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Solar Energy Vol. 72, No. 4, pp. 363375, 2002 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd S 0 0 3 8 0 9 2 X ( 0 2 ) 0 0 0 0 9 9 All rights reserved. Printed in Great Britain 0038-092X / 02 / $ - see front matter

COMPRESSORS DRIVEN BY THERMAL SOLAR ENERGY: ENTROPY GENERATED, EXERGY DESTROYED AND EXERGETIC EFFICIENCY
M. IZQUIERDO* , , M. DE VEGA**, A. LECUONA** and P. RODRIGUEZ**
Unidad Asociada de Investigacion de Energa y Medioambiente CSIC-UC3M o *Instituto de Ciencias de la Construccion Eduardo Torroja (CSIC), c / Serrano Galvache s / n . 28033 Madrid, Spain **Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Escuela Politecnica Superior, Avenida de la Universidad 30, 28911 Leganes, Madrid, Spain Received 30 June 2000; revised version accepted 30 November 2001 Communicated by BYARD WOOD

AbstractThis work is devoted to the study of the entropy generated, the exergy destroyed and the exergetic efciency of lithium-bromide absorption thermal compressors of single and double effect, driven by the heat supplied by a eld of solar thermal collectors. Two different applications have been considered and compared: air-cooled and water-cooled units. Water-cooled compressors work with temperatures and pressures lower than air-cooled compressors considering, in both cases, the same suction temperature, equal to 58C. While the absorption temperature in water-cooled compressors can reach 408C, in air-cooled systems it can vary between 308C and more than 508C. Under these conditions, the discharge temperature (boiling temperature within the desorber) of a single effect air-cooled unit lies between 65 and 1108C, the maximum discharge pressure being around 0.12 bar. The discharge temperatures (boiling temperature within the high pressure desorber) of the double effect air-cooled thermal compressor lies between 1108C for a nal absorption temperature of 308C, and 1808C for a nal absorption temperature of 508C. Discharge pressures can reach values of 0.3 and 1.5 bar, respectively. The lithium-bromide air-cooled thermal compressors of double-effect can be viable with absorption temperatures around 508C, when the temperature difference between the lithium-bromide solution and the outside air is about 88C. The double effect thermal compressor generates less entropy and destroys less exergy than the single effect unit, leading to a higher exergetic efciency. In both cases, the compression process of the cooling uid occurs with entropy reduction. 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. INTRODUCTION

Since the evidence that the planet global warming is related, among other sources, to the CO 2 generated in combustion processes, renewable energy is nowadays being explored as a potential way to reduce these CO 2 emissions. In the case of absorption chillers, the use of solar energy as the driving heat source in the desorber of systems cooled by water is well-known. In this sense, solar energy can contribute also to the reduction of the CO 2 emissions, as the combustion process necessary to drive the mechanical compressor employed in a conventional air-conditioning system is avoided. Besides, there are economical savings and environmental impact benets. However, the use of solar energy to heat the desorber of lithium-bromide absorption machines cooled by air was not known until now. A single effect absorption system consists of the following components: absorber, desorber,

Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; e-mail: mizquierdo@ietcc.csic.es 363

condenser, evaporator, heat-recoverer, expansion valve and throttle valve. If the system is of double effect, then an additional desorber, a heat recoverer and a throttle valve are also included. The set (desorbers, absorber, heat recoverers and throttle valves) absorbs refrigerant vapour at low pressure and low temperature, delivering it at the higher temperature and pressure dened at the condenser inlet. The suction side is the absorber and the discharge side is the desorber. This set of components plays, therefore, the same role as the mechanical compressor in conventional vapour compression systems. Since in absorption systems this set of components is driven by heat we call it a thermal compressor. Water is commonly used as the heat transfer medium to remove the heat from the thermal compressor through the absorber. Afterwards, this water can be cooled by means of an air-cooled heat exchanger or by means of a wet cooling tower (air-cooled or water-cooled systems). Since the nal absorption temperatures of the systems cooled by air are higher than the ones of similar systems cooled by water, discharge temperatures

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and pressures are also higher. Consequently, the temperature of the heat source driving the compressor (through the desorber) is also higher, thus diminishing the possibility of using heat of low thermal level (Izquierdo et al., 1994a,b; Rose et al., 1994). An entropic balance taking into account the entropy generation between internal uids and between these and the external uids is also useful, as was proposed by Meunier et al. (1996) and Chua et al. (1997). However, there is little bibliography on the irreversibilities generated, which can only be evaluated on the basis of the Second Law. For these reasons, research work for designing air-cooled multiple-effect machines has been undertaken in order to understand the obstacles that prevent their development. The main difculties arise from the high working temperatures in the absorber. Nonetheless, the authors have developed an air-cooled double-effect prototype, where the problems they have solved are related with the thermal compressor. In short, the construction of an absorber (suction side) able to work with nal absorption temperatures around 508C when the outside air temperature is around 428C has been achieved. This paper shall determine the entropy generated, the exergy destroyed and the exergetic efciency of single- and double-effect thermal

compressors cooled by water or by air and driven by solar energy.

2. TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE IN THERMAL COMPRESSORS

We will focus our study on the following set of components: desorbers, heat recoverers, solution pump, throttling solution valves and absorber, as sketched in Figs. 4 and 5. This set of components absorbs refrigerant vapour at low pressure and low temperature at the absorber inlet and, by means of an irreversible compression, increases its pressure and temperature, generating superheated vapour at high pressure and high temperature at the impulsion end of each desorber. Therefore it fulls the same function as the mechanical compressor. The thermodynamic properties and the working conditions of the solution circulating through the thermal compressors of single- and double-effect have been determined by the described cycles of the LiBrH 2 O solution and the refrigerant on the Duhring, Merkel and Mollier diagrams. We have obtained the entropy of the solution from the Feuerecker et al. (1994) diagram (s, x), and that of the refrigerant from the Mollier diagram. Figs. 13 show the working temperatures and pressures of thermal compressors cooled by water

Fig. 1. Temperatures of the single- and double-effect thermal compressors.

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Fig. 2. Pressure in the desorber of water-cooled thermal compressors.

Fig. 3. Pressure in the desorber of air-cooled thermal compressors.

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supplied from a cooling tower and by air. Temperatures and pressures of the air-cooled thermal compressor are higher, but they remain relatively close to those found in the water-cooled compressor. Pressure gradients are also higher, but remain moderate. The maximum boiling temperature in the desorber of the single effect compressor reaches 1108C at 0.12 bar, while that of the double effect compressor reaches 1808C at 1.5 bar.
3. ENTROPY GENERATION AND EXERGY DESTRUCTION MODEL

According to Bejan et al. (1996), the exergetic balance applied to a xed control volume is given by the following equation, 05 T OS1 2 ]DQ 2 W 1 Om e 2 Om e 2 E T
0 j j cv i i o o D

Fig. 4. Single effect thermal compressor fed by a thermal collector.

(1) where Q is the heat transfer rate from or to the system; Wcv the mechanical power supplied by or to the system; ED the exergy destroyed because of the internal irreversibilities, and e the physical component of the exergy transfer, associated with the streams of matter. When the kinetic and potential energies are neglected, according to Bejan et al. (1996), e can be evaluated as, e 5 (h 2 h 0 ) 2 T 0 ? (s 2 s 0 ). (2)

The specic exergy of a ow of matter destroyed as a consequence of the specic entropy generated can also be evaluated applying the GouyStodola theorem (see Bejan et al., 1996) as eD 5 T0 ? sg (3)

refrigerant vapour (point 4) coming from the evaporator and by means of a compression produces refrigerant, as superheated vapour at high pressure and high temperature (point 1). To carry out this transformation, the solution ow must be provided with work. This work is: on the one hand, the exergy of the heat of the external uid that feeds the desorber, on the other hand, the exergy transfer to the solution by means of the pump, which is driven with electricity. According to Fig. 1, the discharge temperature may reach 1108C. The heat necessary to drive this compressor can be generated by a eld of thermal solar collectors of low concentration or by a eld of vacuum pipe solar converters. Both systems are able to produce heat at temperatures around 1208C.

4.1. Desorber
This component is on the discharge side of the compressor. The external thermal uid, pressurized hot water, heated by vacuum tube solar collectors (without or with concentrators, also known as CPCs), drives the compressor, via the desorber. The vacuum tubes have an efciency that can be obtained with the following expression: 5 0.74 2 1.47x 1 0.0078x 2 , provided by VIESSMANN. For the CPCs (SOLEL CPC2000) the collector efciency is obtained according to the equation: 5 0.828 2 2.50x 2 0.01x 2 . In both cases t in 1 t out ]]] 2 t amb 2 x 5 ]]]]], I where t amb is the ambient temperature and I is the

where s g is the specic entropy generated, and T 0 is the reference temperature. In the present work T 0 5298 K, which is the comfort temperature. In the analysis that follows, heat losses to the ambient air will not be taken into account.
4. THE SINGLE EFFECT THERMAL COMPRESSOR DRIVEN BY SOLAR ENERGY

A thermal compressor of single effect, such as was described by Izquierdo et al. (1999), driven by solar energy, is represented in Fig. 4 (the solar heat storage system is not included). It consists of an absorber, a desorber, the heat recoverer, the solution pump and the throttling valve. The compressor, driven by the heat produced by a eld of solar collectors, absorbs the low pressure

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solar radiation (W/ m 2 ). This type of solar collector can work with temperatures around 90 to 1308C. The physical and thermodynamic properties of the external thermal uid have been evaluated taking into account that a temperature difference (in our case 108C) is necessary to transfer the solar heat to the solution in the desorber. The desorber transfers the exergy associated with the heat of the solar thermal uid towards the solution, rich in refrigerant. Referring to Fig. 4, this produces superheated refrigerant vapour, which separates from the solution (1). The concentrated solution (8) comes back to the absorber through the heat recoverer (9) and the throttling valve (10). According to Herold et al. (1996), temperature deviations in heat exchangers have an important inuence on refrigerating machines. In the present study, the energy source feeding the desorber (the solar thermal uid circulating through the solar collector) is pressurised hot water, transferring its sensible heat to the solution. As stated above, in the desorber, a temperature difference of 108C between the concentrated solution and the external uid outlet has been estimated, while the solar thermal uid decreases its temperature by 88C. Energy and mass balances allow us to determine the heat transferred by the external uid to the solution within the desorber 0 5 m s h 7 1 m efd h id 2 (m s 2 m r )h 8 2 m r h 1 2 m efd h od . (4)

According to Eq. (3), the generated entropy will be Sgd 5 [m r (s 1 2 s 8 ) 1 m s (s 8 2 s 7 )] 1 m efd (s od 2 s id ). (8)

4.2. Solution heat recoverer

For the heat recoverer, following the same method as above, we obtain: 0 5 2 m s h 7 1 m s h 6 1 (m s 2 m r )h 8 2 (m s 2 m r )h 9 (9)

Om e 5 m (h 2 h ) 2 m T (s 2 s )
ir ir s 6 0 s 0 6 0 ir

1 (m s 2 m r )[(h 8 2 h 0 ) 2 T 0 (s 8 2 s 0 )]

(10)

Om e
or

or or

5 m s (h 7 2 h 0 ) 2 m s T 0 (s 7 2 s 0 ) (11)

1 (m s 2 m r )[(h 9 2 h 0 ) 2 T 0 (s 9 2 s 0 )] EDr 5 m s T 0 (s 7 2 s 6 ) 1 (m s 2 m r )T 0 (s 9 2 s 8 ).

(12) The rst term is positive while the second one is negative. The balance of exergy destruction is positive and the production of entropy is Sgr 5 m s (s 7 2 s 6 ) 1 (m s 2 m r )(s 9 2 s 8 ). (13)

4.3. Solution pump

The pump transports the diluted solution (rich in refrigerant) in liquid state from the suction side (absorber) to the discharge side (desorber), raising its pressure. We calculate the energy transferred by the pump w p to the solution from the following energy balance 0 5 2 wp 2 msh6 1 msh5. (14)

The exergy of the uids that enter the desorber is

Om e Om

id id

5 m efd (h id 2 h 0 ) 2 m efd T 0 (s id 2 s 0 ) 1 m s (h 7 2 h 0 ) 2 m s T 0 (s 7 2 s 0 ) (5)

the exergy of the mass ow that comes out being:

od od

e 5 (m s 2 m r )[(h 8 2 h 0 ) 2 T 0 (s 8 2 s 0 )] 1 m efd (h od 2 h 0 ) 2 m efd T 0 (s od 2 s 0 ) 1 m r (h 1 2 h 0 ) 2 m r T 0 (s 1 2 s 0 ). (6)

The exergy of the solution at the pump intake (ip) and impulsion (op), and the destroyed exergy are, respectively

We obtain the exergy destroyed because of the irreversibilities in the heat transfer between the external uid and the solution by applying Eq. (1), and taking into account Eq. (4) EDd 5 T 0 [m r (s 1 2 s 8 ) 1 m s (s 8 2 s 7 )] 1 m efd T 0 (s od 2 s id ). (7)

Om e
ip

ip ip

5 m s (h 5 2 h 0 ) 2 m s T 0 (s 5 2 s 0 ) 2 w p (15)

Om
op

op op

e 5 m s (h 6 2 h 0 ) 2 m s T 0 (s 6 2 s 0 )

(16) (17)

EDp 5 m s T 0 (s 6 2 s 5 ) . 0. Thus, the entropy generated is Sgp 5 m s (s 6 2 s 5 ).

The rst two terms are positive while the third one is negative. The global balance is positive.

(18)

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4.4. Throttling valve

This component reduces the pressure of the concentrated solution from the high pressure in the impulsion of the compressor (desorber) towards the low pressure in the suction side of the compressor (absorber). The following equations show the energy balance (19), the solution exergy at the entrance (20) and in the way out (21) through the pressure reduction valve. They show also the destroyed exergy (22) and the entropy generated (23) 0 5 (m s 2 m r )h 9 2 (m s 2 m r )h 10 (19)

Om
itv

itv itv

5 (m s 2 m r )(h 9 2 h 0 ) 2 (m s 2 m r )T 0 (s 9 2 s 0 ) (20)

Om
otv

otv otv

5 (m s 2 m r )(h 10 2 h 0 ) 2 (m s 2 m r )T 0 (s 10 2 s 0 ) (21) (22) (23)

EDtv 5 (m s 2 m r )T 0 (s 10 2 s 9 ) Sgtv 5 (m s 2 m r )(s 10 2 s 9 ).

EDtv is higher than zero, since the difference (s 10 2 s 9 ) is positive.

4.5. Absorber
The absorber is the component of the thermal compressor that absorbs refrigerant vapour at low pressure and low temperature which condenses in the solution. Classical absorbers cooled by air have to transfer the absorption heat rst from the solution to an intermediate uid, generally water, and afterwards from this water to the air. Consequently an intermediate heat exchanger between the solution and the air is necessary. This heat exchanger has the same function as a dry cooling tower. The total temperature difference between the solution and the air is shared by the solution water heat exchanger and by the wateroutside air heat exchanger. Since air is not an efcient heat exchanger uid, greater surfaces of exchange are necessary to reduce the solution temperature close to the outdoor air temperature. In an absorber cooled by air, where the solution and the air are separated by two metallic surfaces (two heat exchangers), the absorption temperature can reach 588C, when the dry bulb temperature of the ambient air is around 428C. In these conditions, the lithium bromide absorption thermal compressor cooled by air cannot work. If absorption temperatures around 52558C are wanted, the

heat exchanger surfaces must be enlarged, and the system becomes expensive, large and heavy. A solution to this problem is to design an absorber able to close the solution temperature to the outside air temperature as much as possible. In our laboratory, an absorber working under the principle of mass transfer in equally sized drops has been designed and built. This absorber also works with the mass transfer process separated from the heat transfer process. Between the solution and the external air there is just a metallic surface (one heat exchanger). The absorption heat is directly transferred to the air by means of the solutionair heat exchanger. This absorber is at present being patented. The temperature difference between the solution and the air has been reduced to 6108C, i.e. with an external dry bulb temperature of 428C, a nal absorption temperature of 528C can be reached. This reduction allows smaller concentrations in the solution. With an evaporating temperature of 88C, concentration at the absorber outlet is 62%. At this evaporating temperature, the crystallisation begins at a concentration of 66%. This allows concentrating the solution at the desorber, without risks of crystallisation, up to 3%. Besides, the external dry bulb temperature on a very hot day may vary in Spain from 30 to 428C but, according to Izquierdo et al. (1997), temperatures higher than 38 8C occur only during very few summer days. Therefore, during those days, since much of the time the temperature is below 388C, the cycle will work most of the time in good conditions. Just during the few hours with temperatures surpassing 408C, the absorption temperature approaches 508C. Finally, in this study, we will assume that the temperature increase in the absorber external uid is 88C. The equilibrium temperature in the absorber is obtained by transferring the absorption heat to the external uid. By means of a mass and energy balance in the absorber of Fig. 4, we obtain, 0 5 (m s 2 m r )h 10 1 m r h 4 1 m efa h ia 2 m efa h oa 2 msh5. (24)

The exergy of the mass ows entering the absorber, i.e. low pressure refrigerant vapour, concentrated solution and external uid is,

Om e
ia

ia ia

5 m r (h 4 2 h 0 ) 2 m r T 0 (s 4 2 s 0 )

1 [(m s 2 m r )(h 10 2 h 0 ) 2 (m s 2 m r ) 3 T 0 (s 10 2 s 0 )] 1 m efa (h ia 2 h 0 ) 2 m efa T 0 (s ia 2 s 0 ) (25)

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while the exergy of the uids coming out is

Om
oa

oa oa

e 5 m s (h 5 2 h 0 ) 2 m s T 0 (s 5 2 s 0 ) (26)

1 m efa (h oa 2 h 0 ) 2 m efa T 0 (s oa 2 s 0 ).

Replacing these two expressions in Eq. (1), and considering also (24), we get the destroyed exergy in the absorber EDa 5 T 0 [m r (s 10 2 s 4 ) 1 m s (s 5 2 s 10 )] 1 m efa T 0 (s ao 2 s ai ). (27)

The rst and second terms are negative, whereas the third is positive. The balance is positive. The entropy generated can be calculated by Sga 5 [m r (s 10 2 s 4 ) 1 m s (s 5 2 s 10 )] 1 m efa (s ao 2 s ai ). (28)

4.6. Total entropy generated and exergy destroyed

Summing up the above equations, the total entropy generated by the single thermal compressor is obtained as SgSE 5 m r (s 1 2 s 4 ) 1 m efd (s od 2 s id ) 1 m efa (s oa 2 s ia ) and the exergy destroyed EDSE 5 m r T 0 (s 1 2 s 4 ) 1 m efd T 0 (s od 2 s id ) 1 m efa T 0 (s oa 2 s ia ). (30) (29)

The second term in Eq. (30) corresponds to the entropy generated by the heat transferred from the external solar thermal uid, driving the compressor, to the solution within the desorber. This process is carried out with a decrease of entropy in the external solar thermal uid. The third term corresponds to the exergy destroyed because of the entropy increase within the external uid of the absorber. The absorber cooling is carried out with an increase of temperature and entropy of the external uid. The destroyed exergy is conveyed by the absorber external uid to the outside surroundings. Agreeing with the principle of entropy growth, the global balance of the entropy generated, Eq. (29), and the destroyed exergy in the thermal compressor, resulting from Eq. (30), are positive. In Figs. 69, we have represented the irreversibilities generated for 1 kg of refrigerant vapour obtained at the impulse of the thermal compressor. If the nal absorption temperature is around 508C the discharge temperature reaches |1108C (Fig. 1) and the thermal compressor works near the crystallisation line (62% of concentration). In this case, the ratio m s /m r can reach values higher than 20. According to Figs. 69, the irreversibilities are higher and the efciency of the single effect thermal compressor, in this extreme condition, will tend to fall.

4.7. Exergetic efciency

The exergetic efciency can be calculated as the ratio between the net exergy produced by the thermal compressor and the input exergy to the desorber, ETCo hex 5 ]]. ETCi (31)

The rst term is the decrease of entropy of the refrigerant vapour (steam) in the compression. Placing the co-ordinates of points 1 and 4 on the Mollier diagram, it can be seen that the entropy of the saturated steam in the compressor intake, s 4 , is higher than the entropy of the superheated steam in the desorber impulse, s 1 . Compression is accomplished with an entropy decrease. This is a surprising result when compared with the compression of other refrigerants like CFCs or ammonia. It is a consequence of the nature of the steam and also of its low superheating. If we represent the compression on the Mollier diagram for an evaporating temperature t e 558C and a condensing temperature t c 5508C, steam release occurs when temperature t 1 reaches 1108C, the maximum superheating being 558C. We can see that the compression will occur with an increase of entropy (s 1 . s 4 ) when the discharge temperature is t 1 .2508C and the superheating is larger than 2008C.

The input exergy to the thermal compressor (neglecting the exergy supplied by the pump) is the exergy transferred by the solar external uid: ETCi 5 m efd (h id 2 h od ) 2 m efd T 0 (s id 2 s od ) (32)

whereas the net exergy produced (exergy difference of the steam in the points 1 and 4, see Fig. 4), is given by, ETCo 5 m r (h 1 2 h 0 ) 2 m r T 0 (s 1 2 s 0 ) 2fm r (h 4 2 h 0 ) 2 m r T 0 (s 4 2 s 0 )g. (33)

In Figs. 10 and 11 the exergetic efciency is

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shown as a function of the absorption temperature.

5. THE DOUBLE EFFECT THERMAL COMPRESSOR DRIVEN BY SOLAR ENERGY

In Fig. 5 a simplied ow diagram of the double effect thermal compressor studied in this paper is represented. According to Fig. 1, the maximum discharge temperature is around 1808C, when the solar thermal compressor is cooled by air at a temperature around 408C (absorption temperature around 508C). If it is cooled with water, then the maximum temperature of the solution is about 1508C. Air-cooled absorption

systems do not use a cooling tower and for this reason they are more attractive. However, there are no at plate collectors available at present in the market to reach temperatures as high as 2008C. Parabolic concentrators, with concentration ratios ranging between 20 and 40, or the last generation of vacuum tube collectors (such as the VAC2008 type of SOLEL, with an efciency calculated as 5 0.74 2 0.65x 1 0.003x 2 ) are the only ones able to provide temperature levels as high as 2008C. Nowadays, as described by Hollands and Iynkaran (1993), Folkerts et al. (1995), Schweiger and Oliva (1998) and Benz (1995) some efforts are being carried out to develop a new generation of advanced at plate collectors of

Fig. 5. Double effect thermal compressor.

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complex design and geometry capable of increasing the collector operating temperature from 150 to 1808C. The normalization curve for one of those systems can be found in Benz (1995). Complex design is based in advanced plastic materials, inexpensive and lightweight, and honeycomb cells. With these advanced collector designs, the authors feel that air-cooled lithium bromide machines could be driven by solar energy in the near future. Following the same method employed with the single effect thermal compressor, we can obtain the following expressions for the entropy generated and the exergy destroyed for the double effect thermal compressor SgDE 5 m rH (s 1H 2 s 4 ) 1 m efHD (s oHD 2 s iHD ) 1 m rL (s 1L 2 s 4 ) 1 m rH (s LH 2 s 1H ) 1 m efa (s oa 2 s ia ) EDDE 5 m rH T 0 (s 1H 2 s 4 ) 1 m efHD T 0 (s oHD 2 s iHD ) 1 m rL T 0 (s 1L 2 s 4 ) 1 m rH T 0 (s LH 2 s 1H ) 1 m efa T 0 (s oa 2 s ia ). (35) (34)

produced in the high pressure desorber, summing to a total of 1 kg. In the worst conditions, i.e. ambient dry bulb temperature of 428C, the efciency of the low thermal compressor, as we saw before, is small. Nevertheless an improvement is achieved with respect to the single effect cycle, as the refrigerant obtained in the high pressure cycle is added to the one obtained in the low pressure cycle. Following the same method as for the single effect, the exergetic efciency, as a function of the nal absorption temperature, can be calculated. In this case the exergy output is the exergy of the refrigerant produced (LH and 1L in Fig. 5).
6. RESULTS

In the present case, the refrigerant produced in the low pressure desorber is added to the one

In Figs. 6 and 7 the results of the simulation obtained for the entropy generated by the thermal compressors of single- and double-effect are presented. The air-cooled compressor generates more entropy than the one cooled by water. The double effect compressor generates less entropy than the one of single effect but this difference tends to diminish as the temperature increases. Figs. 8 and 9 represent the exergy destroyed. In Figs. 10 and 11, the exergetic efciencies of

Fig. 6. Entropy generated by the water-cooled thermal compressor.

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Fig. 7. Entropy generated by the air-cooled thermal compressor.

Fig. 8. Exergy destroyed by the water-cooled thermal compressor.

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Fig. 9. Exergy destroyed by the air-cooled thermal compressor.

Fig. 10. Exergetic efciency of the single and double effect thermal compressors cooled by water.

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Fig. 11. Exergetic efciency of the single and double effect thermal compressors cooled by air.

the water-cooled and the air-cooled thermal compressors of single- and double-effect are presented. The double effect compressor has, in both cases, a higher exergetic efciency than the single effect unit.
7. CONCLUSIONS

In the present study the working conditions of lithium-bromide thermal compressors of singleand double-effect cooled by water or by air have been analysed. The entropy generation, the exergy destruction and the exergetic efciency have been calculated when the compressor is driven by heat transferred from solar collectors. The main results obtained are as follows. 1. The single effect lithium bromide thermal compressor cooled by air can be fed by the solar heat generated in vacuum tubes or by collectors of low concentration. For outside ambient temperatures around 408C, a nal absorption temperature of 508C can be reached. In these extreme conditions the thermal compressor operates near the crystallisation zone and the solution concentration can be increased a maximum of 3%. 2. The lithium bromide thermal compressor of double effect cooled by air, working with a

nal absorption temperature of 308C, generates discharging temperatures around 1108C. If the nal absorption temperature is 508C then the discharge temperature can reach 1808C. In this case, the temperature of the solar thermal uid driving the compressor is about 2008C and the heat produced with vacuum tubes or collectors of low concentration is not enough. 3. In extreme conditions, when the outdoor temperature is around 428C, the low desorber works near the crystallisation line and the concentration increase is limited to 3%. Nevertheless, the high-pressure desorber may produce more refrigerant that is added to the refrigerant produced by the low-pressure desorber. The double effect thermal compressor works with higher efciency than the single effect thermal compressor. In the future it could be fed with solar heat generated with at plate collectors of new generation (TIM), reaching temperatures of 1602008C, or by concentrators. 4. For the nal absorption temperatures studied, the following results are obtained: the entropy generated varies between 0.9 and 1.16 kJ / kg K for the double effect thermal compressor and between 1 and 1.2 kJ / kg K for the single effect; the exergy destroyed by the double

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effect varies between 276 and 347 kJ / kg. For the single effect, the exergy destroyed lies between 300 and 357 kJ / kg. 5. The exergetic efciency of the air-cooled thermal compressor of double effect is 10% greater than the exergetic efciency of the air-cooled thermal compressor of single effect. The exergetic efciency of the air-cooled thermal compressor of double effect is also 10% higher than the exergetic efciency of the water-cooled thermal compressor of single effect. The exergy of the solar radiation is better used by the air-cooled thermal compressor as the temperature of the external uid feeding the high desorber is higher.
NOMENCLATURE
E e HHR h LHR m S s T Q q t W w exergy, kJ specic exergy, kJ / kg high heat recoverer specic enthalpy, kJ / kg low heat recoverer mass ow, kg / kg entropy, kJ / kg specic entropy, kJ / kg K temperature, K heat, kJ heat for mass unit, kJ / kg temperature, 8C work, kJ specic work, kJ / kg

w 0

water refrigerated reference

Greek letters D increase S sum

AcknowledgementsThe authors want to express their gratitude to the Direccion General de Investigacion de la Consejera de Educacion y Cultura de la Comunidad Au tonoma de Madrid for their interest in the development of absorption refrigeration technology, and especially in this research work which has been undertaken under the partial nancial support of Research Projects COR 0048 / 94 and 07M / 0490 / 1997.

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Subscripts a absorber ai absorber inlet air air cooled ao absorber outlet c condenser D destruction DSE destroyed by single-effect DDE destroyed by double-effect d desorber di desorber inlet do desorber outlet e evaporator ef external uid efa external uid absorber efd external uid desorber g generated H high i inlet L low LH liquid high o out p pump R recoverer r refrigerant s solution TC thermal compressor tv throttling valve