CHAPTER 2 - BASIC LAWS

List of topics for this chapter :

Ohm's Law
Nodes, Branches, and Loops
Kirchoff's Laws
Series and Parallel Resistors
Wye-Delta Transformations
Applications
OHM'S LAW
Ohm's law states that the voltage across a resistor is directly proportional to the current flowing
through the resistor.
R i v
Problem 2.1 Given an incandescent light bulb rated at 75 watts and 120 volts, find the
hot resistance and cold resistance of the light bulb.
An incandescent light bulb is the most common source of light produced by electrical energy. A
current is made to flow through a wire, called a filament. Since this wire has resistance, the wire
absorbs power, so much so that it glows and gives off light. Ratings on these types of light
bulbs are for steady-state operating conditions. So, we have
40
25
120
75
V
P
I amps
192
40 25
120
I
V
R ohms
Hence, the hot resistance is 192 ohms.
Most wire has what we call a positive thermal resistance characteristic; that is, as the wire
temperature increases, the resistance increases.
It is sufficient to say at this time that the cold resistance is less than 192 ohms.
Problem 2.2 Solve for v, i, and R for the following :
(a) 10 R ohms and 2 i amps
(b) 5 R ohms and 20 v volts
(c) 10 v volts and 5 i amps
(d) 3 i amps and 20 v volts
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(a) v volts 20
(b) i amps 4
(c) R ohms 2
(d) R ohms 667 . 6
NODES, BRANCHES, AND LOOPS
A branch represents a single element, such as a voltage source or a resistor. A node is the point
of connection between two or more branches. A loop is any closed path in a circuit.
Problem 2.3 [2.7] Determine the number of branches and nodes in the circuit in
Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1
There are 7 elements, 1 dependent current source, 1 independent voltage source, and 5 resistors,
which implies that there are 7 branches. There are 5 nodes as indicated by the dark circles and
dark lines in the circuit below.
5
6
5
5
4
i
5i 10 V
+

5
6
5
5
4
i
5i
10 V
+

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Problem 2.4 Identify all the nodes, branches, and independent loops in Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1
There are 8 nodes, as indicated by the dark circles and dark lines in the circuit below. There are
14 branches, 4 independent voltage sources and 10 resistors. There are 7 independent loops.
Check. Does this satisfy the fundamental theorem of network topology?
b = l + n 1 = 7 + 8 1 = 14 YES!
+

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Problem 2.5 In Figure 2.0, is there a loop? How many nodes are there?
A loop is any closed path; therefore it is easy to
say there is no loop. However, there really is a
loop since there is an infinite resistance
connecting the end terminals together. Thus,
there is one loop. There are three nodes, one
where the voltage source and resistor join and
the two at the output terminals. In addition,
there are three branches. The voltage source, the resistor, and the infinite resistance. Thus, the
fundamental theorem of network topology is satisfied.
Problem 2.6
(a) In a circuit containing 26 branches and 12 nodes, how many independent loops will
satisfy the fundamental theorem of network topology?
(b) In a circuit with 22 branches, is it possible to have 28 nodes?
b = l + n 1 {the fundamental theorem of network topology}
(a) 26 = l + 12 1
l = 26 12 + 1
l = 15
A circuit with 26 branches and 12 nodes will have 15 independent loops.
(b) 22 = l + 28 1
l = 22 28 + 1
l = 5
No. It is not possible to have a circuit with 22 branches and 28 nodes because a circuit
cannot have 5 loops.
KIRCHOFF'S LAWS
Kirchoff's current law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum of currents entering a node (or a closed
boundary) is zero. Equivalently,
the sum of the currents entering a node = the sum of the currents leaving the node
Kirchoff's voltage law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of all voltages around a closed path (or
loop) is zero. Equivalently,
the sum of the voltage drops around a loop = the sum of the voltage rises around the loop
+

R =
Figure 2.0
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Problem 2.7 Determine all the currents and voltages in Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1
Carefully DEFINE the problem.
Each component is labeled completely. The problem is clear.
PRESENT everything you know about the problem.
The goal of the problem is to determine v ,
1
i ,
2
i ,
3
i , and
4
i .
Establish a set of ALTERNATIVE solutions and determine the one that promises the
greatest likelihood of success.
KCL, involving currents entering and leaving a node, is the obvious circuit analysis technique
to use, especially since the circuit has only one node. KVL could be used but would be more
complicated due to the fact that there are five loops in the circuit. Using KVL creates four
equations with four unknowns (since the fifth loop current is the current source), compared to
one equation and four unknowns using KCL.
With one equation and four unknowns, constraint equations must be found. Realizing that v
is the voltage across each component is the key. Ohms law will be used to determine the
relationship between the voltage and each of the four unknown currents. Using substitution,
an equation in terms of v can be found and solved.
ATTEMPT a problem solution.
KCL :
4 3 2 1
i i i i 8 + + +
Ohm's law :
4 3 2 1
i 20 i 5 i 10 i 20 v
20 v i
1
10 v i
2
5 v i
3
20 v i
4

Substitute the current equations found using Ohm's law into the equation found using KCL.
Then, solve for v .
20 v 5 v 10 v 20 v 8 + + +
v v 4 v 2 v 160 + + +
v 8 160
20 v volts
20
i
4
5
i
3
10
i
2
20
8 A
v
i
1
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Hence,
1 20 20 20 v i
1
amp 2 10 20 10 v i
2
amps
4 5 20 5 v i
3
amps 1 20 20 20 v i
4
amp
EVALUATE the solution and check for accuracy.
Check the node equation found using KCL,
4 3 2 1
i i i i 8 + + +
1 4 2 1 8 + + +
8 8
This is a valid equation. Thus, our check for accuracy was successful.
Has the problem been solved SATISFACTORILY? If so, present the solution; if not,
then return to ALTERNATIVE solutions and continue through the process again.
This problem has been solved satisfactorily.
v volts 20

1
i amp 1
2
i amps 2
3
i amps 4
4
i amp 1
Problem 2.8 [2.15] Find I and
ab
V in the circuit of Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1
Applying KVL to the loop,
0 8 I 5 10 I 3 30 - + + +
32 I 8
I amps 4
So,
0 8 I 5 V -
ab
+ +
8 ) 4 )( 5 ( 8 I 5 V
ab
+ +
Therefore,

ab
V volts 28
+

30 V
+
3 5
+

8 V
10 V
I
+
V
ab

a
b
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Problem 2.9 In Figure 2.1, solve for
1
i and
2
i .
Figure 2.1
KCL (node a) : KCL (node b) :
0 2 3 i
1
+ + 3 0 i
2
+

1
i amps 5 -
2
i amps 3
Problem 2.10 In Figure 2.1, find
1
V and
2
V .

1
V volts 8 -
2
V volts 8
+

20 V
+
V
1
+
12 V

3 A
i
1
+
V
2

2 A
+
4 V
+

i
2
+

3 A
i
1
2 A
+

i
2
a b
+

20 V
+
V
1
+
12 V

+
V
2

+
4 V
+

Loop 1 Loop 2
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SERIES AND PARALLEL RESISTORS
Two or more elements are in series if they are cascaded or connected sequentially and
consequently carry the same current. Two or more elements are in parallel if they are connected
to the same two nodes and consequently have the same voltage across them.
Problem 2.11 [2.35] Find the equivalent resistance at terminals a-b for each of the
following networks.
(a) 0 0 R R
eq

(b) R
2
R
2
R
R R R R R
eq
+ +
(c) R R 2 R 2 ) R R ( ) R R ( R
eq
+ +
(d) R
R 9
R 9
R
2
3
R 3
R
2
3
) R 3 (
R
2
3
R 3
2
R
R R 3 ) R R R ( R 3 R
2
eq

+

,
`

.
|

,
`

.
|
+ +
(e) R
11
6
R 11
R 6
R 3 R
3
2
) R 3 ( R
3
2
R 3 R
3
2
R 3
R 2 R
) R 2 )( R (
R 3 R 2 R R
2
eq

+

,
`

.
|

,
`

.
|
+

(b)
a
b
R R
R R
R
eq
(a)
a
R
b
R
eq
(d)
a
b
R
3R R R
R
eq
(e)
a
b
R 3R 2R
R
eq
(c)
a b
R
R
R
R
R
eq
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Therefore,
(a)
eq
R 0 (b), (c), (d)
eq
R R and (e)
eq
R R
11
6
Problem 2.12 Given N resistors in parallel, determine if they can be replaced by a single
resistor.
Figure 2.1
To find the equivalent resistance of the parallel resistors in Figure 2.1 combine the resistors two
at a time to discover a pattern. First, consider the circuits below,
Note that two resistors in parallel have the same voltage across them. Ohm's law gives us
2 2 1 1 S
R i R i V
eq eq S
R i V
or
1
S
1
R
V
i and
2
S
2
R
V
i
eq
S
eq
R
V
i
Using KCL,
2 1
i i i +
eq
i i
Use the equations for
1
i and
2
i and
eq
i to find i in terms of the source voltage and resistors.

,
`

.
|
+ +
2 1
S
2
S
1
S
R
1
R
1
V
R
V
R
V
i
eq
S
R
V
i
Thus,
2 1 eq
R
1
R
1
R
1
+ or
2 1
2 1
eq
R R
R R
R
+

This implies that the equivalent resistance of two resistors in parallel is the product of their
resistances divided by the sum of their resistances.
R
eq
+

V
S
i
i
eq
R
1
R
2
+

V
S
i
i
1
i
2
R
1
R
eq
R
2
R
N
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Continue the process. Find the equivalent resistance of
2 1
2 1
2 || 1
R R
R R
R
+
in parallel with
3
R .
Note that two resistors in parallel have the same voltage across them. Ohm's law gives us
3 3 2 1 2 1 S
R i R i V
eq eq S
R i V
2 || 1
S
2 || 1
R
V
i and
3
S
3
R
V
i
eq
S
eq
R
V
i
Using KCL,
3 2 || 1
i i i +
eq
i i
Use the equations for
2 || 1
i and
3
i and
eq
i to find i in terms of the source voltage and resistors.
3
S
2 || 1
S
R
V
R
V
i +
eq
S
R
V
i

,
`

.
|
+ +

,
`

.
|
+
+

,
`

.
|
+
3 2 1
S
3 2 1
2 1
S
3 2 || 1
S
R
1
R
1
R
1
V
R
1
R R
R R
V
R
1
R
1
V i
Thus,
3 2 1 eq
R
1
R
1
R
1
R
1
+ +
Continuing this process for N resistors would show that the reciprocal of the equivalent resistance
of N resistors in parallel is the sum of the reciprocals of each resistance. In general,

eq
R
1


+ ++ + + ++ + + ++ +
N
1 n
n N 2 1
R
1
R
1
R
1
R
1

Problem 2.13 If you know the current through two resistors in parallel (
1
R and
2
R ), is
there a simple way to determine the current through either
1
R or
2
R ?
Clearly, the two resistors in parallel have the same voltage across them. Using Ohm's law,
R
eq
+

V
S
i
i
eq
R
1||2
R
3
+

V
S
i
i
3
i
1||2
R
1
R
2
+

V
S
i
i
1
i
2
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2 2 1 1 S
R i R i V
1
S
1
R
V
i and
2
S
2
R
V
i
Using KCL,
2 1
i i i +
Now use the equations for
1
i and
2
i to find i in terms of the source voltage and resistors.

,
`

.
|
+

,
`

.
|
+ +
2 1
2 1
S
2 1
S
2
S
1
S
R R
R R
V
R
1
R
1
V
R
V
R
V
i
Then, i
R R
R R
V
2 1
2 1
S

,
`

.
|
+

To find the branch currents, substitute the equation for

S
V into the equations for
1
i and
2
i .
i
R R
R R
R
1
i
2 1
2 1
1
1

,
`

.
|
+
i
R R
R R
R
1
i
2 1
2 1
2
2

,
`

.
|
+

1
i i
R R
R
2 1
2

, ,, ,
` `` `

. .. .
| || |
+ ++ +

2
i i
R R
R
2 1
1

, ,, ,
` `` `

. .. .
| || |
+ ++ +
Thus, it is clear that the current entering the node where two resistors are connected in parallel
divides proportionately between the two resistors. The proportionality is equal to the value of the
opposite resistor divided by the sum of the resistances times the incoming current. It should be
noted that this current division property only works for two resistors in parallel. If you have more
than two, you need to use a different process to find how the currents divide.
Problem 2.14 Determine
eq
R for Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1

eq
R ohms 25
12 12
R
eq
15 10 8 4
30 10 4 8
R
eq
25
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Problem 2.15 Using current division, determine
1
i and
2
i in Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1

1
i amps 3
2
i amps 4
WYE-DELTA TRANSFORMATIONS
The following is a summary of the conversions between wye and delta connected loads.
Given the following resistor network, the Y- equations are listed in the left column and the -Y
equations are listed in the right column.
1
1 3 3 2 2 1
a
R
R R R R R R
R
+ +

c b a
c b
1
R R R
R R
R
+ +

2
1 3 3 2 2 1
b
R
R R R R R R
R
+ +

c b a
c a
2
R R R
R R
R
+ +

3
1 3 3 2 2 1
c
R
R R R R R R
R
+ +

c b a
b a
3
R R R
R R
R
+ +

V
S
i
1
i
2
40 R
7 A
30
R
1
R
3
R
2
R
a
R
b
R
c
c
a b
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Problem 2.16 Find
eq
R for Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1
Carefully DEFINE the problem.
Each resistor has a value and the equivalent resistance is shown to be the resistance of the
network at the dotted terminals.
PRESENT everything you know about the problem.
To find equivalent resistance, the resistor network must be reduced using series
combinations, parallel combinations, and conversions between wye and delta connected
resistors. We know that series resistances are added to obtain the equivalent resistance and
the inverse of parallel resistances are added to obtain the inverse of the equivalent resistance;
i.e.
2 1 eq
R R R + and
2 1 eq
R 1 R 1 R 1 +
We also know how to convert between wye and delta connected loads, as seen previously in
this section.
Establish a set of ALTERNATIVE solutions and determine the one that promises the
greatest likelihood of success.
The set of alternatives to reducing resistor networks involves the various ways that resistors
can be combined. In this case, we will convert the lower connection to a Y connection.
Then, we will combine parallel resistors (two series resistors are in parallel with two series
resistors) to get a series combination. This will produce the equivalent resistance of the
resistor network.
ATTEMPT a problem solution.
17 4 5 8 R R R
c b a
+ + + +
1765 . 1
17
) 5 )( 4 (
R
1

8824 . 1
17
) 8 )( 4 (
R
2

353 . 2
17
) 8 )( 5 (
R
3

8 5
2 14
4
R
eq
10
2
8 5
14
4
R
eq
10
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177 . 3 1765 . 1 2 +
882 . 15 8824 . 1 14 +
882 . 15 177 . 3
882 . 15 177 . 3
) 882 . 15 )( 177 . 3 (
+

647 . 2
059 . 19
46 . 50

15 353 . 2 647 . 2 10 + +
Therefore, 15 R
eq
ohms.
EVALUATE the solution and check for accuracy.
To check for accuracy, reduce the resistor network by converting the upper connection to a
Y connection. Then, combine parallel resistors (two series resistors are in parallel with two
series resistors) to get a series combination. This will produce the equivalent resistance of the
resistor network.
It can be shown that
R
eq
2 14
2.353
1.8824 1.1765
10
15
R
eq
R
eq
10
2.647
2.353
2
8 5
14
4
R
eq
10
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Therefore, 15 R
eq
ohms.
This is the same answer as that obtained above. Our check for accuracy was successful.
Has the problem been solved SATISFACTORILY? If so, present the solution; if not,
then return to ALTERNATIVE solutions and continue through the process again.
This problem has been solved satisfactorily.

eq
R ohms 15
Problem 2.17 [2.47] Find the equivalent resistance
eq
R in each of the following
circuits where each resistor has a value of 100 .
(a)
a
b
R
eq
(b)
a
b
R
eq
R
eq
0.4 2.8
1.4
8 5.4
10
R
eq
10
1.4
3.6
15
R
eq
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(a) Begin by combining the series resistors on the rightmost corners of the network.
Now, convert the T (or Y) connection to a connection.
400
200
80000
200
) 200 )( 100 ( ) 100 )( 200 ( ) 200 )( 200 (
R
a

+ +
ohms
400
200
80000
R
b
ohms
800
100
80000
R
c
ohms
Notice that 100 R
a
and 100 R
b
where 80
500
40000
100 400
) 100 )( 400 (
100 || 400
+
ohms.
a
b
R
eq
100
200
200
a
b
R
eq
R
c
R
b
R
a
100
100
a
b
R
eq
80
80
800
100
100
100
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Now, convert connection to a Y connection.
3
200
960
64000
800 80 80
) 800 )( 80 (
R
1

+ +
ohms
3
200
960
64000
800 80 80
) 800 )( 80 (
R
2

+ +
ohms
3
20
960
6400
800 80 80
) 80 )( 80 (
R
3

+ +
ohms
Now, combine the series resistors. Then, convert the T (or Y) connection to a connection.
3 94000 ) 100 )( 3 320 ( ) 3 320 )( 100 ( ) 100 )( 100 ( + +
R
a
3 . 313
3
940
100
3 94000
ohms
R
b
3 . 313
3
940
100
3 94000
ohms
R
c
8 . 293
320
94000
3 320
3 94000
ohms
Note that R
a
||500/3 and R
b
||500/3 where 8 . 108
) 1440 )( 3 (
) 500 )( 940 (
) 3 500 ( ) 3 940 (
) 3 500 )( 3 940 (

+
ohms.
a
b
R
eq
100
100
100
R
1
R
2
R
3
a
b
R
eq
500/3
320/3
500/3
100
100
a
b
R
eq
500/3
500/3
R
c

R
a

R
b

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Therefore,
4 . 511
63930
6 . 217 8 . 293
) 6 . 217 )( 8 . 293 (
6 . 217 8 . 293 ) 8 . 108 8 . 108 ( 8 . 293 R
eq

+
+

eq
R ohms 01 . 125
(b) Convert the T connected resistors, labeled in the circuit below, to connected resistors.
It can be shown that
So, the circuit becomes
a
b
R
eq
108.8
108.8
293.8
a
b
R
eq
R
eq
a
b
R
eq
100 100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
300
300
300
a
b
R
eq
300
300
300
300
300
300
100
100 100
100
100
100
100
100
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Now, each of the slanted branches of the connection is in parallel with a 100 resistor.
75
400
30000
100 300
) 100 )( 300 (
100 || 300
+
ohms
This leads to the following circuit.
Clearly, now we have two places in the circuit where a 300 ohm resistor is in parallel with the
series combination of two 75 ohm resistors.
100
450
45000
150 300
) 150 )( 300 (
150 || 300 ) 75 75 ( || 300
+
+ ohms
This simplifies the circuit to
It is evident that we have
100 ) 100 100 100 ( 100 100 R
eq
+ + + +
or
100 300 100 100 R
eq
+ +
where we have already shown that 75 300 100 .
Therefore,
100 75 100 R
eq
+ +

eq
R ohms 275
a
b
R
eq
100
100 100
100
100 100
a
b
R
eq
300 300
100
100 100
100
75
75
75
75
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APPLICATIONS
Problem 2.18 Given a real voltmeter with an internal resistance of
m
R , determine its effect
when measuring the voltage across
2
R in Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1
Carefully DEFINE the problem.
Each component is labeled, indicating value and polarity. The problem is clear.
PRESENT everything you know about the problem.
The voltmeter measures the voltage across a component and is therefore connected in parallel
with the component. As shown in the dashed box in Figure 2.1, the voltmeter consists of a
dArsonval movement in series with a resistor whose internal resistance is deliberately made
very large to minimize the current drawn from the circuit. R
m
represents the total resistance
of the meter.
Establish a set of ALTERNATIVE solutions and determine the one that promises the
greatest likelihood of success.
To show the effects of the internal resistance of a real voltmeter,
(a) find
2 R
V if
m
R is an open circuit, and
(b) find
2 R
V if
m
R is a short circuit.
ATTEMPT a problem solution.
Using voltage division,
S
m 2 1
m 2
2 R
V
) R R ( R
R R
V ]
]
]

(a)
S
2 1
2
S 1 -
R
1
R
1
1
1 -
R
1
R
1
R
S
m 2 1
m 2
R
2 R
R
V
R R
R
V
) ( R
) (
lim V
R R R
R R
lim V lim
m 2
m 2
m m m
]
]
]

]
]
]

+ +
+
]
]
]

V
S
R
1
R
2
+
V
R2

R
m
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e-Text Main Menu Textbook Table of Contents Problem Solving Workbook Contents
(b) 0 V
0 R
0
V
) ( R
) (
lim V
R R R
R R
lim V lim
S
1
S
R R
R R
1
R R
R R
0 R
S
m 2 1
m 2
0 R
2 R
0 R
m 2
m 2
m 2
m 2
m m m

]
]
]

]
]
]
]

+
]
]
]

+
+

EVALUATE the solution and check for accuracy.
(a) If
m
R (open circuit), then all the current flowing through
1
R will continue
through
2
R . Clearly, using voltage division,
[ ]
S 2 1 2 2 R
V ) R R ( R V +
(b) If 0 R
m
(short circuit), then no current will flow through
2
R and 0 V
2 R
. This
makes sense due to the fact that current flows through the path of least resistance.
Has the problem been solved SATISFACTORILY? If so, present the solution; if not,
then return ALTERNATIVE solutions and continue through the process again.
This problem has been solved satisfactorily.
If R
m
>> R
2
, the internal resistance will only slightly effect the circuit. As the value of
R
m
approaches R
2
, the effect of the internal resistance becomes increasingly more
significant.
Problem 2.19 [2.55] As a design engineer, you are asked to design a lighting system
consisting of a 70 W power supply and two light bulbs as shown in Figure 2.1. You must select
the two bulbs of the following three available bulbs.
(a) 80 R
1
ohms 60 . 0 $ cost (standard size)
(b) 90 R
2
ohms 90 . 0 $ cost (standard size)
(c) 100 R
3
ohms 75 . 0 $ cost (nonstandard size)
The system should be designed for a minimum cost such that % 5 A 2 . 1 I t .
Figure 2.1
Since we need two of the three bulbs, there are only three possibilities.
(a) Use
1
R and
2
R .
35 . 42 90 80 R R R
2 1
ohms
14 . 1 , 26 . 1 06 . 0 2 . 1 % 5 2 . 1 I t t amps

'

W 04 . 55 ) 35 . 42 ( ) 14 . 1 (
W 23 . 67 ) 35 . 42 ( ) 26 . 1 (
R I p
2
2
2
50 . 1 $ 90 . 0 $ 60 . 0 $ t cos +
(b) Use
1
R and
3
R .
70 W
Power
Supply

+
I
R
x
R
y
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e-Text Main Menu Textbook Table of Contents Problem Solving Workbook Contents
44 . 44 100 80 R R R
3 1
ohms
14 . 1 , 26 . 1 06 . 0 2 . 1 % 5 2 . 1 I t t amps

'

W 75 . 57 ) 44 . 44 ( ) 14 . 1 (
W 55 . 70 ) 44 . 44 ( ) 26 . 1 (
R I p
2
2
2
35 . 1 $ 75 . 0 $ 60 . 0 $ t cos +
(c) Use
2
R and
3
R .
37 . 47 100 90 R R R
3 2
ohms
14 . 1 , 26 . 1 06 . 0 2 . 1 % 5 2 . 1 I t t amps

'

W 56 . 61 ) 37 . 47 ( ) 14 . 1 (
W 2 . 75 ) 37 . 47 ( ) 26 . 1 (
R I p
2
2
2
65 . 1 $ 75 . 0 $ 90 . 0 $ t cos +
Note that case (b) represents the lowest cost, however both (b) and (c) have a power that exceeds
the 70 W power that can be supplied. Therefore, the correct design uses case (a), i.e.
2 1
R and R .
Problem 2.20 Given the circuit in Figure 2.1,
Figure 2.1
find
2 R
I for 10 I
S
mA, 5 R
sh
, and
(a) 10 R
1
k and 10 R
2
k
(b) 1000 R
1
and 1000 R
2

(c) 50 R
1
and 50 R
2

(d) 5 R
1
and 5 R
2

I
S
I
R2
I
R1
R
2
R
1
R
sh
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e-Text Main Menu Textbook Table of Contents Problem Solving Workbook Contents
Using current division,
S
sh 2 1
1
2 R
I
) R R ( R
R
I
]
]
]

+ +

(a)
( )
998 . 4
10 001 . 2
100
10 10
5 ) 10 10 ( ) 10 10 (
10 10
I
4
3
3 3
3
2 R

]
]
]

]
]
]

+ +

mA
(b)
( )
987 . 4
10 005 . 2
10
10 10
5 ) 10 1 ( ) 10 1 (
10 1
I
3
3
3 3
3
2 R

]
]
]

]
]
]

+ +

mA
(c)
( )
762 . 4
105
5 . 0
10 10
5 50 50
50
I
3
2 R

]
]
]

]
]
]

+ +

mA
(d)
( )
333 . 3
15
05 . 0
10 10
5 5 5
5
I
3
2 R

]
]
]

]
]
]

+ +

mA
In summary,
(a)
2 R
I mA 998 . 4
(b)
2 R
I mA 987 . 4
(c)
2 R
I mA 762 . 4
(d)
2 R
I mA 333 . 3
These answers can be compared to the case where 0 R
sh
to see just how much the current
through
2
R is affected by the internal resistance of the real ammeter. In each case, it can be
shown that
mA 5 ) 10 10 )( 5 . 0 ( I
R R
R
I
3 -
S
2 1
1
2 R

]
]
]

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