Mughal Empire, Indian empire that ruled the subcontinent for more than 300 years from 1526

to 1858, except for a brief period under the Sur sultans (15401555). During its reign, the empire flourished for about 150 years from 1556 to 1707 under Akbar and his immediate successors, Jahangir, Shah Jahan, and Aurangzeb.

II

FORMATION AND EXPANSION

The Mughal Empire was founded in 1526 by Babur, a Central Asian Turk, after he had defeated the Lodi ruler of Delhi, Ibrahim, and occupied the capital at gra. Babur went on to conquer much of the northern Indian subcontinent, but died in 1530 before he could consolidate his empire. His son, Humayun, faced difficulties from the Afghans, the sultan of Gujart, and above all, in his own camp from his brothers and some of his fathers nobles. He was defeated by the new Afghan leader, Sher Khan Sur (later known as Sher Shah), wandered in exile in Persia, and finally settled in Kbul. After 15 years, by which time the Sur regime was in a shambles, Humayun recaptured Hindustan just before his death in 1556. His young son Akbar soon recovered the lost empire, expanding its frontiers almost to the entire upper India. Akbar, who is often considered the true founder of the Mughal Empire, laid the grounds for the significant economic growth and the fabulous art and building activities of his successors. He died in 1605 and was succeeded by his eldest son, Jahangir. Under Jahangir, who ruled until 1627, and Shah Jahan, who ruled from 1628 to 1658, the Mughals made significant gains in the Deccan Plateau region. The Mughals gained control over the Marathas, although on northwest borders they lost Kandahr to Persia and had difficulties against the Central Asian Uzbeks. In 1648 the Mughal capital was shifted from gra to Delhi. The empire achieved its greatest physical extent under Aurangzeb, who ruled from 1658 to 1707. By the

time of his death in 1707, nearly the whole subcontinent was under his rule, however, the symptoms of the demise of the Mughal Empire had also surfaced.

III

ADMINISTRATION AND THE NOBILITY

The imperial organization that sustained the empire through the years it flourished was the outcome of a long process of historical evolution. The roots of this evolution lay in the West and Central Asian Turko-Mongol traditions that the Mughals brought with them to India, as well as in the political organization in India under their predecessors. Babur introduced some Central Asian institutions. Humayun made a classification of the nobility and attempted to gain the favor of local chiefs. Under Akbar an imperial principle evolved that organized the ruling class and coordinated the interests of the state with local, powerful Hindu merchants. The Mughal ruling class was complex and varied, although integrated into a single imperial service. At higher levels this noble class comprised mainly Central Asians, Persians, Afghans, Indian Muslims, and Rajputs. No single ethnic or religious group, however, was large enough to challenge the supreme authority of the emperor. The key officials in the central government and the provinces were all appointed by imperial orders and were accountable directly to the emperor. The emperor was thus placed in a position of supreme power, which in turn was sustained by elaborate laws of court etiquette and royal prerogative. A system of honorific ranks (mansabs) organized the nobility and institutionalized the emperors relations with his officials. Each official held a rank that defined his position and the order of precedence in the official hierarchy and determined his status, pay, obligations, and army contingents. The Mughal tax system depended largely on the support these ranking officials secured from the local Hindu landed gentry (zamindars), who collected revenue from the peasants and paid it to the treasury, keeping part for themselves in return for their services and as a hereditary right over the land. The Hindu zamindars, spread all over the empire, emerged as one of the most important classes of intermediaries.

The tax demand in each region was stated in cash, its magnitude depended on the quality of soil and the level of cultivation. The peasants duly entered the market economy and tried cultivating high-value crops. The system encouraged a cash nexus, bustling bazaars, and an increase in the number of towns. All this coincided with Indias expanding commerce with the outside world, in the wake of the establishment of European and non-European trading companies during this period.

IV

THE EMPIRE AND SOCIETY

In an effort to be accepted into the local Hindu society, the Mughals adopted some Hindu political rituals and customsfor instance, they applied tika (mark made on the forehead using dye) to some political subordinates. This practice of respecting local religion and culture began with Babur, who advised Humayun to take special care of the religious susceptibilities of the local Indian peoples. Akbar solidified the practice with a political ideology that continued to be the bedrock of the state, despite some detractors, until the end of the Mughal Empire. Because of this effort the Mughal political and religious culture subsequently acquired a combination of beliefs, giving it a cosmopolitan overtone. The Mughals close relations with prominent ruling Rajput families were intended to ensure political stability and reinforce the legitimacy of their power. Furthermore, at lower levels the administration was largely in the hands of the Hindu officials. As a result, it was not only the local ruling aristocracy who allied with the Mughals but also a considerable portion of the urban Hindu clerical and trading castes (groups).

MUGHAL ARTISTIC ACHIEVEMENTS

The arts flourished during the Mughal period, which was one of the greatest eras of Indian art and architecture, evolving a new style that incorporated much Persian influence. The most prominent achievements were in architecture, manuscript illustration, and painting. Mughal architecture is most noted for the magnificence of the Taj Mahal, built under the rule of Shah Jahan. Other important

structures include the forts at gra and Delhi, the Jami Masjid (Great Mosque) in Fatehpur Sikri, and the tombs of Akbar and Humayun. The singular balance of design and intricacy, and the beauty of the detailed decorative work, make these structures some of the finest buildings ever created. The most highly developed aspect of Mughal art is found in illuminated manuscripts, illustrating secular works. Mughal painting focused on miniatures of courtly subjects and studies from nature. Decorative arts, including inlay work, painted glassware, and carpets of distinctive design, were also produced during this period. The music of north India was enriched by Persian influence combined with indigenous development.

VI

DECLINE AND COLLAPSE

By the beginning of the 18th

century, symptoms of a crisis appeared in the Mughal system. The Marathas had shaken the empire to its foundations by inflicting defeats on Mughal armies in the Deccan and the west. In northern India the Jat landlords and peasants had repeatedly challenged the imperial authority, while in the Punjab region in the northwest, rebellious groups embracing Sikhism emerged as a significant hostile force. Aurangzebs policies and the increasing association of his government with a narrow Islamic orthodoxy dealt a serious blow to the empire, as he reversed the time-honored tradition of Mughal rulership accepting indigenous culture. Despite Aurangzebs actions, the setback to the empire was only temporary, as his successors abandoned his policies. There were, however, several other factors that contributed to the final collapse of the empire. The terms on which the zamindars relations with the Mughal state were worked out depended on the strength or weakness of the people and the areas under zamindar control. In time, as the regions experienced economic growth, rulers in these regions felt strong enough to stand on their own. They not only refused to cooperate with the Mughals, which in turn affected Mughal military strength and ability to collect taxes, but were often up in arms. The nobles, on the other hand, had their own problems. They depended on the emperor for position and power and had no hereditary estates to bequeath to their

successors. The principal means of tax collection, which required local Hindu gentry to collect revenue from peasants while keeping part for themselves and paying the rest to a treasury, was cumbersome for the nobles. Its enforcement was thus resisted by the nobility even in the 17th century. Under the conditions of the 18th century, many nobles sought to carve out power bases of their own in league with the local magnates, throwing the interests of the empire overboard. The empire collapsed within 40 years of Aurangzebs death. However, while there was chaos in some regions, a kind of autonomous regional political order emerged broadly within the Mughal institutional framework. The symbols of the empire therefore outlived the demise of its de facto power.