Anatomy and Physiology of the Human Lung The lungs are the primary organs of the respiratory system.

The main function of the human respiratory system is to transport oxygen from the atmosphere into the blood, and to expel carbon dioxide from the body. Healthy levels of oxygen are absolutely crucial for the human body, as oxygen gives our cells energy and helps them regenerate. The Anatomy of the Lung Each lung is divided into lobes. The right lung, which has three lobes, is slightly larger than the left, which has two. The lungs are housed in the chest cavity, or thoracic cavity, and covered by a protective membrane called the pleura. The diaphragm, the primary muscle involved in respiration, separates the lungs from the abdominal cavity. The pulmonary arteries carry de-oxygenated blood from the right ventricle of the heart to the lungs. The pulmonary veins, on the other hand, carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart, so it can be pumped to the rest of the body.

How the Lungs Work

The lungs expand upon inhalation, or inspiration, and fill with air. They then return to their resting volume and push air out upon exhalation, or expiration. These two movements make up the process of breathing, or respiration. The respiratory system contains several structures. When you breathe, the lungs facilitate this process: 1. Air comes in through the mouth and/or nose, and travels down through the trachea, or "windpipe." This air travels down the trachea into two bronchi, one leading to each lung. The bronchi then subdivide into smaller tubes called bronchioles. The air finally fills the alveoli, which are the small air sacs at the ends of the bronchioles. 2. In the alveoli, the lungs facilitate the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide to and from the blood. Adult lungs have hundreds of alveoli, which increase the lungs' surface area and speed this process. Oxygen travels across the membranes of the alveoli and into the blood in the tiny capillaries surrounding them. 3. Oxygen molecules bind to hemoglobin in the blood and are carried throughout the body. This oxygenated blood can then be pumped to the body by the heart. 4. The blood also carries the waste product carbon dioxide back to the lungs, where it is transferred into the alveoli in the lungs to be expelled through exhalation. Smoking can damage the alveoli and make breathing labor intensive, resulting in emphysema or lung cancer. Types of Respiration Two types of respiration exist:
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Quiet respiration happens when the body is at rest. During quiet respiration, the diaphragm contracts and pulls down, lowering the pressure in the lungs and causing air to enter the lungs through the mouth and nose to equalize the pressure. When the diaphragm relaxes, it moves back up, pushing air back out of the lungs. The lungs and chest walls also return to their resting positions. This also reduces the size of the chest cavity and helps to push air out of the lungs.

Active respiration occurs when the body is active and requires higher levels of oxygen to the blood than when resting. During active respiration, the muscles around the ribs raise and push out the ribs and sternum, which increases thoracic volume, helping the lungs take in more air.

During exhalation, the intercostals force the ribs to contract, and the abdominal muscles contract, forcing the diaphragm to rise. Both these movements make the thoracic cavity contract, and help push air out of the lungs.

Anatomy and physiology of the liver Anatomy of the liver The liver is a reddish brown organ with four lobes of unequal size and shape. A human liver normally weighs 1.44 1.66 kg (3.2 3.7 lb), and is a soft, pinkish-brown, triangular organ. It is both the largest internal organ (the skin being the largest organ overall) and the largest gland in the human body. It is located in the right upper quadrant of the abdominal cavity, resting just below the diaphragm. The liver lies to the right of the stomach and overlies the gallbladder. It is connected to two large blood vessels, one called the hepatic artery and one called the portal vein. The hepatic artery carries blood from the

aorta, whereas the portal vein carries blood containing digested nutrients from the entire gastrointestinal tract and also from the spleen and pancreas. These blood vessels subdivide into capillaries, which then lead to a lobule. Each lobule is made up of millions of hepatic cells which are the basic metabolic cells.

The liver Surface anatomy Peritoneal ligaments Apart from a patch where it connects to the diaphragm (the so-called "bare area"), the liver is covered entirely by visceral peritoneum, a thin, double-layered membrane that reduces friction against other organs. The peritoneum folds back on itself to form the falciform ligament and the right and left triangular ligaments. These "lits" are in no way related to the true anatomic ligaments in joints, and have essentially no functional importance, but they are easily recognizable surface landmarks. An exception to this is the falciform ligament, which attaches the liver to the posterior portion of the anterior body wall.

Lobes Traditional gross anatomy divided the liver into four lobes based on surface features. The falciform ligament is visible on the front (anterior side) of the liver. This divides the liver into a left anatomical lobe, and a right anatomical lobe. If the liver is flipped over, to look at it from behind (the visceral surface), there are two additional lobes between the right and left. These are the caudate lobe (the more superior) and the quadrate lobe (the more inferior). From behind, the lobes are divided up by the ligamentum venosum and ligamentum teres (anything left of these is the left lobe), the transverse fissure (or porta hepatis) divides the caudate from the quadrate lobe, and the right sagittal fossa, which the inferior vena cava runs over, separates these two lobes from the right lobe. Each of the lobes is made up of lobules; a vein goes from the centre, which then joins to the hepatic vein to carry blood out from the liver. On the surface of the lobules, there are ducts, veins and arteries that carry fluids to and from them. Physiology of the liver The various functions of the liver are carried out by the liver cells or hepatocytes. Currently, there is no artificial organ or device capable of emulating all the functions of the liver. Some functions can be emulated by liver dialysis, an experimental treatment for liver failure.

Synthesis Further information: Proteins produced and secreted by the liver A large part of amino acid synthesis The liver performs several roles in carbohydrate metabolism:
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Gluconeogenesis (the synthesis of glucose from certain amino acids, lactate or glycerol) Glycogenolysis (the breakdown of glycogen into glucose)

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Glycogenesis (the formation of glycogen from glucose)(muscle tissues can also do this)

The liver is responsible for the mainstay of protein metabolism, synthesis as well as degradation The liver also performs several roles in lipid metabolism:
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Cholesterol synthesis Lipogenesis, the production of triglycerides (fats).

The liver produces coagulation factors I (fibrinogen), II (prothrombin), V, VII, IX, X and XI, as well as protein C, protein S and antithrombin.

In the first trimester fetus, the liver is the main site of red blood cell production. By the 32nd week of gestation, the bone marrow has almost completely taken over that task.

The liver produces and excretes bile (a yellowish liquid) required for emulsifying fats. Some of the bile drains directly into the duodenum, and some is stored in the gallbladder.

The liver also produces insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), a polypeptide protein hormone that plays an important role in childhood growth and continues to have anabolic effects in adults.

The liver is a major site of thrombopoietin production. Thrombopoietin is a glycoprotein hormone that regulates the production of platelets by the bone marrow.

Breakdown The breakdown of insulin and other hormones The liver glucoronidates bilirubin, facilitating its excretion into bile. The liver breaks down or modifies toxic substances (e.g., methylation) and most medicinal products in a process called drug metabolism. This sometimes results in toxication, when the metabolite is more toxic than its precursor. Preferably, the toxins are conjugated to avail excretion in bile or urine.
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The liver converts ammonia to urea.

Other functions The liver stores a multitude of substances, including glucose (in the form of glycogen), vitamin A (1 2 years' supply), vitamin D (1 4 months' supply), vitamin B12 (1-3 years' supply), iron, and copper.

The liver is responsible for immunological effects- the reticuloendothelial system of the liver contains many immunologically active cells, acting as a 'sieve' for antigens carried to it via the portal system.

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The liver produces albumin, the major osmolar component of blood serum. The liver synthesizes angiotensinogen, a hormone that is responsible for raising the blood pressure when activated by renin, an enzyme that is released when the kidney senses low blood pressure.

Anatomy and physiology of the blood Anatomy Blood is a specialized bodily fluid that delivers necessary substances to the body's cells (in animals) such as nutrients and oxygen and transports waste products away from those same cells. In vertebrates, it is composed of blood cells suspended in a liquid called blood plasma. Plasma, which constitutes 55% of blood fluid, is mostly water (92% by volume),[1] and contains dissipated proteins, glucose, mineral ions, hormones, carbon dioxide (plasma being the main medium for excretory product transportation), platelets and blood cells themselves. The blood cells are mainly red blood cells (also called RBCs or erythrocytes) and white blood cells, including leukocytes and platelets. The most abundant cells in vertebrate blood are red blood cells. These contain hemoglobin, an iron-containing protein, which facilitates transportation of oxygen by reversibly binding to this respiratory gas and greatly increasing its solubility in blood. In contrast, carbon dioxide is almost entirely transported extracellularly dissolved in plasma as bicarbonate ion. Vertebrate blood is bright red when its hemoglobin is oxygenated. Some animals, such as crustaceans and mollusks, use hemocyanin to carry oxygen, instead of hemoglobin. Insects and some molluscs use a fluid called hemolymph instead of blood, the difference being that hemolymph is not contained in a

closed circulatory system. In most insects, this "blood" does not contain oxygen-carrying molecules such as hemoglobin because their bodies are small enough for their tracheal system to suffice for supplying oxygen. Jawed vertebrates have an adaptive immune system, based largely on white blood cells. White blood cells help to resist infections and parasites. Platelets are important in the clotting of blood.[2] Arthropods, using hemolymph, have hemocytes as part of their immune system. Blood is circulated around the body through blood vessels by the pumping action of the heart. In animals with lungs, arterial blood carries oxygen from inhaled air to the tissues of the body, and venous blood carries carbon dioxide, a waste product of metabolism produced by cells, from the tissues to the lungs to be exhaled. Medical terms related to blood often begin with hemo- or hemato- (also spelled haemo- and haemato-) from the Ancient Greek word (haima) for "blood". In terms of anatomy and histology, blood is

considered a specialized form of connective tissue, given its origin in the bones and the presence of potential molecular fibers in the form of fibrinogen. Function Blood performs many important functions within the body including:
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Supply of oxygen to tissues (bound to hemoglobin, which is carried in red cells) Supply of nutrients such as glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids (dissolved in the blood or bound to plasma proteins (e.g., blood lipids))

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Removal of waste such as carbon dioxide, urea, and lactic acid Immunological functions, including circulation of white blood cells, and detection of foreign material by antibodies

Coagulation, which is one part of the body's self-repair mechanism (blood clotting after an open wound in order to stop bleeding)

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Messenger functions, including the transport of hormones and the signaling of tissue damage Regulation of body pH Regulation of core body temperature Hydraulic functions

Physiology Cardiovascular system The circulation of blood through the human heart Main article: Circulatory system Blood is circulated around the body through blood vessels by the pumping action of the heart. In humans, blood is pumped from the strong left ventricle of the heart through arteries to peripheral tissues and returns to the right atrium of the heart through veins. It then enters the right ventricle and is pumped through the pulmonary artery to the lungs and returns to the left atrium through the pulmonary veins. Blood then enters the left ventricle to be circulated again. Arterial blood carries oxygen from inhaled air to all of the cells of the body, and venous blood carries carbon dioxide, a waste product of metabolism by cells, to the lungs to be exhaled. However, one exception includes pulmonary arteries, which contain the most deoxygenated blood in the body, while the pulmonary veins contain oxygenated blood. Additional return flow may be generated by the movement of skeletal muscles, which can compress veins and push blood through the valves in veins toward the right atrium. The blood circulation was famously described by William Harvey in 1628. Production and degradation of blood cells In vertebrates, the various cells of blood are made in the bone marrow in a process called hematopoiesis, which includes erythropoiesis, the production of red blood cells; and myelopoiesis, the production of white blood cells and platelets. During childhood, almost every human bone produces red blood cells; as adults, red blood cell production is limited to the larger bones: the bodies of the

vertebrae, the breastbone (sternum), the ribcage, the pelvic bones, and the bones of the upper arms and legs. In addition, during childhood, the thymus gland, found in the mediastinum, is an important source of lymphocytes. The proteinaceous component of blood (including clotting proteins) is produced predominantly by the liver, while hormones are produced by the endocrine glands and the watery fraction is regulated by the hypothalamus and maintained by the kidney. Healthy erythrocytes have a plasma life of about 120 days before they are degraded by the spleen, and the Kupffer cells in the liver. The liver also clears some proteins, lipids, and amino acids. The kidney actively secretes waste products into the urine. Transport of hydrogen ions Some oxyhemoglobin loses oxygen and becomes deoxyhemoglobin. Deoxyhemoglobin binds most of the hydrogen ions as it has a much greater affinity for more hydrogen than does oxyhemoglobin. Lymphatic system Main article: Lymphatic system In mammals, blood is in equilibrium with lymph, which is continuously formed in tissues from blood by capillary ultrafiltration. Lymph is collected by a system of small lymphatic vessels and directed to the thoracic duct, which drains into the left subclavian vein where lymph rejoins the systemic blood circulation. Thermoregulation Blood circulation transports heat throughout the body, and adjustments to this flow are an important part of thermoregulation. Increasing blood flow to the surface (e.g., during warm weather or strenuous exercise) causes warmer skin, resulting in faster heat loss. In contrast, when the external temperature is low, blood flow to the extremities and surface of the skin is reduced and to prevent heat loss and is circulated to the important organs of the body, preferentially. Hydraulic functions The restriction of blood flow can also be used in specialized tissues to cause engorgement, resulting in an erection of that tissue; examples are the erectile tissue in the penis and clitoris.

Another example of a hydraulic function is the jumping spider, in which blood forced into the legs under pressure causes them to straighten for a powerful jump, without the need for bulky muscular legs. Anatomy of the Urinary System

The function of the urinary system is to remove waste products from the blood and eliminate them from the body. The principal waste products being eliminated are water, carbon dioxide and nitrogenous wastes including area, uric acid and creatinine. Other functions of the urinary system include the regulation of the volume of body fluids, the balance of pH and the electrolyte composition of these fluids. Kidneys The kidneys are located in the back of the upper abdomen and are protected by the lower ribs and rib cartilage of the back. The kidneys are involved with a number of bodily functions which include:
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The filtering and excretion of unwanted waste products such as urea from the body. The maintenance of water balance. the regulation of the acid-base balance of body fluids. the production of renin, which is important in the regulation of blood pressure.

The production of the hormone erythropoieten, which stimulates the production of red blood cells.

Ureters The ureters are two slender tubes that run from the sides of the kidneys to the bladder. Their function is to transport urine from the kidneys to the bladder. Bladder The bladder is a muscular organ and serves as a reservoir for urine. Located just behind the pubic bone, it can extend well up into the abdominal cavity when full. Near the outlet of the bladder is a small muscle called the internal sphincter, which contract involuntarily to prevent the emptying of the bladder. Urethra The urethra is a tube that extends from the bladder to the outside world. It is through this tube that urine is eliminated from the body.

How does the urinary system work? The body takes nutrients from food and converts them to energy. After the body has taken the food that it needs, waste products are left behind in the bowel and in the blood.

The urinary system keeps chemicals, such as potassium and sodium, and water in balance, and removes a type of waste called urea from the blood. Urea is produced when foods containing protein, such as meat, poultry, and certain vegetables are broken down in the body. Urea is carried in the bloodstream to the kidneys, where it is removed.

Other important functions of the kidneys include blood pressure regulation, and the production of erythropoietin, which controls red blood cell production in the bone marrow. Urinary system parts and their functions: two kidneys - a pair of purplish-brown organs located below the ribs toward the middle of the back. Their function is to:

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remove liquid waste from the blood in the form of urine. keep a stable balance of salts and other substances in the blood. produce erythropoietin, a hormone that aids the formation of red blood cells.

The kidneys remove urea from the blood through tiny filtering units called nephrons. Each nephron consists of a ball formed of small blood capillaries, called a glomerulus, and a small tube called a renal tubule. Urea, together with water and other waste substances, forms the urine as it passes through the nephrons and down the renal tubules of the kidney. two ureters - narrow tubes that carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder. Muscles in the ureter walls continually tighten and relax forcing urine downward, away from the kidneys. If urine backs up, or is allowed to stand still, a kidney infection can develop. About every 10 to 15 seconds, small amounts of urine are emptied into the bladder from the ureters.
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bladder - a triangle-shaped, hollow organ located in the lower abdomen. It is held in place by ligaments that are attached to other organs and the pelvic bones.The bladder's walls relax and expand to store urine, and contract and flatten to empty urine through the urethra.

two sphincter muscles - circular muscles that help keep urine from leaking by closing tightly like a rubber band around the opening of the bladder.

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nerves in the bladder - alert a person when it is time to urinate, or empty the bladder. urethra - the tube that allows urine to pass outside the body. The brain signals the bladder muscles to tighten, which squeezes urine out of the bladder. At the same time, the brain signals the sphincter muscles to relax to let urine exit the bladder through the urethra. When all the signals occur in the correct order, normal urination occurs.