Digital communication

Prof.Ashraf
BS (TELECOM)-7
Saira Batool (8248) Arooj Tahir (8264) Basit Khan ( 8213) Haider Ali (8220)
4/11/2011

CONTENTS
Physical Layer Function .................................................................................................................................................................. 7 ATM layer functions........................................................................................................................................................................... 8 ATM Adaptation Layer Functions (AAL) .................................................................................................................................. 8 Switching networks .......................................................................................................................................................................... 12 Performance Issues ......................................................................................................................................................................... 12 ATM Signalling:............................................................................................................................................................................... 14 Traffic Control in ATM Networks ............................................................................................................................................ 16 Congestion Control in ATM........................................................................................................................................................ 18 ATM interworking........................................................................................................................................................................... 18 Operations and Maintenance Cells (OAM) ........................................................................................................................... 20 Changing Network Requirements ............................................................................................................................................. 23 PDH Systems Worldwide ............................................................................................................................................................. 24 Comperison between SDH and PDH ....................................................................................................................................... 24 Limitations of Todays High Capacity Network................................................................................................................. 25 Advantages of SDH ( I) ................................................................................................................................................................. 26 Advantages of SDH (II ) ............................................................................................................................................................... 26 Advantages of SDH ( III ) ............................................................................................................................................................ 27 Frame Structure of the STM-1 Signal ..................................................................................................................................... 29 Section Overhead (SOH) .............................................................................................................................................................. 30 Structure of the RSOH ................................................................................................................................................................... 30 Structure of the MSOH .................................................................................................................................................................. 31 SDH Multiplexing section ............................................................................................................................................................ 31 path......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 32 REGENERATOR SECTION ..................................................................................................................................................... 32 SECTION ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 33 CONTAINER .................................................................................................................................................................................... 33 VIRTUAL CONTAINER............................................................................................................................................................. 33 PATH LEVEL ................................................................................................................................................................................... 33 TRIBUTARY UNIT ....................................................................................................................................................................... 34 ADMINISTRATIVE UNIT......................................................................................................................................................... 35 POINTER ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 35 SDH MAPPING ............................................................................................................................................................................... 35 SDH ALIGNING ............................................................................................................................................................................. 35

SDH RATES ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 35 SDH BIT RATE CALCULATION .......................................................................................................................................... 36 FINAL SDH FRAME .................................................................................................................................................................... 36 Functions and characteristics of the Path Overhead (POH) ........................................................................................... 38 Difference between PDH and SDH transport techniques................................................................................................ 40 Signal Processing ............................................................................................................................................................................. 40 We need pointers actions because ............................................................................................................................................. 41 Tasks of the Pointer ......................................................................................................................................................................... 41 AU4-Pointer ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 41 Mapping In SDH .............................................................................................................................................................................. 43 Multiplexing Elements ................................................................................................................................................................... 43 Multiplexing ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 44 Mapping 140Mb/S (E4) signal to c-4 ...................................................................................................................................... 44 Mapping 34Mb/s signals into C-3 ............................................................................................................................................. 47 Mapping 2Mb/s signals into C-12 ............................................................................................................................................. 50

ASYNCHRONOUS TRANSFER MODE (ATM) Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) has been accepted universally as the transfer mode of choice for Broadband Integrated Services Digital Networks (BISDN). ATM can handle any kind of information i.e. voice, data, image, text and video in an integrated manner. ATM provides good bandwidth flexibility and can be used efficiently from desktop computers to local area and wide area networks. ATM is a connection- oriented packet switching technique in which all packets are of fixed length i.e. 53 bytes(5 bytes for header and 48 bytes for information). No processing like error control is done on the information field of ATM cells inside the network and it is carried transparently in the network.

ATM meets the following objectives for BISDN networks. 1) Supports all existing services as well as emerging services in the future 2) Utilizes network resources very efficiently 3) Minimizes the switching complexity 4) Minimizes the processing time at the intermediate nodes and supports very high transmission speeds. 5) Minimizes the number of buffers required at the intermediate nodes to bound the delay and the complexity of buffer management 6) Guarantees performance requirements of existing and emerging applications.

BASIC CONCEPTS OF ATM  Information Transfer: ATM is a fast packet oriented transfer mode based on asynchronous time division multiplexing and it uses fixed length (53 bytes) cells. Each ATM cell consists of 48 bytes for information field and 5 bytes for header. The header is used to identify cells belonging to the same virtual channel and thus used in appropriate routing. Cell sequence integrity is preserved per virtual channel. ATM Adaptation layers (AAL) are used to support various services and provide service specific functions. This AAL specific information is contained in the information field of the ATM cell.  Routing: ATM is a connection oriented mode. The header values (i.e. VCI and VPI etc.) are assigned during the connection set up phase and translated when switched from one section to other. Signaling information is carried on a separate virtual channel than the user information. In routing, there are two types of connections i.e. Virtual channel connection (VCC) and Virtual path connection (VPC). A VPC is an aggregate of VCCs. Switching on cells is first done on the VPC and then on the VCC.

 ATM Resources: ATM is connection-oriented and the establishment of the connections includes the allocation of a VCI i.e. virtual channel identifier and/or VPI i.e. virtual path identifier and also includes the allocation of the required resources on the user access and inside the network. These resources, expressed in terms of throughput and quality of service, can be negotiated between user and network either before the call-set up or during the call.

 ATM Cell Identifiers: ATM cell identifiers, i.e. Virtual Path Identifier, Virtual Channel Identifier and Payload Type Identifier (PTI) are used to recognize an ATM cell on a physical transmission medium. VPI and VCI are same for cells belonging to the same virtual connection on a shared transmission medium. Basic ATM Cell Format

 Throughput: Peak Cell Rate (PCR) can be defined as a Throughput parameter which in turn is defined as the inverse of the minimum interarrival time T between two consecutive basic events and T is the peak emission interval of the ATM connection. PCR applies to both constant bit rate (CBR) and variable bit rate (VBR) services for ATM connections. It is an upper bound of the cell rate of an ATM connection and there is another parameter sustainable cell rate (SCR) allows the ATM network to allocate resources more efficiently.  Quality Of Service: Quality of Service (QOS) parameters include cell loss, the delay and the delay variation incurred by the cells belonging to the connection in an ATM network. QOS parameters can be either specified explicitly by the user or implicitly associated with specific service requests. A limited number of specific QOS classes will be standardized in practice.  Usage Parameter Control: In ATM, excessive reservation of resources by one user affects traffic for other users. So the throughput must be policed at the user-network interface by a Usage Parameter Control function in the network to ensure that the negotiated connection parameters per VCC or VPC between network and subscriber is maintained by each other user. Traffic parameters describe the desired throughput and QOS in the contract. The traffic parameters are to be monitored in real time at the arrival of each cell. CCITT recommends a check of the peak cell rate (PCR) of the high priority cell flow (CLP = 0) and a check of the aggregate cell flow (CLP = 0+1), per virtual connection.  Flow Control: In order to control the flow of traffic on ATM connections from a terminal to the network, a Generic Flow Control (GFC) mechanism is proposed by CCITT at the User to Network Interface (UNI). This function is supported by GFC field in the ATM cell header. Two sets of procedures are

associated with the GFC field i.e. Uncontrolled Transmission which is for use in point-to-point configurations and Controlled Transmission which can be used in both point-to-point and shared medium configurations.

ATM LAYERED ARCHITECTURE At the End User sites, ATM operates with a layered structure that is similar to the OSI 7-layered model. However, ATM only addresses the functionality of the two lowest layers of the OSI model: the physical layer (Layer 1) and the data link layer (Layer 2). All other layers are irrelevant in ATM, as these layers are only part of the encapsulated information portion of the cell which is not used by the ATM network. In ATM, the functionality of the two lower OSI layers is handled by three layers (shown here below the double line):

Application Layer User Layers ATM Adaptation Layer : Convergence Sub layer ----------------------------------Segmentation & Reassembly Sub layer ATM Layer Physical Layer : Transmission Convergence Sub layer ---------------------------------------Physical Medium Dependent Sub layer

PHYSICAL LAYER FUNCTION The physical layer of ATM is similar to layer 1 of the Open Systems Interconnections (OSI) model and performs bit level functions. It defines electrical characteristics and network interfaces. It is further divided into two layers: Physical Medium (PM) and Transmission Convergence (TC) sub-layer.  Physical Medium (PM): The PM sub-layer contains only the Physical Medium dependent functions. It provides bit transmission capability including bit alignment. It performs Line coding and also electrical/optical conversion if necessary. Optical fiber will be the physical medium and in some cases, coaxial and twisted pair cables are also used. It includes bit timing functions such as the generation and reception of waveforms suitable for the medium and also insertion and extraction of bit timing information.  Transmission Convergence (TC) sub-layer: The TC sub-layer mainly does five functions .The lowest function is generation and recovery of the transmission frame. The next function i.e. transmission frame adaptation takes care of all actions to adapt the cell flow according to the used payload structure of the transmission system in the sending direction. It extracts the cell flow from the transmission frame in the receiving direction. The frame can be a synchronous digital hierarchy (SDH) envelope or an envelope according to ITU-T Recommendation G.703. Cell delineation function enables the receiver to recover the cell boundaries. Scrambling and Descrambling are to be done in the information field of a cell before the transmission and reception respectively to protect the cell delineation mechanism. The HEC sequence generation is done in the transmit direction and its value is recalculated and compared with the received value and thus used in correcting the header errors. If the header errors cannot be corrected, the cell will be discarded. Cell rate decoupling inserts the idle cells in the transmitting direction in order to adapt the rate of the ATM cells to the payload capacity of the transmission system. It suppresses all idle cells in the receiving direction. Only assigned and unassigned cells are passed to the ATM layer.

ATM LAYER FUNCTIONS ATM layer is the layer above the physical layer. As shown in the figure, it does the 4 functions which can be explained as follows. Cell header generation/extraction: This function adds the appropriate ATM cell header (except for the HEC value) to the received cell information field from the AAL in the transmit direction. VPI/VCI values are obtained by translation from the SAP identifier. It does opposite i.e. removes cell header in the receive direction. Only cell information field is passed to the AAL. Cell multiplex and demultiplex: This function multiplexes cells from indiv- idual VPs and VCs into one resulting cell stream in the transmit direction. It divides the arriving cell stream into individual cell flows w.r.t VC or VP in the receive direction. VPI and VCI translation: This function is performed at the ATM switching and/or cross-connect nodes. At the VP switch, the value of the VPI field of each incoming cell is translated into a new VPI value of the outgoing cell. The values of VPI and VCI are translated into new values at a VC switch. Generic Flow Control (GFC): This function supports control of the ATM traffic flow in a customer network. This is defined at the B-ISDN User-to-network interface (UNI).

ATM ADAPTATION LAYER FUNCTIONS (AAL) AAL is divided into two sub-layers 1. Segmentation and reassembly(SAR) 2. Convergence sub layer(CS) SAR sub layer: This layer performs segmentation of the higher layer information into a size suitable for the payload of the ATM cells of a virtual connection and at the receive side, it reassembles the contents of the cells of a virtual connection into data units to be delivered to the higher layers. CS sub layer: This layer performs functions like message identification and time/clock recovery. This layer is further divided into Common part conver- gence sub layer(CPCS) and a Service specific convergence sub layer(SSCS) to support data transport over ATM. AAL service data units are transported from one AAL serv- ice access point(SAP) to one or more others through the ATM network. The AAL users can select a given AAL-SAP associated with the QOS required to

transport the AAL-SDU. There are 5 AALs have been defined, one for each class of service.

ATM STANDARDS The following are some of the basic ATM .  ITU-T I.361 Defines the ATM Layer functions.  ITU-T I.363 Defines the ATM Adaptation Layer protocols.  ITU-T I.610 Defines the ATM Operation and Maintenance (OAM) functions. ATM SWITCHING ATM Switching is also known as fast packet switching. ATM switching node transports cells from the incoming links to outgoing links using the routing information contained in the cell header and information stored at each switching node using connection set-up procedure. Two functions at each switching node are performed by a connection set up procedure. 1. A unique connection identifier at the incoming link and the link identifier and a unique connection identifier at the outgoing link are defined for each connection. 2. Routing tables at each switching node are set up to provide an association between the incoming and outgoing links for each connection. VPI and VCI are the two connection identifiers used in ATM cells. Thus the basic functions of an ATM switch can be stated as follows. Routing (space switching) which indicates how the information is internally routed from the inlet to outlet. Queuing which is used in solving contention problems if 2 or more logical channels contend for the same output. And final function is header translation that all cells which have a header equal to some value j on incoming link are switched to outlet and their header is translated to a value k. There are various switching networks existing and available from various manufacturers and research institutes for ATM switch architecture.  Queuing disciplines in an ATM switching element: There are mainly 3 different buffering strategies available determined by their physical location as follows.

 Input queuing: In this, the contention problem is solved at the input buffer of the inlet of the switching element. Each inlet contains a dedicated buffer which is used to store the incoming cells until the arbitration logic decides to serve the buffer. The switching transfer medium then switches the ATM cells from the input queues to the outlet avoiding an internal contention. The arbitration logic can be as simple as round-robin or can be complex such as taking into account the input buffer filling levels. However, this scheme has Head of Line (HOL) blocking problem i.e. if two cells of two different inlets contend for the same output, one of the cells is to be stopped and this cell blocks the other cells in the same inlet which are destined for different outlet. This queuing discipline can be shown by the following figure.

 Output Queuing: In this queuing discipline, queues are located at each outlet of the switching element and the output contention problem is solved by these queues. The cells arriving simultaneously at all inlets destined for the same output are queued in the buffer of the outlet. The only restriction is that the system must be able to write N cells in the queues during one cell time to avoid the cell loss where N is the total no. of inlets of the switch. In this mechanism, no arbitration logic is required as all the cells can be switched to their respective output queue. The cells in the output queue are served on FIFO basis to maintain the integrity of the cell sequence. The following figure illustrates this mechanism.

 Central Queuing: In this scheme, the queuing buffers are shared between all inlets and outlets. All the incoming cells are stored in the central queue and each outlet chooses the cells which are destined for it from this central memory. Since cells for different outlets are merged in this central queue, FIFO discipline is not followed in reading and writing of this queue. Cells can be written and read at random memory locations and this needs a complex memory management system for this scheme. The following figure shows this mechanism.

SWITCHING NETWORKS Switching Networks can be classified as follows.  Single-stage networks are characterized by a single stage of switching elements which are connected to the inputs and outputs of a switching network. Extended switching matrix Funnel-type network Shuffle exchange network  Multi-stage networks contain several stages which are interconnected by a certain link pattern are sub-divided as follows. Single-path networks (Banyan networks) Multiple-path networks PERFORMANCE ISSUES There are 5 parameters that characterize the performance of ATM switching systems. They are 1)Throughput 2)Connection Blocking Probability 3)Cell Loss Probability 4)Switching Delay 5)Jitter on the delay 1. Throughput: This can be defined as the rate at which the cells depart the switch measured in the number of cell departures per unit time. It mainly depends on the technology and dimensioning of the ATM switch. By choosing a proper topology of the switch, the throughput can be increased. 2. Connection blocking probability: Since ATM is connection oriented, there will be a logical connection between the logical inlet and outlet during the connection set up phase. Now the connection blocking probability is defined as the probability that there are not enough resources between inlet and outlet of the switch to assure the quality of all existing as well as new connection. 3. Cell Loss Probability: In ATM switches, when more cells than a queue in the switch can handle will compete for this queue, cells will be lost. This cell loss probability has to be kept within limits to ensure high reliability of the switch. In Internally Non-Blocking switches, cells can only be lost at their inlets/outlets. There is also possibility that ATM cells may be internally misrouted and they reach erroneously on another logical channel. This is called Cell Insertion Probability.

4. Switching Delay: This is the time to switch an ATM cell through the switch. The typical values of switching delay range between 10 and 1000Micro Seconds. This delay has two parts.  Fixed Switching Delay and it is because of internal cell transfer through the hardware.  Queuing delay and this is because of the cells queued up in the buffer of the switch to avoid the cell loss. 5. Jitter on the Delay: This is also called as Cell Delay Variation (CDV) and this is denoted as the probability that the delay of the switch will exceed a certain value. This is called a quantile and for example, a jitter of 100Micro seconds at a 10exp-9 quantile means the probability that the delay in the switch is larger than 100Micro seconds. Is smaller than 10exp-9. USER-NETWORK INTERFACES & PROTOCOLS  B-ISDN UNI Reference Configuration: Two elements can be used to describe a reference configuration of the User-Network access of B-ISDN. They are  Functional groups  Reference points. The following figure gives the reference configuration.

 B-NT1 functions are similar to Layer1 of the OSI Reference model and some of the functions are  Line Transmission Termination  Transmission Interface handling  OAM functions.  B-NT2 functions are similar to layer1 and higher layers of the OSI model. Some functions of B-NT2 are  Adaptation functions for different interface media and topology .  Multiplexing & de multiplexing and concentration of traffic  Buffering of ATM cells  Resource allocation & Usage parameter control  Signaling protocol handling  Interface handling  Switching of internal connections. SB and TB indicate reference points between the terminal and the B-NT2 and between B-NT2 and B-NT1 respectively. ATM SIGNALLING: The Signaling capability for ATM Networks has to satisfy the following functions. 1. Set up, maintain and release ATM virtual channel connections for information transfer. 2. Negotiate the traffic characteristics of a connection (CAC algorithms are considered for these functions.) Signaling functions may also support multi-connection calls and multi-party calls. Multi-connection call requires the establishment of several connections to set up a composite call comprising various types of traffic like voice, video, image and data. It will also have the capability of not only removing one or more connections from the call but also adding new connections to the existing ones. Thus the network has to correlate the connections of a call. A multi-party call contains several connections between more than two end-users like conferencing calls. Signaling messages are conveyed out-of band in dedicated signalling virtual channels in broadband networks. There are different types of signalling virtual channels that can be defined at the B-ISDN user-to-network interface. They can be described as follows.

 Meta-signalling virtual channel is used to establish, check and release point-to-point and selective broadcast signalling virtual channels. It is bidirectional and permanent.  Point-to-point signalling channel is allocated to a signalling endpoint only while it is active. These channels are also bidirectional and are used to establish, control and release VCCs to transport user information. In a point-to- multipoint signalling access configuration, meta-signalling is needed for managing the signalling virtual channels.

ATM NETWORKING The technology allows both public (i.e., RBOC or carrier) and private (i.e., LAN or LAN-to-internal switch) ATM networks. This capability gives a seamless and transparent (to the user) connection from one end user to another end user, whether in the same building or across two continents. The basic network structure is as shown below. .^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^. .-----------. | .--------. 2 .--------. | |End User 1 |-----|-| ATM |-------| ATM | | `-----------' 1 | | Switch | | Switch |---|-------+ | `--------' `--------' | | | ATM Network 1 | | `vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv' 3| | .^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^. | .-------------. | .--------. 2 .--------. | | | Private ATM |---|-| ATM |-------| ATM | | | | Switch | 1 | | Switch | | Switch |--|--------+ `------+------' | `--------' `--------' | 1| | ATM Network 2 | .-----+------. `vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv' | End User 2 | Three types of interfaces exist in this diagram:

1. User-to-Network Interface (UNI) 2. Network-to-Network Interface (NNI) 3. Inter-Carrier Interface (ICI) The UNI exists between a single end user and a public ATM network, between a single end user and a private ATM switch, or between a private ATM switch and the public ATM network of an RBOC. The NNI exists between switches in a single public ATM network. NNIs may also exist between two private ATM switches. The ICI is located between two public ATM networks (an RBOC and an interexchange carrier). All of these interfaces are very similar. The major differences between these types of interfaces are administrative and signalling related. The only type of signalling exchanged across the UNI is that required to set up a VIRTUAL CHANNEL for the transmission.  ATM for LANs:Traditional Local Area Networks(LANs) like Ethernet, Token Ring and Token Bus are limited in speed(10Mb) and thus are limited to particular type of (mainly data) application. For multimedia applications, the bandwidth requirement is high and the information is a combination of voice, video and data and it requires a transfer mode capable of transporting and switching these different types of information. ATM satisfies this requirement for LANs and ATM Forum was created to specify the interfaces for ATM LANs. ATM LANs may be used to interconnect multiple LANs and also to connect to powerful workstations and servers. TRAFFIC CONTROL IN ATM NETWORKS There are many functions involved in the traffic control of ATM networks which are given as follows. 1. Connection Admission Control: This can be defined as the set of actions taken by the network during the call set-up phase to establish whether a VC/VP connection can be made. A connection request for a given call can only be accepted if sufficient network resources are available to establish the end-to-end connection maintaining its required quality of service and not affecting the quality of service of existing connections in the network by this new connection. There are two classes of parameters which are to be considered for the connection admission control. They can be described as follows. A. Set of parameters that characterize the source traffic i.e. Peak cell rate, Average cell rate, burstiness and peak duration etc.

B. Another set of parameters to denote the required quality of service class expressed in terms of cell transfer delay, delay jitter, cell loss ratio and burst cell loss etc. 2. Usage Parameter Control (UPC) and Network Parameter Control(NPC): UPC and NPC perform similar functions at User-to-Network Interface and Network-to- Node Interface respectively. They indicate the set of actions performed by the network to monitor and control the traffic on an ATM connection in terms of cell traffic volume and cell routing validity. This function is also known as "Police Function". The main purpose of this function is to protect the network resources from malicious connection and to enforce the compliance of every ATM connection to its negotiated traffic contract. An ideal UPC/NPC algorithm meets the following features.  Capability to identify any illegal traffic situation.  Quick response time to parameter violations.  Less complexity and much simplicity of implementation. 3. Priority Control: CLP (Cell Loss priority) bit in the header of an ATM cell allows users to generate different priority traffic flows and the low priority cells are discarded to protect the network performance for high priority cells. The two priority classes are treated separately by the network Connection Admission Control and UPC/NPC functions to provide two requested QOS classes. 4. Network Resource Management: Virtual Paths can be employed as an important tool of traffic control and Network resource management in ATM networks. They are used to simplify Connection Admission Control (CAC) and Usage/ Network parameter control (UPC/NPC) that can be applied to the aggregate traffic of an entire virtual path. Priority control can also be implemented by segregating traffic types requiring different quality of service (QOS) through virtual paths. VPs can also be used to distribute messages efficiently for the operation of particular traffic control schemes like congestion notification. Virtual paths are also used in statistical multiplexing to separate traffic to prevent statistically multiplexed traffic from being interfered with other types of traffic, for example guaranteed bit rate traffic. 5. Traffic Shaping: Traffic shaping changes the traffic characteristics of a stream of cells on a VPC or VCC by properly spacing the cells of individual ATM connections to decrease the peak cell rate and also to reduce the cell delay variation. Traffic shaping must preserve the cell sequence integrity of an ATM connection. Traffic shaping is an optional function for both network operators and end users. It helps the network operator in dimensioning the network more cost-

effectively and it is used to ensure conformance to the negotiated traffic contract across the user-to network interface in the customer premises network. CONGESTION CONTROL IN ATM Congestion control plays an important role in the effective traffic management of ATM networks. Congestion is a state of network elements in which the network cannot assure the negotiated quality of service to already existing connections and to new connection requests. Congestion may happen because of unpredictable statistical fluctuations of traffic flows or a network failure. Congestion control is a network means of reducing congestion effects and preventing congestion from spreading. It can assign CAC or UPC/NPC procedures to avoid overload situations. To mention an example, congestion control can minimize the peak bit rate available to a user and monitor this. Congestion control can also be done using explicit forward congestion notification (EFCN) as is done in Frame Relay protocol. A node in the network in a congested state may set an EFCN bit in the cell header. At the receiving end, the network element may use this indication bit to implement protocols which will lower the cell rate of an ATM connection during congestion. ATM INTERWORKING Interworking between Frame Relay Bearer service(FRBS) and ATM: The following issues are to be taken into account to achieve interworking between FRBS and ATM.  Needs proper mapping of frame relaying loss priority and congestion control indications.  Requires procedures of negotiation for frame relaying frame size.  Able to provide message-mode unassured operation without flow control.  Able to transfer user data immediately upon the establishment of the connection using AAL parameter negotiation procedures. Interworking Requirements: The following is the interworking arrangement between FRBS and B-ISDN Class C, message mode, non- assured operation. For Interworking in the C (Control) plane, Call Control mapping is provided in such a way that U(User)-plane connections are made and released in both interworking networks, with interconnection in the interworking function. C-Plane procedures must provide for the negotiation of U-Plane parameters like throughput, max. Frame size etc. The mapping between frame relay and B-ISDN traffic descriptors are to be standardized. For Interworking in the U plane, there are two sets of

service conditions for interworking the B-ISDN Class C services(message mode, unassured operation) and FRBS which are 1) B-ISDN directly supports FRBS and 2) B-ISDN supports Cell Relay Service (CRS) which can interwork with FRBS.

ATM CELL Each individual ATM cell consists of a 5-byte cell header and 48 bytes of information encapsulated within its payload. The ATM network uses the header to support the virtual path and the virtual channel routing, and to perform a quick error check for corrupted cells.

 Generic Flow Control (GFC): used by the UNI to control flow between the endpoint and the switch.  Virtual Path Identifier (VPI): The VPI, an 8-bit field for the UNI and a 12bit field for the NNI, is used to identify virtual paths. In an idle cell, the VPI is set to all 0's. (Together with the Virtual Channel Identifier, the VPI provides a unique local identification for the transmission.)  Virtual Channel Identifier (VCI): This 16-bit field is used to identify a virtual channel. For idle cells, the VCI is set to all 0's. (Together with the Virtual Path Identifier, the VCI provides a unique local identification for the transmission.)  Payload Type Identifier (PTI): The three bits of the PTI are used for different purposes. Bit 4 is set to 1 to identify operation, administration, or maintenance cells (i.e., anything other than data cells).

Bit 3 is set to 1 to indicate that congestion was experienced by a data cell in transmission and is only valid when bit 4 is set to 0. Bit 2 is used by AAL 5 to identify the data as Type 0 (beginning of message, continuation of message; bit = 0) or Type 1 (end of message, single-cell message; bit = 1) when bit 4 is set to 0. It may also be used for management functions when bit 4 is set to 1. This bit is currently carried transparently through the network and has no meaning to the end user when AAL 5 is NOT in use.  Cell Loss Priority (CLP): The 1-bit CLP field is used for explicit indication of the priority of the cell. It may be set by the AAL Layer to indicate cells to discard in cases of congestion, or by the network as part of the traffic management on commercial subscriber networks.  Header Error Control (HEC): This is an 8-bit cyclical redundancy check computed for all fields of the first 4 bytes of the ATM cell header ONLY. It is capable of detecting all single-bit errors and some multiple-bit errors. The HEC is compared by each switch as the ATM cell is received and all cells with HEC discrepancies (errors) are discarded. Cells with single-bit errors may be subject to error correction (if supported or discarded. When a cell is passed through the switch and the VPI/VCI values are altered, the HEC is recalculated for the cell prior to being passed out the port. OPERATIONS AND MAINTENANCE CELLS (OAM) The Operations and Maintenance (OAM) cells are used to provide various maintenance functions within the ATM network, including connectivity verification and alarm surveillance. These cells consist of a single segment with an ATM header. The following format for the 48-byte payload: OAM cell type Function Type Function-Specific Fields (45 Bytes) CRC-10

OAM Cell Type This is a 4-bit indicator of the type of OAM cell (e.g., 0001 to indicate Fault Management). Function Type

This 4-bit indicator gives the purpose of this particular OAM cell (i.e., Alarm Indication Signal, Far End Receive Failure, and Loopback). Function-Specific Fields The 45-bytes of this field are used specify the functions and information for this particular cell and to denote destination and failure information. CRC-10 This 2-byte field consists of a 10-bit Cyclical Redundancy Check for the previous 46 bytes and 6 bits of PAD. The CRC-10 generating polynomial is: x10 + x9 + x5 + x4 + x + 1.

ATM SERVICE CATEGORIES

Class CBR RTVBR NRTVBR

Description Constant Bit Rate Real Time Variable Bit Rate Non-realtime Variable Bit Rate Available Bit Rate Unspecified Bit Rate

Example T1 circuit Real-time videoconferencing Multimedia email

ABR UBR

Browsing the Web Background file transfer

ATM APPLICATIONS There are several practical applications using ATM Technology. ATM is going to be the Backbone Network for many broadband applications including Information Superhighway. Some of the key applications can be mentioned as follows.     Video Conferencing Multimedia Communications ATM Over Satellite Communications Mobile Computing over ATM for Wire-less Networks

SDH FUNDAMENTALS

SDH is stands for Synchronous Digital Hierarchy and is:  An International Standard for a high capacity optical Telecommunication network  A synchronous digital transport system aimed at providing a more simple, economical, and flexible telecommunications network infrastructure. CHANGING NETWORK REQUIREMENTS TODAY POINT TO POINT TRANSMISSION TELECOMMUNICATION NETWORKING CUSTOMER NEEDS SUPPORTED BY BY FASTER PROVISIONING OF CIRCUITS AND SERVICES MANUAL APPROACH INTEGRATED NETWORK TO NETWORK MANAGEMENT AND MAINTENANCE AND MAINTENANCE COMPUTER-BASED MANAGEMENT SUPPORTED TOMORROW

PDH SYSTEMS WORLDWIDE

COMPERISON BETWEEN SDH AND PDH  PDH is Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy and SDH is Synchronous Digital Hierarchy. Both are used in PCM transmission systems. Both use TDM principles for PCM frames.  The difference is In PDH the clock used is not the same throughout the transmission network. But in SDH a synchronous clock is used in the entire Transmission system. PDH is the old system used for only point to point communication and interconnectivity between the systems is difficult. Whereas SDH is the latest system used in any kind of transmission configuration and interconnectivity between different systems is very easy.PDH used in 2Mb, 8Mb, 34Mb and 140 Mb systems only. But SDH used in STM-1 (155.52Mbps, STM-4(622.08Mbps), STM-16(2.5Gbps) and STM-64(10G BPS) transmission systems. There are many merits in SDH  Easy for Add Drop multiplexing/DE multiplexing is easy.  Very useful for Ring configuration in optical communications.  Easy growth to high bit rates in steps with evolution of transmission technology.  Capable of transporting ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) channels, DLC (Digital Loop Carrier) is working on SDH.  SDH is the Indian system which is equivalent to American  SONET(Synchronous Optical Network)

    

Low bandwidth utilization ratio In PDH, E4 signal (140Mbits/s) can contain 64 E1 signals. In SDH, STM-1 (155 Mbits/s) can only carry 63 E1 signals. Complex mechanism of pointer justification Influence of excessive use of software on system security

LIMITATIONS OF TODAYS HIGH CAPACITY NETWORK  Inflexible, and expensive for telecommunication networking.  Based on step-by-step asynchronous multiplexing

 Extremely limited network management and maintenance support capabilities  No spare signal capacity in plesiochronous frame structures  Higher rate line systems are proprietary.  no possibility of inter-working

ADVANTAGES OF SDH ( I)  Designed for cost effective, simplified add & drop Function Compared to the older PDH system, low bit rate channels can be easily extracted from and inserted into the high-speed bit streams in SDH. It is now no longer necessary to apply the complex and costly procedure of DE multiplexing then re-multiplexing the plesiosynchronous structure.

 Reliability Modern SDH networks include various automatic back-up circuit and repair mechanisms which are designed to cope with system faults and are monitored by management. As a result, failure of a link or an NE does not lead to failure of the entire network.

ADVANTAGES OF SDH (II )  High Transmission rates Transmission rates of up to 10Gbps can be achieved in modern SDH systems making it the most suitable technology for backbones-the superhighways in todays telecommunication networks.

 Future-proof platform for new services SDH is the ideal platform for a wide range of services including POTS, ISDN, mobile radio, and data communications (LAN, WAN, etc.). It is also able to handle more recent services such as video on demand and digital video broadcasting via ATM. ADVANTAGES OF SDH ( III )  Provide built-in signal capacity for advanced network management and maintenance capabilities With SDH, network providers can react quickly and easily to the requirements of their customers. For example, leased lines can be switched in a matter of minutes. The network provider can use standardized network elements (NE) that can be controlled and monitored from a central location via a telecommunications management network (TMN) system.  Inter connection SDH makes it much easier to set up gateways between different network providers and to SONET systems. The SDH interfaces are globally standardized, making it possible to combine NEs from different manufacturers into a single network thus reducing equipment costs. -The trend in transport networks is toward ever-higher bit rates, such as STM-256

(time division multiplex, TDM). The current high costs of such NEs however are a restricting factor. The alternative lies in dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM), a technology enabling the multiple use of single mode optical fibers. As a result, a number of wavelengths can be used as carriers for the digital signals and transmitted simultaneously through the fibers.

SYNCHRONOUS NETWORK STRUCTURE

STM-1 FRAME STRUCTURE

FRAME STRUCTURE OF THE STM-1 SIGNAL  SOH Area  operational functions  monitoring functions  control functions  AU-Pointe  Shows the beginning of the virtual container of the highest level  Payload Area  Transport of the data

FUNCTIONS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SECTION OVERHEAD (SOH)      Includes operation, monitoring and controlling functions each byte is equivalent to an 64-kbit/s channel in regenerators only the first three lines are accessible in multiplexers the last five lines are accessible preserves the connections from the point of creation until the point of decomposition

STRUCTURE OF THE RSOH

STRUCTURE OF THE MSOH

SDH FRAME STRUCTURE PARAMETERS SDH MULTIPLEXING SECTION  PROCESS OF ADAPTAION OF LOWER ORDER PATH IN TO HIGHER ORDER PATH IS CALLED MULTIPLEXING.  PROCESS OF ADAPTAION OF HIGHER ORDER PATH IN TO SECTION LAYER IS ALSO CALLED MULTIPLEXING. OR  The section between two transport nodes.

PATH PATH INDICATES THE LANE THROUGH WHICH THE INPUT SIGNAL IS ALLOWED TO PASS TO REACH UP TO HIGHER ORDER PATH OR TO SOME OTHER HIGHER LEVEL Or The section where is VC is assembled and where it dissembled.

REGENERATOR SECTION  The section between two regenerator.

SECTION  SECTION INDICATES THAT NOW DATA IS PROCESSED COMPLETELY AND IS AVAILABLE FOR MODULATION OVER THE LASER  IN MOST OF THE CASES SOME OVERHEAD HOUSE KEEPING BITS ARE ALSO ADDED JUST BEFORE MODULATION

CONTAINER  AS THE NAME SUGGESTS IT IS A BOX OF FIXED SIZE WITH VERY LITTLE ELASTICITY  THIS BOX CAN TAKE VARIETY OF PDH INPUTS ( MAX=2).  CONTAINER IS THE FIRST ITEM IN THE CHAIN OF SDH MAPPING/MULTIPLEXING

VIRTUAL CONTAINER  IT IS THE SECOND ITEM IN THE CHAIN OF MULTIPLEXING  CONTAINER ADDED WITH SOME PATH OVERHEAD IS CALLED VIRTUAL CONTAINER  CONTAINER AND VIRTUAL CONTAINER ARE CALLED PATH

PATH LEVEL  IF WE ARE STARTING THE MUX CHAIN FROM 2MB OR 1.5MB LEVEL THEN WE ARE FOLLOWING THE LOWER ORDER PATH.  IF WE ARE STARTING THE MUX CHAIN FROM 34 OR 140 MB LEVEL THEN WE ARE AT THE HIGHER ORDER PATH

TRIBUTARY UNIT  TRIBUTARY UNIT IS AN AGENT THAT PROVIDES ADAPTATION OR HANDSHAKE BETWEEN HIGHER ORDER PATH AND LOWER ORDER PATH

ADMINISTRATIVE UNIT  ADMINISTRATIVE UNIT PROVIDES ADAPTATION OR HANDSHAKE BETWEEN FINAL FRAME LAYER(SECTION LAYER) AND HIGHER ORDER PATH LAYER POINTER  AS THE NAME INFERS, POINTER POINTS TO THE START OF THE FRAME WHEN COMPARED TO OMNIPRESENT SYCHRONOUS CLOCK  VALUE OF THE POINTER INDICATES THE ACTUAL OFFSET

SDH MAPPING  SDH MAPPING IS THE PROCESS BY WHICH INPUT DATA IS FILLED IN THE FIRST BOX, THAT IS, CONTAINER.  DATA MAY NOT BE OF THE IDEAL SIZE TO GET ADJUSTED IN THE BOX BUT VARIATIONS SHOULD NOT EXCEED THE ELASTIC LIMIT OF THE BOX SDH ALIGNING  ALIGNING IN SDH IS CALLED THE ALIGNING OF THE LOCAL FRAME OF SDH WITH THE GLOBAL CLOCK FLOWING IN THE RING.  ALIGNING TAKES PLACE AT THE ADMINISTRATIVE UNIT SDH RATES     STM-1 = 155.520 MB/S STM-4 = 622.080 MB/S STM-16 = 2488.32 MB/S STM-64 = 9953.28 MB/S

SDH BIT RATE CALCULATION NO OF ROWS IN FRAME: 9 NO OF COLUMNS: 270 NO OF BYTES IN FRAME: 270*9 NO OF BITS IN A FRAME: 270*9*8 FRAME DURATION: 125us NO OF BITS TRANSMITTED IN ONE SECOND: 270*9*8*1000000 -----------------------125 =155.520Mb/S

FINAL SDH FRAME

STRUCTURE OF THE POH

FUNCTIONS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PATH OVERHEAD (POH)  Includes path trace identifier, alarm signals and operational signals.  secures the transport of a container to the desired destination

SDH NETWORK SECTION

SDH POINTERS DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PDH AND SDH TRANSPORT TECHNIQUES

SIGNAL PROCESSING

WE NEED POINTERS ACTIONS BECAUSE  Neighbouring network elements (NEs) may have different bitrates .  in one NE the frequency of input in may differ from the output f out

TASKS OF THE POINTER  The pointer shows the begin of the Virtual Container within the higher structure  Adaptation of the bitrate of the VC to the velocity of the transport channel (AU, TU)  A flag within the pointer signals the changes made  kind of stuffing will be signalized also

AU4-POINTER  AU4-Pointer:  Bytes H1, H2, H3  Byte H3 includes dont care information Range: 0 <= X <= 782 fin < fout  positive justification:  Add three bytes behind H3

 New pointer value = old pointer value + 1  The new pointer value will be fixed for at least two STM-1 frames

SDH MULTIPLEXING STRUCTURE AND FRAME FORMAT MAPPING IN SDH

MULTIPLEXING ELEMENTS

FRAME STRUCTURE AND MULTIPLEXING METHOD MULTIPLEXING Multiplexing mapping structure defined in ITU_T

MAPPING 140MB/S (E4) SIGNAL TO C-4  First, the 140Mb/S PDH signal is adapted via bit rate justification into container C-4.  The C-4 Container has 9 rows * 260 columns (2340 bytes).  The frame rate of C-4 is 800 frames/second.(every 125s one frame)  The rate of E4 signal after adaptation= 800 frames/second*9 rows * 260 columns*8bits=149.760Mb/s

 VC-4:Adding POH to C-4 A column of path overhead is added in front of every C-4 block in order to implement real time monitoring over the 140Mb/s path signals.

 VC-4:Adding POH to C-4  A column of path overhead is added in front of every C-4 block in order to implement real time monitoring over the 140Mb/s path signals.  The resulting block is called virtual container 4 (VC-4)  The rate of the VC-4 = 8000frames/s *9 rows*261 columns*8bits=150.336 Mb/s

 Usage of the AU-PTR  The VC-4 is loaded into the information payload of the STM-1 frame location of the VC-4 within the payload may float when it loads.i.e. A part of VC-4 is transmitted in one STM-1 frame and another in the next frame.

 Administrative unit -4(AU-4) The resulting block (VC-4 + AU-PTR) is called administrative unit 4(AU4).it has the basic structure of stn-1 frame (9 rows * 270 columns),only without SOH

 STM-1 Frame: Adding SOH to AU-4 To complete the STM-1 frame. The SOH is added to the AU-4.

 140Mb/s STM-1 To complete procedure of multiplexing 140Mb/s Signal into STM-1 is as follow.

MAPPING 34MB/S SIGNALS INTO C-3  Mapping 34Mb/s signals into C-3: First, the 34Mb/s PDH signals adapted via bit rate adaptation into container C-3 The C-3 container has 9 rows * 84 columns. (756 bytes)

 VC-3:Adding POH to C-3 A column of path overhead is added in front of every C-3 block in order to implement real-time monitoring over the 34Mb/s signals. The resulting block is called Virtual cotainer 3(VC-3)

 TU-3 :Adding TU_PTR to VC-3 Every VC-3 is aggigned a three bytes tributary unit pointer (TU-PTR) which allows VC-3 to float. The area in which the VC-3 is allowes to float whith the aid of TU-PTR is called TU-3 (tributary unit 3). TU-PTR contains an adress which indicates the start of the VC-3 in the TU3.

 TUG-3 :Filling the gap of TU-3 TU-3 frame structure is incomplete.six bytes pesoudo-random data (R) are stuffed to fill the gap of the TU-3 The resulting block is called Tributary Unit Group 3 (TUG-3).

 Interleave 3 TUG -3s to form a C-4 Three TUG-3 blocks are byte interleaved into a container C-4

 Complete the VC-4 Structure Since the resulting structure has only 258 columns .two columns of stuffed bits are added to the complete C-4 structure. Multiplexing C-4 into STM-1 signal is similar to the process of multiplexing 140Mb/s signals

The complete procedure of multiplexing 34Mb/s signals into STM-1 is as follow.

MAPPING 2MB/S SIGNALS INTO C-12 The complete procedure of multiplexing 34Mb/s signals into STM-1 is as follow.