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UNESCO 2010
IHP-VII/2010/GW-2

SUSTAINABILITY OF THE KARST ENVIRONMENT
DINARIC KARST AND OTHER KARST REGIONS

International Interdisciplinary Scientific Conference
(Plitvice Lakes, Croatia, 23-26 September 2009)

Convened and Organised by:
Centre for Karst (Gospi, Croatia)

International Scientific Committee
Ognjen Bonacci (Croatia), Chairman
Franci Gabrovek (Slovenia)
Mladen Jurai (Croatia)
Boidar Biondi (Croatia)
Wolfgang Dreybrodt (Germany)
Arthur Palmer (USA)
Derek C. Ford (Canada)
David Culver (USA)
Andrej Mihevc (Slovenia)
Jacques Mudry (France)
Daoxian Yuan (China)
Nico Goldscheider (Switzerland, Germany)
Zoran Stevanovi (Serbia)
Mario Parise (Italy)
Hans Zojer (Austria)
Elery Hamilton - Smith (Australia)
Neven Krei (USA)
Bartolom Andreo (Spain)

Local Organizing Committee
Jadranka Pejnovi, Chair
eljko upan, Secretary
Ivo Lui
Neven Boi
Aleksandar Luki
Ljudevit Tropan
Dubravka Kljajo
Kreimir ulinovi
Ivica Tomljenovi







Foreword

The objective of the international interdisciplinary scientific conference Sustainability of
the karst environment - Dinaric karst and other karst regions, organized by Centre for
Karst, Gospi, Croatia, was to give a theoretical and practical contribution to the concept of
sustainable development in karst regions, with a special emphasis on the experiences achieved
in the Dinaric karst region. The exchange of information and findings obtained in other karst
regions worldwide allows for an integral approach to this complex issue, and thereby
contribute towards finding reliable solutions. The basic objective of the conference was to
apply an interdisciplinary approach to scientifically assess the issues of sustainable
development of all forms of karst.
The issue was approached from different perspectives, from those of a technical and
biological nature, to those addressing the social aspects of environmental issues and life on
the karst. The conference itself was held at the Plitvice Lakes (World Heritage Site), one of
the most fascinating phenomena on Earth. During the conference, one half-day excursion was
organized to visit National Park Plitvice Lakes. Following the conference, an excursion was
organised to visit several other significant phenomena of the Dinaric karst in Croatia.

Conference themes were:
- Geological aspects
- Geomorphological aspects
- Hydrological and hydrogeological aspects
- Coastal and submerged karst
- Biological and ecological aspects of karst
- Anthropogenic impacts and protecting karst
- Sociological, demographic and social aspects of karst
- Dinaric karst and other karst regions (China, Alpine, Caribbean karst, etc.)

The publication will serve as a contribution to the VIIth Phase of the International
Hydrological Programme (IHP 2008-2013) of UNESCO, which has endeavoured to address
demands arising from a rapidly changing world.

Chairman of Scientific Committee

Ognjen Bonacci



International Interdisciplinary Scientific Conference
SUSTAINABILITY OF THE KARST ENVIRONMENT
DINARIC KARST AND OTHER KARST REGIONS
(Plitvice Lakes, Croatia, 23-26 September 2009)

TABLE OF CONTENTS

International scientific and local organising committees ......3
Foreword ...................................................................................................................................4
Table of contents (authors in alphabetical order) ..5

BONACCI Ognjen
Sinking, losing and underground karst streamflows ..9

BORDA Daniela, RACOVI Gheorghe, NSTASE-BUCUR Ruxandra,
CIUBOTRESCU Christian
Ecological reconstruction of bat cave Roost in western Carpathians .....17

BRINKMANN Robert
Karst and sustainability in Florida, U.S.A. ........25

DELLE ROSE Marco, PARISE

Mario
Water management in the karst of Apulia, southern Italy ...33

DRFLIGER Nathalie, FLEURY Perrine

, BAKALOWICZ Michel , EL HAJJ Hahmad,
AL CHARIDEH Abdoul, EKMEKCI Mehmet
Specificities of coastal karst aquifers with the hydrogeological
characterisation of submarine springs overview of various examples
in the Mediterranean basin ..41

DRFLIGER

Nathalie, PLAGNES

Valrie, KAVOURI Konstantina
PaPRIKa a multicriteria vulnerability method as a tool for sustainable
management of karst aquifers - Example of application on a test site in
SW France .49

EFTIMI Romeo
Investigation about recharge sources of Bistrica karst spring, the
biggest spring of Albania, by means of environmental hydrochemical
and isotope tracers ....57



GANOULIS Jacques, AURELI Alice, KUKURI Neno
Importance of transboundary karst aquifer resources in South Eastern
Europe (SEE) ....67

GUO FANG Jiang Guanghui
The resources, environment and development in Fengshan Geopark
karst area .......75

HUBINGER Bernhard , REHRL Christoph, BIRK Steffen
Linking generic models to site-related models of conduit evolution 83

JAMES Julia M., SPATE Andy

Sustainability in a karst - the Bungonia Caves, New South Wales,
Australia ....91

KATSANOU Konstantina, NIKOLAOU

Euaggelos, SIAVALAS George, ZAGANA
Eleni, LAMBRAKIS Nikolaos

Hydrogeological conditions and water quality of the karstified
formations of Louros basin, Epirus, Greece ......97

KNEZ Martin, SLABE Tadej
Karstology and motorway construction ...107

KNEZ Martin, SLABE Tadej
Shilin - lithological characteristics, form and rock relief of the Lunan
Stone Forests (South China karst) 115

KOVAI Gregor, PETRI Metka
Contribution of time series analysis to the study of the Malenica
karst spring, Slovenia .123

MALEKOVI Sanja, TIMA Sanja , FARKA Anamarija
Capacity for managing local development in karst areas ...129

MUDARRA Matas, ANDREO Bartolom
Hydrogeological functioning of the karst aquifer drained by Yedra Spring
(Southern Spain) from hydrochemical components and organic natural
tracers ......137



NAUGHTON Owen, JOHNSTON Paul, GILL Laurence
The hydrology of turloughs as groundwater dependent terrestrial
ecosystems ...147

PARISE Mario
Hazards in karst .155

PERNE Matija
Modelling of rillenkarren formation 163

RUBINIC

Josip, KATALINIC

Ana, SVONJA

Mirjana, GABRIC

Ivana, BUSELIC

Gordana, CUZE Maja, HORVAT

Bojana
Salinization of the Vrana Lake in Dalmatia within the context of
anthropogenic influences and climate changes (situation in 2008) 171

TERZI Josip, PAVII Ante, MARKOVI Tamara, LUKA REBERSKI Jasmina
Protection of the Miljacka karst spring: an underground connection
between the rivers Zrmanja and Krka 179

9

Sinking, losing and underground karst streamflows

Ognjen BONACCI

Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Split University, 21000 Split,
Matice hrvatske 15, Croatia, e-mail: obonacci@gradst.hr


Abstract: Sinking, losing and underground streamflows are typical and relatively frequent karst
phenomena. A sinking surface streamflow can be defined as a surface river or stream flowing onto
or over karst and which then disappears completely underground through a swallow hole and
which may or may not rise again and flow as a resurgent surface river or stream. A losing
streamflow can be defined as an open stream or river that loses water as it flows downstream. The
level of water in a losing stream is above the water table: in comparison, the level of water in a
gaining stream is below the water table. In a losing stream water infiltrates underground, because
the water table is below the bottom of the stream channel. Underground or subterranean
streamflows are subsurface karst passages with the main characteristics of open rivers or streams.
In underground streamflows water flows through caves, caverns, karst conduits and large galleries
in karst underground. The paper treats some conceptual aspects of sinking, losing and underground
streamflows. Some cases of the special hydrological and hydrogeological behaviour of karst
sinking, losing and underground streamflows are explained.
Keywords: karst, sinking, losing, underground streamflow


1 Introduction
Karst is defined as a terrain, generally underlain by limestone or dolomite, in which the
topography is chiefly formed by the dissolving of rock, and which is characterised by
sinkholes, sinking streams, closed depressions, subterranean drainage and caves (Field 2002).
A wide range of closed surface depressions, a well-developed underground drainage system,
and strong interaction the between circulation of surface water and groundwater typify karst.
Due to very high infiltration rates, especially in bare karst, overland and surface flow is rare in
comparison with non-karst terrains.
Carbonate rocks are more soluble than many other rocks. They are subject to a number
of geomorphological processes. The processes involved in the weathering and erosion of
carbonate rocks are many and diverse. The varied and often spectacular surface landforms are
merely a guide to the presence of unpredictable conduits, fissures and cavities beneath the
ground. But at the same time these subsurface features can occur even where surface karstic
landforms are completely absent. Diversity is considered the main feature of karstic systems,
which are known to change over time and in space so that an investigation of each system on
its own is required.
Interactions between the surface and subsurface in karst are very strong (Bonacci 1987).
Groundwater and surface water are hydraulically connected through numerous karst features
that facilitate the exchange of water between the surface and subsurface (Katz et al 1997).
High and fast oscillations of groundwater levels in karst control the hydrogeological and
hydrological regimes of influent and underground streams. An important issue in studying
these streams is that subsurface water is highly heterogeneous in terms of the location of
conduits, the location of vertically moving water, and flow velocities. Due to the previously
mentioned reasons, the occurrence of losing, sinking and underground streamflows is more
the rule than an exception.
10

A great problem regarding the explanation of the hydrological and hydrogeological
behavior of such streamflows is connected with the particularities of karst underground
features and especially with karst aquifers. Karst aquifers are some of the most complex and
difficult systems to decipher. The highly heterogeneous nature of karst aquifers leads to an
inability to predict groundwater flow direction and travel times. The circulation of
groundwater in karst aquifers is quite different from water circulation in other non-karstic
type aquifers. The hydraulic permeability of karst aquifers is essentially created by flowing
water and has an anisotropic character.
In karst terrains groundwater and surface water constitute a single dynamic system. Due
to this reason one of the almost unavoidable characteristics of open streams, creeks and rivers
in karst regions is that they either have partial water loss along their course or completely sink
into the underground (Bonacci 1987). Sinking, losing and underground streamflows are more
typical, significant and relatively frequent karst phenomena than is reflected in their treatment
in the karst literature. A synonym for a sinking and losing stream is an influent stream. Such
streams have an integral function in karst hydrology and hydrogeology.
Influent and underground streams develop when they cross soluble rocks along their
transfer route to base-level rivers or seas (Ray 2005). Challenges to the investigation of
influent and underground streams include the concurrent existence of fast turbulent flow
through large karst conduits and slow, diffuse laminar flow through small karst fissures, joints,
cracks and bedding plains (the karst matrix). Numerous and extremely varied surface and
underground karst forms make unexpected water connections possible in karst medium space,
which changes over time. Changes of the underground flow path over the time are caused by:
1) Different recharges from different surface areas, mainly due to the by variable distribution
of areal precipitation; 2) Different groundwater levels and their rapid changes in time and
space; 3) Anthropogenic influence; and 4) Exogenic and endogenic forces (Bonacci 2004).
The objective of this paper is to discuss the hydrological aspects of losing, sinking and
underground streams that are closely connected with the hydrogeological characteristics of the
regions through which they circulate. One of the key issues for the better understanding,
protection and management of karst systems is the determination of the influent and
underground stream catchment area. Due to very special and complex underground and
surface karst forms, there are a wide variety of cases of karst sinking, losing and underground
streamflows. An attempt at their conceptualisation is provided in the paper. The main issue in
the classification of these kinds of karst rivers is that they can be losing, sinking and
underground, all at the same time. A description of specific cases of the special hydrological
behaviour of sinking, losing and underground streamflows is given.

2 Losing streamflow
A losing streamflow can be defined as an open stream or river that loses water as it
flows downstream. A losing streamflow is a surface stream that contributes water to the karst
groundwater system in localized areas. It has cracks in its bed that allow water to seep into the
groundwater. These losses can be massive in particular river sections, whereas in others they
are small and difficult or even impossible to observe without performing especially precise
measurements. A direct way surface water becomes groundwater is through the capture of
surface streams into subsurface voids through swallets. These features swallow the surface
stream and represent a rapid and direct way for groundwater recharge. Losing streams
segments are important groundwater recharge zones for underlying karst aquifers.
A losing streamflow is one having a bed that allows water to flow directly into the
groundwater system. The water level in a losing stream is higher than the water table, as
opposed to the water level in a gaining stream which is lower than the water table. The water
than infiltrates underground as the water table is lower than the bottom of the stream channel.
11

Losing streamflows are often used in relation to karst aquifers. Aquifers gain the water lost by
the losing stream. Due to very rapid rise and fall of groundwater levels in karst terrains, some
losing rivers or their losing stretches can intermittently act as gaining streams.
Figure 1 presents an attempt at the conceptualisation of losing streamflows.
Occasionally, permanent water courses flow beyond the groundwater level, even for 50 m or
more. Bonacci (1987, 1999) called these river sections suspended or perched. Water
infiltrated from these sections can either flow in another catchment or can reappear in the
downstream reaches of same river (at the spring B in Figure 1b).

a)
b)
B
c)
B
river section without losses
river flow direction
sinkhole (swallow hole, ponor)
flow direction of infiltrated water through the
large karst conduits in the same river catchment
Legend:
spring
suspended river section
flow direction of infiltrated water through the
karst matrix in the same river catchment
flow direction of infiltrated water through the
large karst conduits in an other river catchment
flow direction of infiltrated water through the
karst matrix in an other river catchment
B spring can be
permanent
or intermittent


Figure 1 Conceptualisation of losing streamflows

For example suspended or perched stretches exist on two neighbouring karst rivers
Zrmanja and Krka (Dinaric karst of Croatia). While the Zrmanja River dries out, the Krka
River never dries out in these sections. The reason why there are no water losses on the Krka
suspended section of the Krka is in the fact that its riverbed is comprised of fine-grained
sediments, which make infiltration impossible.
Dye-tracing methods are commonly used to determine groundwater flow paths,
relations between surface water and groundwater, and groundwater travel times through the
karst underground. It should be stressed that flow paths, connections between certain sinks
and springs, very often vary in time and space, mainly due to the varying groundwater
conditions in the underground. Complexity of the precise determination of the water losses
along open streamflows in karst is discussed by Bonacci (1987).

3 Sinking streamflow
A sinking surface streamflow can be defined as a surface river or stream flowing onto or
over karst that then disappears completely underground through a swallow-hole (ponor or
sinkhole) and which may or may not rise again and flow as a resurgent surface river or stream.
Infiltration from sinking streams into the karst groundwater system is the most rapid form of
recharge for carbonate aquifers (Hess et al 1989).
Sinking streams represent the most direct access to the sensitive and highly vulnerable
karst groundwater system. The unique nature of sinking rivers is their development and
evolution of conduit flow routes and caves through soluble rocks. The evolution of most of
the worlds largest and most significant karst caves and springs are formed as a consequence
of large volumes of concentrated recharge from sinking rivers (Ray 2005).
12

Figure 2 presents an attempt at the conceptualisation of sinking streamflows. Sinking
stream can reappear at the surface through a typically large karst spring (Figure 2a), though
there are some cases when it reappears through many permanent and intermittent karst springs
dissipated over a large area.

a)
b)
intermittent (temporary) spring
river flow direction
sinkhole (swallow hole, ponor)
flow direction of sinking water
through large conduits
Legend:
permanent spring
flow direction of sinking water
through karst matrix


Figure 2 Conceptualisation of sinking streamflows

Hess et al (1989) explains that the south-Central Kentucky karst aquifer is fed by many
sinking streams. Their catchments are made up of an aggregate of many small surface
catchments ranging over an area of a few square kilometres. Some of these streams have
several surface tributaries, but most of the sinking creeks are short, first order streams.
The Lika and Gacka Rivers (Dinaric karst of Croatia) are typical sinking streamflows.
These rivers are located in the central part of the Dinaric karst region of Croatia (Figure 3)
between 4417 and 4458N and 1507 and 1548E. Their precise hydrological
catchment areas and boundaries are not known (Bonacci and Andri 2008). The Velebit
Mountain (max. altitude 1758 m a. s. l.) separates their catchments from the Adriatic Sea.
Water from the both rivers sinks at altitudes between 400 and 450 m a. s. l. and reappears at
many permanent and intermittent coastal and submarine karst springs of the Adriatic Sea
(Figure 3).

4 Underground streamflow
Underground or subterranean streamflows are subsurface karst passages that have the
main characteristics of open rivers or streams. In an underground streamflow, water flows
through caves, caverns, karst conduits and large galleries in the karst underground. The karst
underground system provides access to fragments of the abandoned conduit system, which
have hydraulic geometries comparable, though not identical, to those of surface rivers or
streams.
The Port Miou system (Cassis, France) is a two kilometre long submarine gallery that
extends in the limestone series of Calanques (Marseille, France). The two largest karst
submarine springs, Port Miou and Bestouan, represent the mouths of two underground karst
rivers into the Mediterranean Sea. The average discharge of brackish water flowing from the
Port Miou spring is between 2 to 5 m
3
/s (Poti et al. 2005; Cavalera and Gilli 2009). The roof
of the entirely submerged Port Miou gallery lies between 10 and 20 m below sea level to
about 800 m from the spring exit. It then goes between 10 to 30 m deeper. At about 2200 m
from the entrance, the primarily horizontal karst conduit suddenly drops into a deep vertical
shaft. Cave divers were able to explore the conduit to a depth of 179 m below sea level. At
13

that depth, the water is still brackish. The system extends further and deeper, however
exploration is limited by the present diving technology.



Figure 3 The Lika and Gacka Rivers (Dinaric karst of Croatia), typical sinking streamflows

The Cassidaigne canyon cuts the continental shelf where bathymetric studies have
shown the presence of dolines. Caves and speleothems have been observed during submarine
explorations on the walls of the canyon. Its presence is related to the several stages of the
lowering of the Mediterranean Sea during the Messinian salinity crisis. Cavalera and Gilli
(2009) suggest that during the important drop of sea level of the Mediterranean, the
underground river of Port-Miou, flowed several hundreds meters below its current position,
and excavated the canyon. At the end of the Messinian crisis, the system was flooded by sea
water. Karst water now flows through an upper gallery, however the presence of a paleo-drain
filled by sea water makes deep marine intrusion into the karst system possible. In order to
prevent intrusion of sea water, two submarine dams were constructed in the horizontal conduit,
about 500 m from the spring exit. However, the issue of contamination with sea water was not
resolved by their construction. Cavalera and Gilli (2009) consider that the saline
contamination of Port Miou could be carried out by a sea water inflow through a deep karstic
conduit connected to the canyon of Cassidaigne.
The Santa Fe River (Florida, USA) flows from an impervious catchment onto karstified
Eocene limestones. At the OLeno Sink, it sinks underground for 5 km before resurfacing at
the Santa Fe River Rise. Hisert (1994) conducted a geochemical tracer study to determine
which of the numerous karst features occurring between the OLeno Sink and the Santa Fe
River Rise are connected to the underground river. In addition, water temperature
measurements were made to distinguish the relative proportions of groundwater and surface
water in each water filled karst feature. The results showed that the Santa Fe River Rise is a
point of resurgence for a portion of the Santa Fe River flow diverted underground at the
OLeno Sink. The underground river course is singular and sinuous. The flow is conduit and
rapid with a velocity of 2.5 km/day (Hisert 1994). The upstream half of the underground river
is fairly well delineated, due to the great number of surface sink features. In the downstream
14

section, the underground course is questionable due to the lack of surface karst features that
can be used as windows to the karst underground.
Figure 4 presents the map of the Disu underground stream system (Yuan 1991), which
has a catchment area of 1004 km
2
. The system has a total length of 241.1 km, and includes a
main conduit that is 57.2 km long and 12 tributaries. The Disu underground system is the
longest identified subterranean stream in China. In the upstream section, it is about 100 m in
depth, with karst conduits usually in a simple fissure-shape, from several meters to 30 m wide,
and ten to tens of meters high. The average hydraulic gradient is about 12%. At the middle
and lower reaches, it is 30 to 50 m below the bottom of the valleys. The cross-section of the
conduit here varies between 145 and 184 m
2
, and the average hydraulic gradient is 1%.
Discharges at the exit of the Disu underground river vary from the minimum 4.03 m
3
/s in dry
season to the maximum 544.9 m
3
/s (Yuan 1991).



Figure 4 The Disu underground stream system in China (Yuan 1991)

5 Discusion
True cases of karst losing, sinking and underground rivers are much more complex than
any concept can imagine. In reality, very different combinations exist. Some streams can, at
the same time, be losing, sinking and underground.
The Dobra River (Dinaric karst of Croatia) serves as a good example. Figure 5
represents the longitudinal cross-section of the entire Dobra River, divided into three parts.
The first one is a losing and sinking river called Upper Dobra, with a length from the spring to
the ula sink-hole of 51.2 km. The second part is an underground karst river flowing from the
ula sink-hole to the karst spring zone near the village Gojak. The shortest aerial distance
between the ula sink-hole and the Lower Dobra River karst springs zone is 4.6 km. In order
to reappear at the karst springs zone, the Lower Dobra River flows through karst caves and
conduit system that is 16,296 km long. The longitude of the Lower Dobra River is 52.1 km.
There are huge water losses along some sections of the open watercourse of the Upper Dobra
River through small karst sinks located at the bottom of its channel. These have changed over
15

time as a function of the groundwater level. During periods with high groundwater levels
losing stretches become gaining stretches.
The importance of sinking, losing and underground streamflows in karst system
functioning is very significant. Their hydrological, hydrogeological and other characteristics
are extremely complex. Due to these reasons, it is necessary to apply interdisciplinary
approaches, methods and concepts in their investigation. It is obvious that efforts aimed at to
their better understanding should be intensified.

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Kentucky karst. In: WB White, EL White (eds) Karst hydrology concepts from the Mammoth
cave area. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, pp 15-63
16

Hisert RA (1994) A multiple tracer approach to determine the ground water and surface
water relationships in the Western Santa Fe River, Columbia County, Florida. Ph.D.
Dissertation, Department of Geology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32601.
Poti L, Ricour J, Tardieu B (2005) Port-Mioux and Bestouan freshwater submarine
springs (Cassis-France) investigations and works (1964-1978). Proceedings of International
Conference Water resources & environmental problems in karst, Belgrade and Kotor, pp
266-274
Ray JA (2005) Sinking streams and losing streams. In: DC Culver, WB White (eds)
Encyclopedia of Caves. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 509-514
Yuan D (1991) Karst of China. Geological Publishing House, Beijing, 232 pp

17

Ecological reconstruction of bat cave Roost in western
Carpathians

Daniela BORDA
1
, Gheorghe RACOVI
1
, Ruxandra NSTASE-BUCUR
1
, Christian
CIUBOTRESCU
2

1
Emil Racovitza Institute of Speleology, Clinicilor St., no 5, 400006 Cluj-Napoca,
Romania, e-mail: daniela.borda@hasdeu.ubbcluj.ro
2
Speleological Association for Environmental Protection and Karst "Sfinx" Grda, Romania
e-mail: cristigarda@yahoo.com


Abstract: The underground environment represents an extreme and, at the same time, fragile
environment because of the particularities of biotic and abiotic factors and of its trophic
dependence on surface ecosystems. The high constancy of cave factors makes it one of the most
vulnerable environments on Earth. Because of the increased human pressure, in the last decades
we witnessed a strong degradation of the underground environment in areas exposed to pollution,
as a consequence of restraining, retreating or even extinction of specific fauna. In this context we
monitor a show cave where the cave electrification and the wood staircase, which facilitated the
tourists passage in the upper level, were removed. Also, the artificial entrance to the upper level
was reversibly obstructed. Our research focused on analyzing the microclimatic conditions, as well
as on the airborne microorganisms from the cave, and on the bat dynamics, after the obstruction of
the artificial entrance in the upper level of the cave. The results show a direct relation between
cave climate, bats, airborne microorganisms, and the cave visitors. From the climatic perspective
Poarta lui Ionel Cave is characterized by a permanent bidirectional thermal circulation and the
existence of a convection cell exclusively at the level of the lower gallery. The bat monitoring
showed that a nursery colony of Miniopterus schreibersii re-inhabited the cave in a very short time
after the show paths were removed. The success of the ecological reconstruction was confirmed by
the return of the colony next summer. Bats contribute significantly to the generation, spreading
and maintaining of a rich and diversified air microflora. Also, the morphology of the cave and its
ventilation system contribute to conducting and concentrating airborne microbial communities
toward the upper level of the cave. In the evolution of the cave air microflora a seasonal tendency
is evident, according to which a quantitative and qualitative maximum is recorded in spring-
summer and a minimum in autumn-winter. To conclude, our results reveal important implications
for cave and bat management.
Keywords: cave, ecological reconstruction, climate, bats, airborne microorganisms


1 Introduction
The subterranean habitat represents an extreme environment with unique characteristics
like its trophic dependence on surface ecosystems, and to the particularities of biotic and
abiotic factors (Biswas 2009). The high constancy of these factors makes cave and their
associated faunas one of the most vulnerable environments on Earth (Juberthie 2000).
Because of the increased human pressure in the last decades we witnessed a strong
degradation of the underground environment followed by the retreating or even extinction of
specific fauna (Elliot 2000). Bats are particularly sensible to a persistent human disturbance in
maternity sites and hibernacula (Kurta et al. 1993). Disturbances of these roosts are the major
cause for the bat depopulation and may induce bats mortality and caves abandonment (Martin
et al. 2000). Poarta lui Ionel Cave is an example for the bat depopulation due to improper
show exploitation in the last 20 years. A recent effort was realized by the Speleological
18

Association Sfinx Grda who tried to recover the bat colonies from this cave. The
conservation measures, which intended to reduce the human pressure in the bat roost, were
accomplished by a climatic study that is still in progress, as well as a mesophilic airborne
microorganisms screening. The airborne microbial communities are well represented in the
subterranean environment, but not all of them are resident in cave, being carried in from
outside by human and animals (Borda and Borda 2006, Borda et al. 2009). Additional work
has shown that bats are responsible by an increase of the airborne microorganisms in the cave
atmosphere (Borda et al. 2004). Our researches focus on: (i) the analysis of the climate of
Poarta lui Ionel Cave after the ecological reconstruction, (ii) determination of the airborne
bat-related microorganisms, and (iii) monitoring the seasonal presence of bats in the cave.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Climatic Data
The temperature and relative humidity were measured by Tinytag Dataloggers Plus 2
(-25 + 85
o
C and 0 100% RH) registering. The data loggers were set to take the
measurements at 1-hour intervals. In order to detect the meroclimatic structure of the cave
(Racovi 1984), we established 5 sample sites (samples 1-5), located from entrance to the
terminal passage of the cave (Fig. 1). The climatic study is still in progress, the records being
carried out for at least one year. Therefore, our results are partial, covering the time period
from 15 November 2008 to 11 June 2009.

2.2 Air microflora Samples Collecting
Airborne microorganisms samples were collected by gravitational sedimentation
(Kochs sedimentation method) in two sample sites: in the visiting passage (samples I) from
the lower level of cave, and in the passage not open to public access from the upper level of
the cave (samples II) (Fig. 1). Investigations were performed seasonally. The specific media
were exposed to the cave air for 30 min. After that, the Petri dishes were stored and
transported to the laboratory at 5
0
C, where they were incubated in specific conditions.

2.3 Culture Mediums
We used sterile media for the growth of the following groups of air microorganisms:
- Beef-extract agar medium - for the total count of aerobic bacteria growth (TAG);
- Levine medium - for gram-negative bacteria growth (GNB);
- Chapmann medium - for staphylococci growth (SPH);
- Holmes medium - for streptococci growth (STP);
- The Sabouraud medium for fungi growth (FUN).
The media for the aerobic mesophilic bacteria (TAG, GNB, STP, and SPH) were
incubated at 37C for 24 hours and the media for fungi was incubated for 3-5 days at 20
0
C, in
darkness conditions. The total count of the colony-forming units was calculated using the
Omelianskis formula. The results were expressed per m
3
of air (cfu/m
3
) (Popescu and Borda
2008).

3 Results and discussions

3.1 Cave reconstruction
Poarta lui Ionel Cave located near the village Garda de Sus (Bihorului Mountains,
Western Carpathians) is easily accessible, being known by natives from very old times. The
cave was first mentioned by J. Vass in 1857 (Bleahu 1976) and described by Jeannel and
Racovi (1929). The entrance is represented by a portal impressive by its dimensions (20m
19

height and 15m width) open in the background of a rocky amphitheatre. Thus, the name of
Poarta (Gate), given to this cave by natives, is very proper. Beyond this portal an active
gallery opens, wide of 5-7m and long of 130m that turns twice toward left in right angle (Fig.
1). Except of some fragments on the limestone floor and a big stalagmite flow of 6m height,
this sector of the cavity lacks any concretion. In its extremity, on the clayey floor is an
excavation in form of a funnel with a diameter of 5m that fills up with water in periods with
abundant precipitations. Usually, the subterranean stream appears only at the base of the
portal, from a spring situated at the base of the left wall. At high flood the waters appear in the
first turn of the gallery among the alluvium accumulated beside the right wall.



Figure 1 Map of Poarta lui Ionel Cave and the samples sites. M I - M II, Airborne
Microorganisms sample sites; C 1 C 5, Climate sample sites

During an international expedition in 1988 an upper level of the cave was discovered,
fact that determined the inclusion of the entrance of Poarta lui Ionel Cave in a more ample
touristic circuit, together with the Scrioara Glacier Cave. The galleries that form the upper
level of the cavity are ordered on two levels, inter-connected by a couple of not very deep
wells. The terminal part is totally closed by a compact wall of limestone, in which an
impenetrable fissure can be seen.
The first arrangements consisted in installing the wood access stairs toward the upper
level and digging an opening of about 150/40cm at the base of the stalagmite wall that
blocked the access to the new discovered sector. Starting with 1992, the Speleological
Association for Environmental Protection and Karst "Sfinx" from Grda restored the
arrangements, and in 2003, together with the mayoralty of Grda de Sus village, they realised
the electric illumination of the cave.
Based on the evidences of chiropterit spots on the ceiling of the cave, and also on the
natives token, the Speleological Association Sfinx Grda restored the old maternity shelter.
20

The ecological reconstruction of the cave started in April 2008 and lasted a few days. The
work consisted in the elimination of the cave electrification and of the wood staircase,
restricting thus the tourists passage to the upper level. Also, the artificial entrance to the
upper level was reversibly obstructed with resident stones from the cave and walled in.

3.2 Cave climate
The climatic particularities of the cave are mainly determined by the air currents that
move between the exterior and the subterranean void (Racovi 1975). Their origin relies in
the thermo-circulation, determined by temperature difference between the subterranean and
the surface atmosphere and, implicitly, the air density difference that moves (Andrieux 1970).
Because Poarta lui Ionel Cave has a single communication way with the surface, represented
by the big entrance (20m/15m), the air changes with the exterior are permanently bidirectional,
with moderate external perturbation. In winter time the cold air enters the cave at the floor
level and the warm air from inside out at the ceiling level. In summer time the air thermo-
circulation is inverted. Because the lower gallery is huge and slightly ascendant, the air flow
is very weak, functioning as cell convection. Besides, the effects of hibernal thermo-
circulation upon the subterranean atmosphere materializes by the emergence of an important
number of ice formations (stalagmites, stalagmitic domes and parietal crusts), but only in the
vicinity of the cave entrance.
The temperature values registered in the lower level of the cave (Fig. 2) show following
winter averages (15 November 31 March): -0.396
0
C (St. Dev. = 2.346) at the entrance of the
cave (sample 1), 1.651
0
C (St. Dev. = 2.215) at the basal level (sample 2), 3.019
0
C (St. Dev. =
1.546) in the lake gallery (sample 3).

Lower Level - Sample Site 1
-10. C
-5. C
0. C
5. C
10. C
15. C
20. C
Nov-08 Dec-08 Jan-09 Jan-09 Feb-09 Mar-09 Apr-09 May-09 Jun-09
0.0 %RH
20.0 %RH
40.0 %RH
60.0 %RH
80.0 %RH
100.0 %RH
Temperature
Humidity
Lower Level - Sample Site 2
-10. C
-5. C
0. C
5. C
10. C
15. C
20. C
Nov-08 Dec-08 Jan-09 Jan-09 Feb-09 Mar-09 Apr-09 May-09 Jun-09
0.0 %RH
20.0 %RH
40.0 %RH
60.0 %RH
80.0 %RH
100.0 %RH
Temperature
Humidity

Lower Level- Sample Site 3
-10. C
-5. C
0. C
5. C
10. C
15. C
20. C
Nov-08 Dec-08 Jan-09 Jan-09 Feb-09 Mar-09 Apr-09 May-09 Jun-09
0.0 %RH
20.0 %RH
40.0 %RH
60.0 %RH
80.0 %RH
100.0 %RH
Temperature
Humidity


Figure 2 The air temperature and relative humidity (RH %) trend in the lower part of the
Poarta lui Ionel Cave from November 2008 to June 2009

In upper part of the cave, behind the walled gate, the air temperature is constantly higher
then in the basal passages (Fig. 3). Theoretically, the upper level can function as a warm air
trap and the temperature should rise to about 20C (i.e. Wonders Room from Huda lui Papar
Cave, Trascu Mountains). Before digging the artificial opening, the access to the upper level
21

was made only through the natural window that has a lower section. Therefore, the existence
of considerable temperature differences between the two levels can be excluded. Besides, the
natural window that opens close to the ceiling remains inaccessible to any cold air current that
move at the level of the floor. As a result, the upper gallery shows a more constant
temperature slightly higher than the lower level, 7.685
0
C (St. Dev. = 0.832) behind of the
walled gate (sample 4), and 7.454
0
C (St. Dev. = 0,123) at the end of the cave (sample 5).
Due to the huge entrance that is the subject to high temperature fluctuations dependent
to the external climate and in accordance with the climatic data, the basal level of the cave is
represented by a perturbation meroclimate. The relative humidity ranged 67% near the
entrance to constantly 100%, above the temporary lake (Fig. 1).

Upper Level - Sample Site 4
-10. C
-5. C
0. C
5. C
10. C
15. C
20. C
Nov-08 Dec-08 Jan-09 Jan-09 Feb-09 Mar-09 Apr-09 May-09 Jun-09
0.0 %RH
20.0 %RH
40.0 %RH
60.0 %RH
80.0 %RH
100.0 %RH
Temperature
Humidity
Upper Level - Sample Site 5
-10. C
-5. C
0. C
5. C
10. C
15. C
20. C
Nov-08 Dec-08 Jan-09 Jan-09 Feb-09 Mar-09 Apr-09 May-09 Jun-09
0.0 %RH
20.0 %RH
40.0 %RH
60.0 %RH
80.0 %RH
100.0 %RH
Temperature
Humidity


Figure 3 The air temperature and relative humidity (RH%) trend in the upper part of the
Poarta lui Ionel Cave from November 2008 to June 2009

The upper level is represented by a stability meroclimate, where the temperature is
constant all year long and the relative humidity was also constantly saturated (Fig.2).

3.2 Bats
Although Jeannel and Racovi (1927) did not cite the bat colony occurrence when they
visited the cave, the spots of chiropterit on the ceiling and parietal leaking, as well as the
testimony of natives prove that Poarta lui Ionel Cave sheltered in the past significant bat
nurseries. In the period of tourist management during our research we did not record any bat
colonies. We recorded a few specimens of Myotis spp., Rhinolophus spp, Barbastella
barbastellus, Plecotus spp. only in the lower level, at the beginning of the winter.
After the pressure induced by tourists was eliminated and the cave was brought back to
the natural state, the bat colonies immediately installed in the old summer roost. In May 2008
a nursery colony of Miniopterus schreibersii of more than 150 individuals was found in the
upper part of the lower level of the cave (about 20 m high). The bats re-inhabited the cave in a
few weeks after the ecological reconstruction of the cave was implemented. The success of
the ecological cave reconstruction was proved by the maternity colony of M. schreibersii that
returned to the cave in May 2009.
Pursuant to the climatic traits, the lower level of the cave is not suitable for bats
hibernation. But in the upper level the climate is more constant, with higher temperatures.
Therefore, Rhinolophidae prefer that part of the cave for the hibernation period. During the
winter 2008-2009 in this part of the cave were recorded Rhinolophus ferrumequinum (13 ind.),
R. hipposideros (1 ind.), R. euryale (1 ind.), Myotis myotis/M. oxygnathus (2 ind.), Myotis spp.
(1 ind), Miniopterus schreibersi (5 ind). All species encountered in the cave are strictly
protected (Annex II, 13/1993 Law), migratory species (Annex II, 13/1998 Law) and also
species of European Community interest whose exploitation may be subject to management
measures (Annex 3, 57/2007 OU).
22

We consider that the main perturbation factor that contributed to bat colonies extinction
in the Poarta lui Ionel Cave was represented by human disturbance in the vulnerable periods
of their biological cycle. To this, we can add the system of electric illumination of the cave
and the gate with vertical bars, placed at the artificially digging opening from the base of the
upper level.

3.3 Airborne microorganisms
The results concerning the airborne microorganisms diversity and concentrations in
Poarta lui Ionel Cave are showed in Fig. 4. Total aerobic germs showed the highest values,
corresponding with the beginning of the bats maternity season. The morphology of the cave
imprints a stability climate at this level, with higher temperatures than in the lower level,
favourable to the development of a mesophilic air microflora. Besides, the air circulation
favours the airborne microorganisms to remain captive in the upper level.
The presence of bats and guano, corroborated with morphological particularities of the
cave (Borda et al. 2004) explains the high incidence of the five groups of microorganisms
with hygienic significance and the high number of colony forming units in the upper level
compared with the lower level. The presence of fungi is less significant, compared with that
of other microorganisms, their occurrence being in an increased number in the lower level,
close to the entrance. Usually the fungi originate from the exterior (Caumartin 1966, Koilraj
et al. 1999), their number decreasing from the entrance to the profound areas of the cave
(Borda and Borda 2006).

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
UFC/m3
Autumn
Winter
Spring
Summer
Airborne Microorganisms in the Upper Level
TAG
STP
SPH
GRN
FUN

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
UFC/m3
Autumn
Winter
Spring
Summer
Airborne Microorganisms in the Lower Level
TAG
STP
SPH
GRN
FUN


Figure 4 Seasonal variations of airborne microorganisms in Poarta lui Ionel Cave

23

The seasonal tendency of air microflora indicates a maximum of the mesophilic
bacteria in the warm season, during the summer for the lower level and during the spring for
the upper level. The absence of fungi in the spring can be explained by their biological cycle.
All these data are important for the future cave management plans that should take
into account the needs of the bats, the effects of human disturbance upon the bat populations
and also the airborne microorganism biohazards.

3 Conclusions
After the ecological reconstruction, the Poarta lui Ionel Cave was re-populated by a
maternity colony of Miniopterus schreibersii. The climatic particularities of the cave support
the bats colonies. This is characterised by a permanent bidirectional thermo-circulation and by
the existence of a cell convection that closes at the extremity of the lower gallery, without
affecting the upper level of the cave. Bats significantly contribute to the spreading and
maintaining of a rich and diversified air microflora. The morphology and ventilation of the
cave contributes to the directing and concentrating the airborne microbial communities toward
the upper level. A seasonal tendency of airborne microorganisms is evident, being assured by
the temperature of the external environment and by the presence of tourists. Therefore, we
consider these investigations relevant for cave conservation and for the protection of various
types of bat colonies that inhabit these caves, even in the conditions of tourist exploitation.

Acknowledgments
We thank the staff of the Apuseni Natural Park Administration, who helped us and
contributed with logistics in the field. We are particularly thankful to Negrea Avram for field
assistance.
This study was supported by The ID_2325 Grant from CNCSIS.

References
Andrieux C (1970) Contribution a ltude du climat des cavits naturelles des massifs
karstiques. II. Arodiynamique souterraine. Ann. Splol. XXV(2):491-529
Bleahu M, Decu V, Negrea S, Plea C, Povar I, Viehmann I (1976) Caves from
Romania, Ed. tiin. Enc. 415 pp
Borda D, Borda C, Tma T (2004) Bats, climat, and air microorganisms in a Romanian
Cave. Mammalia 68(4):337-343
Borda C and Borda D (2006) Airborne microorganisms in show caves from Romania.
Trav. Inst. Spol. mile Racovitza 43-44: 65-74
Borda D, Bucur-Nstase R, Borda C, Gorban I (2009) The assessment of the airborne
microorganismes in subterranean environment, Bulletin UASVM, Veterinary Medicine 66 (1)
(in press)
Caumartin V (1966) Principes de repartition des associations dorganismes
microscopiques en caverns. Bull. Sci. Bourgone 24:39-56
Elliot W R (2000) Conservation of the North American cave and karst biota. In:
Wilkens H, Culver D C, Humphreys W (Eds.) Ecosystems of the World - Subterranean
Ecosystems, Elsevier. pp 665-689
Jayant B (2009) The biodiversity of Krem Mawkhyrdop of Meghalaya, India, on the
verge of extinction, Current Science 96(7):904-910
Jeannel R, Racovi E G (1927) Enumration des Grottes visites, 1918-1927 (VII
-e
srie). Archives de Zoologie Exprimentale et Gnrale 68(2):293-608
Juberthie C (2000) Conservation of subterranean habitats and species. In: Wilkens H,
Culver D C, Humphreys W (Eds.) Ecosystems of the World - Subterranean Ecosystems,
Elsevier, pp 691-700
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Koilraj A J, Marimuthu G, Natarajan K, Saravanan S, Maran P., Hsu M J (1999) Fungal
diversity inside caves of Southern India. Current Science Bangalore 77(8):1081-1083
Kurta A, King D, Teramino J A, Stribley, J M, Williams K J (1993) Summer roosts of
the endangered Indiana bat (Myotis sodalis) on the northern edge of its range. Am Mid Nat,
129:132-138
Martin K V, Puckette W L, Hensley S L, Leslie D M (2000) Internal Cave Gating as a
Means of Protecting Cave-Dwelling Bat Populations in Eastern Oklahoma. Proc. Okla. Acad.
Sci. 80:133-137
Popescu S, Borda C (2008) Igiena Animalelor i Protecia Mediului. Lucrri Practice.
Editura Napoca Star Cluj-Napoca, 167 pp
Racovi G (1975) La classification topoclimatique des cavits souterraines. Trav. Inst.
Spol. E. Racovitza 14:197-216.
Racovi G (1984) Sur la structure mroclimatique des cavits souterraines. Theor. Appl.
Karstol. 1:123-130
25

Karst and sustainability in Florida, U.S.A.

Robert BRINKMANN

Karst Research Group, Department of Geography,
University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620, USA, e-mail: rbrinkmn@cas.usf.edu


Abstract: The State of Florida, which consists of one of the most extensive karst regions in the
Americas, is also one of the fastest growing regions in the United Starts. The population increases,
which are driven by both migrations into Florida from within the United States and from many
areas of the world, particularly Latin America, put significant pressure on the karst systems within
Floridas fragile subtropical environment. Within this cultural and environmental context, various
stakeholders are attempting to address a variety of sustainability issues unique to Floridas
subtropical environment. It is evident that karst systems impact in some way key sustainability
sectors such as water, food and agriculture, building, energy, and greenhouse gas management.
Floridas karst waters are continually under thread due to over pumping and pollution.
Improvements in the systematic management of water eliminated some of these problems.
Agricultural production in the state often impacts the states karst systems through water extraction,
irrigation, and associated fertilizer pollution of the aquifer. Local limestone and marine sand is
used in the construction of concrete block building materials. Offshore oil and gas reserves, often
found in limestone, are not utilized and the state relies on external sources for energy.
Nevertheless, there is a growing interest in developing local policies to address greenhouse gas
emissions, some of which involve carbon sequestration within karst systems. A policy review of
these five themes reveals that Florida provides strong examples how sustainability can be
thematically approached within a subtropical karst environment. The United States Government,
until recently, has not provided guidance on a variety of sustainability issues. But at the local level,
a number of government and non-government organizations are addressing these important topics.
The development of local approaches to enhancing environmental sustainability in karst
environments requires examination of regional environmental settings and how human activity
impacts them.
Keywords: karst, sustainability, Florida


1 Introduction
The state of Florida has undergone tremendous population growth in the last 100 years
as its population doubles approximately every 20-30 years (U.S. Census 2009). However, it
is also one of the most fragile karst systems on the planet with regional interconnected ground
water systems, dozens of high-flow springs, hundreds of caves, and unique sinkholes and
wetlands (Brinkmann et al. 2007, Brinkmann and Reeder 1994, Fleury, Carson, and
Brinkmann 2008, Florea 2006, Scott et al 2004, Screaton et al. 2004, Tiahnsky 1999). The
high growth coupled with the natural vulnerability of karst landscapes (North, van Beynen,
and Parise 2009), provides challenges for environmental managers. In the last several years,
indices that measure community-scale sustainability were developed to benchmark
sustainability efforts at the county and local levels in Florida (Florida Green Building
Coalition 2009, Myfloridaclimate 2009, Upadhyay 2009). These matrices evolved, in part,
due to the complex political landscape of the state that encourages economic development
while preserving natural resources. Within this context, the Governor of Florida, Charlie
Crist, challenged local governments and state agencies to develop strategies to reduce
greenhouse gases and improve the overall environmental sustainability of their organizations
26

through Executive Orders 126, 127, and 128 (Crist 2007a-c). Due to this challenge, dozens of
communities adopted specific policies to enhance sustainability in their operations. While
many of these approaches are still evolving, several strategies directly impact karst systems.
The new policies can be grouped into strategies for water, food, building, energy, and
greenhouse gas management.
Prior to discussing each of these in detail, it is worth reviewing the nature of the karst
systems in Florida. To many, Florida is a flat, featureless plain. Throughout its approximate
150,000 square kilometers in area, the maximum elevation is 105 meters and the local relief in
many portions of the state is difficult to discern. However, upon closer examination, Florida
is home to a diverse karst landscape. Its carbonate platform underwent a series of marine
transgressive cycles that modified existing carbonate and created new carbonate and sandy
marine sediments and rocks. As a result, the state contains older carbonate ridges that were
exposed for longer periods than the surrounding lowlands. In addition, in many areas, marine
sands blanket the limestone, thereby creating a covered karst landscape. The landforms in the
lowlands are what one would expect to see in recently emerged karst plains. Circular dolines
dominate the landscape and streams are uncommon. Most of the drainage is to the subsurface
were hundreds of kilometers of flooded underground caves are found. In addition, springs are
commonly found in these lowland areas. Many form spring runs that lead directly to the coast.
In contrast, the karst landscapes on the older ridgelands are more complex. Here, karst
depressions are extensive and their forms are complicated. These uvalas are often sites of air-
filled cave entrances.
The karst landscape is continually forming in Florida. It is evident through the
composition of spring water exiting karst aquifers that solution of limestone is occurring at a
rapid rate (Scott et al. 2004). There are hundreds of homeowners insurance claims in the state
each year due to sinkhole damage (Eastman et al. 1995). In addition, human activity, such as
over pumping of aquifers, enhances depression formation. The karst plain in Florida, due to
its active nature is quite vulnerable because of the 18 million residents that live on top of it.
Nevertheless, there are some interesting approaches that have been taken in recent years that
improve the overall environmental sustainability in Floridas karst systems

2 Approaches to environmental sustainability
The approaches to environmental sustainability will be discussed within five major
themes: water, food and agriculture, building, energy, and greenhouse gas management.
Certainly there are others that could be explored, such as population sustainability and
disaster resilience. Nevertheless, karst systems have the greatest impact within these five
sustainability themes in Florida.

2.1 Water
Florida experiences high variation in monthly precipitation. During the summer and
early fall, rainfall is quite high due to sea-breeze induced convectional thunderstorms, and
occasional tropical storms and hurricanes. Precipitation can exceed several centimeters daily
and depressions are filled with storm water runoff via overland flow. Ephemeral rivers begin
to flow and the discharge in perennial streams and springs increases. In dry months, many
springs and streams either dry out or decrease their discharge significantly. Karst wetlands,
lakes, and pond may dry. Within this environment, water managers must provide drinking
water to millions of people. Unfortunately, the production of water in Florida in the late 20
th

century caused a reduction of the regional groundwater table and concomitant drying of
wetlands, lakes, and rivers. Collapses of the land surface into underground voids increased.
This occurred largely due to the decision to manage water in the state within local water
management districts. Thus, a region like Miami must find water within their local region and
27

cannot import it from wetter areas of the state. They must use whatever sources they can
within their region. While all efforts are made to protect the environment, withdrawals occur
during extreme drought periods in late winter and early spring.
Thus, there have been significant impacts to the karst systems in Miami, Tampa, and
Orlando due to ground water withdrawal (Rand 2003). However, this sustainability tenet of
using local water supplies has let to innovative approaches to water management. For
example, several governments in the Tampa Bay area formed Tampa Bay Water, an
organization charged with providing drinking water to the region. Because the region cannot
withdraw more from the aquifer without further damaging the karst systems, Tampa Bay
Water developed a 25 million gallons of water per day desalination facility and built a 15
billion gallon reservoir that supplements surface and groundwater sources. While one may
question the carbon footprint of the desalination plant and reservoir within a sustainability
context, there is no doubt that these innovative projects prevented further damage to the
regions karst environment as the regions water demand increased.

2.2 Food and agriculture
Florida is one of the most productive agricultural states in the U.S (USDA 2008). It is a
major beef and dairy producer, although it is probably best known for its citrus groves,
strawberry fields, and fresh produce farms. It is also home to niche agricultural markets such
as caladium bulbs, orchids, and tropical fish production. Farms and food processing use the
greatest amount of water than any sector in Florida (USGS 2009). Water withdrawals in
some agricultural areas trigger sinkhole collapses and local well failure (Tehansky 1999). For
example, in 1997, strawberry farmers induced sinkholes in rural Polk County Florida when
they sprayed millions of liters of water on their crops to prevent them from freezing. Of
special concern in the state is nitrogen and other fertilizers and pesticides that enter the
groundwater system and rapidly disperse within the interconnected karst aquifers. Nitrogen
pollution has steadily increased in springs in the state (Katz 2004, Scott et al. 2004) as a result
of increased fertilizer use not only on agricultural lands but also on lawns and golf courses
that are ubiquitous on the Florida landscape.
New approaches to organic farming, community sponsored agriculture, and community
gardening can reduce the impact in some settings. In the last few years, there has been a rapid
increase in these efforts in the state. In the Tampa Bay area, for example, several hydroponics
and soil-based community gardens started, several organic farms began operation on the edge
of the urbanized area, and there is great interest in local governments in encouraging
community sponsored agriculture. In addition, many golf courses are using green golf
course management protocols that reduce fertilizer runoff and officials are encouraging
replacement of lawns with native vegetation and trees. However, Floridas unique growing
season makes it a significant fresh food source for many parts of the world and the impacts of
agribusiness cannot be discounted.
These large food-producing organizations are also trying to do their part to enhance the
regions sustainability. For example, many farms are developing drip irrigation or are
transforming fields to hydroponic operations. Others are using hi-tech irrigation schemes that
reduce their overall groundwater use. In addition, many agricultural fields take the solid
wastes from sewage treatment plants in urban areas, thereby reducing their need for fertilizers.
There is also great interest in Florida in developing biodiesel fuels from agricultural crops that
need little to no fertilization. The state has invested in research into a variety of crops and
there are some biodiesel plants currently in operation. Associated with this is the emerging
area of using vegetation in Florida for carbon capture. Large landholders are examining the
profitability of transforming pasture or croplands into forested land within the carbon trading
market. With the new administration within the executive branch of the U.S. government and
28

with the associated congressional movement on climate change, it is likely Florida will be a
high-interest area in the carbon market due to its long growing season. While many have the
image of Florida as a highly urbanized region, there are large areas of the state with low
population densities where vast agricultural regions are found.

2.3 Building
One of the key tenets of modern urban sustainability is green building. In Florida, there
are special challenges compared to the rest of the United States due to its unique subtropical
climate and maritime setting. While much of U.S. green building policy focuses on heating,
in Florida, a larger focus is on cooling and water storage. In fact, green building on the karst
landscape in Florida provides special challenges for land stability, cooling, and deriving local
building materials. Because the setting is so unique, an organization evolved, the Florida
Green Building Coalition (FGBC), which certifies green building and design using matrices
developed for Florida.
The certification process is similar to the well-known LEED (Leadership in Energy and
Environmental Design) process, but focuses on the particularities of Florida (Florida Green
Building Coalition 2009). Commercial buildings, developments, high rises, homes and local
governments can be certified. For homes, the FGBC, in similar fashion to LEED, will
designate a home as a certified green home at the Bronze, Silver, Gold, or Platinum levels
depending upon how many points one earned on a matrix. The points can be earned in eight
categories: energy, water, lot choice, health, materials, disaster mitigation, and other. There
are many ways to earn points within each category. However, within the matrix, there is a
strong emphasis on the use of technology and design in reducing energy and water use. A
significant aspect of the matrix is the focus on local conditions, particularly the high rainfall
and coolant needs of homes. Within a karst context, this is significant as the karst
environment is highly reactive to surface conditions. For example, if a home is using non-
native vegetation that requires fertilization and extensive irrigation, it is likely that the
fertilizer will drain into the aquifer at the same time the aquifer is being depleted. Therefore,
points can be gained in the FGBC system for using native vegetation in landscaping and for
reducing or eliminating the need for lawn irrigation.
There are some particular areas of green building and design that impact karst systems
more directly. Some certified green buildings in the state use air-cooled in subsurface karst
voids for cooling interiors. This geothermal cooling approach has not seen widespread
application to date, but there is high potential for reducing energy use in cooling Florida
homes through this innovative technology. Another important aspect associated with
sustainable building is the use of local products in construction. In Florida, most of the homes
and buildings are constructed out of concrete blocks on a poured cement foundation. In most
cases, the cement and concrete are derived from local sources. Local limestone is crushed and
processed and mixed with the local marine sands to produce these products. However, the
limestone itself is rarely used as a building material. It is an extremely soft, vuggy stone that
is not practicable for building except as a decorative element. Instead, the local limestone is
sometimes used as decorative landscape features.

2.4 Energy
Unlike many karstic areas of the world, Florida is not exploiting its known oil and gas
reserves. Due to the importance of tourism to the states economy, the majority of the
population in Florida does not want oil and gas producing rigs and platforms within view of
its popular beaches. Instead, Florida relies on imported energy sources for the vast majority
of its power. While Floridians spend less than any other state on energy (USDE, 2009), the
state is a one of the countrys top three energy users. The reasons that energy costs are so low
29

in the state are because of the proximity to major energy sources, importance of regional
pipelines, and the extensive energy port and distribution system in major urban areas. Most of
the energy sources in the state are petroleum, natural gas, and coal (see Figure 1).



Figure 1 Energy sources in Florida (USDOE 2009)

However, the state is trying to develop nuclear, wind, solar, and biofuel energy sources
to try to reduce the need for fossil fuels and to meet ambitious goals set forward by Floridas
Governor, Charlie Crist. He has challenged the state to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to
year 2000 levels (Crist 2007a-c).
Regardless, there has been tremendous pressure from a variety of stakeholders to try to
develop more locally-derived petroleum-based energy sources in Florida through offshore
drilling (Manheim 2004). However, many state leaders resist this effort due to the concerns
over the impact to tourism in the state. With Venezuelan and Gulf of Mexico petroleum
products cheap and accessible through one of the states several petroleum ports, it seems
unlikely that offshore drilling will commence any time soon. While petroleum exploitation
would enhance the understanding of Floridas karst systems, it is more likely that greater
emphasis will be placed on conservation measures such as fuel economy and mass transit
before these reserves will be tapped.
It must be noted that coal use in the area has received a great deal of attention in recent
years due to power plant emissions and mountain top mining. Much of the coal that is used in
the region comes to Florida from the Appalachian Mountain landscape where mountain top
removal coal mining is sometimes employed. Mountain top removal is a process where an
entire mountain is removed from the landscape in the mining process. Coal is separated from
other rocks. The tailings remain where the mountain once stood. Environmental activists are
critical of this mining technique because it destroys ecosystems, viewsheds, and any
associated Appalachian karst systems in the process. Floridas insistence in not developing its
own energy resources therefore deleteriously impacts distant karst systems.

2.5 Greenhouse gas management
In recent years, Floridians have become more and more concerned with sea level rise
due to global warming. Many scientists forecast sea level increases in the coming decades
that would decimate beaches, some urban areas, and many low-lying areas including the
Florida Everglades. The United States Government, until recently, did not aggressively
approach this problem, leaving states and local governments to figure out how to try to protect
30

their lands. Unfortunately, this created a somewhat scattered approach with states like
California adopting strong regulations to reduce greenhouse gases while others remain
uncommitted to adopting regulatory guidelines. Fortunately, there are several organizations
helping state and local governments develop guidelines and benchmarks. The U.S.
Conference of Mayors, for example, developed a Climate Commitment that emphasizes
meeting or beating the Kyoto Protocols within their own city (U.S. Conference of Mayors
2009). To date, over 900 mayors have signed the agreement. There are similar agreements in
place for American universities (American College and University Presidents Climate
Commitment 2009) and other private and public organizations. While the Federal
government has been relatively absent in policy development at the national level, the gap in
leadership has been filled at the grassroots.
One key aspect of local sustainability approaches is greenhouse gas inventories and
management. There are two aspects to conducting a greenhouse gas inventory for any
organization: measuring greenhouse gas outputs and greenhouse gas credits that mitigate the
output. The outputs are in the form of energy used in transportation and electricity production,
as well as gases emitted through cooling, agricultural practices, and waste. Greenhouse gas
credits vary considerably. They could be in the form of alternative energy production,
development of biostorage of carbon through significant landscape conversion, or through
other carbon storage practices. In karst landscapes, there is the potential for mitigating the
greenhouse gases emitted through carbon storage in karst voids and through enhancing the
formation of carbonate deposits. There is ongoing research on storing carbon in deep aquifers
in the state. The idea is to take carbon dioxide and pump it deep within the earth into karst
voids or other host rocks. Another approach is to enhance carbon storage in forest or other
vegetative reserves and by constructing offshore artificial reef systems. However, the coastal
zone in many urbanized areas in Florida is polluted (Fink and Charlier 2003), thereby limiting
the capacity of offshore ecosystems to produce carbonate reef materials. In addition, the
enhanced carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has caused ocean acidification in some coastal
areas of the United States thereby inhibiting the growth of some reef-building animals (Feely
et al. 2008). It is unclear how effective the oceans ecosystems will be at sequestering carbon
as the acidification process advances.

3 Conclusions
In summary, Floridas sustainability policies provide examples of how intricate social
and environmental interactions can be modified to enhance environmental sustainability. The
karst system is part of the global carbon cycle and it is important to evaluate its role in a
variety of emerging sustainability practices. It is evident that Floridas approaches to water,
food, building, and greenhouse gas management can be employed in other karst settings. The
United States may be a unique test case for examining sustainability in that most measurable
progress was initiated at the local and state level and not within the national government.
This bottom-up approach may have assisted the expansion of sustainability efforts since the
U.S. Federal Government has been known to develop standard rules that make it difficult to
address local complex problems. Therefore, the sustainability efforts in Florida firmly include
karst systems in many of the policies, plans, and activities. In this way, Florida may serve as
a testing ground for developing and assessing sustainable management on karst terrains,
particularly in the areas of water, food and agriculture, and greenhouse gas management.
Florida does not provide particularly helpful guidance on energy. While it is admirable that
residents have resisted local oil exploration, Florida continues to rely on external sources for
its energy and has not developed significant alternatives to traditional energy production to
date.

31

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college and university presidents climate commitment. July, 2009.
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structure on cave development in west-central Florida. Physical Geography 15:52-61
Brinkmann R, Wilson K, Elko N, Seale LD, Florea L, Vacher HL (2007) Sinkhole
distribution based on pre-development mapping in urbanized Pinellas County, Florida. In:
Parise M and Gunn J (eds) Natural and anthropologic hazards in karst areas: Recognition,
Analysis, Mitigation, Geological Society of London Special Publications 279:5-11
Crist C (2007a) State of Florida Office of the Governor Executive Order Number 07-
126. http://www.flgov.com/pdfs/orders/07-126-actions.pdf
Crist C (2007b) State of Florida Office of the Governor Executive Order Number 07-
127. http://www.flgov.com/pdfs/orders/07-127-emissions.pdf
Crist C (2007c) State of Florida Office of the Governor Executive Order Number 07-
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Florida: Challenges for urbanized coastal environments threatened by development, pollution,
water supply, and storm hazards. Journal of Coastal Research 19(4):934-943
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database: An analysis of sinkhole occurrences in the Tampa Metropolitan Statistical Area.
Southeastern Geographer 48(1):38-52
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Geology, University of South Florida.
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Katz BG (2004) Sources of nitrate contamination and age of water in large karstic
springs of Florida. Environmental Geology 46:689-706
Manheim FT (2004) US offshore oil industry: New perspectives on an old conflict.
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disturbance: West-central Florida and southeast Italy. Journal of Environmental
Management 90(5):1770-1781
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Scott TM, Means GH, Meegan RP, Means RC, Upchurch SB, Copeland RE, Jones J,
Roberts T, Willet A (2004) Springs of Florida. Florida Geological Survey Bulletin 66.
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Screaton E, Martin JB, Ginn B, Smith L (2004) Conduit properties and karstification in
the unconfined Floridan Aquifer. Ground Water 42:338-346
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Ingebritsen, SE Land Subsidence in the United States. Reston, Virginia: USGS
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and green building policies. Unpublished masters thesis. Department of Geography.
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http://fl.water.usgs.gov/WaterUse/hwu_FL.htm


33

Water management in the karst of Apulia, southern Italy

Marco DELLE ROSE, Mario PARISE



National Research Council, IRPI, Bari, via Amendola 122-I, Bari, Italy,
e-mails: m.dellerose@ba.irpi.cnr.it; m.parise@ba.irpi.cnr.it


Abstract: Among the peculiarities of karst environment, distinguishing it from any other natural
settings, the very limited surface runoff and the slightly defined surface watersheds play a
significant role. Notwithstanding such features, even in flat karst areas as is the case for most of
Apulia (south-east Italy), the surface hydrographic lines were a very important element in the karst
landscape, that greatly controlled location and spreading of the first human settlements in the
region. In the centuries, the many interventions carried out by man have caused heavy changes in
the original hydrographic network: swallets have been covered and/or clogged, water lines
diverted, and a complex network of artificial channels progressively took the place of the original
surface runoff. The artificial channels are still today used to discharge the urban and industrial
wastewaters in many areas of the region. All these situations on the occasion of extreme rainfall
determine floods, extending over wide areas, and, as indirect consequence, spreading of pollutants
in the fields. Water management in the karst environment of Apulia is discussed in this paper. Two
examples are used to describe both history of the anthropogenic actions, and the main effects they
caused: Castellana-Grotte, in the Murge plateau, and Nard, in the Salento Peninsula.
Keywords: flood, water management, karst


1 Introduction
In karst environments water rapidly infiltrates within the epikarst through the network
of fissures and conduits, and the swallow holes. This feature, combined with the slightly
defined surface watersheds, distinguishes clearly karst from any other natural setting.
Nevertheless, even in flat karst areas as is the case for most of Apulia (south-east Italy), the
surface hydrographic lines were a very important element in the landscape, and greatly
controlled location and spreading of the first human settlements in the region (Lopez et al.
2009, Parise 2009). In the centuries, the many interventions carried out by man caused heavy
changes in the original hydrographic network: swallets were covered and/or clogged, water
lines diverted, and a complex network of artificial channels took progressively the place of the
original surface runoff. The artificial channels are still today used to discharge the urban and
industrial wastewaters in many areas of the region.
Due to geological and morphological settings, Apulia is frequently affected by flooding
(Carrozzo et al. 2003, Parise and Pascali 2003). Although generally non destructive in
character, these events cause serious economic losses. During the last centuries, flood events
have been prevented or mitigated by a methodical maintenance of karst sinkholes and
drainage canals. The last decades, however, have been characterized by several anthropogenic
modifications, often realized illegally, that resulted in the partial or total destruction of many
natural karst features, of great importance for the hydrologic regime. These changes are at the
origin, on the occasion of heavy to extreme rainfalls, of a two-fold hazard: floods, extending
over wide areas; and, as indirect consequence of the flood events, spreading of pollutants into
the fields and underground. Once the artificial channels are not able to transport the unusual
amount of water, and the swallow holes become clogged, in fact, the consequence is flooding
over wide areas, locally involving also the built-up environment, especially when the urban
34

areas are located at the lowest part of endorheic basins, a situation which is quite common in
Apulia. In the next years it has been estimated that, due to global warming, the soil erosion
will greatly increase in semi-arid regions as Apulia, whereas the extreme meteoric events are
predicted to be more frequent and strong (IPCC 2007). As regards management of Apulian
endorheic catchments, this should result in higher risks of sinkhole clogging and flood
problems (Delle Rose 2007).
Water management in the karst environment of Apulia is discussed in this paper. Two
examples are used to describe both history of the anthropogenic actions, and the main effects
they caused: Castellana-Grotte, in the Murge plateau, and Nard, in the Salento peninsula.

2 Geological setting
Apulia (Fig. 1) approximately coincides with a block of the Adria Microplate built up
by Mesozoic platform carbonates overlain by Tertiary-Quaternary bioclastic deposits. Salento
forms the structurally less elevated sector and is bounded to the N by the Murge plateau along
an E-W tectonical deformation strip. Horst and graben structures characterize both Murge and
Salento, as a result of mainly distensive stresses that dislocated the carbonate bedrock starting
from the Upper Cretaceous (Ciaranfi et al. 1988). The Mesozoic platform carbonates had been
intensively shaped by sub-aerial conditions during large part of the Paleogene. Salento hosts
continental, transitional and marine Oligocene to Miocene deposits (Fig. 1). These calcareous
terrains form a second order sequence which lies on the Mesozoic carbonates, locally with the
interposition of continental and residual deposits.



Figure 1 Geologic sketch of Apulia and location of case studies. Explanation: 1) Mesozoic
platform carbonates; 2) Oligocene-Miocene deposits; 3) Pliocene and Quaternary deposits

During the Messinian Salinity Crisis, Apulia formed a chain subject to intensive
dismantling and karst processes. The subsequent Lower Pliocene carbonates locally passes
into Middle Pliocene marlstones that are overlain by Upper Pliocene-Lower Pleistocene
calcarenite deposits. The latter are bounded by a disconformity from a glauconitic
fossiliferous deposit that is overlain by clayey marls, capped in turn by sandy deposits formed
until the Middle Pleistocene. The whole marine Cretaceous-Middle Pleistocene Murge and
Salento succession is overlain by a series of discontinuous terraces, formed because of the
interaction between regional tectonic raising and the glacio-eustatic sea level changes.
Karst processes have produced a dense network of cavities and conduits which
characterize large portions of Apulia. Many karst caves and sinkholes act to collect and
35

transport underground the surface waters; these doline-type landforms have different names,
according to the different parts of the region: pulo, gurgo, vora, viso, etc. (Parise et al. 2003).

3 Case study no. 1 Castellana-Grotte
The oldest part of Castellana-Grotte lies at the bottom of a karst valley (Fig. 2), which
main morphological features are represented by flat bottom valleys filled with alluvial and
residual deposits.



Figure 2 The karst valley of Castellana-Grotte (after Parise 2003). Explanation: 1) watershed
divide; 2) morphological saddle; 3) water lines; 4) lame (karst valleys); 5) urban area

Low permeability of infilling materials determines high surface runoff on the occasion of
intense rainstorms. Location of the historical part of town in the lowest sector of the valley
(indicated in ancient maps with the name of Lago, meaning lake; Colamonico 1917), and
progressive clogging and/or closure of the main swallow holes there present, due to urban
expansion, are at the origin of the several flooding events that repeatedly hit the town
(Orofino 1990). The most tragic was that occurred on November 9, 1896, when severe
damage were recorded, including 4 casualties, loss of livestock and 600 houses uninhabitable.
The 1896 flood is the best-documented event in the historical series of floods at Castellana-
Grotte, since it was described in the work by a local attorney, Antonio Sgobba, published few
weeks after the disaster (Sgobba 1896). According to this testimony, the rainfall started in the
morning, after a few days of antecedent rainfall. From 19:00 LT the main event began: there
was a strong increase in the intensity of the rain and, after four hours of continuous rainfall,
the lowest part of town was completely inundated by a huge lake that reached about one third
of the entire town, and a maximum height of 5.4 m.
36

A historical analysis, performed through scrutiny of several data sources (state-wide
archives, newspaper clips, historical documents, local works, scientific publications) resulted
in some 23 events of hydrological disasters at Castellana-Grotte since the XIII century (Parise
2003). The highest number of events was registered in a 30-year time span, from 1874 to
1905, at the turn of the XX century. After this impressive series of floods, many hydraulic
engineering works were designed to facilitate the infiltration of water underground in the
lowest sector of the town.
Unfortunately, lack of findings from the local administration resulted in delaying the
works, until a new project was designed at the expense of the Italian State. Again, however,
there was a delay in the realization, due to the occurrence of a major natural catastrophe, the
1909 earthquake in the Messina Strait that took for some years all the funds from the Italian
Government. Eventually, in 1911 the work began, to be completed two years later (Viterbo
1913). The system consisted of an artificial tunnel, dug at depth around 10 m, connecting
natural shafts located at the extremities of the lowest sector of town. After its realization, only
minor floods, causing very limited damage to the built-up environment, were recorded.

4 Case study no. 2 Nard
The Asso catchment basin can be defined as a graben-polje (Gams 1978) and is part of a
complex hydrological system located within a wide tectonic depression, enclosing a network
of natural and artificial channels directed toward swallow holes, the most important of which
is Vora Colucce (Fig. 3). It covers ten municipalities within the Lecce province, and an
overall area greater than 165 km
2
(Reina 1972).
Different stratigraphic units crop out in the catchment: clayey marls, locally overlain by
sands and silts; Plio-Quaternary calcarenites; Cretaceous limestones. In the Vora Colucce the
stratigraphic passage between these latter and the above calcarenites has been individuated.
This contact represented in late Quaternary the karstic base level that controlled the
speleogenesis of the karst system that, in the mature stage, resulted in the formation of the
Vora Colucce collapse sinkhole.
The Asso catchment has very low gradients, whilst the hydrographic network shows
tendency to silting of the channels and instability of the banks, both being contrasted with
discontinuous maintenance works. The swallets, too, require periodic interventions, aimed at
cleaning them from the accumulated sediments. These works have been carried out in 1994,
2000 and 2008 by the local caving group, Gruppo Speleologico Neretino.
During the XIX century, large sectors of the catchment remained flooded for long times
during the spring (De Giorgi 1884); on the other hand, greater wet areas coverage are
documented in the previous centuries by botanical (Medagli et al. 1990) and archaeological
studies (Arthur 1999).
The hydrographic network of the Asso catchment (Fig. 3) was originated from the
evolution of natural water lines during Middle Pleistocene; in its final sector, in the northern
part of the catchment, it was the result of reclamation works realized in the 1930s to solve
both flooding and epidemiological problems. Today the channel network functions to
discharge wastewater into the subsoil (Delle Rose 2007, Delle Rose and Marras 2008), and as
a tool to reduce seawater intrusion which affects the groundwater resource (Masciopinto
2006). The system consists also of a draining channel to the sea (E in Fig. 3), realized in
the 70s as a defence tool against flooding in the Nard area. Recent chemical-physical
analyses have highlighted high bacteria contents, together with high percentage of nitrates and
presence of ammonia and nitrites as well (Delle Rose 2007).
Therefore, the terminal sinks of the Asso karst system work at present: i) to mitigate the
flood hazard; ii) to remediate seawater intrusion and iii) to dispose wastewater. In terms of
safeguard of the environment and the public health, these functions are quite in contrast.
37

Whilst the first aim should be better obtained through an increase of the absorbing capability
of the swallow holes, the second and third would be negatively impacted by such an option
that would inevitably cause an easier spreading of contaminants into the aquifer. Thus, water
management of the system is with no doubt a hard task.



Figure 3 Hydrographic network of the Asso catchment (after Reina 1972, mod.). Explanation:
1) watershed divide; 2) natural and man-made water lines; 3) ponors; 4) urban/industrial
wastewater discharges; 5) draining channel to the sea; 6) flooding-prone towns

In spite of the efforts made by Public Bodies, the knowledge related to speleogenesis
and the hydraulic properties of the swallow holes is disregarded by the current water resource
management. The geomorphological studies so far carried out allow us to distinguish natural,
partially modified and man-realized water sinks. Some of the natural swallow holes can be
described as collapse sinkholes (such Vora Colucce), but a number of them present different
origin and development as percolation shafts.
The Asso has discharges greater than 5 m
3
/sec, and generally it is not able to discharge
this amount of water through the existing swallow holes, which often results in inundation of
both the nearby urban and rural areas. When events over 30 m
3
/sec, with runoff time on the
order of 12-15 hours are recorded, the situation may become really critical. The few available
historical data indicate that 100 mm rainfall in 9-12 hours can be already considered as
extreme rainfall, with negative effects on the whole catchment (Province of Lecce 2006). The
last calamitous event occurred on November 2004, when several districts in the Nard area
were flooded with severe economic losses to the town and surrounding rural areas. Despite
the efforts of local cavers to clean Vora Colucce from the sediments (Fig. 4), in order to
facilitate its function as a swallowing site, due to the limited capacity of the site to absorb
water, since September 2008 the draining channel is mostly used to discharge storm water.
Recent events, with flooding of the field around Vora Colucce have again been registered on
December 2008 and January 25, 2009 (Fig. 5).
The Civil Protection Plan considers the following critical situations for the Asso
catchment: limiting the road traffic, especially along the extra-urban areas; possibility of
flooding for the houses below the ground; diffusion on the soil or in the water table of
contaminants; possibility of drowning for people living in houses located below the ground
surface, especially for people with a limited movement ability (Province of Lecce 2006).
38




Figure 4 Cleaning works at Vora Colucce (August 2008, photo: Massimiliano Beccarisi)




Figure 5 Flooded fields in the area surrounding Vora Colucce (December 2008)

Despite all of this, the Asso catchment does not have a monitoring system of water
discharge, neither a rain gauge network.
39


5 Conclusions
When designing storm water management in karst areas, it is common that the existing
sinkholes which receive overland flow will be improved to safely and, hopefully permanently,
handle surface water flow into the subsurface. These designer sinks are essentially cleaned
sinkholes surrounded with gabion baskets to both maintain the integrity of the sinkhole and
purify the flows (Fischer and Fischer 1997). As other means to control of stormwater in karst
areas, use of channels draining into sinkholes, installation of drain pipes, or enlargement of
sinkhole by excavation to increase drainage capacity are also considered. All these standard
practices may cause several problems (Barner 1997): 1) runoff may exceed drainage capacity
of sinkholes; 2) sediment and debris may plug sinkholes and associated karst conduits; 3)
direct disposal of storm water into a karst aquifer may degrade water quality by introducing
contaminants. All these problems derive from the lack of recognition of sinkholes as
integrated parts of dynamic drainage systems, rather than as isolated entities.
As repeatedly highlighted in the dedicated scientific literature, a real mitigation of the
natural and anthropogenic risks in karst can be only reached after recognition of the
peculiarities of this environment, and of its fragility as well (Cvijic 1918, Nicod 1972, White
and White 1984, Mijatovic 1987, Parise and Gunn 2007). This is particularly true as regards
the water management, and specifically flooding problems in karst areas, as outlined in this
paper.

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in Springfield, Missouri. In: BF Beck, JB Stephenson (eds) The engineering geology and
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Multidisc. Conf. Sinkholes, pp 253-258
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Delle Rose M (2007) Valutazioni dei rischi di allagamento per incremento degli eventi
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changes and geologic risk in Apulia, Sannicandro di Bari, 30/11/2007, pp 49-60
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2004-2006). Proc. XI Regional Meeting of Speleology, Borgo Celano, 71-85
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Stephenson JB (eds) Proc. 6
th
Multidisc. Conf. on Sinkholes and the Environm. Impacts of
Karst, Springfield, 6-9 April 1997, pp 287-292
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IPCC (2007) Climate Change 2007: Gli Impatti dei Cambiamenti Climatici,
lAdattamento e la Vulnerabilit. Sintesi per i decisori politici.
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Lopez N, Spizzico V, Parise M (2009) Geomorphological, pedological, and
hydrological characteristics of karst lakes at Conversano (Apulia, southern Italy), as a basis
for environmental protection. Environmental Geology, DOI 10.1007/s00254-008-1601-9
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Belvedere (Lecce). Annuario di Botanica 48: 77-82
Mijatovic BF (1987) Catastrophic flood in the polje of Cetinje in February 1986, a
typical example of the environmental impact of karst. In: Beck BF, Wilson WL (eds) Proc. 2
nd

Multidisc. Conf. on Sinkholes and the Environm. Impacts of Karst, Orlando, 9-11 February
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Masciopinto C (2006) Simulation of coastal groundwater remediation: the case of
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southern Italy). Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences 3:593-604
Parise M (2009) Lakes in the Apulian karst (Southern Italy): geology, karst morphology,
and their role in the local history. In: Miranda FR, Bernard LM (eds) Lake pollution research
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karst of Apulia (southern Italy). Environmental Geology 44:247-256
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Recognition, Analysis and Mitigation. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 279,
202 pp
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(southern Italy). Acta Carsologica 32: 65-82
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regione pugliese. Atti Giornate di Studio 1 sez. CIRG, Firenze.
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White EL, White WB (1984) Flood hazards in karst terrains: lessons from the Hurricane
Agnes storm. In: Burger A, Dubertret L (eds) Hydrogeology of Karst Terrains, 1, pp 261-264
41

Specificities of coastal karst aquifers with the hydrogeological
characterisation of submarine springs overview of various
examples in the Mediterranean basin

Nathalie DRFLIGER
1
, Perrine FLEURY
1
, Michel BAKALOWICZ
2
,
Hahmad EL HAJJ
3
, Abdoul AL CHARIDEH
4
, Mehmet EKMEKCI
5


1
BRGM, Water Division, RMD Unit, 1039 rue de Pinville, 34000 Montpellier, France,
e-mails: n.dorfliger@brgm; p.fleury@brgm
2
Hydrosciences, University of Monptellier II, c.c. MSE,
34095 Montpellier CEDEX 5, France, e-mail: michel.bakalowicz@gmail.com
3
CREEN ESIB, St-Joseph University, Beyrouth, Lebanon,
e-mail: elhajjahmad@gmail.com
4
AECS, Damask, Syria, e-mail: acharideh@aec.org.sy
5
HU-UKAM, University of Ankara, Turkey, e-mail: ekmekci@hacettepe.edu.tr


Abstract: Coastal karst aquifers are common around Mediterranean Sea. Belonging to aquifers
with potentially important storage, they represent current or future groundwater resource. They
discharge either at the coastal zone or directly into the sea at karst submarine spring (SMKS) level.
The SMKS are often considered as non conventional resource which should be exploited. The
occurrence of SMKS along the Mediterranean coast is discussed considering geological setting as
well as the effect of the Messinian salinity crisis on karst development. Assessment of SMKS flow
rates carried out mainly in the framework of the EU 6
th
FWP MEDITATE project, shows that the
published values are often largely overestimated. Consequently, KSMS discharge may be
insufficient to be captured. Moreover the frequent sea water intrusion makes the water unsuitable
for consumption without any treatment. Techniques were developed for monitoring them in order
to understand their functioning and assessing water resource. From studies of SMKS in France,
Spain, Syria, Lebanon and Turkey, a classification of coastal karst aquifers is proposed, as a tool
for managing coastal groundwater resources.
Keywords: karst, submarine spring, groundwater resources


1 Introduction
Coastal karst aquifers are known for frequently discharging at submarine or coastal
brackish springs. The location of these springs is relatively well known and documented
(Fleury 2005, Fleury et al. 2007b, Mijatovic 2007); at the beginning of the 20th century,
Gruvel (1929, 1931) pinpointed already submarine springs along Syrian and Lebanese coasts.
Thermography and infra red photography interpretation contributed to the location of these
springs. Numerous coasts had been investigated, such as coasts of Languedoc (France),
Lebanon, Greece, Sicily, Italy, former Yugoslavia, Turkey, Spain at the Mediterranean level.
In addition, the occurrence of SMKS along the Mediterranean coasts, sometimes in a
spectacular way with high discharge, makes them a potential unconventional resource which
interests the decision makers in charge of regional development. Due to the hydrogeological
setting, SMKS as karst springs are characterized by high variability of discharges but also
concerning most of these springs by high variability of salinity. Their exploitation should thus
42

be considered as a function of these variations; due to the salinity variability consequently
SMKS capture work should be coupled to a small unit of desalination in most case.
The objectives of the paper are to propose, by means of some examples in Lebanon,
Syria and Turkey, coastal karst aquifers studied in the framework of the 6
th
FWP MEDITATE
European project, an overview of various types of SMKS linked to coastal karst aquifers and
also give information about the potential use of SMKS for water management.

2 Origin of SMKS around the Mediterranean basin
Limestone outcrops are widely spread around the Mediterranean basin, linked to Peri-
Mediterranean Alps chains (Pyreneans, Alps, Dinarides, Taurus i.e.). Karst systems take place
within these limestone outcrops; karst conduits networks are developed into depth due to the
accommodation of the karst system to the variation of the base level. Theses variations are
due either to tectonic movements or to Eustatic level changes.
Given the numerous changes in the sea level (Haq et al. 1987), especially since Miocene
(Rouchy and Saint-Martin 1992, Blanc 2002), sea level changes have strongly more
influenced coastal karst evolution than tectonic movements which are localized even if in
some place tectonics movement of high magnitude may play a major role (in Taurus i.e.). The
evolution of karst systems and consequently their hydrogeological functioning is different if
they developed under marine regression or transgression. During sea level falling, outlets of
karst systems are located above the new base level corresponding to the sea level, in this case.
The increase of hydraulic head within the karst system allows developing of new vertical
conduits connected to previous channel conduits to the new base level (Ford and Williams
1989). At the opposite, a sea level rise leads to drown of springs and conduits. Depending on
the hydraulic conditions, spring allows discharge permanently or seasonally, and/or intrusion
of sea water.



Figure 1 Diagram giving the depth below sea level at which ad SMKS may outflow, in
function of the hydraulic head in the conduit discharging at the spring (Fleury 2005).

These hydraulic conditions are driven by water density difference between fresh water and sea
water, and the water head in the conduits as well as the sea water level, such as described by
Fleury (2005), considering the sea water fresh water relationships described by Ghyben and
Herzberg (Stringfield and LeGrand 1971). The necessary hydraulic head in the conduit at the
spring to get a fresh ground water submarine discharge at a determined depth is shown in
Figure 1.
At any site above the line (Figure 1) a karst conduit may discharge fresh water into the
sea. At any site below the line, no fresh water discharges and the inflow of sea water into the
43

conduit is possible. For instance, for a 120 m deep conduit the fresh water head in the conduit
must be at least 3 m above sea level for discharging ground water at a SMKS. These values
are approximate, as the head losses in the conduits are neglected. The main consequence is the
possible seasonal changes in the functioning of some springs, outlets of conduits subject to
large water head variations.
SMKS and submerged conduits present along the Mediterranean coast are in favour of
bathymetric variations that occurred along the coast. During Quaternary the lowest sea level,
i.e., 120 to 140 m below the present one, took place during the Wrm glacial maximum,
around 15 ka (Ford and Williams 1989). During the interglacial periods, the sea level was
close to the present one. These variations have been recorded on all coasts worldwide.
Otherwise deep karst conduit systems developed around Mediterranean Sea. Their depth is
not in agreement with low glacial sea levels: (i) Port-Miou conduit (France) has been explored
down to -172 m (Arfib et al. 2006a, Cavalera et al. 2006); (ii) in Fontestramar coastal spring
(France), the phreatic karst has been dove up to a depth of -164 m (Brandt 1997; Aunay et al.
2003); (iii) in Chekka (Lebanon), the deepest spring is between -110 and -150 m below sea
level (Moulard et al. 1965, Kareh 1967, El-Hajj et al. 2006, Bakalowicz et al. 2007b), (iv) in
Almyros of Iraklio coastal karst (Crete, Greece), a sea water intrusion was identify at a depth
of around 500 m below m bsl, involving a deep karstification (Arfib et al. 2002, Arfib and de
Marsily 2004, Arfib and Ganoulis 2004, Arfib et al. 2006b) and (v) Karst conduit and cavities
were hit at a depth around 600 m below the sea level during deep drilling for oil exploration
in the Taurus mountains.
Those depths are not compatible with the lowest known sea levels during the glaciations
and in addition due to the fact that important uplifts took place along the Mediterranean coasts
during Pliocene and Quaternary (Elias, et al. 2007). Consequently, the deep Mediterranean
conduit systems must be due to a larger-scale event (Aunay et al. 2003, Bakalowicz et al.
2003a, Bakalowicz et al. 2004, Blavoux 2004), such as the Messinian salinity crisis (Clauzon
1982, Rouchy and Saint-Martin 1992, Rouchy 1999, Rouchy et al. 2006). Due to the closure
of the connection of the Mediterranean Sea to the Atlantic Ocean and to a very high
evaporation rate of the basin, the sea level dropped up to 1500m below the present day sea
level, between -5.8 Ma and -5.32 Ma (Clauzon et al. 1996). This situation lasted around
500,000 years and the climate may have been close to that of the Red Sea today (Rouchy
1999). These conditions are in favour of the karst development of coastal carbonate aquifers
and to sharp incision in limestone formations with canyons. Vertical shafts and galleries
toward a greatly lowered base level took place (Blanc 1995).
Depending on the local geological conditions, the deep conduits may be plugged with
sediments or remain open to the sea. Then their role in the functioning of coastal aquifers
varies, according to the depth of the open conduit and the fresh water hydraulic head within
the aquifer. In consequence, the occurrence of SMKS of limestone coastal aquifers in
Mediterranean is widely spread (Figure 2).

3 Assessment of the fresh water discharge from SMKS with some examples
Since 1960s, the fresh ground water discharge assessment from SMKS to the sea has
been a real challenge, due to the strong interest by water management stakeholders,
considering that the use of SMKS water could contribute to the regional economic
development. Several methods for assessing their discharge were attempted (direct estimate
by divers, flowmeter above the spring, mass balance of chloride or tritium in the water mass
above the SMKS and thermal infrared surveys correlated to flow with analogy of results of
river discharge assessment); the flow rate values obtained were unfortunately rarely looked at
critically. The water budget is one of these methods to assess the unknown term, i.e. the
discharge of the SMKS. Another method is the direct measurement, based on the monitoring
44

of flow rate as well as temperature, pressure and electrical conductivity directly at the SMKS;
all these devices are implemented on a PVC pipe settle on the outlet and being at anchor on
the basement with concrete blocks. These two methods were applied on three tests sites
located in Lebanon (Chekka Bay) and in Syria (Bassieh-Banias); in Turkey (Gkova Bay) the
water budget was assessed.



Figure 2 Distribution of karst areas (brick symbol) and coastal and SMKS (black dots)
around the Mediterranean

Chekka area is located in North Lebanon, the karst system is recharged by diffuse
infiltration on 155 km are of the Cenomanian-Turonian outcropping limestone and by point
recharge into swallow holes in the two main river beds, El Jawz and El Asfour Rivers. It
discharges at a complex outflow system with several springs, permanent and seasonal,
connected to karst channels developed in depth. Karst features such as paleokarst cavities
infilled with fine, detrital sediments, capped by carbonate deposits (stalagmite pavement)
observed in Cretaceous limestone and the occurrence of SMKS at depth below -100 m bsl, are
argues in favor of the impact of the Messinian crisis on the karst development of Chekka karst
system. Occurring at depth below -100m, SMKS were located even deeper at the beginning of
Quaternary, at least -400 m bsl, and even deeper at the beginning of Pliocene, according to the
uplift estimated to 300 m during Quaternary in the Levantine (Sanlaville 1977). The water
budget was assessed for the Chekka coastal karst system (CCKS), considering rainfall, river
losses, on shore outflow and withdrawal. The total discharge of freshwater at the SMKS
corresponds to a mean value between 1.7 and 2.7 m
3
/s, according hydrological years or cycles.
These values are about ten times lower than assumed by previous studies, using flow velocity
assessment i.e. (Kareh 1967). Moreover, this discrepancy was validated by direct monitoring
of the flow rate of the main permanent spring; the mean flow rate monitored over a 3 months
period is around 35 L/s at S2 spring. Considering some other small outlets, the total flow does
not exceed 70 L/s, corresponding to 40 L/s of fresh water if the salinity is about 40%. The
salinity variability of the S2 spring is important: during the recession, the salinity increases
(500 uS/cm to 24 mS/cm); during low water stage, the value of the salinity is high (34 to 38
mS/cm), due to salt water intrusion. The fresh water ratio is then about 35%. During low
water stage, the salinity as well as the discharge are linked to sea level variation (El Hajj
2008).
45

In Syria, in the area of Bassieh-Banyas (South Mediterranean Syrian coast, North to
Lebanon-Syrian border), the confined upper Cretaceous aquifer discharges at the submarine
springs, due to sufficient hydraulic head to enhance the vertical uprising of water through the
confining layers. About thirty submarine springs were located along the coast of this area
(IBG/DHV 2000), at various depths ranging between 5 to 35 m below sea level in average.
One of the SMKS located at -5 m bsl was equipped with appropriate devices to monitor flow
velocity; the discharge is few l/s -2- L/s in summer 2007 (MEDITATE, D#23 2007),
without variation of Conductivity and discharge. The groundwater out letting is fresh water.
The catchment area of this aquifer discharging in the Sea is assessed to be 855km. On the
basis of a conceptual model, with some assumptions that have not been tested such as the no
recharge of the aquifer by water losses in sinkholes, a rough assessment of the water budget
was established. The total fresh water discharge from submarine springs in Bassieh bay is
estimated to be 162 millions m
3
/y or 5.1 m
3
/s, considering 980 millions m
3
/y from rainfall,
197 millions m
3
/y for evapotranspiration, 180 millions m
3
for surface water flow and 42
millions m
3
/y for withdrawal (MEDITATE, D#13 2007). Previous assessments using a
combination of flow velocity and fresh water content gave discharge ranges from 3 m
3
/s at
Bassieh Gulf to 3.5 m
3
/s at Tartous harbour (IBG/DHV 2000). Al Charideh (2006) using
d18O/CL- relationship showed that all submarine springs water is a mixture of groundwater
and seawater, with a large range of variation of percentage, between 12 to 97%. The total
assessment of fresh water from permanent SMKS (four springs in total, 2 in Banyas Gulf and
2 in Tartous harbour) discharge considering flow velocity and isotopic and chemical data is
350 millions m
3
/year, i.e. 11 m
3
/s. (Al Charideh 2007). The assessment of discharge of this
aquifer is function of high uncertainty on data, water catchment area.
In the Gkova Bay, located on the Western Taurus Mountains in the Western
Mediterranean region of Turkey, the coastal and submarine karst springs system shows well
developed karst features. Plateau, peaks and coastal plains range between 800-1000 m above
sea level (asl) to sea level. The whole area covers a drainage area of 1200 km between Mugla
and Ula Bodrum in the North of Gkova. The springs of Gkova are organized into 5 groups.
They mainly discharge along fault lines within carbonate rock masses of Mesozoic age. The
drainage area may be subdivided into 3 sub regions, Yatagan, Mugla and Ula regions,
considering groundwater flow paths and drainage routes, as well as springs location.
According to the water budget calculation, there is a surplus of about 640 millions m
3
/year (i.e.
20 m
3
/s), that should correspond to the unmeasured submarine springs. Considering an
average amount of the precipitation over the area calculated by isohyets method, this amount
reduces to about 200 millions m
3
/year (i.e. 7 m
3
/s). All these SMKS are located close to the
coast, with diffuse discharge, making difficult to set up a monitoring surface as it was done in
Syria and Lebanon. So it is more reliable to postulate that the submarine springs discharge
comprises in the range of 200 to 640 million m
3
/year in average (MEDITATE 2007).

5 Conclusion
These three examples of coastal karst aquifers with SMKS give an overview of various
hydrogeological settings on one hand and on another hand, uncertainties around the
assessment of SMKS discharge. However, results highlight the systematic discrepancy
between the previous estimates of SMKS and the MEDITATE results, as previously shown in
France (Fleury 2005). The total annual discharge is about ten times lower than the previous
estimates, what makes these submarines springs globally not so interesting targets for
developing new water resources.
Direct flow measurement is not always possible; specifically when discharge is diffuse
into the sea, such as it is the case partly in Syria and in Turkey. In this case, the aquifer
functioning is not really karstic, as discharge is relatively low and varies little with season, as
46

it has been observed in Syria. Such type of coastal carbonate aquifer is characterized by
narrow conduits and fractures, with high head water losses near the outlets, avoiding saltwater
intrusion. For the case of Chekka, SMKS may have strong seasonal variability of discharge
and physical parameters; some SMKS are temporary. The salinity of the water is often low
during high flow but rises as the flow decrease and as there is withdraws by pumping on the
system on the coast. This type of coastal karst aquifer describes karst aquifer with well
developed karstic network, often on several levels. The karstification may be quite extensive
under the present base level. This is the main type of coastal aquifers around Mediterranean
Sea, in agreement with a regional geology driven by the Messinian salinity crisis. In addition,
this type of karst is one of the most difficult to be developed for resources allocation, either
with some on shore boreholes or directly at the submarine spring. Due to salinity occurrence
and a seasonal discharge, it may be necessary to treat water at the level of a small unit of
desalinization by inverse osmosis, for such capture work at the SMKS.
A survey with an autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV) (MEDITATE 2007, Lapierre
and Jouvencel 2008) could constitute possible alternative to calculate discharge. Such AUV is
propelled and driven with control surfaces sensor; it is equipped of scientific sensors allowing
CTD sampling and acoustic and video images acquisition (bathymetry and acoustic profiling).
It will allow to survey above SMKS and to obtain a 3D physical parameter field. This one
may be used in 3D oceanography modelling of the fresh plume of the SMKS, in order to
determine discharge.
In general the harnessing of SMKS cannot be appropriate answer to solve water
shortage. However the monitoring of SMKS must be considered as a necessary survey of the
appropriate management of coastal karst aquifers. This type of monitoring has to be integrated
within an early warning system to prevent seawater intrusion. If harnessing SMKS is one of
the solutions selected as alternative water resource, it may be connected to a small unit of
desalination based on Reverse Osmosis depending on spring water salinity (feasible and
interesting economically, MEDITATE 2007) and used either for irrigation, for industry or for
water supply.

Acknowledgments
This work is the result of the 6
th
FWP MEDITATE (PL509112 FP6-2002-INCO-
MPC1 of the European Commission), as well as of the pH D work of Fleury (2005) in Paris
VI University.

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49

PaPRIKa a multicriteria vulnerability method as a tool for
sustainable management of karst aquifers
Example of application on a test site in SW France

Nathalie DRFLIGER
1
, Valrie PLAGNES
2
, Konstantina KAVOURI
2


1
BRGM, Water division, RMD Unity, 1039 rue de Pinville, 34000 Montpellier, France,
e-mail: n.dorfliger@brgm
2
UMR Sisyphe, Pierre et Marie Curie University Paris 6, France,
e-mails: valerie.plagnes@upmc.fr; konstantina.kavouri@upmc.fr


Abstract: In Europe, carbonate terrains occupy 35 % of the land surface, contributing up to 50%
of drinking water and in some countries being the only available water resource. Karst
groundwater is thus an important water resource, which is, however, particularly sensitive to
contamination, due to structure and hydrological behaviour; it is thus considered to be particularly
vulnerable to pollution. Karst aquifers require consequently, specific groundwater protection.
Groundwater vulnerability assessment schemes have been developed during the last decade,
specifically for karst aquifers, based on the early EPIK method (Drfliger et al. 1999) that
influenced later ones in the framework of the European COST Action 620 as well as at the national
level. These methods are either resource or source vulnerability mapping. The proposed
vulnerability mapping method PaPRIKa takes into consideration criteria for both structure and
functioning of the aquifer. Based on EPIK and RISK resource methods, PaPRIKa method was
developed as a resource and source vulnerability mapping method, allowing assessing
vulnerability with 4 criteria: P for Protection (considering the most protective of a combination of
Soil cover, Unsaturated zone and Epikarst aquifer behaviour criteria), R for Rock type, I for
Infiltration and Ka for Karstification development. The development of this method took into
consideration results of development of other methods such as PI (Goldscheider 2005) and COP
source method (Andreo et al. 2009). Additional criteria are applied such as groundwater travel
time and active conduit network, on the resulting vulnerability map. In this manner adequate
source protection can be assessed; results may be used to outline protection areas of capture work
in karst aquifers. The PaPRIKa method was applied in several test sites in France, in various
geological and hydrogeological settings, particularly in Water agencies territories with particular
high density of karst aquifers (Rhne-Mediterranean, Adour-Garonne and Seine-Normandy
basins). In this paper an example is given as illustration of the method, the Ouysse karst system in
the Causses area in South-West of France. The obtained results are discussed and the role of
vulnerability map in the scheme of groundwater protection with protection zones of capture work
as well as with priority of protection in catchment area is given.
Keywords: karst, vulnerability, water management


1 Introduction
Groundwater from karst aquifers is an important resource for drinking water supply of
community around the world. Carbonate rock outcrops of which a large part is karstified
cover up to 12% of the planets dry, ice-free land. About 25% of the global population is
supplied largely by karst groundwater (Ford and Williams 2007). In Europe; carbonate
terrains outcrops cover 35% of the land-surface; this percentage is similar for the French
territory. These terrains contribute up to 50% to the water supply and even more in some
regions where karst aquifers are the only fresh water resource (COST 65 1995).
50

However karst groundwater systems are generally considered to be particularly
vulnerable to pollution, because of their unique structure. This structure is strongly
heterogeneous. A network of conduits of high permeability is surrounded by large volumes of
low permeability fissured rock. At the surface, heterogeneity is linked to the karst features
morphology as well as the existence of various compartments from surface to vadose zone:
recharge occurs by both dispersed and concentrated water entry (water losses of river, vertical
shaft, dolines, dry valleys). The recharge process is strongly influenced by these
compartments in the verticality, namely the epikarst, defined as a perched saturated horizon
close to the surface allowing temporary storage of water within dissolution features (Mangin
1975, Williams 1983). Special characters of karst aquifers, such as fast concentrated
infiltration and rapid transport into the conduits network over long distances (several
kilometers) make them particularly vulnerable to contamination due to various human and
land-use activities. Consequently, karst groundwater requires specific and appropriate
groundwater protection schemes in order to combine land use practices and sustainable water
management.
The concept of groundwater vulnerability mapping constitutes a common basis to set up
protection zoning and land-use planning. The term of vulnerability was used in the sixties in
France, introduced as a scientific term by Albinet and Margat (1970). The vulnerability was
described by Vrba and Zaporozec (1994) as a relative, non measurable and dimensionless
property, making a distinction between intrinsic and specific (for a particular contaminant)
vulnerability. In the scope of the development of the PaPRIKa approach, the vulnerability
definition is similar as the one defined by Drfliger et al. (1999) and in the framework of the
COST Action 620 (Zwahlen 2004): the intrinsic vulnerability of groundwater to contaminants
represents the inherent hydrogeological and geological characteristics which determine the
sensitivity of groundwater to contamination by human activities; it is independent of the
nature of the contaminants and the contamination scenario.
Several methods have been developed to characterize the intrinsic vulnerability of
resource (water body reached by infiltration water with contaminants originated from land-
surface the groundwater surface) and/or source (capture work: spring or well are the target
after) (Goldscheider et al. 2000), during last decades. General methods applied for porous and
fissured aquifers exist e.g. DRASTIC (Aller et al. 1987), SINTACS (Civita and De
Maio1997), GLA (Htling et al. 1995) and PI (Goldscheider et al. 2000). Specific methods
were developed to take into consideration karst aquifers structure and hydrogeological
behavior: EPIK method (Drfliger et al. 1999), REKS Method (Malik and Svasta 1999),
RISKE (Ptelet et al. 2000) and the COP method (Vias et al. 2006, Andreo et al. 2009). The
PaPRIKa method is an updated method derived from previous specific vulnerability mapping
method for karst groundwater. The aim of this study is to present this new method for which
guidelines are written to serve as a common basis in France for the karst groundwater
protection, i.e. protection zones outlining for capture work and land-use planning.

2 PaPRIKa vulnerability mapping method

2.1 Overview of existing specific vulnerability methods for karst aquifers
The first method considering the specific properties of karst groundwater is EPIK
(Drfliger and Zwahlen 1998, Drfliger et al. 1999). This method considers 4 criteria, such as
Epikarst (E), Protective cover (P), Infiltration conditions (I) and Karst network development
(K). It is a multi-attribute weighting rating method (overlay and index method), point-count
system based on the DRASTIC model. Several weakness of the method has been assessed
later on after several tests carried out during the COST Action 620 in European countries and
as well in France. The method RISK(E) based on EPIK method introduced modification into
51

the definition of the criteria, in order to avoid overlapping of criteria (e.g. in Infiltration and in
Epikarst definition) as well in the weighting and rating system. More consistency was
introduced, defining the total weight of criteria as 100% or 1. In the EPIK method Epikarst
criteria was based on the mapping of karstic features such as karrenfields, dolines, dry valleys
and in the same time concentrated infiltration considered as well water losses and dolines
catchment. Epikarst is an ambiguous criterion, as due to its hydrogeological behavior it may
play a role of temporary storage of infiltrated water and in contrary possibly allows
concentrated infiltration through vertical shaft directly connected to channel network. In the
RISKE method, Epikarst criterion was then considered through its hydrogeological
functioning and not through its karstic features. Concentrated infiltration spots were
considered in the Infiltration attribute. Theses methods were considered as resource
vulnerability mapping methods.
In the framework of COST Action 620, the PI method (Goldscheider et al. 2000) served
as a basis for the European approach and for the COP method. The PI method considers the
protective function of the layers above the saturated zone (P) and the infiltration conditions
(P). The P factor is based on the assessment scheme proposed by Hlting et al. (1995).It
includes the topsoil, the subsoil, the non karst rock and the unsaturated zone of the karst rock.
Protectiveness is assessed on the basis of the effective field capacity of the soil, the grain size
distribution of the subsoil, the lithology, fissuring and karstification of the non karst and karst
rock, the thickness, the mean annual recharge and artesian pressure in the aquifer. The I factor
takes account for the karst specific recharge and infiltration processes (Ravbar and
Goldscheider 2009). It describes the infiltration conditions and in particular the degree to
which the protective cover is bypassed as a result of lateral surface and subsurface flow that
enters the karst aquifer. It depends of the slope, the soil properties and the vegetation and the
position of a given point inside or outside the catchment of a sinking stream (Goldscheider
2005). The final protection factor is the product of P and I; five classes of vulnerability are
distinguished. The COP method (Vias et al. 2006) designed for resource vulnerability
mapping includes the overlaying layers factor (O), the concentration of flow factor (C) and
the precipitation regime factor (P). For source vulnerability, water of wells or spring is the
target; the horizontal flow in the saturated zone depicted as the karst network development is
taken into consideration in the COP+K method. K factor is based on the transit time, the
information on karst network, the degree of connection of it to the spring or well (Andreo et al.
2009).

2.2 PaPRIKA method
The PaPRIKa method is a resource and source vulnerability mapping. Two major
differences exist with PI and COP methods and derived methods from COST Action 620. The
first one is the absence of considering the precipitation regime factor. Regime factor is not
considered as an inherent and intrinsic attribute. The second one is a simple indexation in 5
classes of the vulnerability of each criterion as well as of the final index (1 for the most
protective and 4 for the most vulnerable). The four attributes of the PaPRIKa method belong
to two groups: P and R for attributes linked to the structure of the aquifer and I and Ka
attributes linked to the hydrogeological behavior.
The Protective cover assessment scheme is based on the consideration of the soil
characteristics (texture, structure and thickness), the non saturated zone (thickness, lithology
and fracture degree) and epikarst aquifer. The cross mapping of these criteria allows to
keeping the most protective value. Additionally, within catchments of water losses the P
criterion characterizes the non infiltration properties of soils and sub-soils. In this case, an
elevated degree of vulnerability is attributed to impervious formations like clays, and a lower
one to more permeable formations like sands and unconsolidated conglomerates. The Rock
52

factor considers the lithology and the degree of fracturing of the aquifer body. The
Infiltration conditions factor is defined taking into consideration slope and the karstic
features allowing direct infiltration such as water catchment of water losses, sinkholes,
dolines etc The Karstic degree Ka factor is based on the assessment of the karst degree
considering discharge and chemical variability at the spring as well as velocities and
restitution rates showed by artificial tracing tests.
The weighting formula of these four criteria is the following: all weights are equal to 1.
It is proposed that the total weight for the structure factors is equal to 0.4 and the total weight
for the hydrogeological functioning is equal to 0.6. The obtained vulnerability map is
considered as a resource vulnerability map. In order to obtain a source vulnerability map of
the karst system or aquifer, the underground transit time is considered as an additional factor
in the I map. We define isochrones, between the capture work and defined isochrones using
velocity data from artificial tracing tests and as well on the karst conduits maps or supposed
karst conduits.

2.3 Source vulnerability mapping in the pilot site of Ouysse
The studied area is located in the department of Lot within the territory of the Natural
Regional Park of the Causses of Quercy. The Quercy region is a typical karst terrain
subdivided in four calcareous plateaus: the Causse of Gramat, the Causse of Martel, the
Causse of Limognes and the Causse of St Chels. The Ouysse system constitutes the north part
of the Causse of Gramat. The Causse of Gramat is constituted of a tabular carbonate sequence
of middle to late Jurassic, slightly tilted towards the SW (Figure 1). Thanks to this structure
the entire sedimentary sequence outcrops within the limits of the studied area. The Ouysse
river basin constitutes a binary karst system of 590 km, from which 154 km correspond to
superficial water catchments whose runoff penetrates the aquifer through a group of swallow
holes developed on the eastern edge of the calcareous series (Aalenian). Numerous
speleological surveys allowed mapping three active conduits: the river of Vitarelles on East,
the river of Lacarrire on West and the river of Viazac-Planagrze on the South part of the
basin. Artificial tracer tests show the direct connection of the karst conduits to springs at the
NE of the basin. The territory is rich in karst geomorphology with numerous dolines and
swallow-holes. Ouysse is captured at two springs (Cabouy and Fontbelle) and by a well
located in the underground river of Vitarelles in the central part of the basin (Bdes).
The first part of this study concerns the assessment of the intrinsic vulnerability of the
resource. This application took under consideration specificities of the Ouysse system such as
the size of the catchment, the existence of a related surface catchment area and the spatial
variability of the karst network development. As a result, the PaPRIKa map of Ouysse
represents three classes of vulnerability, from moderate to extremely high (Figure 2). As less
vulnerable (V
2
) is characterized the West part of the studied area which is covered by semi-
permeable layers (marls and silt limestone of late Kimmeridgian). Tectonic accidents, water
losses catchments and mapped conduits are grouped in highest classes of vulnerability (V
4
)
while the rest of the basin is characterized vulnerable mainly because of the high number of
dolines (V
3
). At last, the vulnerability is generally accentuated within two areas considered to
be connected with active karst draining axes, the first having a South to North direction and
the second one an East to West.
In the second part of this study an assessment of the intrinsic vulnerability (source
vulnerability) for each capture work has been realized. An additional criterion of tracers
travel velocity has been introduced in the Infiltration criterion, in order to assess intervention
time isochrones. The principle of this approach is based on highlighting the zones where
concentrated infiltration and rapid transfer towards the capture work is more probable. The
intervention time constrains allow the representation of lateral transportation parameter in a
53

two dimensions plan. Several time limits have been suggested (12h, 24h, 36h and 48h) in
order to provide to decision makers the possibility to choose among the most adapted to
fields particularities, opposed to a scenario of accidental pollution.


Figure 1 Simplified hydrogeological map and vertical section of the studied area (modified
after Astruc et al. 1994)



Figure 2 Intrinsic vulnerability map of the Ouysse karst system. PaPRIKa method
54


The mappings target being the capture work, this application concerns only the wells/
springs basic alimentation area. The example of the application for the well of Bdes for an
intervention time of 12 h and 48 h is given (figure 3a and 3b respectively). The catchment
area of the capture work of Bdes covers 199km and corresponds approximately to 1/3 of the
total catchments area. It has been delimited for the needs of this study by coupling
topography with geological characteristics and hydrological information provided by tracer
tests.
Comparing these two maps with the PaPRIKa resource mapping (see also figure 2) one
may note that the vulnerability value appears decreasing within the distant zones, located
beyond the isochrones limits.


Figure 3 Intrinsic vulnerability map of the well of Bdes for an intervention time of a) 48 h
and b) 12 h

3 Conclusion
The PaPRIKa method is the result of a major improvement of previous specific intrinsic
vulnerability methods developed for karst aquifers, taking into consideration European
research work on this topic. It was tested on numerous sites in France. It allows obtaining
resource and source vulnerability mapping of karst aquifer, and constitutes a common
methodology based on specific structure and functioning of this type of aquifer. The method
is described in detail in common guidelines that are available for both French administrations
and engineers enterprises in charge of carrying out vulnerability mapping in order to
determine protection zoning. The vulnerability assessment needs to be reliable and in order to
avoid subjectiveness, the validation of vulnerability maps should be done. Validation
procedures should be applied considering on one hand integrating tracers (nitrates, pesticides
such as developed in the framework of the EU FOOTPRINT project, i.e.) and on the other
hand artificial tracer tests under variable hydrological conditions such as suggested by Ravbar
and Goldscheider (2009).

Acknowledgments
This work is a contribution to the project co-funded by ONEMA as well as by BRGM in
the framework of public activities for the Environment Ministry. The application to the test
site was also supported by the Parc naturel Rgional des Causses du Quercy (J. Trmoulet)
and Adour-Garonne Water Agency. The authors thank the working group (P. Marchet
(AEAG), L. Cadilhac (AERM&C), D. Humbert (AESN), Ph. Muet (Ginger Environment),
Ph. Crochet (ANTEA) and P-Henri Mondain (CALLIGEE)) for their comments and
suggestions in order to improve the methodology.

55


References
Albinet M, Margat J (1970) Cartographie de la vulnrabilit la pollution des nappes
d'eau souterraine. Bulletin du BRGM (deuxime srie) III(4):13-22
Aller L, Bennet T, Lehr JH, Petty RJ, Hackett G (1987) DRASTIC: a standardized
system for evaluating ground water pollution potential using hydrogeological settings. US
Environmental Protection Agency, EPA/600/2- 87-036, 455 pp
Andreo B, Ravbar N, Vas JM (2009) Source vulnerability mapping in carbonate (karst)
aquifers by extension of the COP method: application to pilot sites, Hydrogeology Journal
17:749758
Astruc JG, Coustou JC, Cubaynes R, Galharague J, Lorblanchet M, Marcouly R,
Pelissie T, Rey J (1994) Notice explicative, Carte gol. France (1/50 000
me
), feuille Gramat
(833). Orlans : BRGM, 69 p. Carte gologique par JG Astruc (1994)
Civit M, De Maio M (1997) SINTACS: un sistema parametrico per la valutazione e la
cartografia della vulnerabilita degli acquiferi allinquinamento: metodologia e
automatizzazione [SINTACS: a parametric system for the assessment and mapping of the
groundwater vulnerability to contamination: methodology and automation]. Pitagora,
Bologna, 208 pp
COST 65 (1995) Hydrogeological aspects of groundwater protection in karstic areas,
Final report (COST action 65). European Commission, Directorate-General XII Science,
Research and Development, Report EUR 16547 EN, Brussels, 446 pp
Drfliger N, Jeannin PY, Zwahlen F (1999) Water vulnerability assessment in karst
environments: a new method of defining protection areas using a multi-attribute approach and
GIS tools (EPIK method). Environ Geol 39(2):165176
Drfliger N, Zwahlen F (1998) Practical guide: groundwater vulnerability mapping in
karstic regions (EPIK). Swiss Agency for the Environment, Forests and Landscape, Bern, 56
pp
Ford DC, Williams PW (2007) Karst hydrogeology and geomorphology. Chichester,
UK, Wiley
Goldscheider N, Klute M, Sturm S, Hotzl H (2000) The PI method: a GIS-based
approach to mapping groundwater vulnerability with special consideration of karst aquifers. Z
Angew Geol 463:157166
Hlting B, Haertle T, Hohberger KH, Nachtigall KH, Villinger E, Weinzierl W, Wrobel
JP (1995) Konzept zur Ermittlung der Schutzfunktion der Grundwasser berdeckung [Concept
for the evaluation of the protective function of the layers overlying groundwater]. Geol Jahrb
C63:5-24
Malik P, Svasta J (1999) REKS - an alternative method of karst groundwater
vulnerability estimation. Hydrogeology and Land Use Management, Proceedings of the XXIX
Congress of the International Association of Hydrogeologists, Bratislava, 7985, September
1999
Mangin A (1975) Contribution ltude hydrodynamique des aquifres karstiques
(Contributions to the hydrodynamic of karst aquifers). Thse, Universit de Dijon, 124 pp
Ptelet-Giraud E, Drfliger N, Crochet Ph (2000) RISKE: Multicriteria assessment of
karst aquifer vulnerability mapping. Application to the Fontanilles and Cent-Fonts karstic
aquifers (Hrault, S. France) (in French), Hydrogologie, 22 pp
Ravbar N, Goldscheider N (2009) Comparative application of four methods of
groundwater vulnerability mapping in a Slovene karst catchment, Hydrogeology Journal 17:
725733
56

Vas JM, Andreo B, Perles JM, Carrasco F, Vadillo I (2006) Proposed method for
groundwater vulnerability mapping in carbonate (karstic) aquifers: the COP method:
application in two pilot sites in southern Spain. Hydrogeol J 14(6):912925
Vrba J, Zaporozec A (eds) (1994) Guidebook on mapping groundwater vulnerability.
International association of hydrogeologists. Heise, Hannover
Williams PW (1983) The role of the subcutaneous zone in karst hydrology. In: Back W
and LaMoreaux PE (Guest-Editors) V.T. Springfield symposium - processes in karst
hydrology. J Hydrol 61:4567
Zwahlen F (ed) (2004) Vulnerability and risk mapping for the protection of carbonate
(karst) aquifers. Final report of COST Action 620. European Commission, Directorate-
General XII Science, Research and Development, Brussels
57

Investigation about recharge sources of Bistrica karst spring, the
biggest spring of Albania, by means of environmental
hydrochemical and isotope tracers

Romeo EFTIMI

ITA Consult, Rr. Rreshit ollaku, pll. 10/3/18, Tirana, Albania,
e-mail: eftimi@sanx.net


Abstract: Bistrica karst spring, the biggest spring of Albania, issues at western side of Gjere
Mountain karst massif; his mean discharge is 18.4 m
3
/s. In the eastern side the Gjere Mountain
karst massif comes in contact with the abundant gravely basin of Drinos River. From the balance
calculations results that only about 70 % of the groundwater resources of the massif could be
recharged by the infiltration of the precipitation. Because Bistrica spring is located at elevation
about 45 m lower than the mean elevation of gravely basin of Drinos River, it was supposed that
the spring partially could be recharged by the gravely basin groundwater. A sampling program was
applied during 1989-1990 with some additional sampling during 1996. There were analyzed the
oxygen-18, deuterium as well as water chemical analyses were performed. The measurements
were made at 6 springs in the karst area, at one borehole of Drinos River valley and at Drinos
River. It was calculated that about 60-65 % of the water issuing from the Bistrica spring originate
from the infiltrated precipitation in the karst massif and about 30-35 % represent the Drinos valley
groundwater seepage into the massif. This result fit very well with the karst water balance study of
the Gjere Mountain karst massif.
Keywords: karst spring, environmental isotope tracers, environmental hydrochemical tracers


1 Introduction
Gjere Mountain is located in south Albania and is one of the biggest karst massifs of the
country. In the western side of the basin issues the largest Albanias spring, Bistrica, with
mean discharge of 18.4 m
3
/s. From water balance investigations it was concluded that the
karst water resources of Gjere Mountain basin only partially could be replenished by
precipitation. The goal of this research was the investigation of the mechanism of recharge of
the Gjere Mountain karst massif feeding the Bistrica spring. Environmental isotope methods
combined with hydrochemical investigation and groundwater level observation were used to
elucidate the internal hydrology of this karst basin.

2 General characteristics of study area
Gjere Mountain karst massif is located in the south-eastern part of Albania, on the
border with Greece. The total surface of the karst massif is 440 km
2
, mostly located in
Albanian territory (about 400 km
2
). The highest picks of Gjere Mountain are 1798 m and
1759 m a.s.l., while the mean altitude is about 900 m a.s.l. The crest of the Gjere Mountain is
the natural surface water divide between the Drinos River basin located on the east, and
Bistrica River basin located on the west. The geology of the study area, as well as the
sampling locations are shown in Fig. 1. Gjere Mountain is an anticline dipping to the east with
25-30, while the structure is overthrown to the west. The western tectonic plane deeps to the
east angle 40-45(Fig. 2)
58


Figure 1 Hydrogeological map of Gjere mountain karst massif area
1. Quaternary fluvial deposits 2. Quaternary talus cones 3. Quaternary brachia 4. Palaeogene
stratified limestone 5. Cretaceous stratified limestone 6. Jurassic limestone with siliceous
rocks 7. Triassic dolomites 8. Paleogene and Neogene flysch 9. Permian-Triassic clay and
gypsum 10. Spring, average discharge (a.d.) less than 10 l/s 11. Spring a.d. 10 to 100 l/s 12.
Spring a.d.100 to 1000 l/s 13. Spring a.d. more than 1000 l/s 14. Temporary karst spring 15.
Contours lines of fluvial gravely aquifer 16. Groundwater flow direction 17. Perennial stream
18. Part of a stream with intermittent runoff caused by the infiltration of surface waters in the
river bed gravely deposits 19. Main surface water divides 20. Drilled water well 21.
Geological limit 22. Hydrogeological section limit. Note: Numbers on the map show the
location of sampling pints.

The oldest rocks of the area, the Triassic gypsum-clayey formation, have only a small
outcrop in the western side of the Gjere Mountain anticline. The carbonate sequence
constitutes most of Gjere Mountain.
59




Figure 2 Hydrogeological cross-section of Gjere Mountain 1. Gravely fluvial deposits 2.
Palaeogene-Neogene flysch deposits 3. Palaeogene limestone 4. Cretaceous limestone 5.
Jurassic limestone 6. Permian-Triassic gypsum and clay 7. Groundwater level 8. Perennial
spring 9. Temporary spring 10. Main groundwater flow direction.

It consists of Upper Triassic dolomites, and different limestone rocks of Jurassic,
Cretaceous and Palaeogene. The carbonate rocks are surrounded by Palaeogene and Neogene
flysch formations (alternating beds of siltstone, claystone and sandstone). Only in the central-
eastern side of the Gjere Mountain structure, from Jergucat village at the south to Dervician
village at the north (6.5 km) the flysch formation is missing and carbonate rocks contact the
Drinos valley gravely deposits.
Using the methods described by Turc and Kessler the effective infiltration of the mean
annual precipitation recharging the karst groundwater of Gjere Mountain massif is estimated
equal to about 1175 mm/year (5.17*10
8
m
3
/year, or 16.4 m
3
/s). The evapotranspiration
resulted to be about 573 mm/year (2.25*10
8
m
3
/year, or 8.0 m
3
/s).
About 80 % of the karst water resources of the Gjere massif discharge in its western
side. In this side of the massif issues Bistrica spring (nr 1-6) with a mean discharge of 18.4
m
3
/s, as well as some other springs, each with a mean discharge of less than 100 l/s. The
largest spring of the eastern side of this massif is the temporary spring Viroi (nr 14), flowing
only about 8 to 9 months per year, and having maximal discharge of 40 m
3
/s. Third important
spring, Lista (nr 17) with a mean discharge of 1.7 m
3
/s issues in the southernmost edge of this
massif, in Greek territory. Total discharge of all Gjere karst massif springs is estimated to be
about 7.42*10
8
m
3
/year, (23.6 m
3
/s). As can be noticed, the total discharge of the springs of
Gjere karst massif, corresponding to a quantity of about 2.26*10
8
m
3
/year (7.17 m
3
/s), is
about 30 % larger than the calculated mean efficient precipitation infiltration in the massif,.

3 Environmental tracer approaches
Environmental isotopes are most useful in problems related to the origin of water and
the dynamics of water systems. Based upon the altitude effect, isotopes may be used for the
identification of waters of the potential source areas of recharge (IAEA 1981, 1983, Payne
1978, Eftimi and Zoto 1997, Eftimi 2007). The environmental isotope techniques are being
used here together with hydrochemical and to verify a partial replenishment of the karst water
resources of Gjere Mountain massif by the gravely aquifer of Drinos valley. The formulation
of this hypothesis takes into consideration the good hydraulic connection between the
60

aquifers, the gravely aquifer and the karst one, as well as, the natural groundwater slope to
Bistrica spring, which the elevation is about 45 m lower than this of Drinos valley (Fig.2).
The sample collection began in January 1988 and continued until December 1999, and
some sporadic sampling mostly for investigation of the hydrochemical composition is done
during 1996. The samples were analyzed for oxygen-18 and deuterium. Four springs were
selected for sampling in the western side of Gjere karst massif; Bistrica on six outlets (points
1 to 6), Vrisi (point 7), Kardhikaq (point 11) and the small Lefterohor spring (point 9). On the
eastern side of the karst massif were sampled two springs, Sopot (point 12) and Viroi (point
14) as well as a borehole near Jorgucat village tapping the Drinos valley gravely aquifer
(point 20) and the Drinos River near Jergucat (point 21). The sampling locations are shown in
Fig. 1. The results of isotope measurements performed on Isotope Hydrology Laboratory of
IAEA are presented on Table 1. The analytical errors are 0.1 %o for o
18
O and 1.0 %o for oD.
In Table 2 are presented the mean concentrations of some chemical components.

4 Discussions and interpretation of environmental tracer data

4.1 Isotope data
The isotopic composition of all the six outlets of Bistrica spring (nr1-6) is very similar
and homogenous, the standard deviation of mean values for each outlet vary within 0.02-0.08
for o
18
O and within 0.6-1.1 for oD values. This is an indication of a good mixing respectively
a long residence time of the karst groundwater of Gjere Mountain massif. The presented on
Table 1 o
18
O and oD values of Bistrica spring are the weighted values of six springs outlets.
The correlation function between mean o
18
O and oD values of sampled points and
shown in Fig. 3 results in two equations (1) and (2):
oD = 7.29 o
18
O + 13.18 (r = 0. 99) (1)
oD = 2.28 o
18
O 26.58 (r = 0. 99) (2)

Table 1 Mean isotopic composition of water samples of Gjere Mountain karst massif

No Sampling location

Elevation
(m)
Mean discharge
(L/s)
Number of
samples
o
18
O
[]
oD
[]
Deuterium
excess - []
(1-6)
7
9
11
12
14
15
16
Bistrica spring
Vrisi spring
Lefterohor spring
Kardhikaq spring
Sopot spring
Viroi spring
Jergucat borehole
Drinos River, Bularat
152
177
590
185
1000
196
198
197
18.400
70
0.4
90
1.5
0-40.000
-
-
34
8
6
8
5
5
3
3
-7.58 0.16
-6.66 0.13
-6.95 0.18
-6.71 0.16
-8.26 0.12
-7.99 0.19
-6.80 0.13
-6.80 0.13
-43.88 2.4
-35.10 2.0
-37.00 2.7
-36.40 1.6
-47.20 0.6
-44.90 2.9
-42.20 1.8
-42.00 1.7
+
16.76
+18.80
+18.60
+17.28
+18.88
+19.02
+12.20
+12.40

Equation (1) could be considered a local meteoric water line and his slope is close to 8
of the world meteoric water line. The deuterium excess is +18 instead of +10 of the
global meteoric water line (Dansgard 1964). Albania belongs to the east Mediterranean
anomalous zone concerning the deuterium axis, determined by Gat and Carmi (1970).
Equation (2) describes a mixing line; the mixing of infiltrated into karst massif
precipitation and of the groundwater of Drinos valley gravely aquifer is responsible for the
isotope composition of Bistrica spring. The infiltrated precipitation into karst massif is
represented by the values of intercept of both lines in Figure 3, which practically coincides
with the isotope composition of Viroi temporary spring (nr 14) o
18
O = - 7.99 and oD = -
44.90. The recharged by the Drinos River the gravely aquifer groundwater is effected by
the relative oD and o
18
O enrichment; it seems that the mean recharge area of the Drinos River
61

catchment has lower elevation that this of the Gjere Mountain karst massif. The isotope
composition of gravely aquifer groundwater is represented by the Jergucat borehole o
18
O = -
6.80 and oD = - 42.20.



Figure 3 Relationship between o
18
O and oD for waters of Gjere Mountain karst massif

Based on simple two-component mixing analyses, the Drinos Valley gravely aquifer is
estimated to contribute about 30 % to the replenishment of the Bistrica Spring. This is equal
to 5.52 m
3
/s or 1.74*10
8
m
3
/year.
Not enough springs at different elevations with well-defined recharge areas are known
in the study area for the accurate definition of the altitude effect. Figure 4 shows the relation
between o
18
O values and elevation of springs. Four big springs Bistrica, Vrisi, Kardhikaqi and
Viroi have approximately the "same" elevation but quite different o
18
O values. Consequently
their data cant be used to study of the relation between o
18
O values and elevation of springs.
It is considered that the mean recharge altitude (Mra) of the small local springs number
9 and 12 practically coincides with their corresponding elevations. The data of these springs
are used to define the altitude effect (Fig. 4), and the prediction of the Mra from the o
18
O
values of the springs can be based on the following equation (3):
Mra (m) = -313 o
18
O 1585 (3)
The altitude effect as defined using equation (3) is -0.32 %o in o
18
O-values per 100 m.
According to literature data the altitude effect for o
18
O %o - values vary from 0.15 %o to 0.5
%o per 100 m (Payne et al. 1978, IAEA 1981, Leontiadis at al. 1997). Using the relation
presented in Figure 4 the Mra of the big springs of study area results as below: Bistrica - 800
m; Vrisi - 500 m; Kardhikaqi - 515 m and Viroi 915 m.



Figure 4 o
18
O versus altitude of springs
62


4.2 Hydrochemical data
Referring to data shown on Table 2, from a hydro-chemical point of view the studied
waters can be classified in three groups. To the first group belong the small local springs
Lefterohor (nr 9), and Sopoti (nr 12), as well as the big ones Viroi (nr 14) and Vrisi (nr 7).

Table 2 Mean of some chemical components of water samples of Gjere Mountain
The chemical type is determined only by ions which concentration is more than 25 % me/L
No Sampling location Number of
samples
Elevation

(m)
T

(C)
pH Electrical
conductivity
(uS/cm)
Chemical type SO
4
--
(mg/l)
1-6
7
9
11
12
14
15
16
17
Bistrica spring
Vrisi spring
Lefterohor spring
Kardhikaq spring
Sopot spring
Viroi spring
Jergucat borehole
Drinos River, Bularat
Lista (Greece)
34
8
6
8
5
9
3
3
10
152
177
590
185
1000
196
198
197
12.4
14.5
12.4
14.3
8.4
11.2
12.8
13.8
12.4
7.64
7.62
7.50
7.53
7.89
7.72
7.56
8.05
8.00
585
430
337
567
189
371
786
950
270
HCO
3
-SO
4
-Ca
HCO
3
-Ca
HCO
3
-Ca
HCO
3
-SO
4
-Ca
HCO
3
-Ca
HCO
3
-Ca
SO
4
-HCO
3
-Ca
SO
4
-HCO
3
-Ca
HCO
3
-Ca
135.0
32.2
9.9
121.4
18.1
47.0
258.0
385.0
11.0



Figure 5 o
18
O versus sulphate concentration Figure 6 o
18
O versus electrical conductivity
for waters of Gjere Mountain karst massif for waters of Gjere Mountain karst massif

The springs of the first group are of HCO
3
-Ca type and their sulphate concentration
varies from 18.1 to 46.5 mg/L.
To the second group belongs Bistrica and Kardhikaq spring. They are of HCO
3
-SO
4
-Ca
type; sulphate concentration is relatively high, it varies about 121-135 mg/L.
To the third group belong the groundwater of Drinos valley (point 20) and the Drinos
River (point 21). The water type is SO
4
-HCO
3
-Ca and sulphate concentration of five wells of
Drinos valley gravely aquifer varies from 175 to 308 mg/L.
Very indicative for the relation of hydrochemical and isotope methods of study are the
relations of SO
4
concentrations and of conductivity values with the o
18
O concentration
(Figures 5 and 6). On both graphs clearly appears that the Bistrica spring stay on the mixing
line which mixing end-members are the infiltration of the precipitation in the karst massif and
the groundwater of Drinos valley gravely aquifer.
Bistrica spring (nr 1-6) and Kardhikaq spring (nr 11) issue in the contact with Upper
Triassic clayey-gypsum deposits and are characterised by similar sulphate concentration. One
could think that geological implications are responsible for the increased sulphate
63

concentration of both springs. In the same time both springs have significant differences of
the concentrations of isotope, sulphate concentration, conductivity and temperature.
A careful examination of graphs in Figures 3, 5 and 6 enables us to understand that the
origin of sulphate ion at both springs seems to be quite different. While Bistrica spring at all
three above mentioned graphs lay on the mixing line, Kardhikaq spring lay far from the
mixing line. These facts help to conclude that the sulphate concentration of Bistrica spring
results of the mixing of two different recharge sources, one of which has high sulphate
concentration. Kardhikaq spring is recharged by the precipitation and the source of the
sulphate ion is the gypsum of Triassic deposits. The result obtained with the environmental
isotopes for the different recharge sources of Bistrica spring is supported by the
hydrochemical observations. The proportion of the mixing of two different waters could be
determined comparing the amount of the so-called conservative ions. A typical conservative
ion is considered Cl ion but SO
4
ion is used also (Eftimi 2006). For the estimation of the
mixing proportions contributing to Bistrica spring sulphate ion is used as a neutral ion. Karst
massif groundwater mixing component is represented by Viroi spring (point 14), sulphate ion
concentration 47.0 mg/L. Because of lack of systematic monitoring, the sulphate
concentration of the other mixing component, that of Drinos valley groundwater could not be
considered well defined. This could be represented by the Jergucat borehole (nr 20), which
mean sulphate concentration is 258 mg/L, but values of more than 300 mg/l are measured in
other boreholes. Let remember also that the mean sulphate concentration of the Drinos River
recharging the gravely aquifer vary about 350-400 mg/l, but values about 650-700 mg/l are
measured also.
The sulphate concentrations of two mixing components used for the calculations are
47.0 mg/l for Viroi spring and 300 mg/l for the Drinos valley groundwater. Based on simple
two-component mixing analyses, is estimated that the contribution of the Drinos valley
gravely aquifer consist about 35 % of mean discharge of Bistrica spring equal to 6.44 m
3
/s or
2.03*10
8
m
3
/s. As could be seen on Table 3, the results obtained by environmental tracer
methods, isotope and hydrochemical are well comparable (Table 3).

Table 3 Estimated recharge sources of Bistrica spring


Method
Recharge sources of Bistrica spring
Infiltrated precipitation in the karst basin Seepage of Drinos valley groundwater in
the karst massif
% m
3
/s % m
3
/s
Isotope 70 12.88 30 5.52
Hydrochemical 65 11.96 35 6.44

According to the balance calculation of the Gjere Mountain karst massif the total
discharge of the springs of the karst massif results about 7.17 m
3
/s larger than the calculated
mean efficient precipitation infiltration in the karst massif. This number is well comparable
particularly with the value of the seepage of Drinos valley groundwater in the karst massif
obtained by the hydrochemical method. The comparison is justified if all the seeped
groundwater of Drinos valley in the karst massif recharges only Bistrica spring, which seems
to be a reasonable supposition.

5 Mechanism of groundwater circulation in the karst massif
The mechanism of groundwater circulation in Gjere Mountain karst massive is
responsible for the formation of main springs of this massif, as well as for the characterisation
of the Drinos river valley surface and groundwater. These phenomenons have distinct
seasonal character.
64

The period with most intensive infiltration is December-April. During this period the
karst groundwater level successively increases and a temporary water divide is created inside
the karst massif. The karst groundwater flows at both directions, to the west and to the east
(Fig. 2). Beside large Viroi temporary spring (nr 14), many other short term springs appear at
the eastern side of Gjere karst massif which duration varies some hours to some days. Yearly
amplitude of the karst water level fluctuation of about 35-m is observed in Goranxi cave.
Usually by the end of May up to October or November the karst groundwater level starts to
decrease steadily. During this period the karst groundwater of Gjere Mountain massif flows
mainly to the west, to Bistrica spring. In the eastern side of the karst massif all the springs dry
up including also Viroi spring (usually starting from July). The Drinos River surface flow
totally infiltrates in the river bed gravely deposits. During the concerned period the
piezometric level of Drinos valley gravely aquifer suffers an unusual decrease, also. The
yearly level fluctuation amplitude of the gravely aquifer is about 30 m; the biggest one
observed in fluvial gravely aquifers of Albania. Water level contours suggest the seepage of
gravely aquifer groundwater to the karst aquifer, mainly to Bistrica spring. As the chemical
composition of Bistrica spring is very homogenous through the year round one could suppose
about a good mixing of infiltrated precipitation into the karst massive and the seepage
groundwater from Drinos valley.

6 Conclusions
The application of the environmental isotope and hydrochemical methods in the study
of the Gjere Mountain karst massif has allowed some important conclusions about the
mechanism of groundwater flow in the study area. It is considered that about 60-65 % of
groundwater resources of Bistrica spring originates from the infiltration of precipitation in the
Gjere Mountain karst massif and about 30-35 % originates from the seepage of Drinos valley
groundwater into the Gjere Mountain karst massif. Further systematic investigations are
necessary to estimate better the mixing components of Bistrica spring.

Acknowledgements
The author is greatly indebted to Prof. Hans Zojer and Prof. Josef Zoetl respectively
Director and former Director of Institute of Hydrogeology and Geothermie of Graz, and to T.
Akiti, former Expert of Isotope Section of IAEA for the useful discussions during the starting
phase of the investigation. The IAEA Isotope Hydrology Laboratory is also acknowledged for
performing the isotope analyses.

References
Craig H (1961) Isotope variations in meteoric waters, Science 133:1702-1703
Dansgard W (1964) Stable isotopes in precipitation. Tallus 16:436
Eftimi R, Zoto J (1997) Isotope study of the connection of Ohrid and Prespa lakes, In:
International Symposium, "Towards Integrated Conservation and Sustainable development of
Transboundary Macro and Micro Prespa Lakes". Korcha, pp 32-38
Eftimi R (2006) Investigation about the recharge sources of Pocemi springs in Albania
by means of environmental hydrochemical tracers. In: Sudar M, Ercegovac M, Grubi (eds)
Proceedings of XVIII
th
Congress of the CBGA., September 3-6, 2006, Belgrade, pp123-126
Eftimi R (2007) Groundwater circulation in two transboundary carbonate aquifers of
Albania; their vulnerability and protection. In: Witkowski AJ, Kowalczyk A, Vrba J (eds)
Groundwater Vulnerability Assessment and Mapping, Internat. Conf. Ustron, Poland 2004,
Taylor & Francis/Balkema, pp 199-211
Gat JR, Carmi J (1970) Evolution of isotopic composition of atmospheric waters in the
Mediterranean Sea area. J. Geophys 75:30-39
65

Gat JR, Dansgaard W (1970) Stable isotope survey of the freshwater occurrences in
Israel and the Jordan Rift Valley, J. Hydrol. 16:177-212
International Atomic Energy Agency - IAEA (1981) Stable isotope in hydrology, IAEA.
Tech Rep. Ser., No 210, pp 339
International Atomic Energy Agency - IAEA (1983) Guidebook on Nuclear Techniques
in Hydrology, IAEA. Tech Rep. Ser., No 91, pp 439
Leontiadis LL, Smyrniotis CH, Nikolaou V, Georgiadis P (1997) In: Gnay G, Johnson
I (eds) Karst Waters, Balkema, Rotterdam, pp 239-247
Payne BR, Leontiadis LL, Dimitrulas I, Dounas A, Kallergis G, Morfis A (1978) A
study of the Kalamos Spring in Greece with environmental isotopes. Water Resources
Research 14(4):653-658
67

Importance of transboundary karst aquifer resources in South
Eastern Europe (SEE)

Jacques GANOULIS
1
, Alice AURELI
2
, Neno KUKURI
3


1
UNESCO Chair /The International Network of Water-Environment Centres for the Balkans
(INWEB) Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece
e-mail: iganouli@civil.auth.gr
2
UNESCO International Hydrological Programme (IHP)
1, rue Miollis, 75732 Paris, France
3
International Groundwater Resources Assessment Centre (IGRAC)
P.O. Box 85467, 3508 AL Utrecht, The Netherlands


Abstract: Transboundary aquifer resources play a major role in SEE as sources of freshwater.
Indeed, 65 Transboundary Aquifers (TA) were identified in the region in an inventory developed
in 2007 by the UNESCO Chair/INWEB at the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, in cooperation
with UNESCO/IHP, IGRAC and the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe
(UNECE). Two main types of TA were distinguished: (1) karst aquifers ranging from a few tens to
hundreds of square kilometres, and which generate major karstic springs, and (2) alluvial aquifers
with greater areal extent, up to some thousands of square kilometres. In some countries
transboundary karstic groundwater covers between 60 and 100% of total water use (e.g. in
countries located in the Dinaric region), while for transboundary alluvial groundwater the
proportion varies from 15 to 70% (e.g. along the river Danube). TA in SEE, and especially those
which are karstic, are highly vulnerable to pollution from different pressure factors (agriculture,
industry, mining, sewage/waste disposal and tourism). In this paper, the WEB-based metadata
inventory on transboundary karst aquifers in SEE is described. This inventory forms the first step
towards implementing the UNESCO/ISARM (Internationally Shared Aquifer Resources
Management) programme in the Balkans (SEE). This programme uses a multidisciplinary
methodological approach and is based on an effective cooperation mechanism between countries,
in order to reduce groundwater and ecosystem vulnerabilities and contribute to the sustainable
management of transboundary karst groundwater resources in SEE. Together with the Global
Environmental Facility (GEF) and other partners the cooperative project DiKTAS (Dinaric Karst
Transboundary Aquifer System) was formulated specifically for the Dinaric area.
Keywords: karst, transboundary, aquifer, inventory, South Eastern Europe


1 Introduction
As water availability is constantly declining in many parts of the world, transboundary
water resources, both surface and groundwater, are becoming increasingly important sources
of freshwater. Data from different countries, and especially from those with an arid or semi-
arid climate (Revenga et al. 2000), indicate serious issues of water scarcity and water stress.
Between the years 1970 and 2000 the average water volume per capita decreased by almost
30% and by the year 2025 is expected to have fallen even further to below 1700 m
3
/y/cap,
which is the limit below which a situation of water stress exists. This is because of population
growth and the overuse of water, mainly in agriculture and ambitious agricultural
development projects. However, the figure above is a global average and does not reflect the
uneven distribution of water availability between continents and particular regions, or show
where countries are already under water stress and experiencing water scarcity. It was
68

estimated that in the year 2000 almost 40% of the worlds population, or about 2.3 billion
people, were living in water basins with less than 1700 m
3
/y/cap, i.e. under water stress. This
percentage is expected to have reached 50% by the year 2025 (Revenga et al. 2000).
The figures above underline the importance of transboundary water resources, which for
many countries are essential sources for drinking, agricultural irrigation and other purposes.
Internationally shared river catchments affect 40% of the global population and cover about
45% of the total land on earth. In Europe this percentage is about 54% and in SEE about 90%
(World Bank, 1987). Some countries receive almost all their surface water from outside their
international borders (e.g. about 98% for Egypt).
As can be seen from part of the inventory compiled by INWEB in 2008 (Figure 1), 17
Sub-Danubian transboundary river and lake basins have been identified in SEE.



Figure 1 Sub-Danubian transboundary surface water basins in SEE (INWEB 2008)

Internal and external water resources availability is highly variable between countries in
SEE, as shown in Figure 2.


69



Figure 2 Water resources availability in some SEE countries (World Bank 1987)

Transboundary groundwater aquifer resources are also very important in many regions
such as North Africa, Middle East and SEE. This paper focuses on transboundary
groundwater resources in SEE and mainly on internationally shared karst aquifers in the
region.

2 The UNESCO/ISARM/Balkans Programme

2.1 Programme structure
In order to promote studies on transboundary aquifers, the UNESCO General Assembly
decided in 2002, that as part of the UNESCO IHP, it would launch an intergovernmental
initiative called the Internationally Shared Aquifer Resources Management programme
(ISARM) (UNESCO/ISARM 2001). The programme has identified the following five key
areas for the sound management of transboundary aquifer water resources:
- scientific-hydrogeological approaches,
- legal aspects,
- socio-economic issues,
- institutional considerations,
- environmental protection.
Each of these areas not only has different aims but is also managed by different groups
or bodies as shown in Table 1.
The UNESCO ISARM programme has been implemented in different parts of the world.
The first phase was initiated in Africa in 2002, the second phase in the American continent in
cooperation with OAS (Organisation of American States) in 2003, and the third phase was
launched in the Balkans by the UNESCO Chair INWEB in cooperation with UNESCO IHP
and the International Association of Hydrogeologists/Transboundary Aquifer Resource
Management Commission (IAH/TARM) in 2004 . INWEB held a workshop in Thessaloniki
in October of that year to present and assess its first results (see www.inweb.gr).

70

Table 1 Type of scope, aims and target groups concerned with managing shared aquifer
resources



2.2 Methodology
The main objective of the programme was to extend the inventory of the Balkans
transboundary aquifer resources. This refers to:
- geographic, hydrogeological, environmental and socio-economic data
- information on water policies (international agreements, national institution setting,
projects and critical problems to be addressed).
The output took the form of a situation analysis for transboundary groundwater shared by two
or more of the following countries: Slovenia, Croatia, Romania, Serbia, Bosnia and
Herzegovina, Montenegro, the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Albania, Bulgaria,
Greece and Turkey.
The UNESCO Chair INWEB also cooperated closely with UNECE: Working Group on
Monitoring & Assessment, Switzerland, to follow up the European study they had compiled
in 2000, as well as with the UN Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia
(ESCWA) and the Observatoire du Sahara et du Sahel (OSS) for the Mediterranean inventory.
The inventory of transboundary aquifer resources in SEE is available in a revised form on
INWEBs web site (http://www.inweb.gr/) (INWEB 2008).
In order to collect the data a questionnaire was prepared and sent to UNESCO/IHP national
committees. At the same time, the UNECE-Working Group on Monitoring & Assessment,
Switzerland followed up their European assessment of the status of transboundary
groundwater in SEE. This revised inventory aimed to set out the scale and scope of
transboundary groundwater in the region. to assess their importance in satisfying demand for
water, to examine the pressure factors exerted on them, to provide information on status,
trends and impacts in relation to both water quantity and quality, and to describe the
management measures being taken, planned or needed to prevent, control or reduce negative
impacts on transboundary groundwater in the region. With the support of UNESCO IHP a
workshop to review the draft of the assessment was held in Thessaloniki in April 2007 (see
www.inweb.gr).


Type of scope Aims Target groups
Scientific-
Hydrogeological/
Technical/Technological
To support the development of
national and regional management
policies and strategies
Regional scientific and
research institutions,
researchers, policy makers

Environmental
To prevent groundwater pollution,
environmental degradation and loss
of biodiversity
Environmental scientists,
researchers, policy makers

Legal/Political
To ensure endorsement by
governments and international
partners and minimise/prevent
conflicts (national and regional)
Governments, users and
international partners
Institutional and Socio-
economic
To ensure endorsement, appropriate
implementation and sustainability of
actions
Policy makers, the public
and international partners
71

2.3 Results
Many transboundary groundwater bodies in the region had been identified years ago,
and had been listed in the earlier UNECE and INWEB inventories. However, because SEE
has seen major conflict and political change in the last fifteen years, aquifers and groundwater
that had previously been located within a single country are now shared between different,
newly formed countries. Thus while the previous UNECE inventory had recorded 23
transboundary aquifers (TA) in the region and the draft INWEB inventory had reported 47,
this latest assessment identified 65Two main types of TA were distinguished:
(1) karst aquifers ranging from a few tens to hundreds of square kilometres, and which
generate major karstic springs, and
(2) alluvial aquifers with greater areal extent, up to some thousands of square kilometres.
The locations of these aquifers are shown in the overview map in Figure 3.



Figure 3 Overview map of transboundary aquifers in SEE (INWEB 2008)

Furthermore, the Balkans programme aimed at exploring transboundary karst and
porous aquifers in the region by country, and presenting data and information for comparative
purposes. The importance of karst transboundary aquifers by country is given in Figure 4 and
Figure 5.

72



Figure 4 Total number of transboundary and karst transboundary aquifers in the SEE
countries



Figure 5 Proportion of karst transboundary aquifers (as % of the total) in the SEE countries

Groundwater use
Transboundary groundwater resources play a significant role in SEE. The physical
attributes of the region i.e. the geology, topography and major catchments, is such as to
promote the occurrence of productive aquifers. These aquifers are of two distinctive main
types, the limestones of the karstic type area of the Dinaric coast and its mountainous
hinterland, and the thick alluvial sedimentary sequences of the Danube basin. In some
73

locations the alluvial sediments overlie and are in hydraulic contact with the limestones or
comprise relatively thin aquifers in river or lake sediments overlying ancient metamorphic
rocks. The geographical distinction between the two main aquifer types, and the fact that
much of the national borders of several of the countries of the region are traversed by
transboundary groundwater, can be clearly seen in the map in Figure 3.
Transboundary karstic groundwater aquifers were reported to provide 60 to 80% of total
water usage in their respective areas, and some of the Dinaric karstic aquifers of Bosnia,
Serbia, Croatia, Montenegro and Albania provide as much as 90 or even 100%. In terms of
numbers, the importance of transboundary karstic aquifers is shown in Figures 4 and 5.
Compared to surface waters, the range of use of alluvial aquifers is much greater, varying
from only 15 to up to 70% for the important Banat, Baka and Srem alluvial aquifers along
the River Danube in Serbia, Croatia and Hungary.

Pressure factors
The majority of transboundary aquifers, except for those located in remote, sparsely
populated areas, are very vulnerable to anthropogenic pollutants emitted from both point and
non-point sources. Karstic aquifers, with their lack of soil cover and rapid flow paths leaving
little time for attenuation, are almost invariably classified as highly vulnerable. Alluvial
aquifers are also likely to be vulnerable, unless they contain a high proportion of clay-rich
material to reduce their permeability, are overlain by a protective confining layer of clays
and/or the water table is relatively deep. The transboundary groundwater of the SEE region
are likely, therefore, to be highly vulnerable to pollution if the pressure factors caused by
agriculture, industry and tourism described below produce significant loadings of mobile and
persistent pollutants.
In general, both alluvial and karstic aquifers have reported groundwater quality
problems. Of the questionnaires received, only a few specifically reported that there were no
groundwater quality issues at all. Agricultural activities put major pressure on freshwater
systems in SEE in terms of both quantity and quality. Some 70% of overall water use is for
agriculture and severe problems can result when this heavy usage depends on groundwater
abstractions. Moreover, whether or not the land is irrigated, intensive cultivation invariably
means the heavy use of fertilisers and pesticides. Intensive cultivation and animal production
can produce increased levels of nutrients and pesticides in groundwater from infiltrating
surface run-off from agricultural land, leaching from the soil through the unsaturated zone and
sometimes from return waters from irrigation channels.
In contrast to the amount of pressure caused by agricultural activities, the pressure
factors on transboundary groundwater in the region caused by industry appear overall to be
quite limited. However, in the summer months tourism creates a huge demand for drinking
water and recreational activities can also constitute a pressure.

3 Conclusion
The implementation by the UNESCO Chair/INWEB of the first phase of the
UNESCO/ISARM programme in SEE during the period 2003-2008 resulted in the
development of a regional inventory indicating the main hydrogeological and socio-economic
characteristics of transboundary aquifer resources in the region. A Web-based interactive
database combining the Google map and Google earth technologies is available on INWEBs
WEB site (www.inweb.gr).
Two main types of transboundary aquifers were identified: (1) transboundary karst
aquifers and (2) alluvial porous aquifers. Transboundary karst aquifer resources in SEE are
important sources of freshwater for different purposes and mainly for drinking water supply.
In some countries, like Croatia, Bosnia and Montenegro, transboundary karstic groundwater
74

provides as much as 90% of water needs. In many countries, groundwater drains into rivers.
In Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro and Albania about half of the
surface water drains underground into karst aquifers and springs and flows into the Adriatic
Sea. This is the Dinaric karst aquifer system, which is very important for the ecological
biodiversity and the socio-economic development of the region.
At the Thessaloniki UNESCO/ISARM workshop in 2004 it was decided that the
Dinaric karst aquifer system should be given first priority as a characteristic case study in SEE.
The DiKTAS (Dinaric Karst Aquifer System) project on the Protection and Sustainable Use
of the Dinaric Karst Aquifer System was formulated as a potential GEF (Global
Environmental Facility) project during 2006-2007 and after approval by the GEF Council a
preparatory phase was executed by UNESCO and UNDP in 2008-2009. The full size project
involving Albania, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Croatia and Montenegro is expected to be
implemented between 2010 and 2014.
The results obtained during the first phase 2000-2008 of the UNESCO/ISARM
programme, the lessons learnt and the key requirements that resulted from different case
studies around the world will form the base for the second phase of the programme. This will
be implemented in the coming decade and will further promote scientific knowledge, capacity
building and aide to policy formulation in order to increase effective and sustainable use and
protection of the worlds precious transboundary aquifer resources.

References
Ganoulis J (2007) Integrated Management of Transboundary Aquifers in Southeastern
Europe. (A report within GEF IW: LEARN Activity D2). GWP-Med, UNESCO Chair and
Network INWEB, Thessaloniki
INWEB (2008) Inventories of Transboundary Groundwater Aquifers in the Balkans,
UNESCO Chair and Network INWEB, Thessaloniki, Greece http://www.inweb.gr/
Revenga C, Brunner J, Henniger N, Kassem K, Payne R (2000) Pilot Analysis of Global
Ecosystems: Freshwater Systems. Washington, DC: World Resources Institute
UNESCO/ISARM (2001) A Framework Document. Paris, UNESCO, Non Serial
Documents in Hydrology
WORLD BANK (1987) Water Resources Management in South Eastern Europe,
Volume I, Issues and Directions
75

The resources, environment and development in Fengshan
Geopark karst area
Jiang Guanghui GUO FANG

Karst Dynamics Laboratory, Ministry of Land and Resources, Institute of Karst Geology,
CAGS, No.50, Qixing Road, Guilin 541004, China, e-mail: jgh@karst.edu.cn


Abstract: A remote place named Fengshan in karst of south China is changing quickly. Practices
which improve life of local people and environment can be referenced by other karst regions. The
policy includes much work such as traffic, education, health, energy, environment, tourism, and
drinking water, which are all necessary and eager to be resolved. The character of karst is research
in order that the karst resources and environment are well managed by the government. The
environment suffers from soil erosion, flooding, water shortage and desertification. Three types of
soil erosion are related to karst: allogenic soil erosion, autogenic soil erosion, and conduit soil
erosion. Flooding in karst becomes more serious for sediment in conduit, however tributary
withstanding may also lead to flooding. Epikarst flow is stored for drinking by a small domestic
water cellar. Biogas is popularized to stop deforestation. Splendid karst landscape is protected in
Geopark. It also attracts tourists.
Keyword: peak cluster; epikarst; karst engineering


1 Introduction
Karst environment has not been definite strictly. It has wide area and plenty of study
objects. In common sense karst environment is made of soil, karst landscape, atmosphere,
karst water, and biosphere (Yuan et al. 1988). The five parts connect each other, and the
combination of them is different in special. Many environmental problems have been
discussed in academe (Yuan 1988, De Waele 2008). Deforestation, soil erosion (Turnage et al.
1997), desertification (Hu et al. 2004, Wang et al. 2004), flooding and drought (Andriani
2008), collapse, water pollution (Kacaroglu 1999) occurs frequently in karst area. Although
these problems are related to fragile of karst environment, impact of human activity is
important. This paper gives reasons and answers of soil erosion, flooding, water shortage,
poverty and deforestation in a subtropical karst region.

1.1 Study area
Fengshan lies in west of Guangxi province, China (Fig. 1). It has been a national geo-
park in 2005 and is being a world geo-park for its beautiful, typical, and huge karst landscape
including karst springs, collapse depressions, caves, natural bridges, karst windows. However
poverty stands here for many years and series of environmental problems affect local people.
Fengshan karst area is within subtropical climate, with annual precipitation of 1550mm,
annual temperature of 19 degree. The elevation changes from 700m to 1100m. It is an
anticline in geological structure. Triassic sandstone closes Permian and carboniferous
limestone. Plenty of allogenic water coming from sandstone areas is important for karst
formation. The area of peak cluster is 400 km
2
. Karst conduits are about 90km long, and half
of them are measured. Karst groundwater is drainaged from Poxin spring with base flow
discharge of 4.2 m
3
/s. Economy of Fengshan County is undeveloped. The establishment of
Fengshan Geopark is believed to bring hopes for the County; however karst environmental
management is important for sustainable development.
76




Figure 1 Location of Fengshan in Guangxi

1.2 Life in karst area
There are few good land resources and little drinking water in karst mountain area. But
many people choose living here. Most of land in Fangshan is covered by shrub and forest.
Cultivated field distributes in bottom and slopes of depressions. Small paddy field lies in a
few poljes where soil and allogenic water are sufficient. People live on cultivated field. Their
agriculture activity induces environmental problems.

2 Results

2.1 Environmental problems
Soil erosion
Slope cultivation and deforestation induce soil erosion. Soil erosion is accelerated by
steep sloops of peak cluster and monsoon climate. It leads to series of problems such as
destroying farmland, blocking conduits, reducing soil quality and forming rocky
desertification. This is mostly an irreversible process. Eroded slope is covered by little soil
and much stone teeth .It cant feed any plant but grass.
Three types of soil erosion are related to karst: allogenic soil erosion, autogenic soil
erosion, and conduit soil erosion. Allogenic soil erosion is caused by allogenic rivers,
autogenic soil erosion is made by autogenic flow, and conduit soil erosion is induced by
conduit flow (Fig. 2).
Poljes or depressions near non-karst area usually suffer from allogenic soil erosion.
Allogenic soil erosion leads to debris flow which buries farmland. The suspended particles are
made of clay, sand and scree. The debris flow enters into swallow hole and suspended
particles deposit somewhere which makes the conduits blocked. Once it happened flooding
will occur in the poljes. Cropland in several poljes has been destroyed by iterative flooding.
Autogenic soil erosion happens after heavy rain. Overland flow, epikarst flow erodes
soil in slope and bottom of depression. Intensity of erosion is related to rainfall, vegetation,
slope degree. Cultivation on slope will make erosion quicker. Suspended particles related to
autogenic soil erosion are mainly clay and some block of rock. They stop moving at the
bottom or near sinkhole. Autogenic soil erosion induces rocky desertification in south of
China.
A depression above conduit may suffer from conduit soil erosion. Overflow in rainy
season from sinkhole or karst windows at bottom of the depression become an intermittent
river. The intermittent river takes away soil and forms a deep valley at the bottom of
77

depression. The elevation of the depression has decreased about 5m in the past 20 years. Land
has been destroyed gradually (Photo 1).



Figure 2 Soil erosion in karst aquifer, three types of soil erosion is related to karst, the first is
allogenic river related, the second is autogenic flow related, and the third is conduit flow
related

Flooding
Flooding in depressions and poljes makes huge damage. This hydrological phenomenon
is related with conduits of karst aquifer. Allogenic water enters into karst aquifer by swallow
hole in poljes. However it stops to form a lake around the hole when the conduit is too small
to permit such large flow to pass after intensity rainfall. Conduits which enlarged by
karstification can be blocked by sediment. Blocking of conduit is a really reason for flood.
Then finding the location of block is all-important for opening conduits.
Roughness of conduits impacts the capacity of conduit discharge. Wall of conduit
should be smooth with wash of water, but stalagmite and sediment of mash, sand or gravel in
the floor increase the roughness. On the other hand gravel moving together with water makes
the flow slower. Moreover sediments usually reduce the hydraulic radius of the conduit. So
except for blocking conduit at some points, sediments reduce flow by increasing roughness or
decreasing hydraulic radius.
Shima polje is the largest poljes which suffers from flooding. There was ten million tons
of capacity in 1976 and 500 acres of field couldnt be used. The flood comes from rivers in
sandstone area with the area of 44 km
2
. The conduit cant be examined for finding block pots
because it is always filled. A tunnel had been built for drainage, however flooding cant be
removed completely. Moreover flooding time becomes longer and longer from 1970s to now.
Shima is becoming a real lake. Someone thinks that it is better for Shima to being a lake or
reservoir than returning to fields.
78

Flood in Shima polje had been studied in 1970s. A tunnel was built to increase the
discharge of conduits. However the conduits were still be blocked somewhere unknown
downstream. So the flood hasnt been solved completely now. There are six connected
swallow holes in Shima polje. Water level in these holes was monitored for finding the blocks
of conduits which connected the swallow holes. It was found that there was 3 m different in
elevation between Ping cave and others when only Ping cave accepted allogenic rivers, but no
difference when all swallow holes accepted rivers. So it could be concluded that there was
block between Ping Cave and others, however some block unknown still existed downstream.
The tunnel was built connecting Ping cave and others. It discharged small flood but remained
large flood unsolved (Fig. 3, Fig. 4).



Photo 1 Soil erosion in karst area, A: paddy field buried by allogenic soil erosion; B: big
blocks in allogenic soil erosion; C: slope eroded by autogenic soil erosion, only stone teeth
remained; D: depression eroded by conduit soil erosion



Figure 3 Swallow holes in Shima polje, a tunnel was built to discharge flood
79




Figure 4 Water level in swallow holes, which indicates location of blocking in conduit

Collapse in conduit reduces flood. A tunnel was built in collapsed detritus for discharge
flood in Dongni depression in 1960s. The collapsed detritus was formed below a cliff. It is the
erosion of intermittent river in the depression which makes collapse of conduit. A new
sinkhole formed after collapsing, however which cant discharge the flood by time. The
tunnel in collapsed detritus was very effective, and flooding in depressions upstream was even
diminished (Photo 2).
Tributary of conduit may also reduce flood. It is found that flooding occurs along the
tributary in north, while there is little flooding in the south tributary. The south tributary is
recharged by larger allogenic rivers. Moreover it has shorter length and bigger hydraulic grads.
So the flood in south tributary comes earlier than the north, which may enhance the head in
the main conduit and prevent flow in the north conduit (Fig. 5).

Water shortage
Annual discharge of Poxin spring is 6 m
3
/s. Its area is 803 km
2
with about half of
carbonate rock and half of non-carbonate rock. Allogenic rivers from non-carbonate rock
recharge karst aquifer by swallow holes. Rainfall recharges karst aquifer through sinkhole and
fractures. There are little rivers in karst area, while karst groundwater is plentiful. However it
is difficult to use karst groundwater, because of its heterogeneous. Finding groundwater is
mostly impossible in most area except some karst windows and sinkholes. Local people far
away from groundwater have to build small reservoir for harvesting rainfall.


Figure 5 structure of conduit in Poxin, tributary conduit is recharge by allogenic rivers

80



Photo 2 flooding in karst area and engineering for discharge, A: tunnel in Dongni for
discharge flooding in the depression; B: flooding impacts paddy field in polje

Thousands of small reservoirs have been built in the past ten years. Almost every family
own one reservoir, and some of them build one big for several families. Water shortage for
life is resolved by this way, moreover people build reservoir near their field so as to irrigation.
By these means corn field is changed into paddy field. They eat ice produced by them, which
is so imagined and exciting for them. They even want to feed fish in reservoir, and it is really
a magic idea.
Water quality in the reservoir is possibly polluted by bacteria and turbidity under high
temperature and heavy rainfall. Treatment is necessary before water entering, and the
environment surrounding of the reservoir is also important. The sources of reservoir water are
overland flow, epikarst flow and rainfall. Enough catchment area of reservoir is important.
Epikarst flow has better quality and longer life, so it is best source. Plant above reservoir is
important too. Forest can clean water and cut flooding peak (Photo 3).



Photo 3 series-wound water cellars for harvesting rainfall, epikarst flow and overland flow in
karst area, a piece of paddy field among corn is irrigated by the cellars

81

2.2 Resources
Epikarst water
The perched saturated zone near surface in peak and depression is called epikarst.
Epikarst is characterised by intensified dissolution and corresponding high porosity because
of high CO
2
concentration in soil and low saturation of rainfall. Somewhere small springs are
formed in the process of karst evolution. These springs flood soon after rainfall, while base
flow continued several months. But their discharge usually attenuates to zero in dry season, so
a small reservoir is needed which storages flood for dry.

Plant
Many kinds of plant in karst area are use for herb. Some of them are only adapt to karst
environment. Wild herb is precious and expensive, so it has been over picked. Government
organizes people to crop herb for business. This work not only brings money for local people
but also does well to wild vegetation protection.

Tourism
Fengshan becomes famous because of the establishment of national geopark. The
geopark includes huge and long caves, big karst windows, splendid stalagmite, and long life
old. There is the longest life old in the world. The secrecy of long life is its special geological
environment. Several viewpoints have come into being, and some of them have been
commercial parks, such as Sanmenhai and Shuijinggong.

Energy
Although soil is thin, rocky slope can still be covered by shrubs and bushes if there is no
cultivation. Production of vegetation is much because sun light and rainfall is enough. These
grass or shrub feed pigs, goats horses and cows. Government organizes technician to help
people to build biogas digester. It is very effective for environmental protection. Biogas will
replace firewood as family energy.

Poverty elimination
Fengshen is poverty-stricken county, where per capita income of people is below 150
EUR. Government spends much money in traffic, education, health. Tourism has been
developing since the beautiful karst landscape is found. Orchard brings hope for local people,
and return of the large investment will gradually come into being in the future.
Practices for poverty alleviation should be environment-friendly. Best management
practices are needed for environmental protection during developing. Soil erosion should be
controlled according to its character. More strict vegetation protection practices are necessary
for non-karst area, where main sediments come. A buffer zone near swallow hole can
intercept big sediment from allogenic rivers. Conversion of cropland to forest in slope may
reduce rocky desertification, which also control autogenic soil erosion. Conduit flow soil
erosion can be prevented by building concrete bank. It is difficult to open once conduit is
blocked. Maybe erosion of turbulence flow can naturally remove sediment if there is small
new sediment from surface. Removing stem from conduit by engineering technique is
effective sometime, but which is impossible when the conduit is long and filled by water.
Opening a new tunnel may be useful but only when proper location is determined.
Storage of epikarst flow is a cheap way to solving water shortage. A small protection
zone for reservoir is necessary.



82

3 Conclusions
Poverty elimination work in karst area of South China should be done with proper ways.
Traditional business can not be encouraged because it is inefficient and unsustainable. New
business for example biogas, reversion cropland to forest, and tourism not only does well to
environmental protection but also enhance earning for local people. Karst environment is
characterised by thin soil, little water resources on surface, and long underground conduit net.
It is very fragile. Cultivation and deforestation intensify soil erosion; soil erosion induces
flooding and water shortage, and then induces poverty; poverty induces cultivation and
deforestation. This is a vicious circle, and should be replaced by sustainable way.

Reference
Andriani GF, Walsh N (2008) An example of the effects of anthropogenic changes on
natural environment in the Apulian karst (southern Italy). Environmental Geology, DOI
10.1007/s00254-008-1604-6
De Waele J (2008) Evaluating disturbance on Mediterranean karst areas: the example of
Sardinia (Italy). Environmental Geology, DOI 10.1007/s00254-008-1600-x
Hu Baoqing et al. (2004) Design and application of dynamic monitoring and
visualization management information system of karst land rocky desertification. Chinese
Geographical Science 14(2):122-128
Kacaroglu F (1999) Review of groundwater pollution and protection in karst areas.
Water, Air and Soil Pollution 113:337-356
Turnage KM et al. (1997) Comparison of soil erosion and deposition rates using
radiocesium, RUSLE, and buried soils in dolines in East Tennessee. Environmental Geology
29(1/2):1-10
Wang Lachun et al. (2004) Karst environment and eco-poverty in South-Western China:
a case study of Guizhou Province. Chinese Geographical Science 14(1):21-27
Yuan Daoxian (1988) Environmental and engineering problems of karst geology in
China. Environmental Geology 12(2):79-87
Yuan Daoxian, Cai Guihong (1988) The science of karst environment. Chongqing:
Chongqing publishing house, pp 23

83

Linking generic models to site-related models of conduit evolution

Bernhard HUBINGER, Christoph REHRL, Steffen BIRK


Institute for Earth Sciences, Karl-Franzens-Universitt Graz, Heinrichstr. 26, 8010 Graz,
Austria, e-mails: bernhard.hubinger@uni-graz.at; christoph.rehrl@uni-graz.at;
steffen.birk@uni-graz.at


Abstract: The hydrogeological characterization of karst aquifers can be supported by the analysis
of the processes involved in the evolution of solution conduits. To this end, a numerical model
coupling flow and dissolution processes is employed for simulating conduit development. Both
generic models representing hypothetical carbonate environments and site-related models referring
to the gypsum karst settings of the Western Ukraine are considered. The generic models comprise
networks of interconnected protoconduits with spatially varying initial diameters of about one
millimetre and less. To identify the influence of hydrological conditions on conduit evolution
different hydraulic boundary conditions are considered in the simulations. If the maximum flow
rate in the karst aquifer is not strongly limited a stable bimodal aperture distribution is found to
develop; only a limited number of conduits continue to grow while the other apertures stay small.
The number of large-sized conduits tends to decrease with decreasing maximum flow rate.
However, if flow rates are strongly limited uniform aperture distributions are obtained. The
principles revealed by the above-described generic simulations are confirmed by site-related
models representing the multi-storey artesian settings of the gypsum karst terrain of the Western
Ukraine. In this type of setting, soluble units are supplied with chemically aggressive water from
beneath. Due to the development of solution conduits a hydraulic connection between the lowly
soluble aquifers underlying and overlying the soluble unit is established. At this late stage of
conduit development, the maximum flow rate is controlled by the regional boundary conditions
and the permeability of the aquifers. If the permeability is sufficiently high conduit development is
found to be competitive, thus leading to bimodal aperture distributions. In a low-permeability
formation, however, conduit development is found to be less selective due to the limitation of flow
through the conduit system. Thus, multiple pathways develop and the frequency distribution of
conduit apertures appears to be unimodal rather than bimodal.
Keywords: karstification, speleogenesis, aperture distribution, numerical model


1 Introduction
Karst waters are highly vulnerable to contamination due to the rapid spreading of
pollutants in solution conduits. Effective strategies for management and protection of water
resources in karst terrains thus must be based on reliable information about the properties of
the karst conduit system. Investigations of processes involved in the evolution of solution
conduits represent one approach to support the hydrogeological characterization of karst
conduit systems. In this work, a numerical model coupling flow and dissolution processes is
employed for simulating conduit evolution in both generic and site-related model settings.
The purpose of the modeling is to provide insight into the interrelation between the properties
of the evolving conduit systems and environmental factors, such as the hydraulic boundary
conditions and the permeability of the rock formation.

2 Modelling approach
Conduit evolution is simulated using the discrete tube network implemented in the
modeling tool CAVE (Clemens et al. 1996, Liedl et al. 2003). Flow rates in the individual
84

tubes of the network are calculated using the Hagen-Poiseuille or Darcy-Weisbach equation
for laminar and turbulent flow, respectively. At the nodes of the network water is mixed and
routed downgradient. After each time step the tube diameters are increased to account for the
dissolution of rock. The dissolution rate F is calculated by (Svensson and Dreybrodt 1992,
Dreybrodt et al. 1996, Liu and Dreybrodt 1997, Eisenlohr et al. 1999, Jeschke et al. 2001)

n
eq
)
c
c
k( = F 1

where c
eq
is the equilibrium concentration with respect to the dissolved mineral. The rate
constant k is generally dependent on factors such as type of rock, flow conditions, etc. The
exponent n equals unity if the dissolution process is diffusion controlled, i.e. if the rate-
limiting step is the diffusion of the dissolved species from the conduit wall into the mobile
conduit water. If the dissolution rate is limited by the surface reaction, n is a positive number
that has to be determined experimentally. Both in limestone and gypsum a switch from n ~ 1
to n > 1 is observed at high relative saturation states. In the following simulations, we use
typical values provided by the aforementioned references.

3 Model application and results

3.1 Generic settings
The generic models comprise tube networks representing interconnected protoconduits
in limestone with spatially varying initial diameters. The networks are realized by regular
grids of 200 m length and width consisting of 20 x 20 nodes connected by 722 water-filled
tubes. The initial apertures are spatially uncorrelated and log normally distributed with a mean
of 0.5 mm and a standard deviation of 0.1 mm. The hydraulic head is given at two opposite
sides with a difference of 5 m, and no-flow boundaries at the other sides. The parameters used
for calculating the dissolution rates are shown in Table 1.

Table 1 Model parameters used for generic simulations of limestone dissolution

Symbol Description Unit Value
c
eq
calcium equilibrium concentration mol m
-3
2
c
s
switch concentration mol m
-3
0.9 c
eq
= 1.8
k
1
surface reaction rate constant (n = n
1
) mol m
-2
s
-1
4 10
-7
k
2
surface reaction rate constant (n = n
2
) mol m
-2
s
-1
4 10
-4
n
1
dimensionless exponent for c < c
s
- 1
n
2
dimensionless exponent for c c
s
- 4

All generic simulations have been carried out for 30 realizations of the assumed initial
aperture distribution. It is generally found that different runs lead to similar results.
Simulation results of typical scenarios are shown below.
To identify the influence of hydrological conditions on conduit evolution different
hydraulic boundary conditions are considered in the simulations. To account for the limited
availability of flow inherent in any type of hydrogeological environment the initial hydraulic
gradient is reduced with ongoing conduit development such that a predefined maximum flow
rate is not exceeded at the nodes on the inflow side. Thus, the fixed head at an inflow node is
85

replaced by a fixed flow rate if the fixed head results in too high flow rates. For this
investigation the total maximum inflow rate was varied in steps of one order of magnitude
from 10
2
m
3
s
-1
to 10
-11
m
3
s
-1
.
In a first step, the results of a weakly limited total maximum inflow rate of 0.1 m
3
s
-1
are
discussed. This value is sufficiently high that breakthrough can occur in the system. This
means that at least one pathway develops where the solute concentration is below the switch
concentration along the entire length from the inflow to the outflow boundary and thus
dissolution rates are governed by the fast first-order kinetics. This leads to competitive
conduit development: The conduits along this pathway continue to grow rapidly while others
stay small or become connected to the already developed preferential pathway. The latter only
happens if the amount of inflowing water is still sufficient to allow further conduit
development. Figure 1 depicts this situation when two separate preferential flow paths with
larger conduits evolved and join together. The cumulative frequency distributions of conduit
apertures reveal that a stable bimodal aperture distribution evolves after quite a short time
(Figure 2, left panel). Afterwards only the already strongly widened conduits continue to grow
further.


Figure 1 Typical
pattern of generic
settings with weakly
limited inflow rate
after breakthrough.
The main flow
direction is from left
to right. The circles
represent nodes, the
arrows conduits. The
grey shadings
indicate the
dissolution kinetics
at the outlet. Each
arrow points towards
the node with the
lower head showing
the flow direction in
the tube. Arrow
thicknesses are
scaled to the conduit
apertures and tildes
denote turbulent
flow regimes.
86

A comparison of scenarios with different maximum flow rates shows that the relative
number of large conduits evolving in a given system decreases with decreasing maximum
flow rate, i.e. with decreasing availability of recharge. Yet the generic systems show a very
different behavior if the maximum flow rate is very strongly limited below a certain threshold
disabling breakthrough. Here this is realized by setting the total maximum inflow rate to a
value of e.g. 10
-8
m
3
s
-1
, i.e. every tube at the inflow side receives a maximum of
5 10
-10
m
3
s
-1
. In this case, the evolution of large conduits is significantly slowed down;
breakthrough is disabled, and conduit development is non-competitive. Some tubes are
significantly widened but they do not collect all the available water. Thus, other tubes are still
able to grow with time, too. Hence, the evolving apertures cover some orders of magnitude
without any gap in the distribution (Figure 2, right panel). The resulting aperture distributions
thus are unimodal rather than bimodal and no distinctive modes can be distinguished anymore.
It is further found that longer simulation times lead to more uniform aperture distributions.


Figure 2 Cumulative frequency distributions of apertures at different times for generic
models with weakly limited (left) and strongly limited (right) maximum flow rates. The first
breakthrough occurs after approximately 4100 years if high maximum flow rates are assumed
(left) and is disabled when the available water is strongly limited (right).

3.2 Site-related setting
The principles revealed by the above-described generic simulations are confirmed by
site-related models representing the multi-storey artesian settings of the gypsum karst terrain
of the Western Ukraine (Rehrl et al. 2008). The development of maze caves found in this
region is probably initiated in artesian settings prior to an uplift of the rock formation.
Klimchouk (1997, 2000a) developed a corresponding conceptual model, where a gypsum
layer is supplied with chemically aggressive water from a confined aquifer beneath.
87



Figure 3 Conceptual model of a typical artesian basin in the Western Ukraine (top) and its
translation into a simplified numerical profile model (bottom) (from Rehrl et al. 2008). The
model domain represents a vertical slice consisting of a gypsum layer placed between two
insoluble aquifers. Dark solid lines within the model domain represent the tube network at the
beginning of the simulation, dashed lines represent equipotential lines.

Rehrl et al. (2008, 2009) translated a simplified conceptual model into two-dimensional
numerical profile models to investigate the influence of various hydrogeological parameters
on conduit development (Figure 3). To be able to represent the unkarstified fissured porous
rock and the regional boundary conditions the tube network is hydraulically coupled to the
continuum model MODFLOW-96 (Harbaugh and McDonald 1996) using a linear exchange
term (Barenblatt et al. 1960).Two confined aquifers consisting of insoluble material are
separated by an initially less permeable gypsum layer. The gypsum layer consists of three
storeys, each enclosing a fissure network with distinct pattern and density (Klimchouk 2000b,
88

2007). The pronounced vertical heterogeneity caused by the discordance of fissure networks
between the different storeys is represented by a low number of vertical protoconduits in the
mid level of the numerical model setting. The recharge area is represented by a fixed
hydraulic head at the right. The left hand side and the bottom of the model domain are no-
flow boundaries. Discharge is through the upper boundary, which is represented by a head-
dependent boundary condition. More details are provided by Rehrl et al. (2008).
To account for the uncertainty of the hydraulic conductivity of the rock formation two
different scenarios were investigated: A high-conductivity setting adapts the hydraulic
conductivities from Birk et al. (2003, 2005); in a second scenario the hydraulic conductivities
of all units were reduced by a factor of one hundred (low-conductivity setting). At the
beginning of the simulation the hydraulic head of the upper aquifer is lower than that of the
lower one (Figure 3). This causes upward flow of chemically aggressive water and thus the
enlargement of conduits following the upward directed hydraulic gradient. At the early stage
of conduit development the flow rates in the tube network are limited by the narrow outlets at
the top of the gypsum. Because of the low flow rates the switch concentration is approached
soon and thus dissolution rates are low, following higher-order dissolution kinetics. With
ongoing simulation period, however, the solutionally widening of conduit apertures leads to
increasing flow rates. Thus, aggressive water propagates farther upward in the tube network.
In the high-conductivity scenario, flow rates increase until water with a solute
concentration below the switch concentration emerges at an outlet at the top of the gypsum
(breakthrough). The more effective first-order dissolution kinetics, which is active then,
enhances the growth of a highly conductive pathway connecting lower and upper aquifer. Yet
the maximum flow rate is limited by the regional boundary conditions and the permeability of
the rock formation. Similar to the generic scenarios considered above conduit development is
found to be competitive and leads to a stable bimodal aperture distribution with a less
developed region of conduits between a few millimetres up to one decimetre (Figure 4, left).

Figure 4 Cumulative frequency distributions of apertures at different times for the high-
conductivity (left) and low-conductivity (right) scenario (modified after Rehrl et al. 2008).

In a low-permeability formation (Fig. 4, right), however, breakthrough events are very
rare and temporary because of the suppressed flow. Thus, conduit development is less
competitive, multiple pathways develop, and the frequency distribution of conduit apertures is
unimodal with a smooth transition from nearly undeveloped protoconduits (< 1 mm) to well-
developed conduits (> 1m). More details on these and other scenarios are provided by Rehrl et
al. (2008, 2009).
89


4 Conclusions
Generic as well as site-related model scenarios show that a stable bimodal aperture
distribution evolves if the maximum flow rate in the karst system is not strongly limited; only
a limited number of conduits continue to grow while the others stay small. The number of
large-sized conduits tends to decrease with decreasing maximum flow rate. However, if flow
rates are strongly limited unimodal aperture distributions are obtained. In the latter case,
conduit development proceeds very slowly in a limestone environment such as that
considered in the generic model scenarios. However, dissolution rates are much higher in
gypsum than in limestone. Thus, the site-related scenarios referring to the gypsum karst
settings of the Western Ukraine reveal that conduits may significantly be enlarged within
reasonable times under suppressed flow conditions. In this case, conduit development is non-
competitive and aperture distributions show a smooth transition from nearly undeveloped
protoconduits to well-developed conduits.

Acknowledgments
This work was funded by the Austrian Science Fund (FWF) under grant no. P20014-
N10 and the German Research Foundation (DFG) under grants nos. BI 809/2-1 and
436 UKR 113/86/0-1.

References
Barenblatt GI, Zheltov IP, Kochina IN (1960) Basic concepts in the theory of seepage of
homogeneous liquids in fissured rocks. J. Appl. Math. Mech. 24: 1286-1303
Birk S, Liedl R, Sauter M, Teutsch G (2003) Hydraulic boundary conditions as a
controlling factor in karst genesis: A numerical modelling study on artesian conduit
development in gypsum. Water Resources Research 39(1), 1004,doi:10.1029/2002WR001308
Birk S, Liedl R, Sauter M, Teutsch G (2005) Simulation of the development of gypsum
maze caves. Environmental Geology 48(3): 296-306
Clemens T, Hckinghaus D, Sauter M, Liedl R, Teutsch G (1996) A combined
continuum and discrete network reactive transport model fort he simulation of karst
development. In: Calibration and Reliability in Groundwater Modelling, IAHS Publ. 237, pp
309-318
Dreybrodt W, Lauckner J, Zaihua L, Svensson U, Buhmann D (1996) The kinetics of
the reaction CO H O H HCO
2 2 3
+ +
+
as one of the rate limiting steps for the dissolution of
calcite in the system H O CO CaCO
2 2 3
. Geochimica & Cosmochimica Acta 60: 3375-3381
Eisenlohr L, Meteva K, Gabrovek F, Dreybrodt W (1999) The inhibiting action of
intrinsic impurities in natural calcium carbonate minerals to their dissolution kinetics in
aqueous H
2
O-CO
2
solutions. Geochimica & Cosmochimica Acta 63: 989-1002
Harbaugh AW, McDonald MG (1996) Programmers documentation for MODFLOW-96
an update to the US Geological Survey modular finite-difference groundwater model. USGS
Open-File Report 96-486
Jeschke AA, Vosbeck K, Dreybrodt W (2001) Surface controlled dissolution rates of
gypsum in aqueous solutions exhibit nonlinear dissolution kinetics. Geochimica &
Cosmochimica Acta 65(1): 27 34
Klimchouk AB (1997) Artesian speleogenetic setting. In: Proceedings of the 12
th
Int.
Congress of Speleology, La Chaux-de-Fonds, Switzerland Vol. 1, pp 157-160
Klimchouk AB (2000a) Speleogenesis under deep-seated and confined settings. In: AB
Klimchouk, D Ford, N Palmer, W Dreybrodt (eds) Speleogenesis - Evolution of Karst
Aquifers. National Speleological Society, Huntsville, Ala., pp. 244-260
90

Klimchouk AB (2000b) Speleogenesis of great gypsum mazes in the Western Ukraine.
In: AB Klimchouk, D Ford, N Palmer, W Dreybrodt (eds) Speleogenesis - Evolution of Karst
Aquifers. National Speleological Society, Huntsville, Ala., pp 261-273
Klimchouk AB (2007) Hypogene Speleogenesis: Hydrogeological and Morphogenetic
Perspective. NCKRI Special Paper no. 1, National Cave and Karst Research Institute,
Carlsbad, NM., 102 pp
Liedl R, Sauter M, Hckinghaus D, Clemens T, Teutsch G (2003) Simulations of the
development of karst aquifers using a coupled continuum pipe flow model. Water Resources
Research 39(3), 1057, doi:10.1029/2001WR001206
Liu Z, Dreybrodt W (1997) Dissolution kinetics of calcium carbonate minerals in H
2
O-
CO
2
solutions in turbulent flow: The role of the diffusion boundary layer and the slow
reaction H O + CO H HCO
2 2 3
-
+
+
. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 61: 2879-2889
Rehrl C, Birk S, Klimchouk AB (2008) Conduit evolution in deep-seated settings:
Conceptual and numerical models based on field observations. Water Resources Research 44,
W11425, doi:10.1029/2008WR006905
Rehrl C, Birk S, Klimchouk AB (2009) Influence of initial aperture variability on
conduit development in hypogene settings. Zeitschrift fr Geomorphologie, accepted for
publication
Svensson U, Dreybrodt W (1992) Dissolution kinetics of natural calcite minerals in
CO
2
-water systems approaching calcite equilibrium. Chemical Geology 100: 129-145
91

Sustainability in a karst - the Bungonia Caves, New South Wales,
Australia

Julia M. JAMES
1
, Andy SPATE
2

1
School of Chemistry, F11, University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
e-mail: jmj@chem.usyd.edu.au
2
Optimal Karst Management, 2/10 Victoria Street, Hall, ACT 2618, Australia
e-mail: andyspate@aliencamel.com


Abstract: The Bungonia Caves are located on a substantial block of commercial quality limestone
and since their discovery in1830 it has always been under threat from mining. The Bungonia
Caves Reserve was first designated for the protection of caves and then more the karst was
incorporated into the Bungonia State Recreation Area then underwent a name change to the
Bungonia State Conservation Area. These last designations have the same objectives as a national
park that is to protect natural and cultural heritage values and to provide recreational opportunities
but with mineral exploration and mining permitted. Following its early gazettal the Bungonia karst
was managed in a variety of ways until 1992 when the National Parks and Wildlife took over
protection it bringing all the expertise and resources available to a state organization. Commercial
cave tourism at Bungonia was brief lasting only from 1889 to 1909. The Minister of Lands
officially closed the caves in 1931 to all, because they contained foul air. The first Bungonia Caves
Reserve Trust appointed in 1932, took on a karst that had been neglected during the Depression.
Major consequences of the neglect were the karst was stripped of native vegetation and there was
erosion caused by overgrazing by sheep and cattle. After 1949, numerous speleologists worked at
Bungonia exploring deep into the foul air regions of the caves and carrying out research into all
aspects of the caves and karst. Despite this the reserve continued to be further degraded by the
rubbish dumping, wood gathering, uncontrolled camping, fire and grazing and uncontrolled caving
activities such as digging both on the surface and the caves. In 1970, conservationists and
speleologists united to fight a threat from a limestone quarry that wanted to extend its mining
leases to include the north wall of the Bungonia Gorge. The case was successful and the publicity
it generated enabled the Bungonia karst to start a slow road to recovery and a future of
sustainability. The major impacts on the karst are now due to the presence of recreational cavers
who are requested to follow the codes and guidelines of the Australian Speleological Federation
notably the Code of Ethics, the Minimal Impact Caving Code and Safe Caving Guidelines. In
addition, a number of measures have been implemented to protect the cave fauna and cavers. The
future sustainability of the Bungonia karst will be further ensured if the New South Wales state
conservation areas review recommendation that the karst and caves area is designated as a new
national park called the Bungonia National Park.
Keywords: karst, sustainability, Bungonia Caves, Australia


1 Introduction
Bungonia Caves are located in the Southern Tablelands of New South Wales
approximately 28 km east of Goulburn (Figure 1). The karst containing the caves is on the
limestone members of the Bungonia Group (Silurian to Early Devonian) (Bauer 1998). The
caves, some of the deepest on the Australian mainland, are found on a plateau that is
dissected by one of the finest limestone gorges in Australia. In 1902, an area of 565 ha
around the caves was gazetted a reserve for the preservation of caves and became known as
92

the Bungonia Caves Reserve (Figure 1). The sustainability
1
of the Bungonia karst will be
discussed in the following paper.

Figure 1 The location of Bungonia Caves
2 The early years
The Bungonia Caves were discovered in 1830 (Nurse 1972). In 1872, the same year as
the Worlds first national park, Yellowstone in the USA, was created the caves and karst area
was gazetted a Reserve for Public Recreation and Water Supply. At that time exploration of
the Bungonia karst was by graziers familiarizing themselves with the local lands and
surrounding properties; surveyors from the Department of Lands and the Department of
Mines extending and mapping resources or those concerned with the development of tourist
activities. In 1889, a caretaker was appointed by the Department of Mines resulting in three
caves being developed as tourist caves. In 1897, the caves were protected by a regulation No
person be allowed to enter the caves unless accompanied by a caretaker or authorized guide.

3 The dark ages
The 1902 legislation for the preservation of the caves as the Bungonia Caves Reserve
lasted until it was revoked partially in 1921 and finally in 1936. During the intervening years
much conservation legislation was enacted but all rapidly became extant or was revoked
(Middleton 1972). By 1909, commercial cave tourism at Bungonia had effectively finished;
there was no longer a caretaker and the caves were regarded as being closed to the public. The
Minister of Lands officially closed the caves in 1931 to all, because they contained foul air
(high levels of carbon dioxide (up to 7%) and low levels of oxygen (down to 15%) (James et

1
Sustainability, in a broad sense, is the capacity to endure. In ecology the word
describes how biological systems remain diverse and productive over time. For humans
it is the potential for long-term improvements in wellbeing, which in turn depend on
the wellbeing of the natural world and the responsible use of natural resources.
Wikipedia.
93

al. 1975) Foul air is encountered throughout the caves and severely limited early cave
exploration.
The first Bungonia Caves Reserve Trust was appointed in 1932 in order to administer
the karst area that had been neglected in the Depression. Major consequences of the neglect
were that the surface was stripped of native vegetation and there was erosion caused by
overgrazing by sheep and cattle. In 1949, with the advent of caving groups, numerous
speleologists worked at Bungonia establishing the significance of the caves, exploring deep
into the foul air regions and carrying out research into all aspects of the caves and karst. Many
publications resulted in both national and international journals.
Nevertheless, the reserve continued to be further degraded by the rubbish dumping,
wood gathering, uncontrolled camping, fire and grazing. Unwise actions by cavers resulted in
irreversible damage to parts of the karst. For example, it was believed that if the water in the
phreatic regions of the caves was drained and vadose flow established fresh air would remove
the foul air as suggested by JC Wiburd in 1925 (cited in Bonwick 1972). The foul air caves all
drain to one spring that had been blocked by breakdown of the cliff above it. This site was
excavated from 1923 until 1967 with the excavation of a 30 m long trench that lowered the
outflow by some 15 m (Bonwick 1972). The excavation left a massive scar on the side of the
gorge and caused the death of an ancient white cedar tree and other rainforest remnants by
diverting their water. The water level in the final chamber of the closest cave was lowered at
the same time and banded sediments were exposed (James 1973). Once exposed the sediment
bands were oxidized destroying their paleoclimatic value (Contos 1998). A cave at the spring
was revealed by the excavation but its passage slumped after 20 m. In an unsuccessful attempt
to access the flooded passage at the spring thousands of litres of water were siphoned from the
phreas (Bonwick 1972). This operation could have had an enormous impact on any
stygofauna in the cave system.
The greatest threat to the Bungonia Caves Reserve materialized in 1970 when its
exemption from the leasing provisions of the 1906 Mining Act was revoked. Immediately a
proposal to extend its limestone mining leases along the north wall of the gorge came from
company that owned the Marulan Quarry. The quarry was to the north of the reserved karst
and across the 300 m deep Bungonia Gorge (Figures 1&2). Conservationists and speleologists
united to fight this proposal in the Mining Wardens Court. To support the case a book,
Bungonia Caves (Ellis et al. 1972) was published documenting many aspects of the karst and
limestone quarrying in the Bungonia area. A publicity campaign was run with the slogan
Keep Bungonia Gorgeous. The case was successful and the dark ages had ended.

4 The age of enlightenment
The publicity that the keep Bungonia Gorgeous generated enabled the Bungonia
Caves Reserve to start the slow road to recovery and a future of sustainability. A Caves
Reserve Trust managed the reserve under the Crown Lands Consolidation Act 1913. In 1974
saw the Bungonia Caves Reserve become part of a much larger (4007 ha) Bungonia State
Recreation Area (Figure 2). This category of reserve protects natural and cultural heritage
values and provides recreational opportunities. However, unlike national parks and nature
reserves, the designation allows other uses including mineral exploration and mining and
petroleum exploration and production. The economic minerals in the Bungonia State
Recreation Area were significant deposits of orogenic and alluvial gold, polymetallic and
silica deposits as well as abundant limestone. Mining of these has been carried out at a
number of locations within Bungonia State Recreation Area and adjacent to it. The Marulan
Quarry is the largest limestone quarry in New South Wales.
94



Figure 2 Reserves at Bungonia

In 1974, the Department of Lands appointed a ranger for the Bungonia State Recreation
Area and during his tenure the karst was fenced against sheep and cattle. A Bungonia clean-
up weekend was organized by the speleologists and tonnes of rubbish were removed from the
karst. A well-appointed campground was built away from the karst and out of its catchment.
Two caves were gated and a series of regulations were promulgated to protect the caves and
surface. These relatively simple regulations to enhance ethical use of the caves and karst have
since evolved into complex, and, perhaps less sensible, regulations under the National Parks
and Wildlife Act 1974.
In 1992 the National Parks and Wildlife Service took over the management of the
Bungonia State Recreation Area bringing to it all the expertise and resources available to a
state organization. The old designation as a State Recreation Area was honoured and free
access to most caves was allowed after consultation with recreational cavers and karst
scientists. Under National Parks and Wildlife Service management, the campground was
greatly upgraded, as were the water supply, roads, car parks and lookouts.
The publication Bungonia Caves had been prepared at a time when the integrity of
Bungonia Gorge was under threat from limestone quarrying. In recent years, the popularity of
the Bungonia caves for recreation has increased to a point where there are visible impacts on
the karst and within some caves. The linked impacts on the fragile ecosystems that exist
within the caves cannot be quantified. Education of recreational cavers was recognized as
being critical to the preservation of caves for future generations. In 1998 a second publication,
Under Bungonia (Bauer and Bauer 1998) was published in order to educate the recreational
caver and supply them with clear and concise conservation information.
All wildlife is protected in areas set aside under the National Parks and Wildlife Act
1974. On the Bungonia karst remedial or preventative measures to protect the cave fauna have
been applied. These have included revegetation and stabilisation of soil erosion at cave
entrances and the avoidance of channelling runoff from car parks and road surfaces into
sinkholes and caves. The greatest threat to cave fauna at Bungonia is the uneducated caver.
Eberhard (1998) made recommendations that would enable cavers to avoid their activities
impacting on the cave fauna if universally adopted. The species most likely to be affected at
95

Bungonia by recreational caving is the endemic silverfish Trinemura anemone. One of the
caves in which it is found has been gated to ensure its viability.
At Bungonia there are two cave bats on the vulnerable list of the Threatened Species
Conservation Act 1995. At Bungonia these bats are protected at the times of their life cycle
when they are most at risk and caves are closed at these times. Because seasonal conditions
change, the times of closures are not fixed and are subject to change. The seasonal closures
fall into the following pattern: over wintering caves closed from 1 May until 30 September,
staging caves are closed from 1 December until 31 December; and maternity caves are closed
from 1 November until 31 March. Cavers are advised to avoid of the disturbance of individual
bats, small clusters and populations is also sensible at other times of the year. Further details
of the sustainable conservation of bats at Bungonia can be found in Spate (1998).
A Bungonia Recreational Activities Group advises on caving and other activities within
the State Conservation Area. The Group includes scientists, recreational cavers and
representatives of the Department of Defence, the Scout Association, commercial operators
and so on. It meets three to four times a year and is chaired by a specialist karst scientist.
Activities in the Conservation Area can only be carried out with the consent of the Director-
General of the National Parks and Wildlife Service. In order to facilitate this, consent is
obtained by completion of an Activity Register at the park office. The register is available 24
hours a day. Cavers are requested to follow the codes and guidelines of the Australian
Speleological Federation notably the Code of Ethics, the Minimal Impact Caving Code and
Safe Caving Guidelines. Leaflets on the dangers of entering the foul air regions of the caves
and on safe responsible practices are also available. At times caves may be closed because of
exceptionally hazardous levels of foul air or after flood events.
The cave closures for the protection of fauna and visitors that occur from time to time
have been respected. Digging activities, fixing markers, placing bolts for vertical caving,
entry to gated caves and research activities all require the explicit consent of the Director-
General and must to comply with the Environmental Planning and Assessment Act 1979 and
the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974 and regulations under those Acts. Removal of flora,
fauna, soil, archaeological materials, speleothems and fossils is prohibited unless collection of
such materials has been approved by the Director-General.
In 2002, the Bungonia State Recreation Area was gazetted as a State Conservation Area
with no change to its status with respect to management or mineral exploration and mining.
At this time future sustainability of the Bungonia karst appeared to be the best available and
was extremely promising and practicable.

5 The final act
Since the keep Bungonia Gorgeous campaign in 1970 conservationists and
speleologists have continuously stated that the best protection for the Bungonia karst is that it
should become part of the adjacent Morton National Park. The same suggestion was made for
the larger Bungonia State Conservation Area (Figure 2). To some speleologists that have had
a long working relationship with the Bungonia karst it does not seem right that it should lose
its identity by being subsumed into the much larger national park. It could also lose its focus
on caves and karst. There was some discussion that the Bungonia karst be better designated as
a Karst Conservation Reserve with the specific objectives of the conservation of the karst
environment and its biodiversity. The karst conservation reserve concept is relatively new,
and of the more than 780 parks in New South Wales, only four have the karst conservation
reserve designation. Such reserves were specifically designed to increase the conservation
status of reserved lands on karst whilst allowing for recreational caving and scientific research.
96

The status quo as part of the Bungonia State Conservation Area had been reluctantly
accepted the best option. There was a review of all the state conservation areas in New South
Wales in 2008 (DECC 2008). For the Bungonia State Conservation Area the reviewers noted
that in south-western part of area exploration and mining titles still apply which means it
cannot be reserved as a national park or nature reserve under the National Parks and Wildlife
Act (1974), and must remain a State Conservation Area to allow for exploration or mining,
subject to environmental assessment. However, in the north-eastern part of the area, there
were no exploration or mining titles and limited geological evidence of valuable mineral
resources and the dual-purpose State Conservation Area category is no longer required.
The reviewers propose that about 770 ha become a national park. This is a greater area
than the 563 ha of the 1902 Bungonia Caves Reserve as it includes more of the karst on the
north side of the gorge. The proposal is shown by the dark blue line in Figure 2 and would be
known as Bungonia National Park. We believe that this designation, or better still as
Bungonia Karst Conservation Reserve, is desirable as it would keep the historical Bungonia
identity for the karst, retain the excellent management by the National Parks and Wildlife
Service supported by the Bungonia Recreational Activities Group and further guarantee the
sustainability of the karst by protection from mineral exploration and mining. The change
would require gazettal under the National Parks and Wildlife Act, 1974.

References
Bauer J (1998) Geology of the Bungonia Group. In: Under Bungonia Bauer and Bauer
(eds), JB Books Oakflats, NSW, Australia, pp 2-19
Bauer J, Bauer P (1998) Under Bungonia, JB Books, Oak Flats, Australia
Bonwick BS (1972) The Efflux, B67. In: Bungonia Caves, Ellis et al. (eds.) Sydney
Speleological Society, Sydney, pp 55-62
Ellis R, Hawkins L, Hawkins R, James JM, Middleton G, Nurse B, Wellings G (1972)
Bungonia Caves, Sydney Speleological Society, Sydney
Contos AK (1998) Biomineralisation in Caves. PhD Thesis, University of Sydney,
NSW, Australia
DECC (2008) Bungonia SCA. In Review of State Conservation Areas, Department of
Environment and Climate Change, Sydney, pp 212-213
Eberhard S (1998) Cave Invertebrates. In: Under Bungonia (eds.) Bauer and Bauer, JB
Books, Oakflats, NSW, Australia pp 74-83
James JM (1973) Sediments in a Bungonia cave (B24). International Speleology 1973,
Proc.6th Int.Speleol.Cong.,Vol.3, pp 449-456
James JM, Pavey AJ and Rogers AF (1975) Foul air and resulting hazards to cavers.
Transactions of the British Cave Research Assoc. 2:79-88
Middleton GJ (1972) Conservation and Mining of the Bungonia Limestone Belt in
Bungonia Caves Ellis et al. (eds.) Sydney Speleological Society, Sydney, pp 179-199
Nurse BS (1972) Summary of the History of Bungonia Caves and Area in Bungonia
Caves Ellis et al. (eds.) Sydney Speleological Society, Sydney, pp 13-26
Spate A (1998) The Cave Bats of Bungonia in Under Bungonia Bauer and Bauer (eds),
JB Books, Oakflats, NSW, Australia, pp 67-73


97

Hydrogeological conditions and water quality of the karstified
formations of Louros basin, Epirus, Greece

Konstantina KATSANOU
1
, Euaggelos NIKOLAOU
2
, George SIAVALAS
3
, Eleni
ZAGANA
1
, Nikolaos LAMBRAKIS
1

1
Laboratory of Hydrogeology, Section of Applied Geology and Geophysics, Department of
Geology, University of Patras, Greece, e-mail: katsanou@upatras.gr
2
Institute for Geology and Mineral Exploration, Preveza, Greece
3
Section of Earth materials Department of Geology, University of Patras, Greece


Abstract: In the frame of the present study the hydrogeological and hydrochemical conditions that
prevail in Louros River drainage basin are analyzed and interpreted. The karstified basin occupies
an area of 926 km
2
and is located in the Epirus region at the northwestern part of Greece. It covers
the drinking water needs of four towns constituting one of the most important karstic
hydrogeological systems of this region. Geologically the basin is hosted in the formations of the
Ionian geotectonic zone, which is the western part of the External Hellenides, which in turn
constitute the extension of the Dinarides towards the South. The older formations of the study area
consist of evaporitic layers of Triassic age, which outcrop at the western part of the Louros
drainage basin. The Triassic evaporites are overlain by a thick sequence of carbonate and clastic
rocks reflecting a continuous sedimentation from Late Triassic to Upper Eocene. Oligocene flysch
outcrops at the margins of Louros basin, whereas at the lower part these formations are overlain by
Neogene and Pleistocene sediments as well as Holocene fluvial deposits. The basin is delimited by
large northsouth trending faults, which affect the land topography and play a principal role in the
function of the karst springs. The karst system is developed in the upper part of the carbonate
sequence (Middle Jurassic-Upper Eocene), mostly consisting of thick-bedded and hydraulically
interconnected formations, due to tectonic activity. The chemical composition of the groundwater
showed the prevalence of Ca-HCO
3
and Ca-HCO
3
-SO
4
water types. The presence of SO
4
is
attributed to the evaporites. Schoeller and Piper diagrams also show that the chemical composition
of groundwater is affected by the Triassic gypsum, which is expected to expand underground,
throughout the largest part of the area. In the southern part, the reduction of sulphates, contributes
to the rise of hydrogen sulphide-rich waters. R-mode factor analysis reveals that the most
important process that controls groundwater chemistry is the dissolution of minerals along with
redox environment. Reducing conditions are predominant in the periphery of the basin, mainly to
the western and southern parts. Nitrates, which derive from agricultural activities, affect
groundwater quality.
Keywords: karst, Ionian zone, hydrochemistry, statistic analysis, hydrogeology


1 Introduction
The study area is located in the Epirus region at the northwestern part of Greece,
including the drainage basin of Louros River that occupies an area of 926 km
2
. It supplies the
drinking water needs of four towns constituting one of the most important karstic
hydrogeological systems of this region.
Louros River has a length of about 75 km and an average flow of about 10.6 m
3
/s. It
discharges into Amvrakikos gulf to the south and its water irrigates about 120 km
2
of
cultivated area and supplies a small hydroelectric dam with 10 MW installed capacity. Louros
karstified aquifer is discharged by 17 main springs, with yields ranging between 2.5 m
3
/sec
and 6.7 m
3
/sec.
At the estuaries of Louros there are lagoons such as Tsoukalio, Rodia, Logarou, and
Tsopeli, which are wetlands designated under the Ramsar Convention and the European
98

Communities Legislation. About 2.5% of Louros catchment surface is cultivated and a
number of large and small agricultural industries and fish-farms operate in the same region.
Karst aquifers, which supply drinking water to an estimated 25% of the global
population (Pulido-Bosch 1999), are very vulnerable to contamination because of their
hydrogeologic characteristics (Escolero et al. 2002) and display properties that are directly
related to the investigation of microbiological contamination. Mahler et al. (2000) have
reported four reasons that justify the above considerations for karst aquifers: (1) the direct and
rapid connection between the surface water and groundwater systems, (2) the sediment
mobility, (3) the karst heterogeneity and (4) the possibility of sudden water quality variations
(episodic contamination).
The study emphasizes on karstic aquifers, hosted in the carbonate formations of Louros
drainage basin, aiming to elucidate the major hydrochemical processes, which control the
chemical composition of the groundwater, but also to estimate potential anthropogenic
impacts on groundwater quality.

2 Climate and morphology
Evaporation and humidity are relatively high throughout the year. Climate can be
characterized as mild temperate, to continental, changing by the influence of geographical
position and relief (Boltsis 1986).
The hydrological regime of northern Epirus is characterized by uneven seasonal and
regional distribution of precipitation. An average precipitation for Louros drainage basin is
1150-1800 mm. Out of them 50% is evapotranspiration, 35% is recharge and 15% is
discharge (Fig. 1; Nikolaou 2005).



Figure 1 The distribution of precipitation in Louros drainage basin

Morphologically, Louros karstic system is characterized of high elongated mountain
ranges and narrow valleys, due to the tectonic (anticline structures) and geologic conditions of
the region and the lithologic alternation between limestones and flysch.
Louros basin is also characterized by numerous exokarstic and endokarstic features such
as caves, sinkholes, karst lakes and springs that make the system vulnerable to groundwater
pollutants.

3.1 Geology
Geologically, the basin is hosted in the formations of the Ionian geotectonic zone, being
the western part of the External Hellenides, which constitute the extension of the Dinarides
towards the South.
The Ionian zone was first described by Philippson (1896), who also included in it the
Pre-Apulian and Gavrovo zones. However, the main stratigraphic features and the geotectonic
position were presented by Renz (1955), who named it "Adriatsche- Ionische Zone".
Aubouin (1959) discussed the stratigraphic and geotectonic evolution of the basin,
subdividing it into Internal, Central and External. The subsequent investigations made by
IGRS-IFP (1966) in Epirus, Corfu and Lefkas, and by British Petroleum (BP) in Central
Greece and the neighbouring Ionian Islands, provided further information on the geology of
the zone.
99

The older formations of the study area consist of evaporitic layers of Early to Middle
Triassic age, which outcrop at the western and southern part of Ziros Lake (Fig. 2). The
Triassic evaporites were deposited in a shallow supersaline basin and they are locally overlain
by breccias derived from calcification processes (Karakitsios and Pomoni-Papaioannou 1998).
These formations are overlain by a thick sequence of carbonate and clastic rocks reflecting a
continuous sedimentation from Late Triassic to Upper Eocene.
Until the Middle Liassic the Ionian Zone formed part of the Apulian Platform where
thick, neritic limestones were deposited. From bottom to top this sequence includes
Foustapidima formation that consists of black, hypolithographic limestones and dolomites of
Carnian age. They are overlain by massive Early to Middle Liassic neritic limestones, the so-
called Pantokrator Limestones (Karakitsios and Tsaila- Monopolis 1988). In Louros drainage
basin their thickness is estimated to range from 1000 to 1500 m (Leontiadis & Smyrniotis
1986). A transition to pelagic sedimentation prevailed within the basin during the late Liassic
giving rise to the following formations: The Siniais Limestone composed of thin-bedded
limestones with chert nodules and cherty interbeds occurring locally on top of the Pantokrator
Limestone (IGRS-IFP, 1966; Skourtsis-Coroneou et al., 1995), the Lower Posidonia Shales or
their lateral equivalent, the marly Ammonitico Rosso, both of Toarcian age, Middle Jurassic
limestones with filaments, and the Upper Posidonia Shales of Callovian-Kimmeridgian age,
that consist of very thin-bedded, brown, green and black cherts alternating with thin beds of
shales and marls (Fig. 2).
Vigla Limestone, which was deposited during the latest Kimmeridgian-Santonian
(Skourtsis-Coroneou and Manacos 1995) over the Upper Posidonia Shales, is the first pure
pelagic phase in the zones sequence. This consists of light-coloured, thin-bedded limestones
with abundant calpionellids, foraminifera and radiolaria, and cherty lenses and interbeds,
which become more common in the upper parts, locally forming the upper chert horizon.
Clastic limestones, overlying the Vigla Limestone, were deposited during the late
SenonianEocene interval (Aubouin 1959). They include microbrecciated limestones and
breccias with clastic materials that invaded the basin from its marginal areas and from the
neighbouring zones, as well as numerous intercalations of pelagic, micritic limestones
towards the top (Skourtsis-Coroneou et al. 1995).
A Flysch unit was deposited during the Oligocene on top of the Clastic limestones.
The transition is characterized by marly limestones and calcareous marls (Skourtsis-Coroneou
et al. 1995, 1999).
Unconsolidated deposits outcrop at the lowlands. These consist mostly of lacustrine
deposits of Pliocene age, glacial drift, siliceous deposits, riparian terrace deposits, talus cones,
and alluvial sediments.

3.2 Tectonics
Within the Ionian Zone several major thrusts have been described as well as other
important tectonic features like great E-W trending strike-slip fault systems (IGRS-IFP 1966).
Most of the thrusts show a "normal" westward dip (Louros, Paramithia, Margariti and Parga
Thrusts) and similarly, most of the folds are asymmetric with east-dipping axial planes.
Nevertheless important tectonic structures with an opposite dip also exist (Xerovouni and
Tomaros back-thrusts). Since all the Alpide edifice of the Hellenides was created by west-
dipping thrusting, we refer here to the east- dipping thrusts as back-thrusts.
Moreover, the large E-W fault zones, like the Souli strike-slip fault system, also known
in the literature as Petoussi Fault, play an important role in the Alpide tectonic evolution of
the area. Indeed, on the two sides of these faults the amount of displacement and the style of
the NNW-SSE trending shortening structures often differ (IGRS-IFP 1966).

100

"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
! A
! A
! A
! A
! A
! A
! A
! A
! A
! A
! A
! A
! A
! A
! A
! A
! A
! A
! A
! A
! A
! A
! A
! A
! A
! A
! A
! A
! A
! A
! A
! A
! A
! A
! A
! A
! A
! A
! A
! A
! A
! A
! A
! A
! A
! A
! A
! A
Ammotopos
Assos
Derbiziana
Terobon
Panagia
Thesprotiko
Melia
Kampi
Chanopoulo
Agios Georgios
al Ziros Lake
Amvrakikos Gulf
Pesta
R3
R2
R1
LP9
LP8
LP7
LP6
LP5
LP4
LP3
LP2
LP1
LG9
LG3
LP46
LP45 LP44
LP43
LP42
LP41
LP40
LP39
LP38
LP35
LP33
LP32
LP31
LP30
LP27
LP26
LP23
LP18
LP17
LP15
LP14
LP12
LP11
LP10
LG64
LG59
LG47
LG37
LG29
LG26
sea 1
LG107
LG104
LG102
220000
220000
225000
225000
230000
230000
235000
235000
240000
240000
4
3
3
0
0
0
0
4
3
3
0
0
0
0
4
3
4
0
0
0
0
4
3
4
0
0
0
0
4
3
5
0
0
0
0
4
3
5
0
0
0
0
4
3
6
0
0
0
0
4
3
6
0
0
0
0
4
3
7
0
0
0
0
4
3
7
0
0
0
0
0 2 4 1
km
4
Legend:
! A Sampling sites
Louros River
Normal faults
Thrusts
Holocene deposits
Quaternary deposits
Neocene deposits
Flysch
Terra Rossa
Clastic Limestones
Senonian limestones
Vigla limestones
Limestones with Fillaments
Ammonitico Rosso
Shales with Poseidonies
Pantokrator & Sinies limestones
Dolomites & Dolomitic limestones
Triassic Breccias
Triassic gypsum
STRATIGRAPHIC COLUMN OF THE IONIAN ZONE
Upper Eocene-
Lower Mocene
Flysch
Eocene Limestone
Paleocene Limestone
Senonian Limestone
Up. Albian-Turonian Chert
Malm -Albian ian
Vigla Limestone
Dogger
Chert, shale with Posidonia
Limestone with Filaments
Up. Lias (Toarcian) sic
Ammonitico Rosso
Upper Triassic-
Middle Lia s s ic
Thin-bedded limestone
Pantokrator limestone
Dolomite
Breccias
Evaporite
Triassic
0
100
200 m


Figure 2 Geographic position, geological map and lithostratigraphical column of Louros
drainage basin
101



4 Hydrogeological Conditions
The study area is structured from geological formations of different hydrogeological
properties. The geological conditions, the lithostratigraphical diversity, and the complicated
tectonics in combination with the geomorphological conditions have resulted in the formation
of independent or semi-independent hydrogeological units.
The geological setting of Epirus illustrates characteristic alternant limestone anticlines
and flysch syncline structures with general axis direction of NW-SE. Groundwater circulates
following the same directions resulting in the formation of extensive hydrolithological units
hosted in the karstified calcareous anticlines separated by the impermeable flysch synclines
(Leontiadis and Smyrniotis 1986)
Carbonate formations are the major units constituting the highlands of the study area.
These units include dolomites, the Pantokrator Limestone, the Vigla Limestone, Late
Senonian limestones, PaleoceneEocene limestones, and Posidonian chert.
The most important aquifers in the broader area have been developed in carbonate rocks
(mainly Pantokrator and Upper Senonian limestones). These formations show high
permeability due to their intense karstification and fracture porosity and their occurrence is
extended especially in the upper parts of Louros draining basin.
The flow rates of the major karstic springs in the region (Fig. 3) are higher than those
expected by the hydraulic properties of individual units. This suggests the existence of
hydraulic interconnections among carbonate formations of various ages, as well as
replenishment of groundwater from rivers and lakes.



Figure 3 Discharge (m
3
/s) of the major springs of the study area (Nikolaou 1991)

According to Leontiadis and Smyrniotis (1986) Louros hydrogeological basin extends
beyond the surface of the hydrological one. From the hydrogeological point of view the basin
can be separated into five different hydrogeological systems. The first consists of the sub-
basin of Thesprotika mountains, which outcrop in the western part of Louros basin, and
covers an area of 120 km
2
. The second is the Priala-Rizovouni system, the third is
Chanopoulo springs system being in the eastern part of the study area and the other two are
the upstream and downstream part of Louros River and cover 195 and 53 km
2
, respectively.

5 Groundwater chemistry
5.1 Sampling and analytical procedures
In order to define the hydrochemical composition of the karstic aquifer in the frames of
the present study a total number of 108 samples were collected during October 2008 and May
102

2009 from springs and boreholes along Louros drainage basin according to US EPA (1976)
procedures.
Two polyethylene bottles of 1 and 0.1 L volume, respectively, were collected for each
sampling site. The first bottle contained bulk water sample proper for the anion concentrations
analyses. The second bottle contained water filtered through a Whatman 0.45 m cellulose
membrane and acidified with 0.5 mL ultra pure HNO
3
.
The unstable physicochemical parameters including temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen,
electric conductivity and redox potential were measured in situ using Hana HI 9828 portable
equipment. Additionally, alkalinity was also determined on the field using Hach

Digital
Titrator.
All chemical analyses were performed in the Laboratory of Hydrogeology, University
of Patras. Anion (NO
3
-
, NO
2
-
, PO
4
3-
, SO
4
2-
, and F
-
), NH
4
+
and SiO
2
concentrations were
measured in a Hach

DR 4000 spectrophotometer. For the determination of Cl

-
content
titration techniques were applied by using AgNO
3
0.1 N.
Major cation (Ca
2+
, K
+
, Mg
2+
, Na
+
) concentrations were determined in a GBC

Avanta
flame atomic absorption spectrophotometer.
Trace element concentrations were measured using inductively coupled plasma-mass
spectrometry (ICP-MS) in an ELAN 6100 Perkin-Elmer. It should be noted that the
percentage error of the chemical analyses results calculated according to ion mass balance
does not exceed 5%.

5.2 Descriptive statistics and groundwater classification
The samples are classified into two water types according to the Piper classification
(Fig. 4). In the first water type the samples are characterized by the Ca
2+
and HCO
3
-

predominance, whereas in the second, the anion site is shared between HCO
3
-
and SO
4
2-
.
Samples of the second type display higher salt content, especially sulphates, compared to the
first. This could be attributed to the presence of a sulphate-rich source, like evaporite minerals
that outcrop on the south-western part of the study area.

Mg Ca Na+K Cl SO4 HCO3
0.001
0.01
0.1
1.
10.
100.
1000.
Concentration (meq/l)
Legend:
WS
SW
RW
R3
LP5
LP11
80 60 40 20 20 40 60 80
20
40
60
80 80
60
40
20
20
40
60
80
20
40
60
80
Ca Na HCO3 Cl
Mg SO4
Legend:
WS
SW
RW
R3
LP5
LP11


Figure 4 Schoeller and Piper diagrams of the analyzed samples. WS: groundwater sample,
SW: seawater, RW: rainwater

The descriptive statistics of the two main water types of the study area are shown in
Table 1.
103

The Scholler diagram (Fig. 4) demonstrates that rCl/rNa and rNa/rCa ratios reveal
values similar to those of rainwater. On the contrary, rCl/rSO
4
ratio is diverse, probably due to
the interaction of water with the evaporites. Samples R3, LP5 and LP11 represent hydrogen
sulphide-rich waters, occurring at the southern parts of the study area.

Table 1 Descriptive statistics for the analyzed water samples. N: number of samples

Ca-HCO
3
Ca-HCO
3
-SO
4

N Min Max Mean Std.Dev. N Min Max Mean Std. Dev.
Twa (
o
C) 26 7.72 17.97 14.59 2.50 22 13.63 18.70 15.54 1.47
Eh (mv) 27 -20.00 277.00 104.54 82.52 25 -290.00 170.00 84.45 96.70
pH 27 7.00 8.21 7.53 0.34 25 6.99 8.85 7.47 0.39
Cond 27 200.00 604.00 349.41 93.97 24 338.00 3920.00 753.96 847.54
Alk (mg/L) 33 95.00 276.00 161.41 41.85 25 92.00 246.00 164.32 26.83
HCO
3
33 115.90 336.72 196.92 51.06 25 112.24 300.12 200.47 32.73
K (mg/L) 33 0.15 8.84 1.23 1.60 25 0.38 44.00 2.93 8.94
Na (mg/L) 33 1.64 19.12 5.71 3.23 25 3.36 733.00 59.55 167.69
Mg (mg/L) 33 0.72 10.11 3.43 2.45 25 3.66 80.80 12.55 17.02
Ca (mg/L) 33 40.00 117.50 69.08 17.14 25 52.50 414.00 106.80 68.02
NH
4
(mg/L) 33 0.00 1.47 0.08 0.26 25 0.00 0.52 0.04 0.10
NO
3
(mg/L) 33 0.00 21.00 7.15 4.97 25 0.00 26.00 7.08 6.55
NO
2
(mg/L) 33 0.00 0.47 0.03 0.09 25 0.00 0.34 0.03 0.07
SO
4
(mg/L) 33 0.00 50.90 17.19 15.42 25 42.50 1120.00 172.00 238.09
F (mg/L) 33 0.00 1.48 0.15 0.27 25 0.08 1.38 0.34 0.28
Cl (mg/L) 33 0.90 30.00 8.84 6.60 25 3.40 830.00 69.33 189.34
B (mg/L) 33 0.00 0.03 0.01 0.01 25 0.01 0.41 0.04 0.10
Mn (mg/L) 33 0.00 0.19 0.01 0.03 25 0.00 0.07 0.01 0.01
Fe (mg/L) 33 0.01 0.12 0.03 0.03 25 0.00 2.00 0.12 0.41
Sr (mg/L) 33 0.03 0.24 0.11 0.06 25 0.11 3.84 0.55 0.73

5.3 Factor analysis
R-mode factor analysis was applied, according to the steps described by Davis (1987),
to study the interrelations among 19 selected variables measured in the Louros basin water
samples. The aim of this analysis is to reduce a large number of variables in the original data
to a significantly smaller number of factors, each of which is a linear function of the original
variables (Ashley and Lloyd, 1978; Adams et al, 2001). The selection of the four factors in
Table 2, was based on the criterion that eigenvalues must be higher than 1. The chosen four
factor model explains more than 77% of the total variance. All variables display very high
communalities (1.000), indicating that the 4-Factor model describes them very well. In a next
step, the contribution of each factor at every site (factor scores) was calculated (Fig. 5).
The first factor explains 45.7% of the total variance, and shows that most of the
covariance in the properties of the system may be represented by variances of Na
+
, Mg
2+
,
Ca
2+
, SO
4
2-
, F
-
, Cl
-
, B, Fe, and Sr
2+
. This indicates the principal role of these elements in the
chemical composition of the groundwater. Figure 5 shows that samples LP11 and LP6, which
are chemically affected by the presence of underlain evaporites, have a major contribution to
the formation of factor 1.
Samples LG3, LG47 and LG48 from the east-central part of Louros basin, with high
positive scores on this factor indicate a possible extension of the same geological conditions
in this area. The first factor also highlights the effect of redox potential in the groundwater
chemical composition.
The second factor accounts for 13.84% of the total variance and shows a negative
relationship between two redox sensitive constituents of groundwater (NH
4
+
, Mn). Samples
LP23, LP27, LP29, LP5 and LP9 showing high positive scores on this factor (Fig. 5) delimit
an area in the western part of Louros basin. This area is characterized by outcrops of Triassic
breccias.


104



Table 2 Factor loadings of the selected variables

Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4 Communalities
T(wa) 1.000
Eh -.689 1.000
pH -.679 1.000
HCO
3
.730 1.000
K 1.000
Na .969 1.000
Mg .812 1.000
Ca .883 1.000
NH
4
.963 1.000
NO
3
-.788 1.000
NO
2
1.000
SO
4
.968 1.000
F .713 1.000
Cl .968 1.000
B .849 1.000
Mn .924 1.000
Fe .943 1.000
Sr .937 1.000
Rotation Sums of Squared Loadings
Total 8.238 2.484 1.958 1.353
% of Variance 45.768 13.800 10.878 7.519
Cumulative % 45.768 59.568 70.445 77.964
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis. Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser
Normalization.



Figure 5 Factor 1 and 2 scores of the analyzed samples

The third factor, which accounts for 10.9% of the total variance, is characterized by the
well-known relationship between pH and HCO
3
ion, whereas the fourth factor accounting for
7.5% of the total variance is related to NO
3
-
and indicates a probable anthropogenic impact.

105

6 Conclusions
The chemical composition of the groundwater in Louros drainage basin showed the
prevalence of Ca-HCO
3
and Ca-HCO
3
-SO
4
water types. The presence of SO
4
is attributed to
the Triassic evaporites and the overlying breccias, which also affect the chemical composition
of groundwater in general, as it is suggested by Schoeller and Piper diagrams. In the southern
part, the reduction of sulphates, contributes to the rise of hydrogen sulphide-rich waters.
R-mode factor analysis reveals that the most important process that controls
groundwater chemistry is the dissolution of minerals along with redox environment. Reducing
conditions are predominant in the periphery of the basin, mainly to the western and southern
parts. Nitrates, which derive from agricultural activities, affect groundwater quality.

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107

Karstology and motorway construction

Martin KNEZ, Tadej SLABE

Karst Research Institute,
Scientific Research Centre of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts, P.O.Box 59,
Postojna, Slovenia, e-mails: knez@zrc-sazu.si; slabe@zrc-sazu.si


Abstract: One of the major ongoing projects in Slovenia is to link the country with modern
expressways. Almost half of Slovenia is karst and more than half of its supply of water comes
from karst aquifers. Slovenia is the home of the Classical Karst region, which gave its name to
numerous world languages for the type of landscape that develops on carbonate rock and where
the science of karstology began to develop. Comprising an important part of our natural and
cultural heritage, the sensitive karst landscape demands from us good knowledge and serious effort
for its preservation. Since 1994, Slovene karstologists have cooperated closely in the planning and
construction of expressways in karst regions. With the consideration of the integrity of the karst
landscape in the foreground, we have recommended avoiding more important areas of karst
phenomena (sinkholes, poljes, collapse dolines, karst walls, etc.) and already known caves in the
selection of routes for expressways and railway lines. We have devoted special attention to the
impact on karst waters of building and using the expressways. Expressway should be
impermeable. Water from the road surface is first collected in oil separators and then released
clean into the karst. We have also studied the pollutants in the water that flows off the expressways
everyday. Construction work has provided a series of important discoveries about the formation of
karst and its development on various bedrock, in different conditions and through various
processes. We have studied the karst along expressways between towns Razdrto, Kastelec, and
Fernetii (southwest Slovenia), the central part of the Dolenjska karst region (south Slovenia), and
the young karst in the Vipava Valley (southwest Slovenia). This selection of sites includes the
most important areas of our karst regions. We have acquired a great deal of information about
surface karst phenomena and the epikarst, and where excavation work has cut deeper in the surface
and in tunnels about the vadose zone and the paleokarst. Everywhere the development of the karst
left important traces, above all in the numerous old caves. More than 350 new caves have been
opened. The regular research of karst features revealed during the construction of expressways has
enriched our knowledge of the natural and cultural heritage and deepened karstological
knowledge. The research results are also a starting point for spatial planning in karst areas and for
protecting the karst landscape.
Keywords: motorway construction, karst, karst cave, classical karst (kras), Slovenia


1 Introduction
Over the last fifteen years the construction of modern expressways in Slovenia has been
one of the major construction projects aimed at connecting important parts of the country and
opening them to Europe. Almost half of Slovenia is karst and more than half of the water for
the supply of the population comes from karst aquifers. Slovenia is home to the classical karst
region of Kras that gave its name for this unique carbonate rock landscape to numerous world
languages and is also the cradle of karstology. We need to better understand this fragile karst
landscape and do everything to preserve it since it is an important part of our natural and
cultural heritage.
We focused on examples from the Classical karst, the low karst of the Dolenjska region,
and the karst breccia in the Vipava Valley.
Special attention is devoted to Kras, a karst plateau rising above the north westernmost
part of the Adriatic Sea that is bordered on the southwest by a vast flysch area with elevations
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exceeding 600 meters. Lying between 200 and 500 meters above sea level, the plateau covers
440 square kilometres and in a broad sense belongs to the Outer Dinaric Alps. From the
viewpoint of the theory of tectonic plates, the plateau lies at the northern deformed edge of the
Adriatic plate and is the result of tectonic overlapping. Only Cretaceous and Paleogenic rocks
are found here. They are characterized by exceptionally varied limestone that mostly formed
in relatively shallow sedimentation basins with lush fauna and flora. On the Kras plateau there
are no remains of the surface waters used in the past to explain the development of the
plateau. Originally, the plateau was surrounded and covered with flysch and therefore
flooded. Vertical percolation was minimal. The water table later dropped several hundred
meters into the karst. At the contact between the carbonate rock and flysch, surface waters
created characteristic and extensive contact karst. Today, all Kras rivers sink where they flow
from flysch onto limestone bedrock and flow underground toward the springs of the Timava
River in Italy. The largest stream is the Reka River, which sinks in the kocjan Caves, while
65% percent of the water sinks from the surface in a dispersed fashion. From the ecological
standpoint, Kras has one of the most vulnerable natural systems in Slovenia.
The low karst of the Dolenjska region is mostly covered with a variety of alluvia under
which a unique karst surface formed with stone forests as one of its most distinctive features
(Knez et al. 2003). The water table is often just below the surface, and the valley systems are
occasionally flooded.
Karst areas also developed in the breccias that formed from the scree on the slopes of
Mount Nanos. They lie on more or less permeable flysch, and water flowing at the contact
carved the largest caves in this area.
For a number of years, karstologists have cooperated in the planning and construction of
expressways in the Kras region (Kogovek 1993, 1995, Knez et al. 1994, Knez and ebela
1994, ebela and Mihevc 1995, Slabe 1996, 1997a, 1997b, 1998, Mihevc and Zupan Hajna
1996, Mihevc 1996, 1999, Kogovek et al. 1997, Mihevc et al. 1998, ebela et al. 1999, Knez
et al. 2003, 2004a, 2004b, Bosk et al. 2000, Knez and Slabe 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002a, 2002b,
2004a, 2004b, 2005, 2006). In the selection of expressway and railway routes, the main
consideration is the integrity of the karst landscape and therefore the routes chosen avoid the
more important surface karst features (dolines, poljes, collapse dolines, karst walls) and
already known caves. Special attention is devoted to the impact of the construction and use of
expressways on karst waters. Expressways should therefore be impermeable so that runoff
water from the road is first gathered in oil collectors and then released clean onto the karst
surface.
We studied the impact of traffic routes on karst waters. Kogovek (1993, 1995)
determined the contents of polluted water flowing daily from the expressways. Small
quantities of stagnant water found in caves along the expressways contained traces of mineral
oils (Knez et al. 1994).
During the construction of expressways we also perform karstological monitoring. We
study newly revealed karst phenomena as an important part of our natural heritage and advise
on how to preserve them if the construction work allows it. At the same time our new findings
are of great help to the construction companies. We have acquired a number of new findings
on the formation and development of the karst surface, epikarst, and the perforation of the
aquifer.

2 Exploring the karst surface and new caves during expressway construction
The removal of soil and vegetation from the karst surface and of course major
earthworks such as the excavation of cuts and tunnels reveal surface, epikarst, and subsoil
karst features. Our task is to study these features as part of the natural heritage, advise on how
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to preserve them, and of course share our new findings with the builders. These findings are
used to overcome construction obstacles.
The karst surface is dissected by dolines and unroofed caves. Dolines are a sign of the
current shaping of the surface by precipitation water that percolates vertically through it and
passes through the vadose part of the aquifer to the underground water. Some dolines are
more distinctly filled with soil than others. There are shafts and fissures at their bottoms
through which water flows. The soil must be removed from the dolines and their bottoms
reinforced with rocks arranged in a vault-like pattern; the mouths of shafts are often smaller
than the chambers beneath them. The dolines are then filled with layers of rubble. Unroofed
caves have a similar form or are more oblong. These are old caves that appear on the surface
due to the lowering of the karst surface and no longer have the upper part of their
circumference. The fine-grained fill, in this case old cave alluvia, must be removed and
replaced with rocks and rubble. Otherwise, water could gradually carry the alluvia away and
cause subsidence on the surface.
The epikarst is crisscrossed with fissures that are more distinctive in Cretaceous
limestone and less so in Paleogenic limestone, and many of them open at the bottoms and
slopes of dolines. In most cases they are filled with soil and their walls are dissected with
subsoil rock relief forms. Due to the lowering of the karst surface, many shafts are now
located just below the surface.
More than 350 caves were opened on the 70-kilometer section of expressway built in
Kras in the last few years (Figure 1). Relative to the development of the aquifer, we
distinguish between old caves through which watercourses flowed when the karst aquifer was
surrounded and covered by flysch and shafts through which water vertically percolates from
the permeable karst surface to the underground water. The deepest shaft found measured 110
meters. Some old caves are empty, almost two thirds of them are filled with alluvia, and one
third are unroofed caves.



Figure 1 Discovered caves and closing and preservation of them
110


Caves are opened when vegetation and soil is removed from the surface, and a large
number of caves were opened during the excavation of cuts. Blasting caused their roofs to
collapse, and cross sections of passages were preserved in embankments. The most shafts
were opened at the bottoms of dolines when the soil and alluvia were removed.
We studied all the caves, drew their plans, determined their shape, examined the rock
relief, collected samples of alluvia for paleomagnetic and pollen analyses, and sampled
flowstone for mineralogical analyses and age determination. We extrapolated the further
extent of the caves on the basis of their shapes and the geological conditions, which is
especially useful for road builders.

3 Studies that accompanied construction produced new findings on karst development
The unroofed cave is a special and frequent karst form. Today, this significant karst
surface feature is a familiar phenomenon, but it had not been thoroughly studied before the
construction of the expressway across Kras. Great attention has been devoted to unroofed
caves since the occurrence of this phenomena turned out to be considerably higher than
previously expected, and numerous articles on unroofed caves and the construction of new
expressways are now available (Knez and ebela 1994, ebela and Mihevc 1995, Slabe 1996,
1997a, 1997b, 1998, Mihevc and Zupan Hajna 1996, Mihevc 1996, Kogovek et al. 1997,
Mihevc et al. 1998, ebela et al. 1999, Knez and Slabe 2000, 2001, 2002a, 2002b, 2004a,
2004b, 2005, 2006). The shape of an unroofed cave is the consequence of the type and shape
of the cave and the development of the karst aquifer and its surface in various geological,
geomorphological, climate, and hydrological conditions. The distinctiveness of the surface
shape of an unroofed cave is dictated by the speed at which the alluvium was washed out of
the cave relative to the lowering of the surrounding surface. If the speed was low, we can
often see soil and vegetation or areas of alluvium and flowstone on the surface; where it was
faster, unroofed caves on the karst surface resemble dolines, a string of dolines, or oblong
depressions. Frequently they are an interweaving of various old forms such as caves and
recent shaping of the karst with dolines and shafts.
A large proportion of the caves were filled with alluvia, in most cases fine-grained
flysch alluvia with intervening layers of gravel. We took alluvia samples for paleomagnetic
research from caves at Kozina and Divaa and determined they originated in the Olduvai
period. We therefore concluded that the caves were filled after the Messinian crisis
approximately 5.2 million years ago (Bosk et al. 2000).
In short, unroofed caves are an increasingly recognized feature of the karst surface, an
important part of the epikarst, and an exceptional trace of the development of the karst
aquifer.
Determining the age of the alluvia helps us understand the oldest periods of
karstification and has proven that the oldest caves in Kras are much older than earlier
karstologists thought.

4 Planning road construction
Before construction starts we verify the accuracy of known data about caves in the field
and add possible new measurements and explanations of their development. To throw light on
the situation we present existing data on perforation of the aquifer and elaborate prognosis
subsurface maps with special emphasis on the anticipated lithological and tectonic changes in
rock composition and structure. Before the start of construction work we try to present the
perforation of the karst as accurately as possible. We can determine the position of
underground caves by drilling, and along with measurement indicators we also determine the
type of potential fill material (flowstone, alluvia). To a certain extent we can anticipate the
111

shape, type, and occurrence of caves in the vicinity using our knowledge of the known surface
and underground features.
Perforation puts a special stamp on the construction of expressways in the Kras region.
In addition to its varied development, Slovenias karst is marked by tectonic and
lithostratigraphic diversity and it is therefore difficult to determine in advance where caves
will occur. As a rule, caves occur more frequently along the contacts of flysch with limestone.
The perforation of the karst aquifer is therefore determined primarily on the basis of good and
comprehensive knowledge of the karst and continuous intensive work in planning and
constructing the expressways.
When planning expressways, the link between surface and underground karst features
requires the karstological evaluation of the karst surface as well as the karst underground, the
hydrological situation, and the presented variables. On all the expressway construction sites in
Kras we encountered numerous karst phenomena including dolines, filled and empty caves,
and sections of old and current drainage systems through the karst. The lowering of the karst
surface exposed many karst caves that are now visible in the Kras region. In recent years, we
have focused on unroofed caves discovered during the construction of expressways. We are
certain that a quality karstological study of the area where a road is planned enables the better
selection of a route and is one of the basic starting points for planning expressway
construction in this unique and vulnerable landscape.
We begin by assembling published literature, archives, and various unpublished studies
to learn about the surface karst features, and thus identify dolines, collapse dolines, and other
morphological features in particular. Through a field survey we establish the starting points
for mapping the areas of the selected route. In the field, we evaluate different types of rock
from the karstological aspect. On theme maps we present the known entrances to underground
caves and supplement them with potential new entrances. We anticipate the branching of
underground cave systems on the basis of surface mapping and explanations of the
development of morphologically identified unroofed caves visible in the relief. On the basis
of surface mapping we also consider possibilities for dumping waste material if necessary.
We know from experience that during construction every route crossing Kras will
sooner or later encounter underground caves or parts of cave systems. To a certain degree we
can predict the shape and type of caves using our knowledge of surface and underground
phenomena. We trace the caves in the wider area of the traffic route, determine their type,
position, and role in the aquifer, their shape, rock relief, the alluvia and flowstone found in
them, and present them on suitable maps. To make the maps easier to read, we present the
previous data on the perforation of the aquifer and elaborate predictions with special emphasis
on anticipated lithological and tectonic changes in the rock.
Due to the special characteristics of carbonate rock, karst rivers and stream that sink in
the studied area easily find direct routes into the underground (karst aquifer); it only takes
them an hour to percolate through 100-meter thick rock beds. Although the flysch rock beds
in Kras found in permanent direct contact with carbonate rock are often presented as
exclusively impermeable beds, it must be emphasized that the flysch (often in thin beds) is
only an isolated lens lying on permeable carbonate rock. Furthermore, it must also be
observed that a smaller number of underground conductive channels do occur in flysch and
that precipitation water collecting on flysch runs off onto carbonate rock. We therefore
undertake hydrological mapping in the field. For this purpose we delineate and define the
basic characteristics of hydrogeological units in the wider route area, identify hydrological
objects (captured and uncaptured springs, surface streams, water caves, boreholes, measuring
stations, etc.), and establish the physical and chemical properties of springs. When necessary
we perform tracing experiments during low and high waters, primarily to determine the
direction and velocity of underground flows in the wider area of the traffic route. With the
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results of field mapping and tracking experiments, we elaborate and upgrade the existing
hydrogeological maps, build a database on the state of the environment, and assess the impact
of the construction on karst waters.
The basic guidelines for planning traffic routes include:
1. the selection of a route shall be based on a comprehensive assessment of the karst with
emphasis on local features;
2. the selected traffic route shall avoid specific exceptional karst features;
3. the conservation of karst aquifers shall be one of the priority goals of planning.

5 Preserving as many karst caves as possible
The shafts were easiest to preserve and concrete plates were used to close the smaller
entrances (Figure 1). It was similarly possible to preserve old caves with solid circumferences
but caves located in fractured rock or opened during blasting had to be filled. Rock walls were
used to close caves crossed by road cuts with entrances on embankments. Their
circumferences were fractured to such an extent that they were unsuitable for visiting, and
water could wash clay from caves filled with alluvia and deposit it on the roads. One well
preserved cave was left open for travellers crossing the border with Italy to visit. The most
interesting and best preserved caves were completely secured and made accessible for visiting
even though they were located under the expressway or even wound around a tunnel as with
the Kastelec tunnel. They are accessible via concrete culverts closed at the roadside and in the
tunnel with a door.
We also studied the consequences of blasting in caves, which will help us in road
construction and the preservation of karst features in future.

6 Protecting the karst during expressway construction and use
Experience acquired tracing waters and accidental spillages of various substances on the
karst surface drew attention to the great perforation of the karst aquifer, which the number of
caves newly discovered during construction confirmed. Low permeability occurs only on
individual relatively small patches such as the bottoms of dolines heavily covered with soil
washed usually from a larger surrounding area, dolines on the Paleogene limestone of the
Divaa valley system that are transformed into ponds during rainy periods, and smaller
patches of clay that filled old caves. Maximum precautions must therefore be employed
during both the construction and use of roads. Daily traffic leaves numerous environmentally
harmful substances on road surfaces (Kogovek 1993), and mineral oils were found in
stagnant waters in caves located near traffic routes (Knez et al. 1994). Due to these findings
and the persistence of karstologists, expressways are made to be impermeable. Pipes and
gutters (Figure 2) along the roads lead to wastewater collectors. Untreated water should never
reach the permeable karst surface and the specifications for drainage systems must meet this
requirement. The existing wastewater collectors are often too small and abundant
precipitation can easily wash the sediments from them.

7 Conclusion
It is clear that the cooperation of karstologists in the construction of expressways in the
Kras region has brought positive results. It is important that karstologists participate in the
planning and construction of expressways and later that they monitor the impact of the
expressways on the environment, that is, throughout the entire process of encroachment on the
vulnerable karst landscape. This logical cooperation helps preserve natural heritage and
increase our basic knowledge about the creation and development of karst and about the
construction of expressways in this unique environment. There are many types of karst and
each requires a unique approach, which calls for permanent and continuous cooperation
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between road builders and karstologists. Over the last ten years, the cooperation between the
planners and builders of expressways and karstologists has resulted in knowledge used in the
planning and implementation of other encroachments in karst areas.



Figure 2 Drainage gutters at the edge of the road


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115

Shilin - lithological characteristics, form and rock relief of the
Lunan Stone Forests (South China karst)

Martin KNEZ, Tadej SLABE

Karst Research Institute,
Scientific Research Centre of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts, P.O.Box 59,
Postojna, Slovenia, e-mails: knez@zrc-sazu.si; slabe@zrc-sazu.si


Abstract: Stone forests are unique karst surface landforms. The Lunan stone forests developed
from underground karren, and where this type of surface is highly developed in China, it is defined
as a shilin landscape. Numerous examples of stone forests (shilin) that developed in almost
identical conditions show that the diverse shape of the pillars is primarily a consequence of the
properties of the rock, the distribution and density of joints and fissures in the rock, and its diverse
stratification and composition. The Lunan stone forests formed in early Permian carbonates of the
Qixia and Maokou formations. Characteristic of these are frequent alternations of very pure
limestone, dolomitized limestone, and dolomite, the alternation of thin and thick layers, and in
some places distinctive late diagenetic dolomitization and secondary porosity. The layers are
mostly horizontal or inclined by five to ten degrees. Due to vigorous tectonic action, they are
fractured by numerous vertical and subvertical joints and fissures. The diverse fracturing,
stratification, and rock composition are reflected in the shapes of the stone forests and their stone
pillars. In the same stone forest, which developed on diversely composed rock, pillars may be of
various but typical shapes, the consequence of their development on different levels of a diverse
rock column. The shape of stone pillars occurring on thicker and uniformly composed rock strata
reflects primarily the development from subsoil karren into a stone forest, and the traces of subsoil
factors are gradually reshaped by rainwater. Cross sections of stone pillars occurring on thin rock
strata are often jagged, and their tops (even of thinner pillars), which as a rule are pointed, are
often flat, the consequence of the rapid disintegration of thin strata. Porous rock strata are most
often perforated below the ground and disintegrate faster on the surface; the pillars are therefore
narrower and the tops on such rock have no characteristic shapes. More resistant rock strata
protrude from the cross section. The tops of the narrower pillars are sharp, sharpened as much by
subsoil factors as by rainwater. The broader tops, however, are dissected by points and funnel-like
cups. Because of the exceptional characteristics of this karst phenomenon in China, we propose
that the term shilin be used for this type of stone forest in the professional literature.
Keywords: Shilin, karst surface development, rock relief, Yunnan, China


1 Introduction
The Lunan stone forests (Figures 1, 2, 3) are a unique form of karst karren (Chen et al.
1998, Knez 1998, Slabe 1998, Knez and Slabe 2001a, 2001b, 2002). The karren, crisscrossed
by fissures along cracks, are composed of rock pillars (Song 1986, Habi 1980, 109) or rock
teeth (Song 1986, Song and Liu 1992, Yuan 1991). Rock teeth (Figure 4) are smaller
protrusions not exceeding five meters; high teeth tower more than three meters in height while
lower teeth do not exceed one meter (Song and Liu 1992). According to their shape, they are
divided into conical, angular, and oblong rock teeth (Song and Liu 1992). The pillars reach
from five to fifty meters high and display a variety of shapes. Large stone forests are a
characteristic form of subtropical climate conditions (Song 1986, 3, 5).
According to their position, Song (1986, 6, 7, 8) distinguishes three types of stone
forests. Tall forests with intervening sinkholes and collapse sinkholes occur in valley systems
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and valleys. Underground waters flow underneath them; they are periodically flooded or
water flows through them. Stone forests located on the tops of hills appear on the tops of hills



Figure 1 Naigu stone forest, Lunan

appear to be lower (1030 m), the pillars grow from a uniform base, and the sediment cover
above them is thin. Forests located on the slopes of hills are an intermediate form between
these two types.



Figure 2 Pu Chao Chun stone forest, Lunan Figure 3 Lao hei Gin stone forest, Lunan

117

The Lunan stone forests are often described as a form of covered karst (Chen et al. 1983,
Maire et al. 1991, Sweeting 1995, 125). The carbonate rock in which the karren formed was
covered by thick layers of sediment that had a major influence on the formation and shape of
the stone forests. Relative to the sediments, stone forests can be bare, covered, or buried.
Hantoon (1997, 311) describes stone forests as an epikarst form. Mangin (1997, 106) believes
that the epikarst of stone forests reaches depths up to 100 meters.
The Lunan stone forests formed mainly when the water below the soil, which contains
biogenic CO
2
and sediments, dissolved the rock under the ground. The water widens the
cracks and separates rocks. Under acidic soil, wide and deep fissures formed between pillars
and deep channels developed on their walls (Yuan 1997). Exposed carbonate rocks are further
shaped by rainwater. Teeth are first to form and over time develop into forests (Song 1986,
13).
At first, limestone that was already undergoing karstification (Yu and Yang 1997, Song
and Wang 1997, 433) was covered by Permian basalt and tufa that influenced its formation
and the rock, which metamorphosed in places (Song and Li 1997, Ford et al. 1996, 34). Water
percolated through the basalt and tufa leading to the formation of underground karst. The
Mesozoic saw the denudation of parts of the limestone (Song and Wang 1997, 433). In the
Oligocene and Miocene, blocks of rock rose and lowered, and the lower parts of the karst
relief were reshaped by erosion (Yu and Yang 1997). In the Eocene, the Lunan ridge
collapsed and thick layers of lake sediments were deposited (Chen et al. 1983, Zhang Geng et
al. 1997; Song and Wang 1997, 433). In the tropical climate, thick layers of laterite soils
formed on these sediments (Sweeting 1995, 124, Ford et al. 1997, 112). The Pliocene saw the
beginning of the development of the current stone forest (Yu and Yang 1997, 66). In the
Quaternary, a large part of the sediment was removed although some was preserved in the
cracks.



Figure 4 Rock teeth, Lunan

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The level of the underground water played an important role in the development of the
forest (Ford et al. 1997, 114). The development of underground water courses initiated the
transformation of teeth into pillars (Zhang, Geng et al. 1997). The oscillating underground
water widened the cracks (Yuan 1991). Today, an integrated and diverse network of water
courses had developed below the stone forests (Zhang, Geng et al. 1997, 5). The fragmenting
of rock due to tectonic action caused the lowering of the underground water table, swept the
sediments from the surface, and accelerated the growth of the forests.
The central part of the stone forest spreads over 80 hectares, and larger and smaller
stone forests are distributed over some 350 square kilometres (Chen et al. 1983, Zhang Geng
et al. 1997). The central part is situated 1,625 to 1,875 meters above seal level in a valley
system. After abundant precipitation, the underground water, which is close to the surface,
rises by ten meters. Most (7080%) of the annual rainfall of up to 936.5 mm falls between
June and October (Chen et al. 1983). The average temperature is 16.3 C, and temperatures
range from -2 C to 39 C. The tallest pillars are located in the central part of the valley
system where surface waters drain into the underground, and more sediments are deposited at
the edges of the stone forest (Sweeting 1995, 125). Habi (1980, 110) calls it shallow karst
because water also flows on the surface in the lower part of the stone forest.
The tourist areas of the Lunan stone forests are visited by more than two million visitors
each year. The forests are a unique and integral natural and cultural landscape where tourism
is now an important part of the Sani minoritys economy.
The shape of the pillars in the forest and their height are characteristic of individual
types of rock and their topographical position (Zhang, Wang et al. 1997, 73). Numerous
examples of stone forests that developed in almost identical conditions show that the diverse
shape of the pillars is primarily a consequence of the properties of the rock, from the
distribution and density of joints and cracks in the rock to its stratification and composition.
However, we must also consider the significance of the effect on their shaping of subsoil
factors and rainwater, that is, the course of their development in various periods.

2 The formation of stone forests

2.1 Lithological characteristics of rock
The stone forest area consists of Lower Permian carbonates of the Qixia and Maokou
formations. These are two of the most important basal formations from which numerous stone
forests emerged in the southern Yunnan province of Lunan. Typical for Qixia formations are
micrite limestone with intercalary dolomite and dolomitized limestone with intervening layers
of schist. In the lower part of Maokou formations, limestone alternates with dolomite and
dolomitized limestone. In the upper part we find a sequence of limestone layers that in some
places are thin and in others several meters thick as well as solid limestone that contains
several-decimetre large nodules of chart in individual horizons. The main lithological
properties of the Maokou formations are roughly similar to those of the Qixia formations,
except that in Maokou carbonates we do not find a major influence of late diagenetic
dolomitization and in some places a considerable secondary porosity. However, both show a
strong diagenetic alteration of the basic rock, which is undoubtedly also a consequence of
intensive volcanic (basalt lava) activity during the transition from the Palaeozoic to the
Mesozoic. The rock contains an extremely high percentage of carbonate.
In the area studied we find considerable variations in thickness, porosity, and degree and type
of dolomitization, in the components of inclusions, and in the colour of individual layers that
are reflected in the formation of the stone forests.


119

2.2 Rock fissuring
Morphological characteristics reflect various factors, among which geological factors
are the most important. The fracturing of the rock is without a doubt one of the basic factors
affecting the shape of the forest and the size of the rock pillars. The distribution of the pillars
(stone forest ground plan) corresponds to the fracturing of the rock. The pillars can be linked
in rows between distinct fault areas or close together, and the stone forest or parts of it can
consist of individual wide or narrow pillars. As a rule, pillars with smaller cross sections
occur with a dense network of cracks, and larger rock masses with broader tops with a sparser
network.

2.3 Rock stratification
Rock stratification is a very important factor affecting the shape of rock pillars. It has
little or no effect on the pillars that developed on thick layers and layers with uniform rock
composition. Longitudinal sections of pillars on thin rock strata are often jagged since they
are dissected by notches occurring along the bedding planes and their shapes reflect the
uneven resistance of the different rock strata to the factors of their formation.

2.4 Rock composition
The composition of the rock is another important geological factor. The rocks
composition, particularly if it is diverse, can decisively influence the shape of the rock pillars,
as much their longitudinal sections as the size of the cross sections. Porous strata are often
perforated and disintegrate more rapidly, while rock strata with less soluble components
usually protrude from the walls.

2.5 Subsoil shaping of rock
To understand both the regional and local development of the rock pillars we must also
consider the influence of the subsoil rock shaping that fostered the characteristic formation of
the pillars on various rocks and the unique rock relief. Rainwater sharpens the tops of the
pillars and reshapes the traces of the original subsoil shaping.

2.6 Rock relief
The unique development of the stone forests is also reflected in their subsoil rock relief.
The most distinct and particularly the largest rock forms are subsoil and composite rock forms.
Subsoil rock forms include scallops, large channels (Figure 5), notches and half-bells (Figure
6), and subsoil channels and cups on broader tops. Composite rock forms include the channels
that lead from subsoil channels or cups and dissect pillar walls. Many pillars are undercut
below the ground, while their tops have been reshaped by secondary subsoil rock forms and
forms carved by rainwater. The rock relief of larger rock pillars is unique as well, particularly
those with broader tops, either on thick rock strata where secondary subsoil forms occur or on
tops that developed due to the disintegration of thin rock strata when subsoil tubes occurring
along bedding planes developed into subsoil forms or large channels that were reshaped by
rainwater. Both forms indirectly influence the shape of the pillar walls due to water flowing
from them and carving channels. Rainwater gradually transforms the subsoil rock relief. As a
rule, smaller rock forms do not occur on dolomite rock, on very porous rock, or on rock with
larger intraclasts.

3 Discussion and conclusions
Numerous examples of stone forests that developed in almost identical conditions show
that the diverse shape of the pillars is primarily a consequence of the properties of the rock,
from the distribution and density of joints and cracks that crisscross it to its stratification and
120

composition. However, we must also consider the significance of the effect on their shaping
by subsoil factors and transformation by rainwater, that is, the course of their development in
various periods.
The Lunan stone forests formed in Lower Permian carbonates of Qixia and Maokou
formations. They are characterized by a varied alternation of very pure limestone, dolomitized
limestone, and dolomite, the alternating of thin and thick strata, distinct late diagenetic
dolomitization in places, and secondary porosity. The strata are mostly horizontal or inclined
by five to ten degrees. Due to vigorous tectonic action, they are fractured by numerous
vertical and subvertical joints and cracks.
The diverse fracturing, stratification, and rock composition are reflected in the shapes of
the stone forests and their rock pillars. In the same stone forest, which developed on diversely
composed rock, pillars may be of various but typical shapes, the consequence of their
development on different levels of a diverse rock column.



Figure 5 Large channels, Lunan



Figure 6 Half-bell, Lunan
121


The shape of rock pillars occurring on thicker and uniformly composed rock strata
reflects primarily the development from subsoil karren into a stone forest, and the traces of
subsoil factors are gradually reshaped by rainwater. Cross sections of rock pillars occurring
on thin rock strata are often jagged, and the tops, even of thinner pillars that as a rule are
pointed, are often flat, the consequence of the rapid disintegration of thin strata. Porous rock
strata are most often perforated below the ground and disintegrate faster on the surface; the
pillars are therefore narrower and the tops on such rock have no characteristic shapes. More
resistant rock strata protrude from the cross section. The tops of the narrower pillars are sharp,
sharpened as much by subsoil factors as by rainwater. Broader tops, however, are dissected by
points and funnel-like cups.
The unique rock relief occurs when the rock is shaped under the ground. The denuded
rock is reshaped by rainwater that carves flutes, channels (Figure 7), and solution pans.



Figure 7 Rock, reshaped by rainwater, Lunan

The development of stone forests and their rate of growth in a particular period are also
influenced by the position and development of karst caves below them, that is, by the manner
the waterand the sediment and soil with itflows from the karst surface. Various
development periods can be determined from the karst caves.
Because of the exceptional characteristics of this karst phenomenon in China, we
propose the term shilin be used for this type of stone forest in the international professional
literature.

References
Chen Z, Song, L, Sweeting, MM (1983) The pinnacle karst of the stone forest, Lunan,
Yunnan, China: an example of sub-jacent karst. In: K. Paterson, MM Sweeting (eds) New
Directions in Karst, Proceedings of the Anglo-French Karst symposium, pp 88-124
Chen X, Gabrovek F, Huang C, Jin Y, Knez M, Kogovek J, Liu H, Petri M, Mihevc
A, Otoniar B, Shi M, Slabe T, ebela S, Wu W, Zhang S, Zupan Hajna N (1998) South
China Karst I. ZRC Publishing, Ljubljana, 247 pp
122

Ford D, Salomon JN, Williams P (1996) Les Forets de Pierre ou Stone forests de
Lunan. Karstologia 28(2):25-40
Ford D, Salomon JN, Williams P (1997) The Lunan stone forest as a potential world
heritage site. Stone forest, a treasure of natural heritage. China environmental science press,
pp 107-123
Habi P (1980) S poti po kitajskem krasu. Geografski Vestnik 52:107-122
Hantoon PW (1997) Definition and characteristics of stone forest epikarst aquifers in
South China. Proceedings of 12
th
International Congress of Speleology 1(8):311-314
Knez M (1998) Lithological properties of the three Lunan stone forests (Shilin, Naigu
and Lao Hei Gin). In: X Chen et al. (eds) South China Karst I, pp 30-43
Knez M, Slabe T (2001a) Shape and rock relief of pillars in Naigu Stone Forest (SW
China)
Acta Carsologica 30(1):13-24
Knez M, Slabe T (2001b) The lithology, shape and rock relief of the pillars in the Pu
Chao Chun stone forest (Lunan stone forests, NW China). Acta Carsologica 30(2):129-139
Knez M, Slabe T (2002) Lithologic and morphological properties and rock relief of the
Lunan stone forests. In: F Gabrovek (ed) Evolution of karst: From prekarst to cessation, pp
259-266
Maire R, Zhang S, Song S (1991) Gense des karsts subtropicaux de Chine du Sud
(Guizhou, Sichuan, Hubei). Karstologia mmoires 4:162-186
Mangin A (1997) Some features of the Stone forest of Lunan, Yunnan, China. Stone
forest, a treasure of natural heritage. China environmental science press, pp 105-106
Slabe T (1998) Rock relief of pillars in the Lunan Stone Forest. In: X Chen et al. (eds)
South China Karst I, pp 51-67
Song L (1986) Origination of stone forest in China. International Journal of Speleology
15:3-33
Song L, Liu H (1992) Control of geological structures over development of cockpit
karst in south Yunnan, China. Tbingen Geographische Studien 109:57-70
Song L, Li Y (1997) Definition of Stone forest and its evolution in Lunan County,
Yunnan, China. Stone forest, a treasure of natural heritage. China environmental science press,
pp 37-45
Song L, Wang F (1997) Lunan Shilin Landscape in China. Proceedings of 12
th

International Congress of Speleology 1(8):433-435
Sweeting MM (1995) Karst in China. Its Geomorphology and Environment. Springer,
Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, 265 pp
Yuan D (1991) Karst of China. Geological Publishing House, Beijing, 224 pp
Yuan D (1997) A global perspective of Lunan Stone forest. Stone forest, a treasure of
natural heritage. China environmental science press, pp 68-70
Yu Y, Yang B (1997) Paleoenvironment during formation of Lunan Stone Forest. Stone
forest, a treasure of natural heritage. China environmental science press, pp 63-67
Zhang F, Wang F, Wang H (1997) Lunan Stone forest landscape and its protection and
conservation. Stone forest, a treasure of natural heritage. China environmental science press,
pp 71-77
Zhang F, Geng H, Li Y, Liang Y, Yang Y, Ren J, Wang F, Tao H, Li Z (1997) Study on
the Lunan stone forest karst, China. Yunnan Science and Technology Press, Kunming, 155 pp

123

Contribution of time series analysis to the study of the Malenica
karst spring, Slovenia

Gregor KOVAI
1
, Metka PETRI
2


1
University of Primorska, Faculty of Humanities Koper, SI-6000 Koper, Titov trg 5, Slovenia
2
Karst research institute SRC SAZU, SI-6230 Postojna, Titov trg 2, Slovenia


Abstract: The paper deals with the application of the time series analysis in the hydrological
background of the Malenica karst spring in the southwestern Slovenia. The results of the
analysis contribute to the better understanding of the functioning of the complex Malenica karst
spring system, which extends over 700 km
2
. Correlation and spectral analysis between daily and
hourly hydrologic time series between the input function; precipitation and secondary infiltration
via ponors; and output function (springs) to characterize the hydrologic functioning of the
Malenica karst spring catchment was performed. The results of the autocorrelation analysis
(daily values) show that the storage capacity of the Malenica karst spring system is moderate,
but the highest among all of the measuring points in its hydrological background and vicinity. The
cross-correlation function between the daily precipitation in the background and daily discharges
of the spring show the 2 day delay. The autocorrelation and cross-correlation analysis for the
hourly precipitation, discharges, water levels, electric conductivity (EC) and temperature (T)
values from the measuring points in the near catchment of the Malenica karst spring and its
capture for the hydrological year 2008 was performed as well. The storage capacity of the
Malenica karst spring is rather low. Autocorrelation shows a high memory effect for the T and
some less for the EC parameter. From the methodological point of view, the univariate and
bivariate time series analysis performed for the daily values in the hydrological year 1975 and
hourly values in the hydrological year 2008 showed different results. This indicates that the
selection of the investigated hydrological year and time lag are important factors in time series
analysis.
Keywords: time series analysis, correlation, spectral analysis, karst aquifer, the Malen ica karst
spring, Slovenia


1 Introduction
The purpose of this study is to demonstrate that the time series analysis can contribute
to the hydrogeological study of a karst aquifer on a regional scale. The Malenica karst
spring is one of the most important karst springs in Slovenia. Because of its favourable
hydrological characteristics, since 1971 it has been captured for the drinking water supply.
Hydrogeologic and hydrodynamic characteristics of the Malenica karst spring and its
catchment are well investigated, but still we do not have all the answers considering the
quantities and directions of recharge towards the spring in different hydrological conditions
(low or high waters). In this regard the correlation and spectral analysis between daily and
hourly hydrologic time series of the input function (precipitation and direct infiltration
through ponors) and output function (springs) to characterize the hydrogeologic processes of
the Malenica karst spring catchment was performed.

2 General characteristics of the Malenica karst spring
The mean annual discharge of the Malenica karst spring in the reference period 1961-
1990 is 6.704 m
3
/s. The ratio between Q
min
, Q
mean
and Q
max
is 1 : 6.1 : 9, Q
min
is always above
1.1 m
3
/s. In the average hydrological year two maximums, primary in April (snowmelt) and
secondary in December (precipitation), and two minimums, primary in August and secondary
124

in February (snow retention) appear. The catchment area of the spring extends over karst
poljes of Notranjska region and in the Snenik and Javorniki high Dinaric karst plateaus on
726 km
2
. In the Malenica karst spring catchment rocks with karst-fissure porosity prevail,
covering over 73 % of the area, 13 % of the area is characterized by fissured porosity
(dolomites), in some parts of the catchment area also surface runoff is present. The
Malenica karst spring is recharged both by autogenic and allogenic recharge from sinking
rivers. The mean annual precipitation in the catchment area of the spring (period 1961-90) is
estimated to 1776 mm, the mean annual evapotranspiration is 720 mm (period 1971-2000).
The mean annual runoff is estimated to 1055 mm, the runoff coefficient is around 60 %
(Kovai 2009). The mean annual discharge of the Malenica karst spring is 6.92 m
3
/s in the
hydrological year 1975 and 5.83 m
3
/s in the hydrological year 2008. The amount of annual
precipitation in the catchment of the investigated spring in hydrological year 2008 is around
1600 mm.



Figure 1 The Malenica karst spring at high waters (Photo: G. Kovai, April 4
th
2008)

3 Methodology
Time series analysis of hydrological data comprises the mathematical analysis of karst
systems response to recharge (precipitation, concentrated infiltration via ponors) and
indirectly obtains information regarding the functioning of karst hydrological systems (Box
and Jenkins 1970, Box et al. 1994). The univariate analysis characterizes the structure of
individual time series, either in time (autocorrelation) or frequency domain (spectral density).
Autocorrelation function quantifies the memory effect of the system and gives indirect
information about the storage capacity of the system. Spectral density function quantifies the
regulation time, which defines the duration of the influence of the input signal and it gives an
indication of the length of the impulse response of the system (Larocque et al. 1998). Cross-
correlation and cross spectral density functions imply the transformation of the input signal
(precipitation, direct infiltration via ponors) to the output signal (karst spring, wells). The
transformation of the signal within the karst system depends on its structure. For more
detailed theoretical basis of time series analysis and explanations of the application of the
methodology to different test sites the reader is referred to Angelini (1997), Larocque et al.
(1998), Mathevet et al. (2004), Padilla and Pulido-Bosch (1995), Panagopoulos and
Lambrakis (2006), Rahnemaei et al. (2005) and Samani (2001).
125

Firstly we analyzed the daily precipitation values from 13 precipitation stations and
daily discharge (water level) values from 22 gauging stations in the hydrological year 1975,
when the most number of gauging stations in the Malenica karst spring in the observation
time was operational. The length of the time series for the hydrological year 1975 is 411 days,
from August 28
th
1974 to October 12
th
1975. These data were received by the Environmental
Agency of the Republic of Slovenia. Since we wanted to get more precise information on
hydrologic behaviour of the Malenica karst aquifer, in year 2007 we installed seven
measuring instruments on the watercourses in the background of the spring, in its water
capture and in its vicinity. In this way we gathered hourly data on water levels, discharges, EC
and T for the hydrological year 2008 from September 9
th
2007 to October 17
th
2008 (9840
hours, 411 days). Hourly precipitation data were collected from 3 automatic rain gauge
devices installed in the different locations within the catchment. Univariate and bivariate time
series analyses between gathered hydrologic time series were performed. The hydrological
time series in the hydrological year 1975 were investigated in time lag of 1 day, in the
hydrological year 2008 in time lag of 1 hour.

4 Results of the time series analysis
Results of autocorrelation function for the daily values in the hydrological year 1975
show, that the Malenica karst spring has the largest storage capacity among all of the
investigated karst springs and other measuring locations on watercourses in its background
and vicinity. The autocorrelation coefficient reaches the r
k
= 0,2 value after 32 days, revealing
that the memory effect of its system is according to Mangins (1994) classification moderate.
The spectral density function of the spring has a regulation time of 32 days, which indicates
that the aquifers impulse response is moderate as well. Low storage capacity of the spring
indicates high karstification degree of the system. The delays between precipitation events
and discharges of the springs in the catchment area of the Malenica karst spring and itself
are mostly within the interval of one day, though noticeable distinction between different
pairs of analyzed series can be observed, also in the value of maximum correlation
coefficients (from 0.28 to 0.73). The cross-correlation function between the daily precipitation
from the most representative station Jure and daily discharges of the spring show the 2 day
delay and a correlation coefficient of 0.28. The results of cross-correlation analysis show that
within the period of one day the precipitation events in the background of the Malenica
karst spring occur almost simultaneously, in many cases also the sums of daily precipitation at
different stations are roughly equivalent.
The autocorrelation and cross-correlation analysis for the hourly precipitation,
discharges and water levels from the measuring spots in the near catchment of the Malenica
karst spring and its capture in the hydrological year 2008 show rather different results. The
autocorrelation function shows, that the storage capacity of the Malenica karst spring is
rather lower, reaching the r
k
= 0.2 value after 557 hours (23 days) and the r
k
= 0 value after
973 hours (40.5 days) (Figure 2a). The spectral density function has a regulation time of 159
hours (6.6 days), which indicates that the aquifers impulse response is even shorter as it is in
the year 1975, although the discharge of the spring diminishes very slowly over long period.
The shape of autocorrelation function of hourly precipitation at the station Postojna
diminishes very rapidly and reaches the r
k
= 0.2 value immediately (3 hours) and the 0 value
after 36 hours. Autocorrelation analysis proves a high memory effect for the T and some less
for the EC parameter (Figure 2b).

126

0 200 400 600 800 1000
Lag (k)
-0.2
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
r
k
Malenica - Q
Unica - Q
Kotlii - h
Postojna - P
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Lag (k)
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
r
k Kotlii - T
Unica - T
Malenica - T
Unica - EC
Malenica - EC
Kotlii - EC


Figure 2 Autocorrelation functions for the hourly time series in the hydrological year 2008: a)
discharges (water levels) and precipitation time series; and b) temperatures and electric
conductivity time series

-1000 -800 -600 -400 -200 0 200 400 600 800 1000
Lag (k)
-0.4
-0.2
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
r
x
y
(
k
)
Discharge
Precipitation - discharge
T
EC


Figure 3 Cross-correlation functions between precipitation values (station Postojna) and
Kotlii karst spring (discharge, T and EC) as input and Malenica karst spring as output

A cross-correlation function for the hydrological year 2008 between the Kotlii karst
spring as input and the Malenica karst spring as output shows no delay and immediate
response, meaning that both springs react simultaneously on precipitation events in their
background. The distance between the two springs is 4.6 km. The delay between the
precipitation events and response of the spring is 37 hours, but the correlation is rather weaker
as that for the hydrological year 1975 (daily values), which is quite understandable. The
cross-correlation is stronger for the parameters T and EC. T values show long impulsive
response between the springs, the correlation is strong, r
xy
(0) = 0,96. The maximum r
xy
(k)
value for the parameter EC between springs is attained 49 hours after the signal in the Kotlii
karst spring (r
xy
= 0.84), the response time is rather shorter as it is for the parameter T.


127

5 Conclusions
The results of the time series analysis as a complementary (indirect) method for the
investigation of hydrogeological characteristics and functioning of karst systems show that the
complex recharge area of the Malenica karst spring is functioning rather homogeneously.
The Malenica karst springs shows longer memory effect in comparison to the other karst
springs and watercourses in its background and vicinity, but in comparison to the examples of
karst springs from above cited literature, its storage capacity is characterized only as moderate.
In hydrogeological sense this is the consequence of well developed underground water
circulation, which supplies large amounts of water towards the spring, where the limited
outflow capacity of small fissures reduces the maximums discharges. That is why during the
high waters the Malenica karst spring contributes only 10 % to all waters of the Planina
Polje. The delays between the reactions from ponors to springs are within the interval of one
hour, the cross-correlation coefficients of different parameters (discharge, water level, T and
EC) diminish very slowly and reach the r
xy
= 0 value in far lags. Springs and watercourses
react instantly and simultaneously to rather homogeneous precipitation events in the
background of the Malenica karst spring, but with different intensity.



Figure 4 Cross-correlation coefficients for the period of hydrological years 1975 and 2008

The univariate and bivariate time series analysis performed for the daily values in the
hydrological year 1975 and hourly values in the hydrological year 2008 showed different
results. This indicates that the selection of the hydrological year (structure of time series) and
the selection of a time lag are important factors in time series analysis, which influence on
results and corresponding hydrogeological interpretation of them. In this way it is important
to consider these facts while interpreting the results of time series analysis and describing the
hydrogeological characteristics of a specific karst aquifer in absolute sense, since the data
interpretation can be biased. It is authors opinion that the time series analysis is a valuable
tool for the hydrogeological investigations of karst springs, since the time series data is
128

relatively easy to collect, but has also its limits and should be used together with other
methods used in karst hydrology as a complementary method for the investigation of
hydrogeological characteristics and functioning of karst systems.

References
Angelini P (1997) Correlation and spectral analysis of two hydrogeological systems in
Central Italy. Hydrological Science - Journal-des Sciences Hydrologiques 42(3):425-438
Box GEP, Jenkins GM (1970) Time series analysis: Forecasting and control. Holden
Day, San Francisco, 575 pp
Box GEP, Jenkins GM, Reinsel C (1994) Time series analysis: forecasting and control.
3
rd
ed., Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 598 pp
Larocque M, Mangin A, Razack M, Banton O (1998) Contribution of correlation and
spectral analyses to the regional study of a large karst aquifer (Charente, France). Journal of
Hydrology 205:217-231
Kovai G (2009) Hidrologija krakega izvira Malenica in njegovega hidrografskega
zaledja, Doctoral thesis, University of Primorska Koper, 354 pp.
Mangin A (1994) Karst Hydrogeology. In: J Gilbert, DL Danielopol, JA Stanford (eds)
Groundwater Ecology, Academic Press, San Diego, pp 43-67
Mathevet T, Lepiller M, Mangin A (2004) Application of time-series analyses to the
hydrological functioning of an Alpine karstic system: the case of Bange-L'Eau-Morte.
Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 8(6):1051-1064
Padilla A, Pulido-Bosch A (1995) Study of hydrographs of karstic aquifers by means of
correlation and cross-spectral analysis (France, Spain). Journal of Hydrology 168:73-89
Panagopoulos G, Lambrakis N (2006) The contribution of time series analysis to the
study of the hydrodynamic characteristics of the karst systems: Application on two typical
karst aquifers of Greece (Trifilia, Almyros Crete). Journal of Hydrology 329:368-376
Rahnemaei M, Zare M, Nematollahi AR, Sedhi H (2005) Application of spectral
analysis of daily water level and spring discharge hydrographs data for comparing physical
characteristics of karst aquifers. Journal of Hydrology 311:106-116
Samani N (2001) Response of karst aquifers to rainfall and evaporation, Maharlu basin,
Iran. Journal of Cave and Karst Studies 63(1):33-40

129

Capacity for managing local development
in karst areas

Sanja MALEKOVI, Sanja TIMA, Anamarija FARKA


Institute for International Relations, Zagreb, Lj. F. Vukotinovia 2, Croatia, e-mails:
msanja@irmo.hr; bsanja@irmo.hr; afarkas@irmo.hr


Abstract: The paper will analyze the existing capacity and skills on the local and county level
necessary for efficient management of local development and environmental protection in karst
areas. The authors will reflect upon the key development problems of karst areas and will propose
possible guidelines for further improvement of overall socio-economic development of these areas
from point of view of local development initiatives and more efficient management of local
development. On the basis of the analysis of current development problems and needs of karst
areas, and in line with the guidelines and objectives of the current Croatian regional policy, the
authors will present their views in regard to strengthening of the existing capacity of local/county
development actors, i.e. stakeholders, through further raising of levels of knowledge and skills on
the local level - particularly from point of view of more effective preparation and realization of
development programs. From point of view of specific characteristics of karts areas, proposals will
also be given in regard to public participation in planning and managing of sustainable local
development.

Keywords: karst areas, local and regional development, management of local development


1 Introduction
The paper provides an assessment of the current situation in the Croatian karst areas,
with particular focus on the existing capacity and skills on the local and county level
necessary for efficient management of local development. It provides an outline of the key
development problems and needs of karst areas, as well as some guidelines from point of
view of more efficient management of local development, which can be fostered through
successful preparation and implementation of local development projects, including
infrastructure projects and large environmental investments.
The paper reflects the main results of research studies elaborated in IMO in the past 3
years, the main study being The Assessment of Capacities, Competences and Needs of the
County Development Agencies in Decision Making in Croatia elaborated in the Ministry for
Regional Development, Forestry and Water Management (MRRFWM). Its basic aim is to
point out the current situation in the karst areas in regard to existing and necessary capacity
for managing local development. Since local and regional development agencies are the main
support institutions and main instruments for promoting overall local development, the paper
is focused on the existing capacity in the county development agencies (CDAs). It also
analyses the capacity related to physical planning and environmental policy in the
departments in towns and county offices (local and regional self government) in the karst
areas, since we are aware that the situation in this regard is unfavourable, i.e. related to
efficient management of local development, due to the existing bottlenecks.

2 Current situation in the karts areas
One of the characteristics of the Croatian karst areas are substantial differences in socio-
economic development among the different areas. This is particularly stressed if we analyse
the main socio-economic development indicators in the north of the Adriatic (NUTS II
130

region) karst areas, priory in the Istria and Primorje Goranska county, in comparison to those
in the southern Adriatic counties, but also the Karlovac county. The karst areas, with the
exception of the major towns and local units along the coast, as well as the mentioned
northern Adriatic areas, are to a great extent considered as disadvantaged regions in Croatia,
in which around one fifth of local units lag behind in development more then 50% in
comparison to the most developed areas in North West Croatia (Puljiz and Malekovi 2007).
In such circumstances, this was particularly stressed on the local level, which, till very
recently, forced to act on its own, basically followed the practice in relation to lack of
development planning.
Some karts areas, particularly those in Lika, the hinterland of Dalmatia, but also the
majority of the islands, have for a long time suffered from unfavourable geographic
conditions, reflected primarily in poor transport communications with major urban areas.
Geographic isolation coupled with other unfavourable economic and social factors has
resulted with intense and long term migration which has severely deteriorated the human
resource base and seriously endangered their long-term development perspectives (Puljiz and
Malekovi 2007).
The socio-economic capacity for managing development in the karst areas is also
reflected in the poor fiscal capacity, resulting with a lack of the basic grounds for
development. Further, the poor horizontal and vertical coordination of local development
initiatives and activities, which is still present in most of the karst areas, particularly the non
urban, and those located in the southern Adriatic counties, as well as the Karlovac county, are
a major obstacle to the efficient management of local development. However, the active
involvement of the county development agencies is gradually changing this situation, and,
from point of view of the recent activities in the framework of the drafted National Strategy
for Regional Development (NSRD 2008), it is expected that this negative circumstance will
undergo a radical change in the forthcoming year. This process is particularly being promoted
from the part of the related Ministry - MRRFWM.
Related to environmental pollution, it occurs more frequently in karst areas, particularly
in the coastal cities due to the ongoing urbanisation, accumulation of waste, traffic, noise and
damage to human health. However, in this field also, significant changes have been made in
the last two years, particularly in the field of waste and waste waters.

3 Existing capacity for managing local development in the karst areas
By the term capacity we refer here to the existing knowledge, experience and specific
skills necessary for development planning and programming (such as preparation of project
fiches, project cycle management (PCM), monitoring and evaluation skills, elaboration of
environmental impact analysis (EIA), knowledge regarding Practical Guide for External
Actions (PRAG), elaboration of cost benefit analysis (CBA), feasibility studies, tender
dossiers and other) necessary for the efficient preparation of project applications for projects
funded from international sources, in line with EU standards. Namely, the efficient and
effective management of local development asks for very specific expertise and capacity of
local actors and county administration. This expertise is currently mostly present in the
established CDAs due to the fact that they were among the first institutions on the local
level/regional level involved in the implementation of development projects, mostly funded
by international sources. It was particularly these international financial sources (mainly EU
pre-accession technical assistance support), which, as in other pre-accession countries, aimed
priory at raising the capacity of government administration as well as relevant actors on all
government levels for efficient preparation, management and implementation of development
projects enabling thus good governance.
131

This was an extremely valuable process since the provided training and transfer of
expertise from EU member states provided the basis for implementing projects according to
best existing practice, i.e. on the basic principles of EU regional policy in all EU member
states.

3.1 Human resource potential
Not all CDAs in the karst areas currently meet the minimum requirements for
development planning and programming and implementation of county development policy.
Most of CDAs have approximately 6 permanent employees, while those covering karst areas
having an average in the range of 8-10. Among those already quite experienced, involved in
project management are IDA in Istria, PORIN in the Primorje Gorski Kotar count, DUNEA
in the Dubrovnik Neretva county and the Regional development agency of ibenik Knin
(BK).
As to the necessary elementary skills in the process of planning and programming the
skills for preparing project applications, looking from an overall perspective of established
CDAs; it is visible that both in CDAs and counties the current capacity for the preparation of
project applications is substantial. Only 3.3% see their capacity as weak, as visible from the
following graph (Malekovi and Puljiz 2007):

Current capacity for project application preparation
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
Total CDAs Counties
Very good Average Weak


As to the existing specific skills for the preparation and implementation of projects
financed from international sources the carried out survey confirms that the CDAs are most
skilled in the preparation and implementation of internationally funded projects, project cycle
management and delivery of information and organization of training events. On the other
hand, by far the weakest skills area relate to the preparation of tender dossiers, as visible from
the following graph:

132

Skills for preparation and implementation of intern. funded projects in
CDAs
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Tender Dossiers
PRAG
CBA and Feasibility Studies
EIA
Monitoring and Evaluation
Grant Schemes
Delivery of information and training events
PCM
Project Fiche
Good Average Weak


Tasks and responsibilities of the established CDAs in the karst areas differ considerably, as
well as their competencies, expertise and overall capacity for managing local development.
Not all of them, particularly not those recently established, have an acknowledged role in
promoting the overall development in the respective county. Their current role is usually
related to preparing and monitoring the development strategy of the county, supporting local
municipalities and entrepreneurs socio-economic development programmes and projects,
including their fund mobilization as well as support in their implementation (Armstrong 2006,
Malekovi and Puljiz 2007).

3.2 Experience on internationally funded projects
The first technical support provided through internationally funded projects was the
main means for acquiring the first skills and experience necessary for preparing, managing
and implementing local development projects. This gained knowledge and experience varies
significantly between the agencies. The most experienced ones are surely IDA, PORIN with
practical experience on 18 projects) who often played a role as project applicant and main
manager, and lately DUNEA, while the least experienced are RERA, ZADRA and LIRA
Participation in cross border cooperation (CBC) projects so far was mainly initiated by Italian
institutions, often CDAs not being able to provide inputs in preparation phase, again - due to
inexperienced staff.

3.3 Human resource potential for local development in local and regional self government
units in karst areas
A similar situation related to low level of knowledge and skills is visible with public
servants in local and regional self government units, particularly related to strategic planning,
project preparation, project finances, procurement and project management. They have good
overall analytical skills, but need to improve specific knowledge related to e.g. project
prioritization and long term investment planning. Servants working in local regional self
government are not used to project management tools, they have knowledge gaps in using
criteria for project appraisal, project record keeping and progress reporting and they lack
experience with stakeholder analysis. According to their self assessment, respondents have the
poorest knowledge in writing a Quality Manual for a project, implementing cost-effective
133

monitoring and evaluation systems, preparation of international contracts, and solving claims
during the implementation of the project (Tima et al. 2008).
Financial management skills need to develop from an overall understanding of the
budget process to be able to set realistic performance target, prepare financial proposals for
funding form external sources, manage information system to make decisions and to deal with
budget constraints. Insufficient experience in conducting cost effectiveness and cost benefit
analysis are potential obstacles in work performance as well. Being aware of its importance,
the respondents have identified the project preparation activities as their least proficient area.
They have expressed the desire to have training in many of the topics that deal with project
preparation such as preparation, controlling and managing financial feasibility study for
national institutions, international agencies or EU grants as well as writing a project fiche or
application form for structural funds (Tima et al. 2008).

Table 1 Knowledge and skills on the level of local and regional self-government
Topic Level of skills
Project management (PCM, implementation, monitoring) High
Strategic management Medium
Communication and reporting Medium
Legal procedures Medium
Legislation learning Medium
Legislation compliance, enforcement and EU approximation Medium
Administrative tasks Medium
Human resources management, training and education Low
Financial management Low
Procedures, methodologies, strategic document elaboration Low
Document checking, approving and issuing Low
Data collection and reporting Low
Procurement Low
Communication with clients Low
Inspection Low
Institutional evaluation and development Low

The public servants evidently see communication information technology skills, expert and
legislation knowledge and tendency to team work as the most relevant ones. Highly important for
gaining success are also foreign language skills and organisational and analytical skills. Among
those ranked as relevant were also Project Cycle Management and Stress management (Tima et
al. 2008).

3.3 Cooperation with other development institutions/stakeholders
In all counties in the NUTS II Adriatic region, covering the karst areas, CDAs have
developed good cooperation with all of the relevant development institutions and stakeholders
employment services, chambers of commerce and crafts, entrepreneurship centres and
134

incubators, technology centres, etc.- This was particularly the case with IDA, PORIN, BK,
LIRA and DUNEA. The cooperation between the CDAs in the karst areas is particularly
developed through regular cooperation within RAJ (Development Agencies of Adriatic),
which is still not institutionalised in any formal way. From point of view of joint activities of
CDAs in the karts areas, relevant for addressing relevant common development problems and
priorities, joint lobbying aiming at winning tenders and implementing strategic development
projects, as well as their more effective joint implementation, they are however still poorly
developed.

4 Main problems and needs related to existing and necessary capacity for managing
local development
The survey identified a number of problems that CDAs as well as the local and regional
self government units responsible for large environmental investments related to improving
the capacity of local and regional actors to ensure a more efficient and effective process of
strategic planning. Among the key issues identified were the following:
- More then 70% of respondents stated that their major problem in this area was
the inadequate staff number and their low capacity for preparing and
implementing project proposals, which related to the already mentioned small
number of so far implemented projects and in only several counties.
- A lack of motivation is perceived as a further obstacle by 8% of respondents,
including lack of ideas related to the realization of project proposals on the basis
of an analysis of development needs. CDAs in this regard stress that all
stakeholders have requests and needs, but this does not result in well prepared
project proposals.
- Lack of knowledge related to monitoring and implementation of projects;
- Lack of knowledge of foreign languages;
- Inadequate internal info flow (within county institutions);
- Lack of interest and awareness as to the relevance and use of EU programs from
the part of counties;
- Lack of information related to concrete programs for which applicants are
applying;
- Inadequate knowledge regarding project management, related to implementation
procedures
- Lack of experience with cooperation with a large number of partners.

4.1 Basic needs related to existing capacity in the karst areas
On the basis of the mentioned research results in the framework of the MRDFWM the
basic needs related to more efficient project preparation and implementation, leading thus to
more successful management of local development, were in the following segments:
- Awareness raising (SF awareness; IPA and SF OPs elaboration and management;
awareness raising of municipalities and other local actors on funding opportunities);
- Strategic planning: Methodology for drafting and preparing the County Development
Strategy; (Strategic planning in specific areas; design and development of GIS in
order to support the local development and management planning process;
- Partnership: Management of partnership, role of CDA in Local Action Groups, other;
- Project pipeline: How to create and manage a project pipeline, SF requirements for
bigger regional projects), Preparation and management of (internationally funded)
contracts in the context of big regional projects, Technical skills for infrastructural
projects, How to set-up feasibilities studies, cost-benefit analyses, Environmental
Impact Analyses, Funding opportunities for projects;
135

- Business planning: Business planning procedures, Financing models for CDAs,
Organizational development;
- Instruments: Methods to support SMEs, Guarantee fund management, Business
zones management (coordination), Investments promotion, PPP facilitation, cluster
management;
- Skills development: Lobbying and direct contacts with EC services, Analytical skills,
English proficiency in relation to EU-projects terminology, Selection of indicators
(especially in HR, environment, energy).

5 Main recommendations and conclusions
It is a fact that EU funds provide vast possibilities as financial sources for local
development, on the basis of which the karst areas could benefit. However, in order to
mobilize these funds for development projects it is necessary to develop very specific skills
and capacity, on the central, as well as regional and local level. Along with the relevance of
the necessary administrative capacity on all levels, is the vertical coordination of activities of
the local level in the karst areas with the county governments and respective Ministry for
regional development (MRDFWM). This will be achieved through the implementation of the
county development strategies, for which CDAs will be in charge. However, the process of
strategic planning needs to be further developed, and particularly on the local level, and in the
less developed karst areas, located in the southern part of the Adriatic (NUTS II) region.
Related to cooperation and coordination with county/regional and central government
institutions, it is necessary to: enable better info-flow and coordination of local development
programmes among involved local/county bodies and institutions: organization of regular
meetings with representatives of central government institutions related to relevant
development programs and strategic documents elaborated on the central government level,
with possible impact on the karst areas; to organize joint working groups on particular
development problems of interest to more local units; to establish an internet forum of karst
areas - enabling more efficient realization of tasks, information flow, sharing of experience
and knowledge flow, as well as a means for fostering joint local actions and to establish data
bases for local development projects in the karst areas,.
Further, the joint cooperation of CDAs and other key local actors and stakeholders in
the karst areas needs very concrete support from joint discussions and consensus building
related to development priorities and tasks to be undertaken; joint lobbying and fund
mobilisation; joint cooperation on projects defined as development priority in the overall area,
to sharing of experience based on implemented projects in each of the CDAs.
Also, as mentioned previously, pubic awareness rising related to importance and
benefits of local and regional development, as well as related to planning and managing of
sustainable local development will have to be one of the key activities to be undertaken in the
forthcoming period. The culture of partnership and interregional cooperation is thus fostered,
and this is relevant from point of view of initiating and preparing large projects, based on joint
cooperation of a number of localities and neighbouring regions. This shift from small
infrastructure projects to larger projects with major development impact is very relevant for
more efficient local development and optimal use of available resources for development
needs in karts areas. The drafted Strategy for Regional Development particularly focuses the
importance of the culture of partnership, stressing the needs for achieving consensus of
development strategies, projects and activities on the county and NUTS II level. The results of
this approach for local development are very evident.
We would also like to emphasize that efficient local management of development in
karst areas will ask for continuous and effective evaluation of the previously mentioned
relevant development projects. Only evaluation (ex- ante and ex-post particularly) of
136

development projects results and impacts, will provide the basic learning tool for future
projects as well as local actors and stakeholders which will be implementing them, enabling
their continues improvement, and raising of efficiency and effectiveness for socio-economic
development of karst areas.
Finally, even though capacity for management of local development has been
substantially raised in all agencies in the karst areas, as well as all respective county
governments, it is a fact that regional competitiveness and substantive involvement in support
to technologically propulsive innovative firms is very rare in these areas, particularly as we
move towards the southern karst areas. This evidently remains as an issue asking for
particular support and initiatives not only from the part of mentioned institutions and
government levels, but from all relevant key stakeholders and actors on the county level in the
karst regions.

References
Armstrong S (2006) the use of the Nuts 2 level in the future management of National
and EU Regional Policy in Croatia, Ministry of Sea, Transport, Tourism and Development,
Zagreb
Puljiz J, Malekovi S (2007) Current Situation and Future Perspectives of Regional
Policy in Croatia, 6
th
International Conference: Economic Integrations, Competition and
Cooperation, Opatija, pp 23
NSRD (2008) National Strategy for Regional Development, draft version, Ministry for
Regional Development, Forestry and Water Management
Tima S, Gracin P, Boromisa A, Pavlus N (2008) Environmental Management in Urban
Areas: Croatian Challenges towards European Union Association. Croatian International
Relations Review 14(50/51):25-33



137

Hydrogeological functioning of the karst aquifer drained by Yedra
Spring (Southern Spain) from hydrochemical components and
organic natural tracers

Matas MUDARRA, Bartolom ANDREO

Centre of Hydrogeology of University of Malaga (CEHIUMA), Mlaga, Spain,
e-mails: mmudarra@uma.es; andreo@uma.es


Abstract: Hydrogeochemical natural tracers are commonly used to characterize infiltration processes, the travel time
of recharge waters and flow conditions in karst aquifers. These tracers are the principal chemical components and
environmental isotopes, as well as organic components from soil origin. Among the latter, the Total Organic Carbon
(TOC) is the parameter most commonly used as a natural tracer. In addition to this, the natural spectrofluorescence of
water due to chemical compounds like humic and fulvic acids and protein organic matter can be measured. From April
2008 to January 2009, the hydrochemical and hydrodynamic responses of the Yedra spring (Malaga province, Southern
Spain) were monitored to characterize its hydrogeological functioning. In this study, the major chemical parameters,
together with the TOC and the natural fluorescence were analysed. The hydrochemical data were analysed by means of
principal component analyses (PCA), temporal evolution, frequency curves and dispersion plots. The Yedra spring
water shows important decreases in electrical conductivity and in major chemical components due to dilutions
provoked by recharge periods. The frequency curve of the electrical conductivity of the water is of a multimodal type,
with 100 S/cm variation range. A very obvious inverse relation exists between tracers from the soil and infiltration
through the unsaturated zone (TOC and NO
3
-
) against the Mg
+2
content, which is a natural tracer of the residence time of
the groundwater within the aquifer, mainly in its saturated zone. Furthermore, there is a strong, direct relation between
TOC and the natural fluorescence associated with humic and fulvic acids. Both parameters present a very similar
response to rainfall events, with significant increases in the recharge situation and gradual falls in depletion periods.
This relation means that TOC comes mainly from the aforementioned organic acids. The results demonstrate the
existence of rapid infiltration processes, usually with a lag of less than one day to rainfall periods, which is typical of a
karst aquifer with conduit flow behaviour, rapid drainage and low capacity of natural regulation. The combined use of
conventional hydrochemical parameters and organic natural tracers enables us to characterize the degree of functional
karstification in the aquifer drained by the Yedra spring, this being especially developed in the unsaturated zone. This
information can be used, moreover, to validate the vulnerability to contamination of the aquifer.
Keywords: Yedra Spring, karst aquifer, hydrochemical response, TOC, spectrofluorescence


1 Introduction
Studies of karst systems have traditionally focused on analysing the natural responses at their
springs (Goldscheider and Drew 2007), whether physical (Andrieux 1978, Genthon et al. 2005),
chemical (Bakalowicz 1979, Mudry 1987, Hess and White 1993) or hydrodynamic (Mangin 1975,
Bonacci 1993). The individual or combined use of these responses makes it possible to determine the
hydrogeologic characteristics and, in general, the functioning of karst aquifers.
In this respect, the joint use of natural hydrogeochemical tracers (TOC, NO
3
-
, natural
fluorescence), in conjunction with some of the major hydrochemical components of the water (such as
the Mg
2+
content), is useful for characterizing infiltration processes, the transit time of water from the
surface to the spring, flow conditions and, above all, the degree of participation of the saturated and
unsaturated zones in the functioning of karst systems.
Some of these tracers originate in the organic activity taking place in the soil covering the
epikarst. Of these, Total Organic Carbon (TOC) is the one most commonly used as a natural tracer,
because when there is no human-originated contamination or flows from the surface, it is an important
indicator of rapid infiltration (Batiot et al. 2003a, 2003b Emblanch et al. 1998, 2003). In addition, it
has been shown that the natural fluorescence of the organic matter dissolved in the water is related to
138

certain chemical compounds present in the soil (humic and fulvic acids, and protein organic matter)
which, in turn, form part of TOC, and consequently could be interesting indicators of rapid infiltration
(Baker et al. 1997, 1999, Blondel 2008, Cruz Jr et al. 2005).
Another aspect is that the Mg
2+
content, which is a major chemical component of the water,
informs on the residence time of the water in the aquifer, mainly in the saturated zone (Batiot et al.
2003a Emblanch et al. 1998, 2003).
From April 2008 to January 2009, the hydrochemical and hydrodynamic responses of the Yedra
spring (Malaga province, Southern Spain) (Fig. 1) were monitored in order to determine the relative
importance of the saturated and the unsaturated zones in the hydrogeologic functioning, the water
resources and the contamination vulnerability of the aquifer that drains this spring. The aim of the
present study is to contribute to characterizing infiltration processes and to determine the
hydrogeologic functioning of the carbonate aquifer examined, by means of natural hydrochemical
tracers and the major chemical components in the spring water.

2 General characteristics of the study area
The Yedra spring is the main drainage point for the carbonate aquifer of Sierra de Las Cabras.
This aquifer has a surface area of approximately 10.5 km
2
and it is located in the province of Malaga,
in southern Spain. It forms part of a larger water body known as Sierra de las Cabras Camarolos
San Jorge (70 km
2
). The landscape is very rugged, with altitudes ranging from 800 to 1300 m a.s.l.
The prevailing climate in the area is of temperate Mediterranean type, with a mean annual temperature
of 16C. Precipitations, with a mean annual value of 700 mm, are characterized by severe annual and
interannual variations.



Figure 1 Geographic location and geological-hydrogeological sketch of the Sierra de las Cabras
experimental area, showing the situation of the Yedra spring

From a geological standpoint, Sierra de Las Cabras is located in the Betic Cordillera, and it is
made up of oolitic limestones and Jurassic dolostones, which are bounded, at the base, by Upper
Triassic clays mixed with gypsums; to the north and south, it is bordered by Flysch-type clays (Fig. 1).
The geologic structure is constituted of an anticlinal fold oriented approximately E-W.
The karst features in Sierra de Las Cabras aquifer is relatively well developed at the surface of
the carbonate outcrops, mainly in the Jurassic oolitic limestones that are found at the highest altitudes,
where karrenfield may be observed. Recharge takes place by the direct infiltration of rainfall, and the
aquifer discharges through springs at the northern border, the most important of these being the Yedra
spring, which was selected for the present study.
139

Some previous researches have been made of this area, and the hydrogeologic characteristics of
the aquifer have been described (Pulido Bosch and Cern 1991, Marn et al. 2007, Mudarra et al. 2007,
2008).

3 Methodology
From April 2008 to January 2009, sampling was performed twice weekly, daily during some
periods of high water conditions, and twice monthly during periods of depletion. Concurrently with
the sampling programme, the temperature and electrical conductivity of the water were measured,
using portable equipment (to a precision of 0.1 C and 1 S/cm respectively).
The hydrochemical parameters were analyzed at the Laboratory of Hydrogeology of the
University of Mlaga. Total Alkalinity Content (TAC) was determined by volumetry with H
2
SO
4
0.02
N to pH 4.45. The chemical analyses of the major components (Ca
+2
, Mg
+2
, Na
+
, Cl
-
, SO
4
-2
, NO
3
-
,)
were performed by applying ionic chromatography. TOC was measured using a Carbon analyzer
(made by Shimadzu, model V-TOC).
Natural fluorescence was measured with a spectrofluorimeter (Perkin-Elmer, LS-55). WinLab
software was used to obtain the excitation-emission matrices (EEM) corresponding to each of the
samples. In every case, the excitation (
ex
) began with a wavelength of 200 nm, and ended with one of
350 nm with a 5 nm slit, while the emission (
em
) ranged from wavelengths of 250 to 550 nm. The
fluorescence values recorded for EEM refer to Fluorescence Intensity Units (FIU) measured in Uf.nm
2

(Baker et al. 1997, Blondel 2008). We only took into account the highest values for fluorescence
intensity visible in the EEM, of which only two maximum values appear in every sample,
corresponding to the organic chemical substances considered in this study (upper and lower peaks).
The upper fluorescence peak appears between 300-340 nm excitation and 400-440 emission, while the
lower one was identified between 225-245 nm excitation and 400-450 nm emission.
The hydrochemical data were analyzed using different procedures. The frequency curves for the
electrical conductivity values of the spring water inform on the variability of the mineralization and on
the chemical composition of the water (Bakalowicz 1979). If the curve presents a unimodal shape,
with a small range of variation, this indicates a low degree of development of functional karstification.
If, on the other hand, there is no clearly defined mode (i.e. we are considering a multimodal situation),
then there exists a high degree of functional karstification in the aquifer drained by the spring
(Bakalowicz 1979, Mudry 1987). The temporal evolutions of the chemical components of the water
informs on the lag between rainfall (the input signal) and the hydrochemical response (the output
signal). The magnitude of the dilutions recorded permits to estimate the degree of functional
karstification of the aquifer.
Of all the components analyzed, particular account was taken of the contents of NO
3
-
, Mg
+2
and
TOC, together with the natural florescence of the water. The two-dimensional diagrams of these
chemical components give information on the degree and type of relation of dependence that may
exist between them, depending on the characteristics of the groundwater flow.
Principal Component Analysis (PCA) is a multivariate statistical technique that is used for
grouping variables and water types that may be associated with the same hydrodynamic conditions or
with a common origin. PCA has been applied in numerous studies for the quantitative interpretation of
hydrochemical data, for grouping or classifying the same data, and for identifying hydrogeologic
processes.

3 Results
Table 1 presents certain statistical parameters concerning the chemical composition of the water
drained by the Yedra spring. This water has a low level of mineralization (mean values of electrical
conductivity of 280-369 S/cm) and is of a calcium bicarbonate type.

140

Table 1 Statistical parameters of the water samples analyzed from the Yedra spring examined in this
study during the period from April 2008 to January 2009. (n) number of samples, () standard
deviation, (v) coefficient of variation.


The frequency curve for the electrical conductivity of the water (Fig. 2) does not have a clearly-
defined mode; it is, in fact, clearly multimodal with the presence of 4 distinct peaks (P1, P2, P3, P4)
which represent up to 14% of the total accumulated frequency (P2). The range of variation is from less
than 300 S/cm, during periods of dilution (high water conditions), to 370 S/cm during periods of
low water, using electrical conductivity classes of 5 S/cm.



Figure 2 Frequency curve of the electrical conductivity of the water obtained from periodic
measurements in Yedra spring.

Figure 3 shows the temporal evolution of the parameters measured for the spring water, versus
the precipitations that occurred between April 2008 and January 2009. The hydrograph (Fig. 3) reveals
sharp rises in water flow rates in response to recharge events (April, November and December 2008
and January 2009). The hydrochemical parameters show a general seasonal variation in electrical
conductivity, temperature and majority chemical components (TAC, SO
4
-2
, Mg
+2
, Ca
+2
, Na
+
, Cl
-
), in
which there can be appreciated two different behaviour patterns: one for periods of low water (May-
October 2008), when the values for all these parameters are higher, and another for periods of high
water (April, November and December 2008 and January 2009), when the values of the same
components are lower.

Yedra spring E.C. (S/cm) T (C) Q (L/s) T.A.C. (mg/L) Ca (mg/L) Up.P.fluor. (Uf.nm2 ) T.O.C. (mg/L)
n 41 41 41 41 41 41 41
mean 321 14.0 20.17 186.79 59.59 121.00 0.39
27.4 1.0 20.53 18.6 2.6 41.66 0.16
V (%) 8.54% 7.18% 101.78% 9.96% 4.37% 34.43% 40.22%
Min 280 12.8 1.00 152.5 53.59 67.67 0.20
Max 369 16.7 100 219.6 64.47 226.05 0.80
Range 89 3.9 99 67.1 10.91 158.38 0.61
Mg (mg/L) SO4 (mg/L) Cl (mg/L) Na (mg/L) NO3 (mg/L) Lo.P.fluor. (Uf.nm2 )
n 41 41 41 41 41 41
mean 10.48 10.62 6.43 3.27 11.59 63.26
3.83 4.09 0.34 0.30 2.38 22.78
V (%) 36.62% 38.56% 5.28% 9.06% 20.52% 36.00%
Min 6.22 5.68 5.81 2.81 7.53 33.51
Max 16.87 18.22 7.30 3.78 17.99 122.54
Range 10.64 12.54 1.49 0.98 10.46 89.03
141



Figure 3 Temporal evolution of discharge rate, water temperature, major chemical
components and natural fluorescence peaks

At each recharge event, the spring water underwent sharp decreases in electrical conductivity,
accompanied by decrease in almost all the chemical components. In general, these major compounds
evolved in a way similar to that of the electrical conductivity, except as regards the content of Ca
2+
and
Cl
-
, which during the important flood that occurred in November 2008 increased rather than
decreasing, especially the Cl
-
ion. The temperature of the spring water presented a clearly cyclical
pattern, with higher values in the spring and summer, and lower ones in the autumn and winter.
However, some natural hydrogeochemical tracers reacted in the opposite way to that described
above. Neither the contents of TOC and of NO
3
-
nor those of the two peaks of natural fluorescence
followed the general pattern for electrical conductivity. Their values, in contrast, increased during each
recharge event, with maxima at the beginning of the hydrogeologic year (in November 2008), when
the first important recharge event occurred. All the water flow peaks coincided with increases in the
contents of NO
3
-
,

TOC and natural fluorescence, except for the increases of December 2008 and
January 2009, during which the NO
3
-
decreased.
142

Figure 4 shows the Mg
+2
content versus the concentrations of NO
3
-
, TOC and the peaks of
natural fluorescence of the spring water, and the relation between the peaks of natural fluorescence and
the TOC (D). The TOC - Mg
+2
diagram (Fig. 4A) shows, in general, an inverse exponential relation
between the two components for the whole set of sample analyzed. The spring water presents a wide
range of variation in Mg
+2
and TOC content. In the NO
3
-
- Mg
+2
diagram and that for natural
fluorescence - Mg
+2
(Fig. 4C), it may be also observed the same general inverse relations between the
components, although this is less evident in the case of NO
3
-
- Mg
+2
. In other words, the contents of
NO
3
-
, TOC and natural fluorescence produce similar results when represented versus the Mg
+2
content.
This fact is more evident for the case of the natural fluorescence peaks of the water and TOC, as can
be seen in Fig. 4D, which shows a positive linear relation between these two substances.



Figure 4 Diagrams of the Mg
2+
content versus TOC (A), NO
3
-
(B), and natural fluorescence
peaks (C). The last one shows relation between lower and upper fluorescence peak. Plot D
shows relation between TOC content and fluorescence peaks.

A Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was carried out to determine the relation between the
different variables and the samples measured (Figs. 5A and 5B). The two main axes of the PCA
account for 85% of the sampling variation. Axis 1 (71.31%) is determined by electrical conductivity,
temperature, TAC, Mg
+2
, SO
4
-2
, Na
+
, TOC, the two natural fluorescence peaks and the discharge (Fig.
5A), while Axis II (13.65%) mainly addresses the Cl
-
ion. The Ca
+2
variable was not assigned to either
of these two principal factors, but rather was associated with Axis III, which is not described in the
present paper.
In factorial plane I-II of the statistical units (Fig. 5B), three water groups can be distinguished:
Group I is constituted entirely of water samples located in the positive part of Axis I, and presents a
wide range of variation, both negative and positive, in relation to Axis II. The cases making up Group
3 are located in negative positions on Axis I and close to zero on Axis II, and at the same time are
closely grouped. The samples included in Group 2 present a dispersion and location that are
intermediate between those of the other two groups, being centred on the null values of the two axes.

143

4 Discussion
The Yedra spring, in response to precipitation, undergoes important increases in water flow
volumes for short periods of time (of less than one day). This suggests there are karst conduits in the
aquifer drained by the spring. Furthermore, the values of the coefficient of variation of all the
hydrochemical parameters (Table 1) and the frequency histogram for the electrical conductivity values
measured in the spring water (Fig. 2) show that the water has a high level of hydrochemical variability.
According to Bakalowicz (1977), this type of frequency histogram is accounted for by the existence of
karst conduits within the aquifer drained by the spring.



Figure 5 Principal Components Analysis on hydrochemical data, including natural
fluorescence peaks, plus discharge. Plot of the variables (A) and plot of the statistical units
(B).

The temporal evolution of the water temperature, electrical conductivity and of almost all the
majority hydrochemical components analyzed for the spring water (Fig. 3) reveals sharp, rapid
decreases in their values following each important pluviometric event, followed by an increase in the
same, if no further recharge takes place. This fact has been observed in previous studies (Pulido Bosch
& Cern, 1991; Mudarra et al., 2008). On the other hand, the increase in the content of the Cl
-
ion
during the important pluviometric event of early November 2008 indicates that this anion proceeds, in
part, from the concentration of rainfall in the epikarst and its subsequent mobilization with the first
rainfall of the autumn. The contents of NO
3
-
, TOC and of natural fluorescence evolved in a way
inverse to that of the major components, with increases in high water situations and decreases in
periods of low water. All these substances proceed from the soil and are natural tracers of infiltration
(Batiot et al., 2003a; 2003b; Baker et al., 1997; 1999). The highest concentrations detected at the
beginning of the hydrogeologic year (in November 2008) were caused by the leaching of the soil that
had been subjected to biological activity, in the absence of rainfall, since late spring. For this reason,
the infiltration water coming from the first heavy rainfall in the autumn usually has a higher content of
these components, which decreases progressively as the summer advances. Nevertheless, and except
for the decrease in NO
3
-
content during the high water periods of December 2008 and January 2009, in
all the recharge events there were relative increases in these parameters, as a consequence of the
arrival at the spring of water that had infiltrated through the soil. The time lag observed between the
peaks of the NO
3
-
ion and these high water periods was due to the different biogeochemical kinetics
produced in the soil by its nitrogen content, with respect to other organic compounds. The information
provided jointly by the majority chemical components and by the natural organic tracers of the water
reveals that, for each recharge event, there occurs a mixing of water from the saturated zone with
water from the unsaturated zone. The water that has recently infiltrated trough the latter zone flows
rapidly from the surface of the epikarst to the spring, via karst conduits.
144

The diagrams in Fig. 4 describe the characteristics of the flows through the aquifer. Thus, and in
accordance with Batiot et al. (2003a), the graphs of NO
3
-
and

TOC content, which are indicators of the
rapid infiltration through the soil and the unsaturated zone, in relation to the Mg
2+
content (Figs. 4A
and 4B), a natural tracer of the residence time of the water in the aquifer (mainly in its saturated zone),
reflect the high variability of these natural tracers of the water in the Yedra spring. The graph in Fig. 4
shows that the two natural fluorescence peaks of the organic matter dissolved in the water also present
a high degree of variability with respect to its Mg
2+
content. The direct relation observed between the
natural fluorescence peaks and the TOC content (Fig, 4D) suggest that this latter parameter is
associated with the organic acids that are detected under spectrofluorometry. Accordingly, organic
substances can be used, in the same way, as natural tracers of rapid infiltration. The variations in the
content of the natural tracers of soil and of the Mg
2+
ion are due to the fact that both the unsaturated
and the saturated zones participate in the functioning of the system, the first of these doing so mainly
during periods of aquifer recharge.
Principal Components Analysis (PCA) provides quantitative assistance in determining the main
factors responsible for the total variance. In factorial plane I-II of the variables (Fig. 5A), there are seen
to be, in general, two groups of variables located at the positive and negative extremes of Axis I, and
with very little representation on Axis II. The group of the negative part (E.C., T, TAC, Mg
+2
, SO
4
-2
,
Na
+
) comprises the variables considered to be tracers of the mineralization of the karst, or indicators of
greater residence time of the water within the aquifer, while the group situated in the positive part is
made up of the natural tracers of the infiltration (TOC, natural fluorescence peaks and, to a lesser
degree, NO
3
-
), plus the discharge. In contrast, Axis II only includes the variable Cl
-
, which is a marker
of the epikarst, in its positive part.
In factorial plane I-II of the statistical units, three sets of water samples (Fig. 5B) were
distinguished. Group 1 was made up of the samples with a low level of mineralization, and which
were obtained during periods of high water. In general, these presented lower concentrations of major
chemical components and higher discharge rates, as well as TOC, natural fluorescence and NO
3
-

contents. The water samples in Group 3 were highly mineralized and corresponded to low water
periods. They had higher contents of almost all the principal chemical compounds, and lower ones of
the infiltration tracers. The cases included in Group 2 were in an intermediate situation between
Groups 1 and 3, and represented the water samples undergoing a process of mineralization, following
the end of a recharge event. The cases situated on the positive part of both axes represent the water
samples taken following the important pluviometric event of November 2008. These samples
presented considerable increases in contents of organic tracers and Cl
-
(Fig. 3).

5 Conclusion
The joint use of conventional hydrogeochemical parameters and of the natural organic tracers
present in the water drained by the Yedra spring (in southern Spain) permit to characterize the degree
of functional karstification present in the hydrogeologic system of Sierra de las Cabras. The analysis
and processing of these data revealed that the aquifer has a highly developed degree of functional
karstification, which is typical of conduit flow systems, with a rapid drainage and a low capacity of
natural regulation. This karstification is developed both within the unsaturated zone and in the
saturated zone, as evidenced by the hydrodynamic and hydrochemical response to precipitation events.
Karst drainage favours the rapid infiltration and flow of rainwater towards the spring, which leads to
increases in outflow rates and decreasing in almost all the hydrochemical parameters, except those
components leached from the soil by the infiltration water. These characteristics mean that the volume
of water stored in this aquifer is not very considerable and that the karst spring associated with it is
highly vulnerable to contamination, an aspect that should be taken into account for its adequate
protection and management.
Finally, it was observed that the Total Organic Carbon (TOC) measured in the water from the
Yedra spring is associated with organic acids detected by spectrofluorescence. The relation observed
145

between these substances and the TOC is linear and direct, which shows that the characterization of
the organic matter dissolved in the water of the spring, using excitation-emission fluorescence matrices,
can be used as another indicator of processes of leaching and rapid infiltration of water from the
soil/epikarst towards the spring. Natural fluorescence may be another factor that could contribute to
evaluate and validate the contamination vulnerability of karst aquifers.

Acknowledgments
This work is a contribution to projects CGL2005-05427 and CGL2008-06158 BTE of
DGICYT, P06-RNM 2161 of Junta de Andaluca and IGCP 513 of UNESCO and to Research Group
RNM-308 of Junta de Andaluca.

References
Andrieux C (1978) Les enseignements apports para la thermique dans le karst. Colloque de
Tarbes, Le karst: son originalit physique, son importance conomique. Association des Gologues du
SudOuest (AGSO), France, pp 48-63
Bakalowicz M (1979) Contribution de la gochimie des eaux la connaissance de l'aquifre
karstique et de la karstification. Thse Doct. Sci. Nat., Univ. P. et M. Curie, Pars-VI, Gol. Dyn., 269
pp
Baker A, Barnes WL, Smart PL (1997) Variations in the discharge and organic matter content
of stalagmite drip waters in Lower Cave, Bristol. Hydrological Processes 11:541-555
Baker A, Genty D, (1999) Fluorescence wavelength and intensity variations of cave waters.
Journal of Hydrology 217:1934
Batiot C, Emblanch C, Blavoux B, (2003a) Carbone organique total (COT) et Magnsium
(Mg
2+
): Deux traceur complmentaires du temps de sjours dans laquifre karstique. C R Geoscience
335:205-214.
Batiot C, Lin C, Andreo B, Emblanch C, Carrasco F, Blavoux B (2003b) Use of TOC as
tracer of diffuse infiltration in a dolomitic karst system: the Nerja Cave (Andalusia, southern Spain).
Geophysical Research Letters 30(22):2179
Blondel T (2008) Traage spatial et temporel des eaux souterraines dans les hydrosystmes
karstiques par les matires organiques dissoutes. Thse doctorel. Acadmie dAix-Marseille.
Universit dAvignon et des Pays de Vaucluse.
Bonacci O (1993) Karst spring hydrographs as indicators of karst aquifers. Journal of
Hydrological Sciences 38:51-62
Cruz Jr FW, Karmann I, Magdaleno GB, Coichev N, Viana Jr O (2005) Influence of
hydrological and climatic parameters on spatial-temporal variability of fluorescence intensity and
DOC of karst percolation waters in the Santana Cave System, Southeastern Brazil. Journal of
Hydrology 302:112
Emblanch, C, Blavoux B, Puig JM, Mudry J (1998) Dissolved organic carbon of infiltration
within the autogenic karst hydrosystem. Geophysical Research Letters 25:1459-1462
Emblanch C, Zuppi GM, Mudry J, Blavoux B, Batiot C (2003) Carbon 13 of TDIC to quantify
the role of the unsaturated zone: the example of the Vaucluse karst systems (Southeastern France).
Journal of Hydrology 279(1-4):262-274
Genthon P, Bataille A, Fromant A, D'Hulst D, Bourges F (2005) Temperature as a marker for
karst waters hydrodynamics. Inferences from 1 year recording at La Peyrre cave (Arige, France).
Journal of Hydrology 311:157-171
Goldscheider N, Drew D, (2007) Methods in Karst Hydrogeology. Taylor & Francis, 262 pp
Hess JW, White WB (1993) Groundwater geochemistry of the carbonate karst aquifer,
southcentral Kentucky, USA. Applied Geochemistry 8:189-204
Mangin A (1975) Contribution ltude hydrodynamique des aquifres karstiques. Ann.
Splol., 29(3):283-332, (4):495-601, 30(1):21-124
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Marn AI, Andreo B, Mudarra M (2007) In: XXXV IAH Congress International Association of
Hydrogeologists, Groundwater and Ecosystems. Lisbon, Portugal
Mudarra M, Andreo B (2007) In: Atlas Hidrogeolgico de la Provincia de Mlaga 2:113-118.
Diputacin provincial de Mlaga-IGME-UMA
Mudarra M, Andreo B, Marn AI (2008) Consideraciones sobre la importancia de la zona
saturada y no saturada en el funcionamiento hidrogeolgico del acufero carbonatado de la Alta
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pp 579-582
Mudry J (1987) Apport du tracage physico-chimique naturel la connaissance
hydrocinmatique des aquifres carbonats. Thse Sciences Naturelles, Universit de Franche-Comt,
Besanon, 378 pp
Pulido Bosch A, Cern JC (1991) Variaciones hidrogeoqumicas de periodicidad anual en
surgencias krsticas. Ejemplo del manantial de la Yedra (Mlaga). Revista de la Sociedad Geolgica
de Espaa 4(1-2):51-59
147

The hydrology of turloughs as groundwater dependent terrestrial
ecosystems

Owen NAUGHTON, Paul JOHNSTON, Laurence GILL

Department of Civil, Structural and Environmental Engineering, Trinity College Dublin,
Dublin 2, Ireland, e-mail: naughton@tcd.ie


Abstract: Turloughs are one of the characteristic features of the Irish karst landscape. They are
transient lakes resulting from a combination of high rainfall and accordingly high groundwater
levels in topographic depressions in the karst. A turlough is effectively a hydrogeological feature
defined as A topographic depression in karst which is intermittently inundated on an annual basis,
mainly from groundwater, and which has a substrate and/or ecological communities characteristic
of wetlands (Tynan et al. 2005). The hydrological regime in a turlough results in a characteristic
ecology associated with the pattern of groundwater inundation. The behaviour of a turlough as a
wetland is fundamentally driven by its hydrology. Discharges through turloughs are typically
difficult to assess because of the often uncertain location and nature of the inflow and outflow
points. The only realistic hydrological measures are based on water level. This study quantifies
the hydrological regime of a set of turloughs and suggests a conceptual model to explain turlough
operation. Semi-permanent water level monitoring stations were established in twenty-two
selected turloughs using pressure transducers at or near the lowest point of each turlough. Time
series datasets of water levels were then developed using hourly intervals over a 30 month period
from November 2006 to May 2009. StageVolume relations were derived using digital terrain
models generated from detailed topographic surveys. These were then combined with water level
data to give volume time series. A range of turlough response and recession characteristics were
observed with some having multiple flood events in the course of a year whereas others show a
single event with a slow recession. Maximum flow capacities were derived through analysis of the
volume recessions. The observed hydrological behaviour has been used to develop a conceptual
hydrological model for the functioning of turloughs. Together with ecological and land-use data,
this model will aid in the evaluation of turlough conservation status as groundwater dependent
terrestrial ecosystems as defined in the Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC). For the first
time the role turloughs occupy within a karst groundwater system have been defined; risks posed
to these protected ecosystems may now be evaluated and quantified. Whether through
abstraction/drainage or through hydrochemical pressures on trophic status, these potential risks are
assessed in terms of appropriate hydrological indicators relevant to the characteristic ecology of a
turlough.
Keywords: turloughs, hydrology


1 Introduction

1.1 Definition
Turloughs are one of the characteristic features of the Irish karst landscape. They are
transient lakes resulting from a combination of high rainfall and accordingly high
groundwater levels in topographic depressions in the karst. A turlough is effectively a
hydrogeological feature defined as A topographic depression in karst which is intermittently
inundated on an annual basis, mainly from groundwater, and which has a substrate and/or
ecological communities characteristic of wetlands (Tynan et al. 2005).

1.2 Ecological Importance
By their nature, turloughs support many characteristic flora and fauna species (Reynolds
148

1996). Under the Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC), turloughs are classified as
Groundwater Dependent Terrestrial Ecosystems (GWDTEs) and as a Priority Habitat in
Annex 1 of the EU Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC). Consequently, under national legislation,
many have been designated Special Areas of Conservation (SAC), that is, areas of ecological
importance which are afforded the highest level of protection as natural sites. Both EU
directives necessitate the monitoring and management of these habitats to ensure favourable
conservation and groundwater status is achieved. In particular, the Water Framework
Directive requires a good understanding of the hydrological linkage between the turlough
wetland, its ecological functioning and the connected groundwater body. Development of a
conceptual model for the hydro-ecology and hydrochemistry of turloughs is currently the
subject of a major research project being carried out by Trinity College Dublin (Republic of
Ireland) on behalf of the National Parks and Wildlife Service (NPWS) of the Department of
the Environment, Heritage and Local Government in aid of a management strategy for these
wetlands.

1.3 Hydrology
Turloughs are at the interface between groundwater and surface water. They fill mainly
by rising groundwater levels through estavelles and springs together with surface runoff; they
ultimately empty through estavelles and swallow holes (Coxon 1986). Filling normally occurs
in late autumn due to periods of intense or prolonged rainfall; with emptying typically
occurring from April onwards. The karst flow system, of which a turlough is a surface
expression, possesses a flow capacity which is defined by the size and connectivity of the
flow paths present within the rock (Drew and Daly 1993). Rainfall of insufficient duration or
intensity can be accommodated by subsurface flow paths; hence no surface flooding is visible
in the turlough basin during these dry periods. However once the required combination of
rainfall intensity and duration occurs the storage of the system is exceeded and flooding
begins.
A range of turlough response and recession characteristics exist with some having
multiple flood events in the course of a year whereas others show a single event with a slow
recession as shown in Figure 1. The level, duration and extent of flooding vary greatly among
turloughs with maximum flood depths of 3-14 metres and flooded areas of over 60 hectares
recorded during the monitoring period.
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Oct-06 Nov-06 Jan-07 Mar-07 Apr-07 Jun-07 Aug-07 Sep-07
Date
W
a
t
e
r

D
e
p
t
h

(
m
)


Figure 1 Contrasting turlough hydrological regimes of Lough Aleenaun and Termon
Termon Lough Aleenaun
149

1.4 Geology
Turloughs are found in areas of thin, relatively permeable subsoil on well-bedded, pure
grey calcarenite. They occur predominantly on Dinantian pure bedded limestone due to its
purity and well developed bedding (Coxon 1987). Turloughs were originally considered
hollows in glacial drift with underlying karst drainage systems (Williams 1964). However,
Drew (1976) asserted that turloughs invariably lie in bedrock hollows and were solutional
features requiring a far longer period to develop than has passed since the last glaciation.
Coxon and Coxon (1997) later suggested that turloughs are polygenetic with both processes
playing a part in their formation. The presence of lacustrine marl in the basin of many
turloughs also provides evidence that the flood regime has altered over time (Coxon 1994).

2 Methodology

2.1 Hydrology
The behaviour of a turlough as a wetland is fundamentally driven by its hydrology,
essentially groundwater but with some surface water interaction that includes direct rainfall.
Discharges through turloughs are typically difficult to assess due to the often uncertain
location and nature of the inflow and outflow points. The only realistic hydrological
measures are based on water level. Semi-permanent water level monitoring stations were
established in twenty-two selected turloughs (Figure 2) using proprietary pressure transducer-
based instruments (Diver). Time series of water levels were collected using Divers installed
at or near the lowest point of each turlough and recorded on an hourly basis. Sites were
instrumented in early November 2006 and monitoring is still ongoing at selected sites.



Figure 2 Turlough monitoring site locations

To supplement long term rainfall records obtained from synoptic stations operated by the Irish
Meteorological Service (Met Eireann), three rain gauges were installed in Kilchreest and
Francis Gap in Co. Galway and Ballintober in Co. Roscommon. Rainfall was measured using
an ARG100 tipping bucket rain gauge which recorded cumulative rainfall at 15 minute
intervals.

150

2.2 Topography
In the absence of direct measurement of flows in or out of a turlough, the approach was
taken to estimate net flows by determining the volume of the turlough and deriving flows
from a combination of time changes in stage related to the relevant volume at that stage. Thus
a depth-volume relationship for each turlough was essential in determining flow. A detailed
topographic survey was carried out on each turlough using Trimble differential GPS
equipment. An average of over 900 points was taken per turlough with a mean horizontal
point spacing of 12 m.
Using this extensive topographic dataset, digital terrain models (DTM) were generated
(Fig. 3). Statistical methods from relevant literature (Yanalak 2003) were used to assess this
effect on turlough topographic models by calculating and comparing the standard deviation of
derived surfaces using various gridding methods for a range of grid spacing. Kriging and
multi-quadratic radial basis function were found to produce the most accurate results, with
radial basis consistently showing lower values. However at high grid resolution radial basis
generated unrealistic physical features and so kriging with a 2m grid resolution was selected
as the preferred method for all DTM work.


Figure 3 Digital terrain model for Termon Turlough, Co. Galway (Maximum extent of
flooding highlighted in bold)


To determine turlough volume and net flow rates the relationship between stage and
volume in each turlough basin was established. This was achieved by calculating the volume
between the lower surface of the turlough and an upper horizontal surface representing a
specific water level at 20mm intervals over the recorded range. Applying this relation allowed
time series of volumes and associated flow rates to be obtained from recorded water levels for
each turlough.

151

3 Discussion

3.1 Regime Quantification
The behaviour of a turlough as a wetland is fundamentally driven by its hydrology.
Discharges through turloughs are typically difficult to assess because of the often uncertain
location and nature of the inflow and outflow points. The only realistic hydrological
measures are based on water level.

- Flood depths of 3-14 metres were measured during the monitoring period with a mean
flood depth of 5 metres determined.
- Maximum flood volumes of 400,000-4,000,000 m
3
were found during the monitoring
period with a median maximum volume of 750,000 m
3
determined.

3.2 Drainage Capacity
Upon applying stage volume relationships to recorded hydrographs a common
characteristic was observed across the set of turloughs. During the emptying phase the net
outflow did not vary with decreasing head. Instead net outflow remained constant for a large
part of the recession, the outflow only reducing at low water levels. This implied that there
exists a maximum rate at which each turlough can drain, a rate which is independent of water
level within the turlough. By applying linear regression to the recession curves the maximum
drainage capacity was derived.
The constant flow rate during recession is only clearly defined when there is little or no
rainfall during the recession period. Recharge from rainfall events causes water levels in the
catchment to rise thus slowing the rate of emptying of the turlough. It also enters the turlough
directly via surface flow and direct rainfall. In an attempt to limit this effect, regression
analysis was carried out on data from mid March to early April 2007, a period where little or
no rainfall fell. Sites found to empty before this period or having multiple recessions had
regression analysis carried out on all available recessions and the highest recorded rate taken
as the maximum flow rate (Figure 4).

3.3 Hydro-ecological Indicators
From a turloughs water level record and DTM appropriate measures for
hydroecological risk are being established. Frequency-duration curves for different stages in
the turlough are uniquely related to characteristic ecological communities (Tynan et al. 2005),
while the period of inundation or hydroperiod has been shown to influence mean abundance
and taxon richness of macroinvertebrates (Porst and Irvine 2009). As such depth duration
frequency curves have been generated over the monitoring period.
Disturbance has an important effect on macroinvertebrate community structure in
turloughs, with high disturbance generally supporting lower faunal diversity (Porst et al.
2009). The areal rate of change, defined as the average rate of change of area between the
time of maximum areal inundation and the emptying of a turlough, has been used to represent
turlough disturbance (Porst et al. 2009).The higher the areal reduction rate the more rapid the
changes in water levels and, thus, disturbance. The rate at which soil nutrients within the
turlough basin are released to the water column could potentially be dependent on the areal
rate of change.

152

Straight Line Recession: Turloughmore
R
2
= 0.9992
R
2
= 0.9985
R
2
= 0.9972
0
50000
100000
150000
200000
250000
300000
350000
400000
450000
19-Nov 29-Nov 09-Dec 19-Dec 29-Dec 08-Jan 18-Jan 28-Jan 07-Feb
Date/Time
V
o
l
u
m
e

(
m
3
)


Figure 4 Recession analysis for Turloughmore Turlough, Co. Clare


3.4 Conceptual Model
The recession behaviour observed from 2 years of hydrological data led to the
development of a conceptual model for the operation of turloughs. As the turloughs are
typically empty during summer months despite rainfall events, there exists a flow system
capable of carrying this recharge without surface flooding. When the rainfall on the catchment
exceeds the capacity of this system, it becomes surcharged and flooding occurs. This process
is represented by the conduit flow system shown in Figure 5.



Figure 5 Schematic for conceptual turlough model

The single conduit represents an actual conduit or a system of interconnected fractures
or conduits. The turlough is represented by a pond with depth volume characteristics
Q = 0.37m
3
/s
Q = 0.42m
3
/s
Q = 0.40m
3
/s
153

derived from the digital terrain model (DTM) fitted to the topographic survey data. Two
catchments are defined in the model. The first is the greater catchment area which drains via
the conduit system beneath the turlough. The second is a smaller local catchment which
supplies water to the turlough via direct rainfall, surface runoff and shallow groundwater flow.
Rainfall on the greater catchment enters the turlough via the conduit flow system; the capacity
of which is controlled by the restriction. During recession periods flow through the conduit
system does not enter the turlough. Instead it controls the rate of release of water from the
turlough by varying the pressure in the conduit.
The hydrological data collected to date also confirmed the basic operation of a turlough
as a surge tank in a hydraulic sense and that most turloughs operate through a limited
number of entry points rather than behaving as flow through devices where the surrounding
boundaries are all permeable. Once a turlough fills, it has very little mixing association with
the underlying groundwater. This model has implications for interpretation of potentially
polluting pressures and on the management of associated risks.

4 Conclusion
The behaviour of a turlough as a wetland is fundamentally driven by its hydrology.
Discharges through turloughs are typically difficult to assess because of the often uncertain
location and nature of the inflow and outflow points. The only realistic hydrological
measures are based on water level. This study quantifies the hydrological regime of a set of
turloughs and suggests a conceptual model to explain turlough operation, thus allowing
hydro-ecological indicators to be defined.
For the first time the role turloughs occupy within a karst groundwater system have
been defined; risks posed to these protected ecosystems may now be evaluated and quantified.
Whether through abstraction/drainage or through hydrochemical pressures on trophic status,
these potential risks are assessed in terms of appropriate hydrological indicators relevant to
the characteristic ecology of a turlough.

Acknowledgements
This research is funded by a grant from the National Parks and Wildlife Service
(Department of the Environment, Heritage and Local Government). This research forms a part
of the large interdisciplinary project on Assessing the Conservation Status of Turloughs, being
carried out in Trinity College Dublin in 2006-2010, funded by the National Parks and Wildlife
Service of the Department of the Environment. We are also grateful to Patrick Veale for his
field assistance.

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Based on Scattered Data. Journal of Computing in Civil Engineering 17(1):51-67


155

Hazards in karst

Mario PARISE



National Research Council, IRPI, Bari, via Amendola 122-I, Bari, Italy,
e-mail: m.parise@ba.irpi.cnr.it


Abstract: Karst is an extremely fragile natural environment. The geological, morphological, hydrological,
and hydrogeological features of karst determine an overall high vulnerability to a number of potentially
dangerous events. The delicate equilibrium of karst ecosystems can be therefore changed very easily,
sometimes dramatically and irreversibly, up to its destruction. This may occur as a consequence of both
natural and anthropogenic impacts. The present paper examines the main peculiarity of karst, and discusses
the hazards affecting karst settings, by subdividing them into the two main categories above mentioned:
natural vs. anthropogenic hazards. Sinkholes, mass movements, floods, loss of karst landscape will be treated,
together with other hazards more directly related to mans activities, such as marine intrusion, groundwater
vulnerability, pollution, loss of the valuable archives contained in karst caves, quarrying, etc. Eventually, a
particular focus will be done on the necessity to protect karst, an environment that needs specific regulations
to be properly safeguarded, and where, more than in any other geological and natural setting, a sustainable
approach for the actions implemented by man has to be searched for. In this sense, some insights about the
application of a recently developed method (Karst Disturbance Index) for the evaluation of the degree of
disturbance done by man to the natural karst will be also provided.
Keywords: hazard, karst, sinkhole, flood, water management


1 Introduction
Hazard is defined as the probability of occurrence of a potentially damaging event in a
given area and in a given time frame (Varnes 1984). The need to constrain the temporal
frame, in addition to the spatial one, distinguishes hazard from susceptibility. Hazards can be
subdivided into two main categories, whether the hazard is natural or anthropogenic in origin.
In the first case, we deal with any event, neither provoked or dependant by man and his
activities, that causes a more or less sudden change in the natural environment: to provide
some examples of events belonging to this category, earthquakes, floods, tsunamis, mass
movements may be mentioned. When the event is directly caused by man, or can be linked to
human activities, the hazard is defined as anthropogenic. In this latter case, the situation may
be even worst, and the produced changes often become irreversible, which means that
recovering the pristine state of the natural environment may be high costly or impossible to
achieve.
Karst is one of the most fragile and vulnerable environments on Earth. This is due to the
main hydrologic, geomorphologic and hydrogeological features of karst (White 1988, Ford
and Williams 2007, Parise and Gunn 2007). In karst, generally we do not see water flowing at
the surface (Cvijic 1918): it finds rapidly its way underground through the complex network
of conduits, fissures and caves, enlarging the voids in the rock mass by solution and
mechanical erosion, and producing the richly decorated underground environment of karst
caves. Scarcity of water at the surface, therefore, is the first element; but sometimes there are
exceptions to the rule. Prolonged periods of rainfall, or short but intense rainstorms may cause
flooding (White and White 1984, Mijatovic 1987, Parise 2003), and/or the formation of
temporary lakes, which duration depends on the capacity of water to open its way through the
clogged sites, and infiltrate underground.
Another very important feature in karst is represented by the hydrological boundaries of
the catchments (Palmer 2007). In other environments it is possible to delimit the catchment
156

looking at the surface morphology, following ridges and watersheds, dividing a certain area in
several basins, computing the hydrological balance for each of them. Knowing the amount of
rainfall that drops in a specific watershed, its size and geological characters, it is therefore
possible to estimate how much water will be collected in the discharge area. Karst does not
work like this. Identification of the surface watershed does not necessarily correspond to what
is really happening underground. Water can infiltrate at a certain site, and, due to complex
underground systems, be transported in another, nearby watershed. The only way to be sure of
the course of water in karst is following it underground, when possible, or using dye tracers
(Goldscheider and Drew 2007) to follow its path whenever man is not able to enter narrow or
flooded passages.

2 Natural and anthropogenic hazards in karst
The main natural and anthropogenic hazards affecting karst areas are briefly described
in this section; due to the limited space and for sake of brevity, the following pages cannot be
considered exhaustive, of course, but hopefully they will provide the reader with the main and
updated references on the topic.

2.1 Sinkholes
Sinkholes are definitely one of the most typical hazards in karst areas: originally defined
as a circular depression in karst environments, with underground drainage (Bates and Jackson
1987), the term sinkhole has become later on more popular, and is nowadays used even to
designate collapses in non karst areas, or in urban centres. In these latter cases, sinkholes are
generally related to presence of man-made underground cavities that are at the origin of
collapses of the ground with consequent damage to the built-up area above.
Sinkholes may occur through different processes, in some cases being related to the
presence of underground voids (collapse and cover collapse sinkholes in the classification by
Waltham et al. 2005), whilst in others they are simply produced by dissolution of soluble
rocks (solution sinkholes), or can be differentiated on the basis of the presence of cohesive
(dropout sinkhole) or non-cohesive soils (suffosion sinkhole) in the overburden above a
soluble bedrock. What is more important, in terms of the hazard posed to man, is the velocity
of the process, especially as regards the catastrophic phase, that is the collapse. In this term,
the most dangerous typologies are those characterized by high velocity, namely collapse and
cover-collapse sinkholes (Tharp 1995). Lack of premonitory signs, and the rapid evolution in
the catastrophic phase of the event, are elements worth to be further investigated by scientists,
in the attempt to work toward mitigation of the risk deriving from sinkholes.
As previously mentioned, however, man and his activities may also play a crucial role
in the development of sinkholes: underground cavities, in some ways forgotten or
abandoned by man, and later on become part of the built-up areas, are the main problem.
Knowledge of where these voids are, what characteristics they do have (depth, width, length,
etc.), and their stability conditions as well, is fundamental to avoid the possibility of
encountering problems, or causing collapses in the above roads or buildings. Any other
human action, that may determine changes in the hydrological regime, has to be carefully
planned in karst areas, and should take into consideration the possibility to induce or trigger
sinkhole development. An interesting case study in this sense is that at Marina di Lesina, in
Apulia (southern Italy) where some decades ago the flanks of an artificial channel connecting
the nearby lake to the Adriatic Sea have been object of works to replace the previously
existing concrete structures with gabions, considered to have a lower environmental impact.
Being the channel opened in Triassic evaporite rocks, interested by presence of many cavities
filled by sandy-silty materials, the gabions bounding the channel facilitated flow of water
toward the channel itself, and draining out of the sands and silts from the cavities. The new
157

voids so produced determined collapses at several sites (Fig. 1), with the process still going on
since many years, and progressive shifting of the area affected by sinkholes away from the
channel, up to the built-up areas. Several buildings show at present cracks and slight
deformation in the foundations.
The lesson learned from this event is that carrying out engineering works without taking
into the due consideration the peculiar aspects of karst can be extremely dangerous, and cause
risk to the man-made infrastructures and buildings.



Figure 1 Sinkhole in the Triassic evaporite at Marina di Lesina (Apulia, Italy). In the
background, the buildings that are at present being involved in sinkhole development.

2.2 Mass movements
In a broader sense, sinkholes are a form of instability, and can be considered as a
category of mass movements, even though they generally affect very low-gradient, if not sub-
horizontal, areas. Slope movements s.s. too are frequent in karst, in those areas where relief
energy is high, rock mass conditions are poor, and (which is peculiar of karst) caves are
present (Waltham 2002, Santo et al. 2007, Parise 2008). Many different typologies of mass
movements can be observed in karst, the most significant being those involving rock mass
such as falls, or toppling failures from steep to vertical valley sides and canyons. It has to be
mentioned that in many cases breakdown processes, mostly occurring through progressive
failures from the vault, represent the main type of evolution of caves, once they have been left
by water (White and White 1969). Analysis of breakdown deposits within cave systems, in
relation to geology, and to the above existing man-made structures at the surface, are
therefore of extreme importance for hazard assessment, by adding a further view (that from
the inside) to the common analysis from the surface (Klimchouk and Andrejchuk 2002).
To evaluate the sectors within cave systems mostly prone to further failures, it is also
very important to consider the weathering processes in the rock mass (Fookes and Hawkins
1988, Zupan Hajna 2003), which often causes strong reductions in the mechanical properties
of the rocks, thus contributing to its overall decrease in strength, and facilitating its proneness
to failures. In some cases, depending upon depth of the underground voids and local
158

geological conditions, upward propagation of such failures may lead to development of
sinkholes at the surface (Culshaw and Waltham 1987, Waltham and Lu 2007).

2.3 Floods
Water generally infiltrates underground in karst through the complex network of karst
conduits, caves and fissures, until it is transferred to the outflow zones. There is therefore a
very limited amount of surface runoff; when the swallow holes become, for some reasons,
partially or totally clogged, water is not able to enters the ground, and thus it accumulates at
the surface, creating floods and inundating areas (Bonacci et al. 2006), especially in the case
of very flat, polje-like, valleys. Floods in karst may be frequent and destructive (Fig. 2). Many
examples worldwide show that, unfortunately, man tends to loose the memory of past events,
and keep planning and building in karst areas without taking into account that sometimes in
the past those areas had been affected by flooding and inundation (Parise 2003). As a
consequence of such behavior, we are still facing great damage on the occasion of floods, and
probably it is easy to forecast further, increasing damage in the next future.



Figure 2 Damage produced by flooding in karst environment: the effects of the September
2003 flood event in the Taranto province (Apulia, Italy)

2.4 Quarrying
One of the most destructive activities by man for karst areas is quarrying (Gunn 1993,
2004): quarries may cause partial or total destruction of caves, degradation of the landscape,
changes in the natural hydrography. Once the activity stops, they often become sites of illegal
landfills, inevitably causing pollution to karst ecosystems, particularly the aquifers. Beside
surface quarries, quarrying may also be developed underground, with a long and difficult
work to realize subterranean galleries, and bring at the surface the excavated material. In
southern Italy, remarkable examples of this type of quarries are at Cutrofiano, where the local
calcarenite have been extensively quarried at depths ranging from about 10 to 45 meters, with
galleries extending for total lengths of some tens of km. Underground quarrying activity may
also result in development of sinkholes at the surface, because of instability problems
underground (Fig. 3) that then progressively move upward.

159



Figure 3 Failures from the ceiling and the walls in an underground quarry at Cutrofiano
(Apulia, Italy). The quarry is part of an extensive network of subterranean quarries that in
overall counts over 30 km of underground galleries.

2.5 Loss of karst landscape
Land use changes in karst may be related to efforts in gaining new pieces of land to
agriculture, by terracing slopes, filling the depressions, and clearing the fields from the rocky
stones. Especially when the karst landscape is very flat, it is extremely easy to cancel some of
the landforms. In ancient times stone clearing was performed by hand, and the collected
stones were used to build the dry-stone walls, a typical element in the rural architecture of
many Mediterranean karst areas (Nicod 1972); in the last decades, thanks to the extensive use
of machinery to remove and destroy the rocks, stone clearing has completely changed the
natural setting, destroying the epikarst, diverting the surface runoff, causing erosion even on
the occasion of small amount of rainfall, and determining in many areas a strong tendency
toward desertification (Parise 2009). As a further consequence, many rocks taken out from the
field are dumped into caves or accumulated at their entrances, in both cases determining a
serious danger to cavers (Parise and Pascali 2003).

2.6 Pollution
Pollution events in karst are often related to other hazards, as before said: abandoned
quarries, or other types of anthropogenic cavities, may become sites where solid and liquid
wastes are discharged, with severe impact on the quality of the karst groundwater resources
(Zwahlen 2004). In particular social situations, such as in post-conflict scenarios, the situation
becomes even worst and severe (Cal and Parise 2009). Natural caves, too, are not immune
by pollution, since in those territories where no specific protection law exists, or, if it exists, it
is not actually reinforced, dumping of different types of wastes (even toxic and highly
dangerous) is carried out.
Another type of pollution is typical of the coastal areas, where uncontrolled withdrawal
of water determines upwelling of the interface between fresh and salt water, and the
abstraction of brackish water. In most of the cases, this occurs because of the presence of tens,
if not hundreds, of illegal wells along the coastlines.

3 Conclusions
Man has definitely become one of the most powerful factors that can cause changes in
the karst environment, produce direct damage, or predispose the territory to threatening events
160

(Milanovic 2002). A possible way to determine the impact deriving from human activities to
the karst environment has been recently proposed in the form of the Karst Disturbance Index
(van Beynen and Townsend 2005, North et al. 2009). Taking into account a number of
indicators, subdivided into 5 different categories (Geomorphology, Atmosphere, Hydrology,
Biota, Cultural) the disturbance to the karst environment deriving by anthropogenic actions
can be determined (Table 1), to provide some insights about how the karst landscape has
negatively been modified by man.

Table 1 Karst Disturbance Index level categories (after North et al. 2009)

Karst Disturbance Index Value
Pristine 0.0-0.19
Little disturbance 0.2-0.39
Disturbed 0.4-0.59
Highly disturbed 0.6-0.79
Severely disturbed 0.8-1-0

Given the high fragility of karst, what should be done to protect such environment, and
safeguard the natural resources it contains? Regulations, laws, strict enforcement of existing
rules are important and necessary things. However, in many cases they are not enough: a law
can be written in an excellent way, but too often it remains valid only on paper, when no
control is then actually implemented. Repression does not work very well, either. What needs
to be done, which can be much more powerful than prohibition, is let people understand the
reasons why they should not carry out certain actions. Explain to them the consequences of
their activities. Let them understand that the damage they are producing does not only affect
the environment, but also their own life, that of their children, the next generations, the water
they drink, the food they crop and eat.
Education, and direct involvement of the local inhabitants living in karst, is fundamental.
When people really realize that each action carried out at the surface is transferred
underground with a negative impact, the number of potential polluting events reduce.
Scientists and cavers should produce stronger efforts in this direction: educating people,
talking about karst to the people that do live in karst lands, carrying their knowledge outside
the too often much closed world of karst science and speleology. It has not to take for granted
that everybody knows what karst is, and what problems may affect it.


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the Dinaric karst (Croatia). Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences 6:195-203
Cal F, Parise M (2009) Waste management and problems of groundwater pollution in
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1987, pp 299-303
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163

Modelling of rillenkarren formation

Matija PERNE


Karst Research Institute SRC SASA, Titov trg 2, SI-6230 Postojna, Slovenia
e-mail: matija.perne@zrc-sazu.si


Abstract: The purpose of our work is development of mathematical model of rillenkarren
formation. Presumptions of our model are based on experimental evidence. Rillenkarren are
known to form from initially flat surface of soluble rock under constant uniform rain. Because of
that we omit beginnings and ends of rain showers and only model constant rain. Under these
circumstances all the rock surface is wet and rainwater is flowing over it in a thin film. The
situation stays the same for minutes and hours, except for rock retreat which is much slower than
water flow and can be safely neglected in flow calculations. The rock is mostly carried away in
dissolved form. Rills form because the dissolution rates are different on different sites on the rock
surface. This can only result from differences in chemical properties of the solution. These are
influenced only by the history of the water since the arrival of the raindrop onwards because
raindrops are chemically all the same. Dissolved rock has almost no influence on hydrodynamical
properties of the solution. Water flow is therefore evaluated independently from dissolution and
calculated in advance for all types of rock at the same time. While the presented model does not
predict rillenkarren formation, it is known from nature and experiments that they do form under
the modelled circumstances. So we can infer that some of the process which was not accounted for
correctly is crucial for rillenkarren formation. Some of the approximations, simplifications and
inaccuracies of our model are: 1) Instead of Nervier-Stokes equation lubrication approximation is
used. The approximation works well on average but on the upper edge of the rock it does not. 2)
Steady-state approximation of the water flow is used. 3) The phenomena at raindrop impacts are not
accounted for. Fresh water is added only at the water surface, eventual penetration of drops into the film is
neglected.
Keywords: rillenkarren, numerical modelling, dissolution


1 Introduction
Rillenkarren are parallel shallow channels, 20-30 mm apart and separated by sharp
ridges that form on inclined bare surfaces of soluble rocks due to dissolution by rainwater
(Lowe and Waltham 1995). Their theory of origin is unknown (Field 2002) and the only
detailed explanation in (Glew and Ford 1980) is incomplete and weakly supported.
Rillenkarren can be used in determining history of particular rock surfaces, for example
in (Gams 1989). From the stage of rillenkarren development it is inferred for how long the
rock is directly exposed to influences of the atmosphere. Insight of the mechanism of
rillenkarren formation would make the method more reliable.
Rillenkarren form on quite different rocks (Gins in preparation) so details of
dissolution chemistry cannot be important for their formation. Live organisms are not always
present on rillenkarren surface so they are also not crucial.


2 Numerical model

2.1 Protorill
Because rillenkarren form on initially flat surface, they inevitably have to go through a
stage in which the surface is only gently undulated, covered with shallow rills which are
164

becoming deeper. A satisfactory model of rillenkarren formation thus has to predict that a rill
which is not as deep as mature rills will deepen.
All the models are tested on the same rock surface form, dubbed protorill. It has
parabolic shape because every gentle curve is parabolic in the first approximation. Its slope is
40 and it is 2 cm wide, which are typical values for rillenkarren, while it is only 0.5 mm
deep, much less than real rillenkarren. The upper 16 cm of such a rill were studied. The
density of water is taken to be 10
3
kg/m
3
and its viscosity 10
-3
Pas.
2.2 Model of the water flow
Fluid flow is described by Nervier-Stokes equation which is difficult to solve. Because
of that some reasonable approximations are used in order to simplify it.
For the beginning, compressibility of water is neglected. Nervier-Stokes equation for
incompressible fluid is
( ) v f v v
v
2
V V

V
c
c
+ p = +
t

b
(Kuer and Kodre 1994) (1)
where is density, v is velocity, t is time,
b
f are body forces per unit volume, p is pressure
and is viscosity.
A group of approximations known as lubrication approximation is then used and surface
tension is also ignored. The lubrication approximation is based on neglecting inertial forces
that is the whole left side of equation 1 and second derivatives of velocity in direction parallel
to the surface.
Figure 1 Coordinate systems.
A local Cartesian coordinate system in which the rock surface lies in xy plane is
introduced (see Figure 1). Here m is water depth, h is thickness of the water film,
0
z is
elevation of rock surface above a reference level, and is the surface slope. For density of
water flow j it turns out after introducing the mentioned approximations that it is
proportional to the water film thickness to the third power and to the surface slope. That is
( ) m + z
h

g
=
0
3
3
V j , (2)
165

where g is acceleration of gravity and V stands for derivation in x and y directions only.
Conservation of water gives another equation:
t
h
v =
c
c
V
r
~
j , (3)
where
r
~
v is rain intensity in the z direction.
The equations 2 and 3 can be solved numerically for arbitrary surface shape. The
method of time propagation is efficient enough to find an approximate steady-state solution.
That means an initial approximation for m is taken, j is calculated from equation 2 and the
new m after a short time step is calculated from equation 3. The procedure is then repeated
with the new m as initial approximation until m converges to a steady state and does not
change anymore.
Figure 2 The left graph shows the rock surface and the right one the steady-state water
surface when the rock is exposed to rain.

Figure 2 shows a test result of the algorithm on a slope with a depression. A pool of
water fills the depression the same way as in reality. The method performs as good as
expected, or better. It should be noted that in this case an assumption of lubrication
approximation that water and rock surfaces are nearly parallel is not fulfilled but the result is
realistic anyway.
Instead of depending on numerical solution, which is inherently only approximate, the
water flow over the protorill can be calculated analytically. The steady-state form of the
equation 3 is
d
~
v = j V , (4)
where
d
~
v is time average of rain intensity. The flow density j is parallel to the water surface
slope. The equation is nonlinear because j depends both on the third power of water film
thickness, or m, and on gradient of m itself. But if the local water depth is much smaller than
typical height differences between points on the rock surface, the rock surface slope is
approximately equal to the water surface slope and can be used in its place. Thus the equation
4 becomes linear and easy to solve analytically. It can be solved using method of
characteristics.
166

Figure 3 Both graphs show calculated water depth as a function of position on the protorill.
On the left graph there are the results of analytical calculation and on the right graph of
numerical one. On the left rear side is the top of the rill which extends to the right front side.
The results are for rain intensity of 10 mm/h. All coordinates are in mm.

Figure 3 shows the differences between numerical and analytical solution. Results are
almost the same for upper part of the rill. On its lower part the numerical solution becomes
smoother while the analytical one stays sharp. The difference could result either from
numerical diffusion, which would mean that the analytical solution is better, or the additional
approximation used only in analytical calculation, in which case the numerical solution is
more exact. It turns out that the difference between both solutions becomes important only
when the water is deep in comparison to the rill and the presumptions of the analytical method
are no longer fulfilled. Thus both solutions agree with each other wherever the analytical one
is correct. That means the difference results from the additional approximation in analytical
method, so the numerical solution may be the better one and was used for calculating
dissolution rates.
2.3 Dissolution kinetics
The dissolution rates of calcite are determined by three rate-controlling processes
(Kaufmann and Dreybrodt 2007):
1. the kinetics of dissolution at the mineral surface, which depends on the chemical
composition of the solution at the mineral surface;
2. mass transport of the dissolved material away from the boundary by diffusion;
3. conversion of CO
2
into H
+
and HCO
3

.
Which one of the processes is the slowest depends on the circumstances. In the case of a few
tenths of a millimetre thick water film on a rock surface, the dissolution rate is limited only by
the reaction on the surface (Dreybrodt et al. 2005). In such geometry diffusion is much faster
and thus unimportant for dissolution rate.
Diffusion is described by diffusion equation
c D =
Dt
Dc
2
V , (5)
where D is diffusion coefficient and c is concentration,
V
n
= c . Diffusion has no influence
on dissolution when D . In this case the dissolution rate is limited by other processes
and c does not depend on distance from the rock surface.
The equation describing the surface reaction is
167

( ) c c =
t

c
c
eq
, (Dreybrodt et al. 2005) (6)
where is a constant,
S
is surface density of dissolved matter, and
eq
c is equilibrium
concentration. It is unclear whether the simple form of the equation 6 is only an
approximation or if it has a deeper meaning. It is also questionable if diffusion is really
unimportant for dissolution kinetics. In absence of a more suitable model the relation 6 and
the limit D are used anyway for modelling rillenkarren on limestone.
In the cases of gypsum or salt, on which rillenkarren also form, the surface reaction is
so fast that dissolution under the same circumstances is limited only by diffusion (Jeschke et
al. 2001). The situation is also less complex because CO
2
does not enter the reaction and its
conversion has no influence on dissolution rates. So dissolution can be modelled by equation
0 = z
S
z
c
D =
t

|
|
|
c
c
c
c
, (7)
where z is the coordinate normal to the rock surface.
2.4 Models of rillenkarren formation
Both modes of dissolution, for limestone and for gypsum and salt, are first applied on
flat surface and then on the protorill. For limestone, the relation 6 and limit D are used.
The concentration of solute is thus independent of z , it is constant along a vertical profile
through the water layer.
For gypsum and salt, equation 7 is used with the value of
s
m
10
2
9
= D which is close
to real diffusion constants for these substances at normal temperatures.
2.5 Limestone, flat surface
The surface is oriented so that its upper edge is horizontal. Rainwater then flows in the
direction of the slope. It turns out that the dissolution rate is the same everywhere on the
surface. Steeper surface retreat slower but lowers faster than gentler ones if the rain is held
constant.
2.6 Limestone, protorill
Water flow is always parallel to the local water surface slope direction. The shape of the
water surface is calculated as described in subsection 3.2 and can be used to calculate paths
along which water flows downward. From here on these paths are called flow lines. The
protorill is uniformly covered with such flow lines and dissolution rates are calculated along
every one of them. Every flow line can be dealt with independently from others because water
in the film neither enters nor leaves it, while lateral gradients of concentration are presumed to
be very small so diffusion of solutes into or out of the flow line can be safely neglected.
Dissolution rates on the points of rock surface that do not lie directly on a calculated flow line
are obtained by interpolating. The results are shown on figure 4.
168

Figure 4 Speed of lowering of the surface of a protorill made of limestone. Higher points
mean faster lowering. The top of the rill is on the top left side. The graph shows values of
( ) c
c c
cos
eq
eq

for s / m 10
7
= .

2.7 Gypsum or salt, flat surface
On these rocks, the concentration of dissolved rock is dependent on z while at the rock
surface it is assumed to be at
eq
c , so mass transport in both x and z direction is taken into
account. From the lubrication approximation water velocity field is calculated and advection
in both x and z directions is accounted for. Diffusion in x direction is neglected because of
small concentration gradients while in z it is the main force driving the mass transport and so
has to be taken into account. A suitable coordinate transformation made it possible to solve
the diffusion-advection problem with finite difference scheme. Dissolution rates directly
follow from the resulting concentration field.
In this case, dissolution rates on different points on the flat surface are different.
2.8 Gypsum or salt, protorill
The model for the flat surface has to be only slightly modified to handle dissolution on a
flow line along a curved surface. The same flow lines as for the limestone protorill are used,
dissolution rates all over the rill are calculated and are presented on figure 5.
169

Figure 5 Speed of lowering of the surface of a protorill made of gypsum or salt. Higher points
mean faster lowering. The top of the rill is on the top left side. The graph shows values of
( )
1 2 eq
1 2
z z c
c c

in mm
-1
. Values are calculated with resolution of 51 nodes along z direction in
finite difference scheme.

3 Conclusion
The presented model does not predict rillenkarren formation. On the other hand, it is
known from nature and experiments that they do form under the modelled circumstances. So
we can infer that some of the process which were not accounted for correctly are crucial for
rillenkarren formation.
Some of the approximations, simplifications and inaccuracies common to all models
are:
- Instead of Navier-Stokes equation lubrication approximation is used. The
approximation works well on average but on the upper edge of the rock it does not.
- Steady-state approximation of the water flow is used.
- The phenomena at raindrop impacts are not accounted for. Fresh water is added only
at the water surface, eventual penetration of drops into the film is neglected.
Conditions during rillenkarren formation are certainly not steady-state. The steady-state
shape of water film on 2 cm by 16 cm rill is calculated using time propagation. It turns out
that after three seconds of simulated water flow the film shape is very near the steady state,
even if initial state is far from the steady one. We assume that state in reality is nearly steady
if a lot of drops fall on the rill in less than 3 s. If we take 1 mm
3
as an average raindrop
170

volume, in the simulated rainfall rate of 10 mm/h only 27 drops impact the rill in three
seconds.
The raindrop does not stay at the surface of the water film, as presumed for the
calculations, but pushes off some of the old film. It is also possible that it does not stay at the
site of impact, maybe it bounces toward the centre of the rill, effectively increasing rainfall
rate at the centre. This effect is not taken into account either. So it would make sense to
include raindrop impact and non-steady state situation into future models of rillenkarren
formation.

References
Bgli A (1960) Kalklsung und Karrenbildung. Zeitschrift fr Geomorphologie,
Supplementband 2: Internationale Beitrge zur Karstmorphologie, pp 421
Dreybrodt W (1988) Processes in Karst Systems: Physics, Chemistry, and Geology.
Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg, 288 pp
Dreybrodt W, Gabrovek F, Romanov D (2005) Processes of speleogenesis: a modeling
approach. Zaloba ZRC, Ljubljana, 375 pp
Field MS (2002) A Lexicon of Cave and Karst Terminology with Special Reference to
Environmental Karst Hydrology. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC,
214 pp
Gams I (1989) Deni lebii kot pokazatelji starosti deforestacije. Geografija in
Aktualna Vpraanja Prostorskega Razvoja:127138
Gins (in preparation) Rillenkarren. In: W Dreybrodt, A Gins, M Knez, T Slabe
(eds) Karst rock features and rock relief
Glew JR, Ford DC (1980) A simulation study of the development of rillenkarren. Earth
Surface Processes 5:2536
Jeschke AA, Vosbeck K, Dreybrodt W (2001) Surface controlled dissolution rates of
gypsum in aqueous solutions exhibit nonlinear dissolution kinetics. Geochimica et
Cosmochimica Acta 65(1):2734
Kaufmann G, Dreybrodt W (2007) Calcite dissolution kinetics in the system CaCO
3

H
2
OCO
2
at high undersaturation. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 71: 13981410
Kuer I, Kodre A (1994) Matematika v fiziki in tehniki. Drutvo matematikov, fizikov
in astronomov Slovenije, Ljubljana, 394 pp
Lowe D, Waltham T (1995) A dictionary of karst and caves: a brief guide to the
terminology and concepts of cave and karst science. BCRA, London, 40 pp
Sweeting MM (1972) Karst landforms. Macmillan, Basingstoke, 362 pp
171

Salinization of the Vrana Lake in Dalmatia within the context of
anthropogenic influences and climate changes (situation in 2008)

Josip RUBINIC
1
, Ana KATALINIC
2
, Mirjana SVONJA
3
, Ivana GABRIC
4
, Gordana
BUSELIC
5
, Maja CUZE
6
, Bojana HORVAT
7


1
Faculty of Civil Engineering, University of Rijeka, V.C.Emina 5, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia,
e-mail: jrubinic@gradri.hr
2
Public Institution Nature Park Vransko jezero, Kralja P. Svacica 2, 23210 Biograd, Croatia,
e-mail: ana.katalinic@gmail.com
3
Croatian Waters, Vukovarska 35, 21000 Split, Croatia, e-mail: Mirjana.Svonja@voda.hr
4
Croatian Waters, Vukovarska 35, 21000 Split, Croatia,
e-mail: ivana.gabric@voda.hr
5
State Meteorological and Hydrological Service, Gric 3, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia,
e-mail: buselic@cirus.dhz.hr
6
Public Institution Nature Park Vransko jezero, Kralja P. Svacica 2. 23210 Biograd, Croatia,
e-mail: maja.cuze@gmail.com
7
Croatian Waters, Ulica grada Vukovara 220, 10000 Zagreb,
e-mail: bojana.horvat@voda.hr


Abstract: Vrana Lake is a coastal lake in Dalmatia (Croatia), protected as Nature park. Although
it is by its surface of about 30 km
2
the largest lake in Croatia, its volume comprises only about
82.5 mil m
3
. The lake is a cryptodepression (with maximum level depth -3m) separated from the
sea by a 0.8 2.5 km wide limestone ridge within which the coastal karst aquifer interacts with
both the sea and the lake. Therefore this lake is a very sensitive karst coastal system with a close
interaction with the sea - a direct interaction through the 800 m long Prosika canal and the indirect
interaction through the karst aquifer. The period of a few recent years (particularly 2007-2008) has
been characterized by pronounced draughty hydrological conditions. Evidence of the lake critical
condition is the total volume of water flowing out into the sea through the Prosika canal of only
about 0,19 mil. m
3
in the year 2008 which is minor as compared to the average of about 31,8
mil.m
3
for the analyzed period 2000-2008. Consequently, during the summer of 2008, the water
level of Vrana lake fell under the sill level of Prosika canal and in specific conditions of daily sea
level fluctuations even below the sea level. That caused the sea to flow into the lake directly
through Prosika canal and also through numerous springs on the lake shore. The result was an
enormous increase in lake water salinity. Chloride concentration values in southern part of the lake
where Prosika canal and a large number of salty inshore springs is situated increased up to 6500
mg/l in 2008, compared to the average of 590 mgl
-1
for the previously analyzed period from 2000
to 2006.. Within the context, the sill level of the constructed Prosika canal, which was once
sufficient for the stabilization of Vrana lake, can be a problem which generates an increase in lake
salinization.
Keywords: water salinization, karst, Vrana lake, Dalmatia


1 Introduction
Coastal aquifer management is one of the largest contemporary water management
challenges in the Mediterranean. Negative anthropogenic influences with increasing pressure
on water resources, combined with the general trend of sea level increase (Lambeck et al.
2004, Lambeck and Purcell 2005, Orlic 1995, Pirazzoli 2000, 2005) and air temperature
increase which occurs simultaneously with the precipitation volume decrease and catchment
area outflow balance trends (Bolle 2003, Gajic-Capka and Zaninovic 2006, Svensson et al.
172

2005, Svonja et al. 2003) make coastal karst aquifers particularly sensitive. Salty water
intrusions into deeper parts of coastal karst aquifers, mostly caused by an excessive
exploitation of coastal water resources, occur in a large part of the Mediterranean coastal area
(Benblidia et al. 1996, Custodio and Bruggeman 1982, Custodio 2002, Margat 2004).



Figure 1 Position of Vrana Lake in Dalmatia: A) Catchment area overview supplemented
according o Fritz (1984) Key: (1) hydrogeological catchment area border, (2) regulation canal, (3)
permanent natural water flow, (4) periodical natural water flow, (5) underground hydrogeological link,
(6) source intercepted for water supply, (7) non-intercepted more important source, (8) brackish water
source, (9) submarine spring, (10) estavelle, (11) sink hole, B) broader situation of the analyzed area

Vrana Lake in Dalmatia (Figure 1) is one of the most sensitive water resources of
large biodiversity which is pointedly affected by all the previously mentioned influences. In
1999 the lake with its adjacent onshore territory was declared a Nature park covering an area
of 57 km
2
. The area in question is an extremely valuable coastal lake site covering an area of
about 30.8 km
2
and comprising a volume of about 82,5 mil. m
3
. Vrana Lake is a
cryptodepression, up to 5 m deep, with its bottom situated at about 3 m below sea level. The
lake runs along the sea coast in its full length of about 13.6 km. It is separated from the sea by
a 0.8 2.5 m wide limestone ridge within which the coastal karst aquifer dynamically
interacts with both the sea and the lake and through which the lake also interacts with the sea.
Already in 1770 the lake was directly connected to the sea by a 800 m long Prosika canal
which has later been widened and deepened on many occasions in order to improve the
drainage of a constructed hydrotechnical melioration system. The canal bottom level is at only
0.43 m above sea level (m a. s. l.) while the water level of the lake varies from 0.03 m a. s. l.
(in 1990 and 2008) to 2.24 m a. s. l. (in 1974 and 1994), mean value being 0.81 m a. s. l.
The lake-sea interaction is performed in two ways. Direct interaction occurs through
Prosika canal with water mostly flowing out, except during long-term dry periods when the
sea uplevels the lake, allowing sea water to flow directly into Lake Vrana. Indirect interaction
occurs through the karst aquifer where salinization of the lake takes place through several
spring groups. Therefore the lake is characterized by great variations in and chloride
concentration (from about a 100 mgl
-1
up to over 6.000 mgl
-1
).
In the recent years, 2007 and especially in 2008, Vrana Lake suffered extremely
unfavourable hydrological conditions of increased salt-water intrusion into the lake (Rubinic
and Cuze 2009). Should the started negative processes of salinization continue, lowering of
B)
A)
173

biodiversity together with trophy grade increase and rapid lake degradation is to be expected.
In order to develop measure to prevent such negative scenario, an analysis of the existing
hydrological conditions is a prerequisite condition. This paper therefore analyzes some of the
basic hydrological interrelations of the lake catchment area, its karst aquifer and the
surrounding sea.

2 Vrana Lake characteristics and its hydrological dynamics
Vrana Lake gets watered through numerous canals of the constructed hydro-
melioration system which, apart from the surface waters, also partly gather overflow waters
from several karst springs as well as waters from their immediate karst aquifer (Figure 1). The
complete potential catchment area surface is about 470 km
2
(Fritz 1984). However,
hydrological monitoring in the catchment area is not organized in a way that appropriate lake
inflow control is applicable. Only in the past 7 8 years there are partial data about flow
capacities at some of the more important lake inflow sites with a total of 1.8 m
3
s
-1
of the lake
inflow balance.



Figure 2 Distribution of annual flow capacities

Since proper inflow balance could not be calculated based on the available, relatively
short and hydrologically insufficiently relevant data on flow capacities, such estimation for a
referential period from 1961-1990 was conducted based on the available climatological
parameters. The methodology, based on applying the Langbein method in GIS environment is
developed in the paper by Horvat and Rubinic (2006).
Figure 2 shows the results of analyzing the specific flow capacity spatial distribution at
which the spatial raster of the analyzed data is 1 x 1 km
2
. By using the latest data
(Geotehnicki Fakultet Varazdin 2009) on the partially corrected surface of a potentially
gravitating catchment area covering about 411 km
2
, the lake surface included, the balance of
complete mean yearly lake inflows of 3.9 m
3
s
-1
was calculated.
The lake also has considerable losses both in form of surface outflow from the lake
through Prosika canal and due to evaporation of the lake itself, usage of water in the
catchment area and sinking into subterranean passages. According to the recorded data about
the flows from the Prosika profile from 1996 to 2008, the average outflow from the lake on
the Prosika canal profile entrance was about 1.01 m
3
s
-1
. Since the period in question was a
relatively dry one with about 20% less precipitation and higher air temperatures, the perennial
average amount of canal outflow should be 20 50% larger, up to 1.50 m
3
s
-1
. The loss of
174

water through evaporation is significant due to high temperatures and shallowness of the lake.
Based on the analogy of the registered water evaporations from the salt-pans on the island of
Pag from the paper by Berakovic (1983), it has been assessed that the losses are about 1.66
m/year. Similarly, according to the conducted empirical assessments of Meyer method
(Hrvatska Vodoprivreda 1994), the average annual evaporation was assessed to 1.403 m/year.
Using the mean value of the both data the balance contribution of about 1.50 m
3
s
-1
is achieved
regarding the mean lake surface. The annual usage of about 0.107 m
3
s
-1
(Geotehnicki Fakultet
Varazdin 2009) was recorded for the water supply needs from Vrana Lake catchment area.
However, due to the unregistered usage of water for irrigation and local water supply, this
amount is surely almost doubled cca 0.200 m
3
s
-1
. The losses caused by sinking into
subterrain passages are practically unknown and within the context of previous balance
assessment closures they must be about 0.70 m
3
s
-1
. As a comparison, during the solely known
water measurement of water loss from Prosika canal which was conducted on July 2
nd
2009,
the flow of 0.502 m
3
s
-1
was measured at the canal entrance and up to the Prosika canal mouth
the flow was just 0.055 m
3
s
-1
. This gives the loss from the canal of about 0.45 m
3
s
-1
when the
denivelation between the water level of the lake and the sea was about 0.66 m. It is quite
certain that water losses at the lake perimeter depend not only on the interrelation of the lake
water level and sea water level but also on the level of underground water in the karst aquifer.
The obtained results of average Vrana lake inflow balance assessment are similar to
those of the balance assessment conducted by Svonja (2003) which showed 4.2 m
3
s
-1
for the
same 30-year period. Somewhat lesser values were obtained by Pavic in the study of Vodotok
(2008), 3.14 m
3
s
-1
during the relatively draughtier period from 2000 2005. The balance
assessments obtained for the period 1963 1980 must also be pointed out (Berakovic 1983).
They relate to the 360 km
2
of Vrana lake catchment area up to the formerly planned barrier
profile in the very lake. The obtained mean annual flow was 2.48 m
3
s
-1
, but without counting
the no quantified underground sinking losses from her paper. Even lesser mean annual Vrana
lake inflows were obtained in the study of Hrvatska Vodoprivreda (1994) for the period from
1963 1992 in the amount of 1.96 m
3
s
-1
, which is, within the study itself, contrary to the
offered assessments of lake water outflows through Prosika canal (1.5 m
3
s
-1
) and the
mentioned evaporation assessments.
Regarding the relatively questionable data about flows into the Vrana lake system, the
paper in question used data from other hydrological parameters at disposal. Figure 3 shows
the mean annual lake water level modular value (at Prosika site), the sea level (data from the
water level recorder Prosika was partly supplemented with Split-Marjan tide-gauge
measurements data, based on the conducted regression analysis) and data about annual
precipitation volume from Biograd and Stankovci stations (due to their position in relation to
the lake the average values were used) during the last 30-year period. It is clear that despite
the observed precipitation decrease trend (0.64%, 5.5 mm/year), there is a mild lake water
level increase trend (0.31%, 0.34 cm/year) caused by the present sea water level increase
trend (1.08%, 0.26 cm/year) (Katalinic et al. 2007).

3 Analysis of the Vrana Lake salinization during 2008
Vrana lake and its aquifer are in a dynamic balance with the sea. Dry periods with low
lake water levels are followed by extreme rises in lake salinity due to inflow of sea water both
through Prosika canal, or, even to a larger extent, through salty springs in the southern and
northwest part of the lake area. Water from these springs flows immediately into the lake or
gets collected by constructed drainage canals on the north-western part of the lake area (such
as Kotarka canal). This correlation between the lake-sea water level dynamics and extreme
salinization is best seen on Figure 4. It shows the mean annual water level differences of lake
and sea water levels as well as the maximum annual recorded salinity values at I Kotarka
175

canal mouth and II Crkvine stations (both situated in the northwestern part of the lake)
starting from 1982 (with interruption during the war years). During the observed period lake
salinity exceeded 2000 mg l
-1
in three different occasions, all of which happened during and
after extremely low lake water level periods. The first of those was recorded in 1989 1990
(Romic et al 1997), the second one in 2003-2004 and the most prominent one in the recent
2007 and 2008 in particular. What the extents of the unfavourable hydrological circumstances
were during the year 2008 is best illustrated with the mean annual lake and sea water level
difference. While the average lake water level elevation in relation to the sea water level was
51 cm during the observation period, during the year 2008 the reverse situation was noted for
the first time which meant that the mean annual lake water level was lower than the mean
annual sea water level for 7 cm.


y
Sea
= 0.0108x - 20.541 y
Lake
= 0.0031x - 5.2357
y
Precipitation
= -0.0064x + 13.843
0,40
0,60
0,80
1,00
1,20
1,40
1,60
1978 1983 1988 1993 1998 2003 2008
Year
K
Sea
Lake
Precipitation


Figure 3 Modular value of lake water level, precipitation and sea level variations (1979 -
2008)


-0,2
0,2
0,6
1,0
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Salinity (mgl
-1
)
L
e
v
e
l

d
i
f
e
r
e
n
c
e

(
l
a
k
e

-

s
e
a
)


(
m
)
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
Level dif erence
(lake - sea)
Chlorides - I
Chlorides - II


Figure 4 Annual lake water level and sea water level differences and maximum salinity
recorded at the stations on Kotarka mouth (I) and Crkvina (II) in Lake Vrana (1982-2008)

Figure 5 shows hourly lake and sea water levels, and Prosika canal outflow volume
from Vrana lake for the recent critical year 2008. It is clear that the lake water level was under
the Prosika canal bottom level for larger part of the year. During this period not only was
there no lake water spillway, but in situations when the sea water was higher than the lake
water (during high tide almost on daily basis) the sea slowed down the spillway from the lake
and salted the water in the canal in return. During overdrying of the lake outflow the sea flew
176

immediately into the lake through the canal but also fed the karst aquifer. The critical
conditions of the year 2008 can be best illustrated by the fact that the total annual outflow
volume (from the lake into the sea) through Prosika canal was only about 0.19 mil.m
3
, which
is neglectable in comparison to the average amount of about 31.8 mil.m
3
for the observation
period 2000 2008.



Figure 5 Observed Vrana lake water level and sea water level and outflow from the lake
during 2008

Extreme salinization of the lake which was going on in 2007 and especially 2008 is
shown in Figure 6. Recorded chloride concentration values at the measuring station Kotarka
canal mouth in the northwest part of the lake varied from 424 mgl
-1
to 4000 mgl
-1
for 2007-
2008 with the average being 2007 mgl
-1
in relation to the average of 590 mgl
-1
for the
previously analyzed period. On the nearby measuring site Crkvine the recorded values during
2007 and 2008 varied from 360 mgl
-1
to 4100 mgl
-1
, the average being 1669 mgl
-1
in relation
to the average of 650 mgl
-1
for the previously analyzed period. In the south-eastern part of the
lake near Prosika canal there is also a large number of coastal springs through which the salty
water flows into the lake. There, even higher values of salinity were recorded: in 2007-2008
chlorides varied between 395 mgl
-1
and 6500 mg/l, the average being 2331 mgl
-1
, in relation
to the average of 590 mgl
-1
for the previously analyzed period from 2000 to 2006. During the
analyzed period of the so far highest recorded Vrana lake salinity (20072008), the mean lake
water level was only 0.41 m a. s. l., while the mean value for the period 2000-2006 was 1.04
m a. s. l. During that critical period the sea water level was 0.38 m a. s. l which indicates an
increase of 2 cm in relation to the average value of 0.36 m a. s. l for the previous period. The
average precipitation volume recorded at Stankovci station during 2007-2008 was 757.2 mm,
which is ca 17% less than the measured average value for the previous 7-year period.
It can be stated that such an intensive salinization in the past two years was primarily
caused by a coincidence of several unfavourable hydrological conditions also helped by
anthropogenic influence, namely, existence of Prosika drainage canal, cut off at a level much
too low for the present lake-sea water level interrelations.
The observed and extremely significant problem of sea water flow into Vrana lake
during the analyzed year of 2008 brought the need for constructing a lock gate on Prosika
canal into focus. This lock gate construction proposal was accentuated five years ago because
the lock gate could be used to control the lake water level and ensure the elevation of the lake
177

water level and lake system low water elevation increase during draught periods. Should that
not be the case and should the extremely draughty hydrological conditions and sea water level
increase continue, the consequences of once performed structural intervention by which the
cultivable area around Vrana lake was enlarged would be incalculable in terms of the lake
ecosystem.

0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
J
a
n
-
0
7
F
e
b
-
0
7
M
a
r-
0
7
A
p
r
-
0
7
M
a
y
-
0
7
J
u
n
-
0
7
J
u
l-
0
7
A
u
g
-
0
7
S
e
p
-
0
7
O
c
t-
0
7
N
o
v
-
0
7
D
e
c
-
0
7
J
a
n
-
0
8
F
e
b
-
0
8
M
a
r-
0
8
A
p
r
-
0
8
M
a
y
-
0
8
J
u
n
-
0
8
J
u
l-
0
8
A
u
g
-
0
8
S
e
p
-
0
8
O
c
t-
0
8
N
o
v
-
0
8
D
e
c
-
0
8
C
h
l
o
r
i
d
e

c
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n

(
m
g
/
l
)
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n

(

*

1
0

m
m
)
0,0
0,1
0,2
0,3
0,4
0,5
0,6
0,7
0,8
0,9 Lake level (masl)
Precipitation
Chlorides - I
Chlorides - II
Chlorides - III
Lake level


Figure 6 Overview of monthly precipitation volume, water level and chloride content

4 Conclusion
The paper has determined that the global processes in the coastal area which are
characteristic for the aquatic appearances in the whole Mediterranean have been recently
intensively manifested in the area of Lake Vrana and its karst aquifer. Global climate change /
climate variations in the form of unfavourable precipitation trend and rise in sea water level,
as well as anthropogenic interventions in Vrana Lake catchment area, influenced the lake
water level variations and outflows from the lake, causing the occurrence of extremely salty
water inflows into the lake system during 2007 and 2008. It is established that salinization
occurs both immediately, through the Prosika drainage canal as well as through two sets of
springs located in the south-eastern part of the lake round Prosika canal and in Vrana field.
The risk of lake salinization is totally doubtless under given conditions. Therefore, the
recommendation is to introduce a lake outflow regulation by lock gate construction which
would ensure the rise in minimum lake water levels, in order to stabilize the lake system and
preserve the existing ecosystem of the Vrana Lake Nature park.

Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the Nature Park Vrana Lake for their support and cooperation.

References
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Blue Plan for the Mediterranean. Regional Activity Centre, Sophia-Antipolis, France, 91 pp
Berakovic M (1983) Proucavanje rezima voda Vranskog jezera. In: Proc. Jugoslavenski
simpozij o inzinjerskoj hidrologiji, Vol I, Split, Croatia, November 1983, Gradevinski institut,
Zagreb, pp 272-284
Bolle HJ (2003) Mediteran Climate Variability and Trends. Springer Verlag, Berlin
Custodio E (2002) Aquifer Overexploitation: What Does lt Mean? Hydrogeology
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Fritz F (1984) Postanak i starost Vranskog jezera kod Biograda na moru. Geoloski
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Dalmatinskih slivova, Zagreb, unpublished


179

Protection of the Miljacka karst spring: an underground
connection between the rivers Zrmanja and Krka

Josip TERZI, Ante PAVII, Tamara MARKOVI, Jasmina LUKA REBERSKI

Croatian Geological Survey, Sachsova 2, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia,
e-mails: jterzic@hgi-cgs.hr; apavicic@hgi-cgs.hr; tmarkovic@hgi-cgs.hr; jlukac@hgi-cgs.hr


Abstract: Miljacka is a karst spring situated in the Krka River canyon, in Dalmatia, Croatia. Its
catchment is mostly built of karstified carbonate rocks and it is a part of well known Dinaric karst.
During the last few years a bulk research program was performed in the Miljacka spring catchment
area. Achieved results comprise all previous conclusions, together with some new aspects. The
main reason for this research was establishment of sanitary protection for this strategically
important karst spring. Sanitary protection zones were proposed, but because of some new
understandings of this complex karst system, they will have to be extended in the future with parts
of the Krka River catchment area. Although the Miljacka spring is situated in the Krka River
canyon, majority of its water flows from quite distant Zrmanja River, which was proven by dye
tracer tests in the past. During the recent research, hydrochemical investigation of the Miljacka
proven that it is only partially true, and some portion of the spring water originate from the Krka
River as well. Therefore, significant parts of the terrain will have to be added to the Miljacka
spring catchment area and to sanitary zones as well. The most of the investigated area is built of
karstified carbonate rocks, of Eocene-Oligocene (Promina rock mass), Cretaceous, Jurassic and
Triassic. Complexity of this karst system is especially presented with the main characteristics of
the Zrmanja River, which usually dries out in the swallow-hole zones during the summer dry
season. These swallow-hole zones are active throughout the year and water that infiltrates the karst
underground in that area discharges mostly at the Miljacka spring. This hanging part of the
Zrmanja River was proven with boreholes in the past years, but that phenomenon should be
investigated in detail. The main problem for any hydro-researcher of the Miljacka spring is
shortage of the measured discharge data. This can be avoided in the future either by construction
of the direct measuring place, or by measurements on the Krka River profile, but very close to the
Miljacka (up and down stream), because the possibility of existence of swallow holes in river bed
is quite high.
Keywords: karst spring, hydrogeology, sanitary protection zones, Dalmatia, Croatia


1 Introduction
The investigated area is situated in northern Dalmatia. It is part of the Dinaric karst
region, known for its karstified carbonate rocks, deep and irregular karstification, and the
preferential groundwater-flow paths.
Miljacka is a typical karst spring situated in the canyon of the Krka River, only a few
meters away from the river itself. The canyon is 150 m deep and very steeply cut, present in a
relatively undisturbed plateau consisting of Eocene-Oligocene Promina rock mass (Fig. 1).
The rock mass consists of almost horizontal and relatively thick beds of conglomerates,
limestones, and marly carbonates. Although these beds differ in their hydrogeological
properties, the rock mass can be considered relatively permeable because it is fractured and
karstified. Although the Miljacka spring is in the Krka Rivers canyon, it gets the major
portion of its water from another river, Zrmanja. This has been proven with a tracing test
(Fritz et al. 1986). In the past, the Miljacka spring catchment area has been researched many
times, and the results are very different. Such diverse data indicate extremely complex
relations in this karst system. Initially, the catchment was determined in 1967 by Komatina
180

(290 km
2
). A significant improvement was established after two tracer tests (Fritz et al. 1986,
Kapelj and Fritz 1987), when Fritz and Pavii (1982, 1987, 1990) added huge parts of the
Zrmanja River catchment, until the Miljacka spring catchment reached an area of 639 km
2
. In
the last few years, detailed hydrogeological mapping and hydrogeochemical research were
carried out (Terzi et al. 2008) with the purpose of establishment of the sanitary protection
zones. As a result, this catchment was limited to an area of 516 km
2
, along with the remark
that there is a partial influence from the Krka River too, which cannot be omitted.



Figure 1 Krka River canyon; at the right river-bank Miljacka spring and extraction site; at the
left river-bank Miljacka power plant. Visible morphology plateau, deep canyon, and
carbonate rock mass with thick subhorizontal beds.

2 Regional hydrogeological setting
The researched area belongs to the Dinaric karst region and it is mostly composed of
fractured and karstified carbonate rocks. Because of the intensive tectonical dynamic of the
area these rocks are karstified to a high extent (Herak et al. 1969, Pami et al. 1998). In the
Miljacka spring catchment area there are clastic Triassic and Tertiary rocks, and the
carbonates or Jurassic and Cretaceous prevail (Babi and Zupani 2007). In the catchment
area there are practically no real barriers for the karst groundwater. Subhorizontal orientation
of Eocene-Oligocene Promina rocks has a positive role considering Miljacka spring sanitary
protection, because the water infiltrated through many diverse beds (over 100m thick all
together) in close hinterland would not have as high impact on the spring water. Tectonical
features in close hinterland make main preferential paths for the groundwater flow. There is
synclinal structure through which groundwater preferentially flows toward the springing site.
Quaternary sediments cover only some karst poljes and do not have significant influence on
the karst groundwater flow. All of these karstified rocks can be taken as permeable, and the
content of limestones and dolomites indicates if the rock mass is more or less permeable in a
particular area. Due to tectonics (fracturing) and karstification (dissolution), preferential
groundwater flow zones are developed and most of the groundwater flow happens in these
181

paths. Still, whole rock mass is fractured and karstified and flow through the rocks out of
preferential zones should not be neglected as well.



Figure 2 Map of the researched area with sanitary protection zones (with position map in
detail) (Terzi et al. 2009). 1-groundwater divide; 2-sanitary protection zone boundary; 3-
Miljacka spring; I, II, III, IV proposed sanitary protection zones; A, B possible parts of
catchment, further research needed; C direction of Krka River and confluents impact, has to
be added to sanitary protection in the future.

Zrmanja River near the Prevjes area flows into karstified carbonate rock mass, where
lots of swallow holes were documented in the past. During the dry seasons, discharge of the
river is lower than the swallow holes capacity, and the river dries out. The hanging
character of the Zrmanja River was additionally proven by the observations in P-4 borehole
during the 1980s (Fritz et al. 1986; Fig. 3), where throughout the year karst groundwater level
never reached level of the Zrmanja River. Dye tracer tests in the past determined main
groundwater flow from these swallow holes in the Zrmanja River bed to the Miljacka spring
(Fritz et al. 1986). Noted groundwater velocity during this text was 1.31 cm/s, and that puts
whole that area in the 3
rd
sanitary protection zone according to Croatian legislation (Fig. 2).
After this test it was taken as a fact that water from the Miljacka spring originates from
182

Zrmanja. In the last researches (Terzi et al. 2008), hydrochemical study that was performed
had proven that it is only partially true, and there is a significant proportion of the spring
water that originates from the nearby Krka River. Such complexity of this karst system
emphasizes the need for more detailed research of this mixing phenomenon.



Figure 3 Situation and cross section of the Zrmanja River near location Prevjes presenting
hanging character of the river (Fritz et al. 1986).



Figure 4 Schematized hydrogeological profile of the researched area. 1-terra rossa
quaternary soil; 2-carbonate rocks, mostly limestones; 3-limestones, dolomitic breccias and
conglomerates exchange; 4-carbonates, dolomites prevailing; 5-normal geological boundary;
6-transgressive geological boundary; 7-fault with relative movement; 8-fold axis; 9-
schematized groundwater level

183

During the recent research (Terzi et al. 2008) the studied catchment was determined on
an area of 516 km
2
. Still, the influence of the Krka River was proven. In the next research
phases that will have to follow, the entire catchment of the Krka River upstream from the
Brljan retention should be added to the protected zone, together with Krkas confluents
Butinica, Kri, and Kosovica. This part of the catchment was never before included in the
Miljacka spring catchment area, so it was not embraced in the research program. The
chemical composition of the water from the Brljan retention (Krka River) showed very high
sulphate concentration. Sulphate occurs in the Kosovica River (the Krkas confluent), which
partially flows through an area consisting of sulphate rocks (gypsum and anhydrite). The
water from the Zrmanja near the Mokro polje contains very small concentrations of sulphate.
Mass balance and equilibrium calculations were carried out, and the results indicate that 66
84 % of the Miljacka water originates from the Zrmanja River, and the rest of the water is
derived from Krka River. Currently, water from the Miljacka spring is being used for the
public water supply for nearby settlements. The total amount extracted is 130 L/s; however,
there are plans for further extension and supply of water to a larger area (consumption about
400 L/s). This exposes one of the main problems faced by past, recent and future researchers:
lack of reliable data on Miljacka discharge. In numerous unpublished technical reports, very
different minimal discharges were noted, ranging from 200 L/s to a few m
3
/s. The value of a
few hundred L/s could be taken as an order of magnitude. The configuration of the spring in
the canyon near the Krka River does not allow direct measurement. Measurements in the Krka,
upstream and downstream from the Miljacka, are also not completely reliable because typical
karst conditions prevail. Possible springs or ponors (swallow holes) can occur in riverbeds.
Circumstances are additionally complicated by human influence because near the Miljacka
spring, at the other riverbank, there is a hydroelectric power plant that uses water from the
upstream Brljan retention (Fig. 1).

3 Hydrochemical research
Two sampling campaigns were undertaken in the study area in different hydrological
conditions: in May and September 2008. Water samples were collected from three springs
(Miljacka, Zrmanja and Krka), and from rivers Zrmanja in Mokro polje and Krka at the Brljan
retention. On site were measured EC, T, pH and oxygen content of sampled waters. Collected
samples were analyzed for major cations (Ca
2+
, Mg
2+
, Na
+
, K
+
) and anions (HCO
3
-
, SO
4
2-
, Cl
-
)
in order to distinguished the influences of rivers Zrmanja and Krka.

Ca
2+
(mmol/l)
Mg
2+
(mmol/l)
Na
+
(mmol/l)
K
+
(mmol/l)
HCO
3
-
(mmol/l)
Cl
-
(mmol/l)
SO
4
2-
(mmol/l)
M
i
l
j
a
c
k
a

s
p
r
i
n
g
-
0
5
-
0
8
M
i
l
j
a
c
k
a

s
p
r
i
n
g
-
0
9
-
0
8
K
r
k
a

s
p
r
i
n
g
-
0
5
-
0
8
K
r
k
a

s
p
r
i
n
g
-
0
9
-
0
8
Z
r
m
a
n
j
a

s
p
r
i
n
g
-
0
5
-
0
8
Z
r
m
a
n
j
a

s
p
r
i
n
g
-
0
9
-
0
8
K
r
k
a

B
r
l
j
a
n
-
0
5
-
0
8
K
r
k
a

B
r
l
j
a
n
-
0
9
-
0
8
Z
r
m
a
n
j
a

M
o
k
r
o

P
o
l
j
e
-
0
5
-
0
8
Z
r
m
a
n
j
a

M
o
k
r
o

P
o
l
j
e
-
0
9
-
0
8
0
1
2
3
4
5


Figure 5 Chemical composition of sampled waters in mmol/l
184


According to the chemical composition the waters from springs Krka, Zrmanja,
Miljacka and river Zrmanja in Mokro polje belong to the Ca-HCO
3
hydrochemical type, but
the sampled waters from Krka at the Brljan retention belong to Ca-HCO
3
SO
4
2-
hydrochemical
type (Fig. 5). The major ion chemistry of the springs systems are mainly controlled by
weathering of carbonate sediments (limestone) with minor contribution of CO
2
from
atmospheric and soil source. Except the waters from Krka at the Brljan retention, where ion
chemistry of the river water is partially controlled by the Kosovica River (the Krkas
confluent), which flows through an area consisting of sulphate rocks (weathering of gypsum
and anhydrite) and also, weathering of carbonate sediments (limestone) with minor
contribution of CO
2
from atmospheric and soil source.
The pH of the analyzed waters varies from 7.28 (Miljacka) to 8.41 (Krka at the Brljan
retention) (Fig. 6). In general, pH of sampled waters is slightly alkaline to alkaline, and
depends on amount of dissolved CO
2
which is controlled by decomposition of organic matter
in water and temperature (Stumm and Morgan 1996). The temperature of sampled waters
varies from 9.7 to 18.6
o
C (Fig. 6). The highest temperature values are measured in September
in river waters of Zrmanja and Krka (Fig. 6). The temperature of spring water is annual
average temperature of the air of the recharge area. The EC values vary from 304 (Zrmanja in
Mokro polje) to 673 uS/cm (Krka at the Brljan retention) (Fig. 7). Spring and river waters are
saturated with oxygen.
NETPATH (Plummer et al. 1994) an interactive computer program, was used to
interpret net geochemical mass-balance reactions between an initial (Zrmanja in Mokro polje
and Krka at the Brljan retention) and final (Miljacka spring) waters along a hydrologic flow
path. Also to compute the mixing proportions of two initial waters that can account for the
observed composition of final water. Mass balance, equilibrium and mixing calculations gave
as results that from 66 % (in September) to 84 % (in May) of the Miljacka water originates
from the Zrmanja, and the rest of the water is derived from Krka (Fig. 8). This was calculated
using STATISTICA software. Further studies are required in future to examine this mixing
phenomenon in a large number of groundwater samples.

T (
o
C)(L)
pH(R)
M
i
l
j
a
c
k
a

s
p
r
i
n
g
-
0
5
-
0
8
M
i
l
j
a
c
k
a

s
p
r
i
n
g
-
0
9
-
0
8
K
r
k
a

s
p
r
i
n
g
-
0
5
-
0
8
K
r
k
a

s
p
r
i
n
g
-
0
9
-
0
8
Z
r
m
a
n
j
a

s
p
r
i
n
g
-
0
5
-
0
8
Z
r
m
a
n
j
a

s
p
r
i
n
g
-
0
9
-
0
8
K
r
k
a

B
r
l
j
a
n
-
0
5
-
0
8
K
r
k
a

B
r
l
j
a
n
-
0
9
-
0
8
Z
r
m
a
n
j
a

M
o
k
r
o

P
o
l
j
e
-
0
5
-
0
8
Z
r
m
a
n
j
a

M
o
k
r
o

P
o
l
j
e
-
0
9
-
0
8
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
7,2
7,4
7,6
7,8
8,0
8,2
8,4
8,6


Figure 6 Temperature and pH distribution in sampled waters

185

EC (uS/cm)(L)
O
2
(%)(R)
M
i
l
j
a
c
k
a

s
p
r
i
n
g
-
0
5
-
0
8
M
i
l
j
a
c
k
a

s
p
r
i
n
g
-
0
9
-
0
8
K
r
k
a

s
p
r
i
n
g
-
0
5
-
0
8
K
r
k
a

s
p
r
i
n
g
-
0
9
-
0
8
Z
r
m
a
n
j
a

s
p
r
i
n
g
-
0
5
-
0
8
Z
r
m
a
n
j
a

s
p
r
i
n
g
-
0
9
-
0
8
K
r
k
a

B
r
l
j
a
n
-
0
5
-
0
8
K
r
k
a

B
r
l
j
a
n
-
0
9
-
0
8
Z
r
m
a
n
j
a

M
o
k
r
o

P
o
l
j
e
-
0
5
-
0
8
Z
r
m
a
n
j
a

M
o
k
r
o

P
o
l
j
e
-
0
9
-
0
8
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
105
110


Figure 7 EC and oxygen content of sampled waters

-0,2 0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0 1,2 1,4 1,6 1,8 2,0 2,2
SO
4
2-
(mmol/l)
1,4
1,6
1,8
2,0
2,2
2,4
2,6
2,8
3,0
C
a
2
+
(
m
m
o
l
/
l
)
Krka Brljan
Miljacka spring
Zrmanja in Mokro polje and other springs


Figure 8 Relationship between waters sampled in Miljacka spring and Zrmanja in Mokro
polje and Krka at the Brljan.

4 Sanitary protection zones
On the basis of previous and recently achieved knowledge, and according to current
Croatian legislation, groundwater sanitary protection zones were proposed (Fig. 2). Numerous
open questions point to a need for further research. Depending on the results thereof, sanitary
protection of this strategically important karst spring will have to be adjusted. Nevertheless,
the main conclusion of the presented data is the fact that groundwater that springs out at
Miljacka is a mixture of Zrmanja and Krka River waters, with higher ratio of Zrmanja. This
fact only corroborates known fact that water supply spring in karst areas should be protected
simultaneously, and not one by one. Sanitary zones of the Miljacka spring in the north are
also sanitary zones of water extraction sites in the Zrmanja River downstream. There are
numerous similar examples and researches for the sanitary protection zones of all these water
supply sites (springs, wells, rivers; even in the presented case study) should be done at the
same time within the same research program. Otherwise there will be high level of mix-up,
186

and of conflict of opinions. All these circumstances could only cause that the decision makers
will be forced to neglect every effort for the groundwater preservation.

Acknowledgements
The authors wish to acknowledge their gratitude to colleagues from ibensko-Kninska
county, investors of the research presented, and especially to dr. ivana Lambaa Belak. We
are also grateful to all researchers and authors of unpublished data and technical reports
connected with the studied area. The presented paper was done within the Basic
hydrogeological map of Croatia project, founded by the Croatian Ministry of science,
education and sports (project number 181-1811096-3165).

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INTERNATIONAL HYDROLOGICAL PROGRAMME (IHP)
UNESCO/Division of Water Sciences (SC/HYD)
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