Neuroanatomy: Morphology of the brain

Chapter 2

Majority of illustrations in this presentation are from Biological Psychology 4th edition ( Sinuer Publications)

Structure and Morphology

1. To understand behavior as it relates to many processes in the brain, it is important to study the structure or morphology of the brain. Because many brain processes are based on morphology of the brain. 2. We can study the structure of brain at the micro level, looking at small units like neurons, dendrites and receptors etc. or at the macro level, looking at the regions, areas, and nuclei and/or study the brain
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Micro-Level Morphology
1. To study the morphology of brain at the micro level tools and techniques had to be developed. One such development was the optical microscope (Leeuwenhoek, 17th century). More recent developments include electron microscope with increased magnification. 2. Looking at he brain meant cutting the brain, staining it, and make them worthy of the microscope. Many different staining methods have developed.
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Camillo Golgi
1. Golgi developed the silver method to stain the nerve tissue. 2. Believed that neurons connected in a syncitium, by blending. This theory was called reticular theory of neurons.

(1737-1798 AD)

Ramn y Cajal
1. Cajal also used the silver method to stain the brain, but 2. Believed that neurons were separate and communicated through gaps (synapse). This came to be known as the neuron doctrine.

(1852-1934)

Cells in Brain
Nervous System

Glial Cells

Neurons

Neurons
There are 100 billion neurons in the human brain. Packed with 10 times more glial cells. Each neuron is divided into three parts; dendrites, cell body and axon.
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Histology
1. How do we know the parts of a neuron? Or what are the shapes and sizes of different neurons in the brain? 2. To answer these questions neuroanatomists use histological methods to stain neurons and assess their different shapes and sizes.

Immunocytochemistry
Staining processes have improved to include use of labeled antibodies to stain targeted proteins in the brain.
GAP-43 staining in the retina

Shapes of Neurons
There are at least 200 different shapes of neurons in the brain. Some shapes are more symmetrical than others.

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Sizes of Neurons
Neurons can be small in length and size. Length of neurons can be a few microns to many meters long. Similarly, small neurons can be 10m wide and large 100m.

Small Granule Neuron

Large Pyramidal Neuron

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Neuronal Processes
All neurons tend to grow branches or processes. One kind of these process are called dendrites and the other axons.

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Functions of Neurons
Monopolar neurons serve as bridge between neurons and other receptor-neuron cells. Bipolar neurons carry messages from sense organs and multipolar neurons to muscles and viscera.

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How are neurons connected?

One neurons connects to another via processes, however there is a gap between these processes called synapse.

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Electron Microscopy
Electron microscopes provide us with details of morphological structure of the synapse, and release of neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft.

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Chemical Transport
Most chemicals in the neurons are synthesized and recycled from and to the nucleus of the cell, they need to be transported to the synaptic sites.

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Glial Cells
Glial cells in the brain are non-communicative cells and engage in other functions, some of which are listed below:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Provide scaffolding to neurons Provide nutrition to neurons Myelinate (insulate) neurons Guide neuronal development Make blood-brain barrier (BBB) Phagocytosis (eat microorganisms & dead neurons)
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Arstrocytes
Provide support and Nutrition to neurons in the and extracellular environment

members.tripod.com

Astrocytes in the cortex

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Oligodendrocytes & Schwann Cells

Myelinate neurons in the central and the peripheral nervous system.

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Radial Glia
Guiding neurons to their laminar destinations.

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Blood Brain Barrier (BBB)

Glial cells (endothelial cells) erect a barrier between blood vessels and the brain.

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Microglia
Microglia eat away of microorganisms that enter the brain and scavenging dead neurons a process called phagocytosis.

Macro-Level Morphology
1. Understanding the brain as an organ of that intimately controls behaviors neuroscientists from 16th century onwards used ablation methods in the brain. 2. Ablation of the brain involves removing or destroying (lesions) areas of the brain as it effects behavior. 3. This method is still used to localize behavioral function with its advantages and disadvantages.
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Brain Regions
Flourens conducted many brain ablation experiments and found that cerebellum played an important role in coordinated movements.
upload.wikimedia.org

www.microglia.net

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Cerebellum

upload.wikimedia.org

Pierre Flourens (1774-1867)

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Systems & Divisions

Nervous System

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

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Peripheral Nervous System

Peripheral Nervous System
Somatic Nervous System Autonomic Nervous System

Cranial Nerves

Spinal Nerves Sympathetic Nervous System

Process sensory information and controls the voluntary muscle movements

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Controls the viscera (organs)

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Cranial Nerves

Mnemonic: On Old Olympic Towering Tops A Famous Vocal German Viewed Some Hops

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Spinal Nerves
There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves connecting a number of tissues and organs in the body.
A B C D E 8 Cervical Nerves 12 Thoracic Nerves 5 Lumbar Nerves 5 Sacral Nerves 1 Coccygeal Nerve

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Autonomic Nervous System

1. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) is a part of PNS that controls automatic, involuntary functions. It is divided into two divisions viz., sympathetic and parasympathetic. 2. Sympathetic division generally energizes bodily functions when the individual experiences arousal or stress. It therefore uses fight-or-flight response to emergency situations etc. 3. Parasympathetic division counters sympathetic divisions to keep a balance. Rest and digest. 29

Autonomic Nervous System

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Central Nervous System

Central Nervous System

Forebrain (Procencephalon)

Midbrain (Mesencephalon)

Hindbrain (Rhombencephalon)

Cerebrum (Telencephalon)

Thalamus (Diencephalon) Superior Colliculus Inferior Colliculus

Medulla

Pons

Cerebellum

Isocortex

Basal Ganglia

Limbic System

Reticular Activation System

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Orientation of Nervous System

To orient ourselves about the nervous system in 3D, we need to understand three planes in which brain can be sectioned.

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Development of Nervous System

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Telencephalon (Cerebrum)
Telencephalon or cerebrum or the neo-cortex can be divided into four lobes, with specific functions.

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Frontal Lobe
The frontal lobe contains the motor strip, and represents the body map (homunculus).

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Parietal Lobe
The parietal lobe contains the somatosensory strip, and represents the body map (homunculus).

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Occipital Lobe
The occipital lobe houses visual areas in the brain. It contains 30 some areas that process visual information.

journalofcosmology.com

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Temporal Lobe
The temporal lobe houses sensory functions as hearing, taste, and smell. Also in this area are memory functions and nuclei for emotions.

en.wikipedia.org

Temporal Lobe

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Medial Cerebrum
If you cut the cerebral hemispheres in the middle, a set of new structures come in view. Many of these perform arrays of different functions.

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Basal Ganglia
Contains four nuclei; caudate, globus pallidus, amygdala, and substantia nigra. Involved with motor control.

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Limbic System
Contains four nuclei; Olfactory bulb (smell), hippocampus and fornix (memory), cingulate gyrus (attention, emotion).

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Diencephalon
Thalamus, a way station for all incoming and out going nerves to and from the cortex. Hypothalamus, Regulates vital functions like temperature, hunger, sex, and hormones.

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Midbrain
Superior Colliculus, (#2, vision), Inferior Colliculus, (#3, audition). Substantia Nigra (#5, Parkinson disease, schizophrenia). Reticular Formation (Red area, arousal, sleep, temperature).

www.med.umich.edu

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Hindbrain
Pons, (#3, sensory and motor cranial nerves, audition). Medulla Oblogata, (#4, cranial nerves XI & XII, breathing and heart beat). Cerebellum (#2, fine and coordinated motor movement).

www.med.umich.edu

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Cerebellum
Cerebellum is a less convoluted structure with two hemispheres. Composed of molecular, Purkinje cell and granule cell layers. Granule cell layer forms parallel fibers for coordinated movements.

en.wikipedia.org

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Layers of the Cerebrum

Cerebrum compared to cerebellum contain six layers. Some layer receive inputs while others send outputs.

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Ventricles
Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) runs through the ventricles, absorbing shock and providing important minerals and electrolytes for the brain.

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Meninges and BBB

Large volumes of blood (20%) swaddle the brain and provide nourishment. Meninges consist of dura mater, pia mater and arachnoid space. Blood Brain Barrier (BBB) keeps bacteria and other toxic agents outside the brain.
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Techniques to Image the Brain

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Computerized Axial Tomography

Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT or CT) Scan is a brain imaging procedure that takes many X-rays of the brain and reconstructs a 3D image.

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Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) make cells in the brain vibrate. They give off signals which are interpreted by a computer and turned into very detailed images of (slices) of the brain.

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Positron Emission Tomography

Positron Emission Tomography (PET) involves the acquisition of physiologic images (brain) based on the detection of positrons. Positrons are particles emitted from a radioactive substance administered to the patient.

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fMRI Scans
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) visualizes brain function, by changes in chemical composition of brain areas or changes in the flow of fluids (blood) that occur over time.

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Cognitive Neuroscience Expt.

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Optical Imaging & TMS

Optical imaging uses near infrared light to measure responses by the cortex. Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) stimulates the brain of an alert subject mapped by optical imaging.

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Event-related Potential
Event-related potentials measures the brain's electrical activity as it responds to impinging stimuli (events). Excellent temporal resolution (faster response) compared to PET or fMRI.
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