating in kaizen blitz events is useful for improving my job. Finally, the cost of participating in an activity refers to the negative emotional, mental, and physical effort that is perceived to be associated with the task. In previous research, the cost component has not been evaluated empirically but are assumed to play a role in determining the overall value an individual attributes to a task [28]. Unlike expectancy beliefs, the constructs of importance, enjoyment, and usefulness emerge statistically as separate and distinct variables [10, 11]. Researchers assume that the importance, enjoyment, and usefulness values are related somewhat to an individuals effort, persistence, and performance in specific academic subjects [9]. This same study revealed that importance, enjoyment, and usefulness values are strongly related to the intended and actual choice of academic enrollment decisions. Additionally, expectancy beliefs tend to correlate positively with task value beliefs [11].
5.3 Expectancy beliefs in kaizen blitz Expectancy-value research demonstrates that the expectancy beliefs of students expectation for success and their confidence in their own abilities are strongly related to achievement behaviors [28]. Likewise, kaizen blitz research suggests that in order for kaizen blitz events to be successful, employees must be confident in their abilities [19, 33] as well as trust in the kaizen process to work [16, 19].
6.0 Conclusion
The expectancy-value model has been robustly tested in educational settings to explain students motivation for exhibiting academic achievement behaviors. Using a survey measurement instrument, psychologists measure expectancy and task value beliefs and demonstrate correlations between these beliefs and persistence, effort, choice and performance at academic tasks. These same primary variables involved in motivation from an expectancy-value perspective are clearly advocated by kaizen proponents, albeit anecdotally. A survey of lean manufacturing literature demonstrates that researchers believe that high expectancy and task value beliefs are necessary for successful kaizen blitz events. Future research should measure these psychological variables within employees involved in kaizen blitz events to discover if they relate. Once tested empirically, the expectancy-value theory could be used to explain why kaizen tends to motivate line workers to improve their own work areas. Determining that expectancy and task value beliefs predict achievement behaviors within kaizen blitz events may encourage further research to explore ways to influence the antecedents to these key beliefs.
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