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AIRCRAFT NAVIGATION

by SI SI Fedcbipz
Transport Press
Moscow, 1966

7.

N A T I O N A L A E R O N A U T I C S A N D SPACE A D M I N I S T R A T I O N

W A S H I N G T O N , D. C.

FEBRUARY 1 9 6 9

TECH LIBRARY KAFB,

NM

I111 111l0068952iltl1
llIWI 111H I1 ll l

AIRCRAFT NAVIGATION
By S. S. Fedchin

Translation of: "Samoletovozhdeniye . I t "Transport" Press, Moscow, 1966

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

. -- -_ - For sale by the Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical Information Springfield, Virginia 22151 CFSTI price $3.00

TABLE OF CONTENTS

..................................................... INTRODUCTION ................................................. CHAPTER O N E . C O O R D I N A T E S Y S T E M S A N D ELEMENTS OF

AIRCRAFT NAVIGATION ........................................ 1. E l e m e n t s o f A i r c r a f t M o v e m e n t i n S p a c e ............... 2 . C o n c e p t s o f S t a b l e and U n s t a b l e F l i g h t
C o n d i t i o n s ........................................... 3 . Form a n d D i m e n s i o n s o f t h e E a r t h ..................... 4 . E l e m e n t s Which C o n n e c t t h e E a r t h ' s S u r f a c e
w i t h T h r e e - D i m e n s i o n a l S p a c e ......................... 5 . C h a r t s . Maps. a n d C a r t o g r a p h i c P r o j e c t i o n s ........... D i s t o r t i o n s o f C a r t o g r a p h i c P r o j e c t i o n s ............ E Z Z i p s e o f D i s t o r t i o n s ........................... D i s t o r t i o n o f L e n g t h s ............................ D i s t o r t i o n of D i r e c t i o n s ......................... D i s t o r t i o n of A r e a s ..............................
ABSTRACT
Classification of Cartographic Projections

xi

xiii

1
1

4
7
9
12
14
14
15

. 2. 3. 4.
1

D i v i s i o n o f P r o j e c t i o n s by t h e Nature
of the Distortions
Isogonal or

Azimuthal

........................... ................ C e n t r a l p o l a r ( g n o m o n i c p r o j e c t i o n ) ................ E q u a l l y s p a c e d a z i m u t h a l ( c e n t . r a 1 ) p r o j e c t i o n ...... S t e r e o g r a p h i c p o l a r p r o j e c t i o n ..................... N o m e n c l a t u r e o f M a p s ...............................

International projection
(Perspective) Projections

................... ............................ N o r m a l ( e q u i v a l e n t ) c y l i n d r i c a l p r o j e c t i o n ......... S i m p l e e q u a l l y s p a c e d c y l i n d r i c a l p r o j e c t i o n ....... I s o g o n a l c y l i n d r i c a l p r o j e c t i o n .................... I s o g o n a l o b l i q u e c y l i n d r i c a l p r o j e c t i o n s ........... I s o g o n a l t r a n s v e r s e and c y l i n d r i c a l G a u s s i a n

p r o j e c t i o n ......................................... C o n i c P r o j e c t i o n s .................................. S i m p l e n o r m a l c o n i c p r o j e c t i o n ..................... I s o g o n a l c o n i c p r o j e c t i o n .......................... C o n v e r g e n c e a n g l e o f t h e m e r i d i a n s ................. P o l y c o n i c p r o j e c t i o n s ..............................
Cylindrical Projections

E q u a l l y spaced o r e q u i d i s t a n t p r o j e c t i o n s Equally large or equivalent projections Arbitrary projections D i v i s i o n o f P r o j e c t i o n s According t o t h e

Method o f C o n s t r u c t i o n ( A c c o r d i n g t o t h e
A p p e a r a n c e o f t h e Normal G r i d )

......... ............................... c o n f o r m a l p r o j e c t i o n s ..............

16
17

1.8
18 18 19 19 20 20 20 20 22 23 24

...... ........ ..........................

25
27
28
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31
32
34
36
38
38
41

iii

.................. .............................................. O r t h o d r o m e o n t h e E a r t h ' s S u r f a c e .................. O r t h o d r o m e o n T o p o g r a p h i c a l Maps o f D i f f e r e n t

P r o j e c t i o n s ........................................ L o x o d r o m e o n t h e E a r t h ' s S u r f a c e ................... General Recommendations f o r M e a s u r i n g D i r e c t i o n s
a n d D i s t a n c e s ...................................... 7 . S p e c i a l C o o r d i n a t e S y s t e m s o n t h e E a r t h ' s S u r f a c e .... O r t h o d r o m i c C o o r d i n a t e S y s t e m ...................... A r b i t r a r y (Ob1 i q u e a n d T r a n s v e r s e ) S p h e r i c a l a n d
P o l a r C o o r d i n a t e S y s t e m s ........................... P o s i t i o n L i n e s o f an A i r c r a f t on t h e E a r t h ' s
S u r f a c e ............................................ B i p o l a r A z i m u t h a l C o o r d i n a t e S y s t e m ................ G o n i o m e t r i c Range-Finding C o o r d i n a t e System ........ B i p o l a r Range-F ind ing ( C i r c u 1 a r ) C o o r d i n a t e
S y s t e m ............................................. L i n e s o f E q u a l A z i m u t h s ............................
6

Maps U s e d f o r A i r c r a f t N a v i g a t i o n

42

M e a s u r i n g D i r e c t i o n s and D i s t a n c e s on t h e E a r t h ' s
Surface

45
45

55
60
65
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67

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74

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81

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88

.................................. ............................................. 8 . E l e m e n t s o f A i r c r a f t N a v i g a t i o n ...................... E l e m e n t s w h i c h d e t e r m i n e F l i g h t D i r e c t i o n .......... 1 . Assymetry o f the Engine T h r u s t o r A i r c r a f t

D r a g ( F i g . 1 . 5 9 ) ...............................

Difference-Range-Finding (Hyperbolic)
C o o r d i n a t e System Overall-Range-Finding ( E l l i p t i c a l ) Coordinate
System

.............................. ................................. . ......................................... . ............. ........................................ ......................... ........... Calculating F l i g h t A l t i t u d e i n Determining

D i s t a n c e s o n t h e E a r t h ' s S u r f a c e ................... E l e m e n t s o f A i r c r a f t R o l l .......................... 1 . C o m b i n a t i o n o f R o l l w i t h ' a S t r a i g h t L i n e ....... 2 . C o m b i n a t i o n o f t w o r o l l s ....................... 3 . L i n e a r p r e d i c t i o n o f r o l l ( L P R ) ................ C H A P T E R TWO . A I R C R A F T N A V I G A T I O N U S I N G MISCELLANEOUS
D E V I C E S .................................................... 1. G e o t e c h n i c a 7 Means o f A i r c r a f t N a v i g a t i o n ............ 2 . C o u r s e I n s t r u m e n t s a n d S y s t e m s .......................
iv

A l l o w a b l e L a t e r a l B a n k i n g o f an A i r c r a f t i n
Horizontal Flight C o r i o l i s Force 4 Two-dimensional F l u c t u a t i o n s i n the A i r c r a f t
Course 5 G l i d i n g D u r i n g Changes i n t h e L a t e r a l Wind Speed Component a t F l i g h t A l t i t u d e E l e m e n t s Which C h a r a c t e r i z e t h e F l i g h t Speed o f
an A i r c r a f t N a v i g a t i o n a l Speed T r i a n g l e Elements Which D e t e r m i n e F l i g h t A l t i t u d e

. 3.
2

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Methods o f U s i n g t h e M a g n e t i c F i e l d o f t h e
Earth t o Determine D i r e c t i o n V a r i a t i o n s and O s c i l l a t i o n s i n t h e E a r t h ' s
Magnetic F i e l d M a g n e t i c Compasses D e v i a t i o n o f M a g n e t i c Compasses a n d i t s
Compensation

.................................. ........................................ G y r o s c o p i c C o u r s e D e v i c e s .......................... P r 5 n c i p Ze of O p e r a t i o n of G y r o s c o p i c

I n s t r u m e n t s ...................................... Degree of Freedom of t h e G y r o s c o p e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D i r e c t i o n of P r e c e s s i o n of t h e G y r o s c o p e A x i s . . . .
............................. ...................... G y r o i n d u c t i o n Compass .............................. D e t a i l s o f D e v i a t i o n O p e r a t i o n s on D i s t a n c e
G y r o m a g n e t i c a n d G y r o i n d u c t i o n Compasses . . . . . . . . . . . Methods o f U s i n g Course Devices f o r Purposes
o f A i r c r a f t N a v i g a t i o n ............................. Methods of U s i n g C o u r s e D e v i c e s Under C o n d i t i o n s
I n c l u d e d i n t h e F i r s t Group ...................... Methods of U s i n g C o u r s e D e v i c e s Under C o n d i t i o n s
of t h e S e c o n d Group .............................. Methods of U s i n g C o u r s e D e v i c e s Under t h e
C o n d i t i o n s of t h e T h i r d Group .................... 3 . B a r o m e t r i c A l t i m e t e r s ................................ Description o f a Barometric A l t i m e t e r .............. Errors i n Measuring A l t i t u d e w i t h a Barometric
A l t i m e t e r .......................................... 4 . A i r s p e e d I n d i c a t o r s .................................. E r r o r s i n M e a s u r i n g A i r s p e e d ....................... R e l a t i o n s h i p B e t w e e n E r r o r s i n Speed I n d i c a t o r s
a n d F l i g h t A l t i t u d e ................................
G y r o s c o p i c Semicompass D i s t a n c e G y r o m a g n e t i c Compass

Change i n D e v i a t i o n of M a g n e t i c Compasses a s a
F u n c t i o n o f t h e M a g n e t i c L a t i t u d e of t h e L o c u s
of t h e A i r c r a f t E Z i m i n a t i o n of D e v i a t i o n i n t h e M a g n e t i c
Compasses

....................... ..................................... ................................. ....................................... E q u a l i z i n g t h e M a g n e t i c F i e l d of t h e A i r c r a f t .... D e v i a t i o n FormuZas ............................... C a Z c u Z a t i o n of A p p r o x i m a t e D e v i a t i o n

C o e f f i c i e n t s .....................................

114

119
121

123

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128
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133
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141

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144

146

A p p a r e n t R o t a t i o n of G y r o s c o p e A x i s on t h e
E a r t h ' s S u r f a c e ..................................

146 149 152 158

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180

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186
193

. . 7. 8. 9.
5 6

Measurement o f t h e T e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e O u t s i d e Air Aviation Clocks

A u t o m a t i c N a v i g a t i o n I n s t r u m e n t s ..................... P r a c t i c a l Methods o f A i r c r a f t N a v i g a t i o n U s i n g
Geotechnical Devices

.... ...................................... S p e c i a l R e q u i r e m e n t s f o r A v i a t i o n C l o c k s ........... N a v i g a t i o n a l S i g h t s ..................................

.................................
V

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199
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T a k e o f f of the A i r c r a f t at the S t a r t i n g Point

of the Route....................................... S e l e c t i n g t h e C o u r s e ' t o be F o l l o w e d for the
F l i g h t Route............ .Change i n Navigational Elements D u r i n g F l i g h t M e a s u r i n g the W i n d a t F l i g h t A l t i t u d e a n d
C a l c u l a t i n g Navigational Elements a t S u c c e s s i v e
Stages C a l c u l a t i o n o f the P a t h of the A i r c r a f t and
Monitoring Aircraft Navigation i n Terms of
D i s t a n c e s and Direction.. Use of A u t o m a t i c Navigational Devices for
C a l c u l a t i n g the A i r c r a f t P a t h a n d M e a s u r i n g
the W i n d P a r a m e t e r s Details of A i r c r a f t N a v i g a t i o n U s i n g Geotechnical
M e t h o d s i n Various F l i g h t Conditions.....

215
218
221

........................... ......

.............................................

224

227
230

..........................

10. Calculating and Measuring Pilotage Instruments..

.... Purpose of Calculating a n d Measuring Pilotage

......................... Instruments............... Navigational S l i d e Rule N L - l O M . . . . .................

................................ ..........

233
234

234
235

250

250
251

CHAPTER THREE. AIRCRAFT NAVIGATION USING RADIO-ENGINEERING

DEVICES ....................................................

1.

2.

............................. ................................. ................................... ..................................... ..................................... Goniometric and G o n i o m e t r i c - R a n g e f i n d i n g Systems .... A i r c r a f t N a v i g a t i o n U s i n g G r o u n - B a s e d Radio
Direction-Finders.................... ............. S e Z e c t i o n of t h e C o u r s e t o b e FoZZowed and
C o n t r o Z of F Z i g h t D i r e c t i o n ..................... P a t h C o n t r o l . i n Terms of D i s t a n c e and D e t e r
m i n a t i o n of t h e A i r c r a f t ' s L o c a t i o n ............. D e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e Ground S p e e d , D r i f t AngZe,
and Wind ........................................ A u t o m a t i c A i r c r a f t Radio D i s t a n c e - F i n d e r s
( R a d i o c o m p a s s e s ) .................................. R a d i o c o m p a s s D e v i a t i o n . ......................... A i r c r a f t N a v i g a t i o n U s i n g R a d i o c o m p a s s e s on
Board t h e A i r c r a f t ..............................
W a v e Polarization.... P r o p a g a t i o n of E l e c t r o m a g n e t i c O s c i l l a t i o n s i n
H o m o g e n e o u s Medi'a P r i n c i p l e s of S u p e r p o s i t i o n a n d I n t e r f e r e n c e
of Radio W a v e s . P r i n c i p l e C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of R a d i o n a v i g a t i o n a l
Instruments.. O p e r a t i n g P r i n c i p l e s of R a d i o n a v i g a t i o n a l
Instruments..

Principles o f the Theory o f Radionavigational Instruments .........................................

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257

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283

S p e c i a l F e a t u r e s o f U s i n g Radiocompasses on
Board A i r c r a f t a t High A Z t i t u d e s and F Z i g h t
Speeds
vi

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292

........

U l t r a - S h o r t w a v e G o n i o m e t r i c and G o n i o m e t r i c Range F i n d i n g S y s t e m s

3.

................ ............................. D e t a i 2s of U s i n g G o n i o m e t r i c - R a n g e F i n d i n g
S y s t e m s a t D i f f e r e n t F Z i g h t A Z t i t u d e d ........... F a n - S h a p e d G o n i o m e t r i c R a d i o B e a c o n s ..............

D e t a i Z s of U s i n g R a d i o c o m p a s s e s i n Mak<ng
Maneuvers i n t h e V i c i n i t y of t h e A i r p o r t
a t W h i c h a L a n d i n g is t o b e Made

295
296
'304
306
310
312
317
318 320 320 325

Difference-Rangefinding (Hyperbolic) Navigational S y s t e m s ..............................................

O p e r a t i n g P r i n c i p l e s o f D i f f e r e n t i a l Range-
f i n d i n g Systems Navigational Applications of Differential-
R a n g e f i n d i n g Systems Methods o f Improving D i f f e r e n t i a l RAngefinding
N a v i g a t i o n a l Systems

................................... .............................. .............................. 4. Autonomous Radio-Navigational Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . A i r c r a f t N a v i g a t i o n a l R a d a r ....................... I n d i c a t o r s of A i r c r a f t N a v i g a t i o n a l R a d a r s . . . . . . N a t u r e of t h e V i s i b i Z i t y of Landmarks o n t h e

S c r e e n of an A i r c r a f t Radar .....................
Use of A i r c r a f t Radar f o r P u r p o s e s of A i r
c r a f t N a v i g a t i o n and A v o i d a n c e of Dangerous
M e t e o r o Z o g i c a Z Phenomena ........................
Autonomous D o p p l e r M e t e r s f o r Ground Speed

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370
370
374 375 376 378 380 380 381

5.

Principles o f Combining Navigational Instruments . . . . .

S c h e m a t i c Diagram of t h e O p e r a t i o n of a
M e t e r w i t h C o n t i n u o u s R a d i a t i o n Regime . . . . . . . . . . Use of D o p p l e r M e t e r s f o r P u r p o s e s of
A i r c r a f t N a v i g a t i o n ............................. P r e p a r a t i o n f o r F l i g h t and C o r r e c t i o n of E r r o r s i n A i r c r a f t Alavigation by Using D o p p l e r M e t e r s ..................................

.......................................

D r i f t Angle and

CHAPTER FOUR . DEVICES AND METHODS FOR MAKING AN

INSTRUMENT LANDING ......................................... S Y S T E M S F O R M A K I N G AN I N S T R U M E N T L A N D I N G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
S i m p l i f i e d System f o r Making an Landing

Angle o f Slope f o r A i r c r a f t G l i d e T y p i c a l Maneuvers i n L a n d i n g an A i r c r a f t C a l c u l a t i o n o f Landing Approach Parameters

f o r a S i m p l i f i e d System

Marker D e v i c e s .................................. Low-AZtitude Radio A Z t i m e t e r s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G y r o h o r i z o n ..................................... V a r i o m e t e r ......................................

...........................................

Instrument

................. .......... ........................... C a Z c u Z a t i o n of C o r r e c t i o n s f o r t h e T i m e f o r

B e g i n n i n g t h e T h i r d T u r n ........................
vii

386
387

C a Z c u Z a t i o n of t h e C o r r e c t i o n for t h e Time
of S t a r t i n g t h e F o u r t h T u r n C a Z c u Z a t i o n of t h e Moment f o r B e g i n n i n g
Descent Along t h e Landing Course C a Z c u Z a t i o n o f t h e V e r t i c a l R a t e of D e s c e n t A l o n g t h e GZide P a t h D e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e Lead AngZe for t h e
Landing Path
L a n d i n g t h e A i r c r a f t o n t h e Runway a n d F l i g h t along a Given T r a j e c t o r y w i t h a S i m p l i f i e d
L a n d i n g System C o u r s e - G l i d e L a n d i n g Systems

..................... ................ ............................ ....................................

388

389

390

391

.................................... ...................... Ground ControZ of Course-GZide S y s t e m s . . . . . . . . . . A i r c r a f t - M o u n t e d Equipment f o r t h e Course-

GZide L a n d i n g S y s t e m ............................ ..........................................

391
394
396
400

............................. .............................. CHAPTER F I V E . AVIATION ASTRONOMY ............................ 1. T h e C e l e s t i a l S p h e r e ................................. S p e c i a l P o i n t s . P l a n e s . and C i r c l e s i n t h e

C e l e s t i a l S p h e r e .................................. S y s t e m s o f C o o r d i n a t e s ............................ Apparent System o f Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E q u a t o r i a Z S y s t e m of C o o r d i n a t e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G r a p h i c R e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e C e l e s t i a l Sphere . . . . 2 . Diurnal Motion of the Stars ........................... Motion o f the Stars a t D i f f e r e n t Latitudes ........ R i s i n g and S e t t i n g . N e v e r - R i s i n g and
N e v e r - S e t t i n g S t a r s ............................... Motion o f Stars a t the Ter-restrial Poles .......... Motion o f Stars a t Middle Latitudes ............... M o t i o n o f S t a r s a t t h e E q u a t o r .................... C u l m i n a t i o n o f S t a r s .............................. ProbZems and E x e r c i s e s .......................... 3 . T h e M o t i o n o f t h e Sun ................................ T h e A n n u a l M o t i o n o f t h e Sun ...................... M o t i o n of t h e Sun AZong t h e E c Z i p t i c . . . . . . . . . . . . D i u r n a l M o t i o n o f t h e Sun ......................... The M o t i o n of t h e Sun a t t h e N o r t h PoZe . . . . . . . . . M o t i o n of t h e Sun b e t w e e n t h e N o r t h PoZe and
t h e A r c t i c C i r c Z e ...............................
Radar L a n d i n g Systems

L o c a t i o n and P a r a m e t e r s f o r R e g u Z a t i n g t h e
Equipment for t h e Course-GZide Landing
System L a n d i n g a n A i r c r a f t w i t h t h e Course-GZide
S y s t e m .......................................... D i r e c t i o n a Z P r o p e r t i e s of t h e L a n d i n g
S y s t e m A p p a r a t u s ................................ DirectionaZ Devices f o r Landing A i r c r a f t . . . . . . . .

401

403

406
408
410

415
418

B r i n g i n g an A i r c r a f t In for a L a n d i n g
w i t h L a n d i n g Radar

418

418 421 421 422 424 426 427

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1 . 1 . 1 1 1 1 . 1 1

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1-1.1.1-1

......... .
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M o t i o n of t h e Sun a b o v e t h e A r c t i c C i r c l e . . . . . . . M o t i o n of t h e S u n a t M i d d l e L a t i t u d e s . . . . . . . . . . . M o t i o n of t h e S u n a t t h e T e r r e s t r i a l
E q u a t o r ......................................... Motion of t h e Moon ...................................
I n t r i n s i c Motion of

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D i r e c t i o n and R a t e of t h e Moon's M o t i o n . . . . . . . . . P h a s e s of t h e Moon ..............................

t h e Moon

......................

......................................... ............ 5 . Measurement o f Time .................................. E s s e n c e o f C a l c u l a t i n g T i m e ....................... S i d e r e a l T i m e ..................................... T r u e S o l a r T i m e ................................... Mean S o l a r T i m e ................................... L o c a l C i v i l T i m e .................................. G r e e n w i c h T i m e .................................... Z o n e T i m e . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . S t a n d a r d T i m e ..................................... R e l a t i o n B e t w e e n G r e e n w i c h , L o c a l and Zone
( S t a n d a r d ) Time ................................... M e a s u r i n g A n g l e s i n T i m e U n i t s .................... T i m e S i g n a l s ...................................... O r g a n i z a t i o n of T i m e S i g n a l s i n A v i a t i o n . . . . . . . . A B r i e f H i s t o r y o f Time Reckoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 . Use o f A s t r o n o m i c a l Devices .......................... A s t r o n o m i c a l C o m p a s s e s ............................ A s t r o n o m i c a l S e x t a n t s .............................
C H A P T E R SIX

N a t u r e o f t h e M o t i o n o f t h e Moon a r o u n d
the Earth L o c a t i o n o f t h e Moon A b o v e t h e H o r i z o n

A C C U R A C Y IN AIRCRAFT NAVIGATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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470

. 2. 3. 4.
1 5

. .

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8.

A c c u r a c y i n M e a s u r i n g N a v i g a t i o n a l E l e m e n t s and
i n A i r c r a f t N a v i g a t i o n a s a Whole .................... Methods o f E v a l u a t i n g t h e A c c u r a c y o f A i r c r a f t
N a v i g a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . L i n e a r and Two-Dimensional P r o b l e m s o f
P r o b a b i l i t y T h e o r y ................................... C o m b i n a t i o n o f Methods o f M a t h e m a t i c a l A n a l y s i s
and M a t h e m a t i c a l S t a t i s t i c s i n E v a 7 u a t i n g t h e
Accuracy o f N a v i g a t i o n a l Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I n f l u e n c e o f t h e Geometry o f a N a v i g a t i o n a l
S y s t e m on t h e A c c u r a c y o f D e t e r m i n i n g A i r c r a f t
C o o r d i n a t e s .......................................... E v a l u a t i o n of t h e Accuracy of Measuring a
N a v i g a t i o n a l P a r a m e t e r ............................... C a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e Wind w i t h an E v a l u a t i o n o f t h e
A c c u r a c y o f A i r c r a f t N a v i g a t i o n ...................... Consideration o f the Polar F l a t t e n i n g of the Earth
i n t h e D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f D i r e c t i o n s and D i s t a n c e s
on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e ...............................

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CHAPTER SEVEN
1 2. 3.

5.

........................... G o a l s and P r o b l e m s o f F l i g h t P r e p a r a t i o n ............. P r e p a r i n g F l i g h t C h a r t s a n d Marking t h e Route . . . . . . . . S t u d y i n g t h e Route and C a l c u l a t i n g a S a f e

F l i g h t A l t i t u d e ...................................... S p e c i a l P r e p a r a t i o n of C h a r t s and A i d s f o r
Using V a r i o u s N a v i g a t i o n a l D e v i c e s i n F l i g h t ......... Calculating t h e Distance and Duration o f F l i g h t ......
FLIGHT PREPARATION
C a l c u l a t i n g t h e F u e l Scrpply f o r F l i g h t o n
A i r c r a f t w i t h L o w - A l t i t u d e P i s t o n Engines C a l c u l a t i n g t h e Fuel Supply f o r F l i g h t i n A i r
c r a f t w i t h H i g h - A l t i t u d e P i s t o n Engines C a l c u l a t i n g t h e F u e l Supply f o r F l i g h t on
A i r c r a f t w i t h Gas T u r b i n e E n g i n e s C a l c u l a t i n g t h e Greatest Distance of t h e A i r c r a f t ' s P o i n t o f Closest Approach t o a
Reserve A i r p o r t

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Pre-flight Preparation and Flight Calculation

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C H A P T E R EIGHT
1. 2

G E N E R A L P R O C E D U R E F O R AIRCRAFT NAVIGATION

................................ .................. Descent and E n t r a n c e t o t h e Region o f t h e

L a n d i n g A i r p o r t b y a n A i r c r a f t .................... Maneuvering i n t h e V i c i n i t y o f t h e A i r p o r t a n d t h e L a n d i n g A p p r o a c h .......................... S u p p l e m e n t 1 .
C o m p o s i t e C h a r t o f T o p o g r a p h i c a l Maps . . . . . Supplement 2 .
S p h e r i c a l Trigonometry Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . S u p p l e m e n t 3 .
Map of t h e Heavens ........................ S u p p l e m e n t 4 .
Map o f Time Zones ......................... S u p p l e m e n t 5 .
T a b l e o f Greenwich Hour A n g l e s o f t h e
S u n and C h a r t o f T h e i r C o r r e c t i o n s f o r
t h e F l i g h t Date ........................... S u p p l e m e n t 6 .
T a b l e o f V a l u e s o f t h e F u n c t i o n @ (Z - a) . Supplement 7 .
Units o f t e n Encountered i n A i r c r a f t
N a v i g a t i o n and T h e i r V a l u e s ...............
Take-Off

G e n e r a l Methods of A i r c r a f t N a v i g a t i o n a l o n g
A i r R o u t e s ........................................... S t a g e s i n E x e c u t i n g t h e F l i g h t ....................... E x e c u t i n g a F l i g h t Along a R o u t e
and Climb

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T h e t h e o r y and p r a c t i c e of a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n a t t h e modern ZeveZ o f a v i a t i o n t e c h noZogy a r e s u m m a r i z e d i n t h i s b o o k ; t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t p r a c t i c a Z probZems of t h e u t i Z i z a t i o n of g e n e r a Z , r a d i o - e n g i n e e r i n g , and a s t r o n o m i c a Z means of a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n a r e s e t f o r t h ; t h e p r o c e d u r e of t h e p i Z o t ' s p r e p a r a t i o n f o r f Z i g h t , t h e means of c a Z c u Z a t i n g t h e d i s t a n c e and d u r a t i o n of a f l i g h t , and t h e c a r r y i n g o u t of p r e - l a n d i n g m a n e u v e r i n g and l a n d i n g of t h e a i r c r a f t u n d e r compZex m e t e o r o Z o g i c a Z c o n d i t i o n s d u r i n g t h e day o r a t night are elucidated. The basic m a t e r i a l o f t h e b o o k , s u f f i c i e n t f o r t h e p r a c t i c a Z m a s t e r y of t h e means and m e t h o d s of a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n , is p r e s e n t e d w i t h t h e ap p Z i c a t i o n of m a t h e m a t i c s w i t h i n t h e Z i m i t s of a s e c o n d a r y schooZ c o u r s e . The p r o b l e m s w h i c h a r e n e c e s s a r y f o r a d e e p e r s t u d y of t h e m a t e r i a 2 a r e d i s c u s s e d i n t e r m s of p r i n c i p l e s of h i g h e r m a t h ematics. The book is i n t e n d e d f o r p i Z o t s and n a v i g a t o r s . I t can be used as a t e x t b o o k f o r s t u d e n t s of c i v i Z a v i a t i o n e d u c a t i o n a Z i n s t i t u t i o n s .
ABSTRACT:

xi

I NT RO DU CT I ON
A i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n or a e r i a l n a v i g a t i o n i s a s c i e n c e w h i c h s t u d i e s t h e t h e o r y and p r a c t i c a l methods of t h e safe n a v i g a t i o n o f a i r p l a n e s as w e l l as o t h e r a i r c r a f t ( h e l i c o p t e r s , d i r i g i b l e s , e t c . ) i n t h e a i r s p a c e above t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e .
By t h e p r o c e s s o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n , w e a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e a i r c r a f t crew a n d t h e g r o u n d which are d i r e c t e d t o w a r d a c o n s t a n t knowledge l o c a t i o n and which e n s u r e s a f e and a c c u r a t e f l i as w e l l as a r r i v a l a t t h e p o i n t o f d e s t i n a t i o n a t an e s t a b l i s h e d t i m e . mean t h e c o m p l e x o f traffic control, of t h e aircraft's g h t along a set course a t a s e t a l t i t u d e and

During t h e i n i t i a l p e r i o d of t h e development of a v i a t i o n , a i r c r a f t d i d n o t h a v e e q u i p m e n t f o r p i l o t i n g when t h e n a t u r a l h o r i z o n w a s n o t v i s i b l e a n d f o r o r i e n t a t i o n when t h e g r o u n d w a s n o t v i s i b l e , s o t h a t v i s u a l o r i e n t a t i o n w a s t h e b a s i c method o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a tion. The p o s i t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t w a s d e t e r m i n e d by c o m p a r i n g v i s i b l e landmarks i n t h e area o v e r which t h e a i r c r a f t w a s f l y i n g , w i t h t h e i r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o n a map. However, a t t h i s t i m e t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r i n s t r u m e n t a l methods of aircraft navigation w a s already f e l t . The most s i m p l e d e v i c e s f o r measuring a i r s p e e d , f l i g h t a l t i t u d e , t h e a i r c r a f t ' s c o u r s e , and This s e v e r a l o t h e r f l i g h t p a r a m e t e r s w e r e i n s t a l l e d on a i r c r a f t . period s a w t h e appearance of t h e first navigator's c a l c u l a t i n g in s t r u m e n t s (wind-speed i n d i c a t o r s and n a v i g a t i o n a l s l i d e r u l e s ) .
A t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e 1 9 2 0 ' ~t h e f i r s t h y d r o s c o p i c d e v i c e s ~ a p p e a r e d on a i r c r a f t ; t h e y were t u r n and g l i d e i n d i c a t o r s which ( i n combination w i t h i n d i c a t o r s o f a i r s p e e d and v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y ) i n d i c a t o r s ( v a r i o m e t e r s ) made i t p o s s i b l e t o j u d g e i n a r a t h e r p r i m i t i v e way t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t i n s p a c e w h e n t h e n a t u r a l By m e a n s o f t h e s e d e v i c e s , t h e a i r c r a f t horizon w a s not v i si b l e . crews ( a f t e r s p e c i a l t r a i n i n g ) were a l r e a d y a b l e t o c a r r y o u t f l i g h t s i n t h e clouds and above t h e clouds.

A t t h e end o f t h e 2 0 ' s and t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e ~ O ' S , more r e f i n e d p i l o t a g e d e v i c e s were d e v e l o p e d : gyrohorizons and gyrosemi compasses, which a t t h i s t i m e r e l i a b l y ensured p i l o t a g e of a i r c r a f t w i t h a d e q u a t e s a f e t y when t h e g r o u n d w a s n o t v i s i b l e . L a t e r , on t h e basis of these devices, devices f o r automatic aircraft pilotage (automatic p i l o t s ) w e r e created.

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A c h i e v e m e n t s i n t h e a r e a o f p i l o t i n g a i r c r a f t when t h e E a r t h w a s n o t v i s i b l e , a s w e l l as t h e g r o w t h by t h a t t i m e o f t h e s p e e d , a l t i t u d e , and d i s t a n c e o f a i r c r a f t f l i g h t s , r e q u i r e d t h e c r e a t i o n of means t o e n s u r e a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e v i s i b i l i t y of t e r r e s t r i a l landmarks. During t h e s e y e a r s , zone r a d i o beacons which allowed t h e a i r c r a f t ' s f l i g h t d i r e c t i o n t o be maintained along a narrowly d i r e c t e d r a d i a l l i n e which c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e s t r a i g h t p a r t o f an a e r i a l r o u t e began t o appear. Ground r a d i o g o n i o m e t e r s a l s o a p p e a r e d , by means o f w h i c h d i r e c t i o n w a s d e t e r m i n e d i n a n a i r c r a f t , a s w e l l as t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t a l o n g two i n t e r s e c t i n g d i rections. Another a s p e c t o f t h e development of a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n a t t h i s time w a s astronomical o r i e n t a t i o n . To determine the location o f a n a i r c r a f t , v a r i o u s s e x t a n t s w e r e c o n s t r u c t e d a n d s p e c i a l com p u t a t i o n t a b l e s a n d g r a p h s o f t h e movement o f h e a v e n l y b o d i e s w e r e compiled f o r use w i t h t h e s e x t a n t s . I n t h e m i d - 3 0 ' ~ d e v i c e s ap ~ p e a r e d f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e c o u r s e o f an a i r c r a f t a c c o r d i n g t o t h e heavenly bodies. A t t h e same t i m e , o p t i c a l s i g h t i n g d e v i c e s w e r e u s e d , by means of w h i c h ( d u r i n g v i s i b i l i t y o f t h e t e r r e s t r i a l l a n d m a r k s ) t h e g r o u n d s p e e d , f l i g h t d i r e c t i o n and d r i f t a n g l e o f t h e a i r c r a f t were meas u r e d , a l l o f w h i c h w e r e l a t e r u s e d f o r some t i m e a s c o n s t a n t s f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e p'ath o f an a i r c r a f t accordring t o f l i g h t t i m e and direction. A v e r y i m p o r t a n t s t a g e i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f means o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n o f t h e m i d - 3 0 ' s was t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f a i r c r a f t r a d i o goniometers ( r a d i o s e m i c o m p a s s e s ) , a f u r t h e r m o d i f i c a t i o n of which were t h e a u t o m a t i c a i r c r a f t radiocompasses. Radiosemicompasses and r a d i o c o m p a s s e s w e r e , f o r a p e r i o d o f more t h a n 2 0 y e a r s , t h e b a s i c means o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n i n a i r c r a f t w i t h p i s t o n e n g i n e s . D u r i n g W o r l d War I1 a n d e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e p o s t w a r y e a r s , r a d i o e n g i n e e r i n g s y s t e m s o f l o n g a n d s h o r t - d i s t a n c e n a v i g a t i o n of a d i f f e r e n t k i n d a s w e l l a s r a d i o - n a v i g a t i o n l a n d i n g s y s t e m s became w i d e spread. E s s e n t i a l l y , t h e s e were n o t autonomous means o f a e r i a l n a v i g a t i o n b u t systems which i n c l u d e d b o t h ground-based f a c i l i t i e s f o r t h e - s e c u r i t y of a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n and a i r c r a f t equipment. R a d i c a l c h a n g e s i n t h e a r e a o f means a n d m e t h o d s o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n o c c u r r e d (and a r e o c c u r r i n g a t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e ) i n con n e c t i o n with t h e development of j e t a v i a t i o n technology. The s h a r p l y g r o w i n g s p e e d , a l t i t u d e , a n d d i s t a n c e o f f l i g h t s h a v e r e q u i r e d a u t o m a t i o n o f t h e most l a b o r i o u s p r o c e s s e s o f a i r c r a f t navigation. Magnetic course d e v i c e s and non-automatic r a d i o navig a t i o n a l systems were of l i t t l e use f o r e n s u r i n g t h e automation of a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n and t h e p i l o t i n g of high-speed aircraft. There xiv

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arose a n e c e s s i t y f o r developing highly s t a b l e gyroscopic compasses, autonomous s p e e d and f l i g h t d i r e c t i o n meters, and s t r i c t e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t ' s f l i g h t ' d y n a m i c s t o e n s u r e t h e r a p i d a n d ac c u r a t e s o l u t i o n o f n a v i g a t i o n a l problems by c o m p u t e r s . The s c i e n c e o f " a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n " grew and d e v e l o p e d a l o n g w i t h t h e development o f a v i a t i o n and n a v i g a t i o n t e c h n o l o g y . The works o f t h e o u t s t a n d i n g R u s s i a n s c i e n t i s t s and i n v e n t o r s , M . V. L o m o n o s o v , N . Ye. Z h u k o v s k i y , K . E , T s i o l k o v s k i y , a n d A . S . P o p o v were t h e b a s i s o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n t h e o r y .

A l a r g e c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e s c i e n c e o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n was made b y t h e f o l l o w i n g S o v i e t n a v i g a t o r s a n d s c i e n t i s t s : B. V . S t e r l i g o v , S . A . D a n i l i n , I . T . S p i r i n , G. S. F r e n k e l ' , A . V. Bely a k o v , L . P . S e r g e y e v , R . V . K u n i t s k i y , G . 0 . F r i d l e n d e r , G . F. M o l o k a n o v , B . G . R a t s , V . Yu. P o l y a k , e t a l .

The s u c c e s s e s a c h i e v e d i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n a s a s c i e n c e made i t p o s s i b l e , e v e n i n 1 9 2 5 - 1 9 2 9 , t o a c c o m p l i s h l o n g f l i g h t s by S o v i e t a i r c r a f t a l o n g t h e r o u t e s : Moscow-Peking ( M . M . G r o m o v ) , Moscow-Tokyo a n d Moscow-New Y o r k ( S . A . S h e s t a k o v ) . F u r t h e r n o n s t o p f l i g h t s by S o v i e t a v i a t o r s , o r g a n i z e d from 1 9 3 6 - 1 9 3 9 (V. P . C h k a l o v , M . M . G r o m o v , a n d V . K . K o k k i n a k i ) b o t h o v e r t h e t e r r i t o r y o f t h e S o v i e t Union and e s p e c i a l l y o v e r t h e N o r t h P o l e t o t h e USA, w e r e l i k e a g r e a t s c h o o l , i n w h i c h t h e e x a m i n a t i o n s were t h e s u c c e s s e s a c h i e v e d b y S o v i e t s c i e n t i s t s i n t h e m c . a 2 5 aircraft navigation. W o r l d War I1 w a s a v e r i f i c a t i o n o f a l l t h e a c h i e v e m e n t s i n t h e t h e o r y and p r a c t i c e o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e f i e l d of long-distance aviation, with t h e carrying out of long-distance night flights. During t h i s period, a r i c h s t o r e o f experience w a s a c c u m u l a t e d and f u r t h e r improvements i n a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n methods were c a r r i e d o u t . I n t h e postwar p e r i o d , t h e s c i e n c e of a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n under ,ent an e s p e c i a l l y v i g o r o u s development i n c o n n e c t i o n with t h e ap e a r a n c e o f h i g h - s p e e d j e t a i r c r a f t , and a l s o i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h he g r e a t a c h i e v e m e n t s o f t h e r a d i o and e l e c t r o n i c s i n d u s t r y . L o n g - d i s t a n c e f l i g h t s of h i g h - s p e e d a i r c r a f t a l o n g a e r i a l l u t e s which i n c l u d e i n t e r n a t i o n a l and i n t e r c o n t i n e n t a l f l i g h t s , as 1 as f l i g h t s t o t h e A r c t i c and A n t a r c t i c , a r e becoming r o u t i n e 1 r c i v i l a v i a t i o n crews.

A t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e , a i r c r a f t navigation s c i e n c e has been d i s g u i s h e d as an i n d e p e n d e n t and o r d e r l y s c i e n c e i n which t h e i e v e m e n t s o f a number o f t h e g e n e r a l and s p e c i a l b r a n c h e s o f wledge a r e employed: p h y s i c s , mathematics, geodesy, astronomy, >hysics, aerodynamics, r a d i o engineering, r a d i o e l e c t r o n i c s , etc.

Navigation technology is developing at a rapid pace; a i r c r a f t a n d g r o u n d f a c i l i t i e s for a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n a r e ' c o n t i n u a l l y b e i n g p e r f e c t e d and t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l t r a i n i n g and n a v i g a t i o n a l p r e p a r a t i o n o f f l i g h t and ground p e r s o n n e l h a s improved. A l l t h i s has r a d i c a l l y r a i s e d t h e r e l i a b i l i t y o f aircraft n a v i g a t i o n , i t s accu r a c y , and i t s c h i e f c r i t e r i o n , s a f e t y . Modern t e c h n i c a l means o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n a r e d i v i d e d i n t o f o u r b a s i c groups according t o t h e p r i n c i p l e o f o p e r a t i o n . 1. G e o t e c h n i c a Z means of a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n , w h i c h a r e b a s e d on t h e p r i n c i p l e o f m e a s u r i n g d i f f e r e n t p a r a m e t e r s o f t h e E a r t h ' s fields. They i n c l u d e : magnetic compasses, gyroscopic n a v i g a t i o n and p i l o t i n g d e v i c e s , gyromagnetic and g y r o i n d u c t i o n t e l e c o m p a s s e s , course systems, airspeed indicators, barometric altimeters, exter n a l a i r thermometers, navigation i n d i c a t o r s , i n e r t i a l i n d i c a t o r s , mechanical clocks, e t c . 2. R a d i o - e n g i n e e r i n g means of a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n , w h i c h a r e b a s e d on t h e o p e r a t i n g p r i n c i p l e o f r a d i o - e l e c t r o n i c t e c h n o l o g y . These i n c l u d e goniometer r a d i o - e n g i n e e r i n g systems ( r a d i o compasses w i t h ground t r a n s m i t t i n g r a d i o s t a t i o n s , ground radiogoniometers w i t h a i r c r a f t r e c e i v i n g - t r a n s m i t t i n g r a d i o s t a t i o n s , and r a d i o bea cons w i t h a i r c r a f t r e c e i v i n g r a d i o equipment), r a n g e f i n d i n g systems, g o n i o m e t e r - r a n g e f i n d i n g s y s t e m s , ground and a i r c r a f t r a d a r , Doppler m e t e r s a n d s y s t e m s , r a d i o a l t i m e t e r s , c o u r s e - l a n d i n g beam s y s t e m s w i t h t h e i r ground and a i r c r a f t e q u i p m e n t , e t c .
3. A s t r o n o m i c a l ( r a d i o a s t r o n o m i c a l ) means of a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n , w h i c h a r e b a s e d on t h e p r i n c i p l e o f m e a s u r i n g t h e m o t i o n '

/6

parameters of heavenly bodies. These i n c l u d e a v i a t i o n s e x t a n t s , astrocompasses, astronomical o r i e n t a t o r s , e t c .

4. L i g h t e n g i n e e r i n g means of a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n , w h i c h a r e b a s e d on t h e p r i n c i p l e o f u s i n g l i g h t e n e r g y r a d i a t i o n . These i n c l u d e ground l i g h t beams, l i g h t and p u l s e - l i g h t equipment f o r t a k e o f f and l a n d i n g s t r i p s as w e l l as a i r c r a f t , e n c l o s u r e s f o r t h e l i g h t i n g equipment of t h e r o u t e s and a i r p o r t s (housings f o r ground i n s t a l l a t i o n s ) , various pyrotechnic devices, etc.

A t t h e h e a r t o f a s a f e and a c c u r a t e f l i g h t a c c o r d i n g t o a s e t r o u t e , i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f t h e a i r p o r t , or d u r i n g t a k e - o f f a n d l a n d ing, lies t h e p r i n c i p l e of t h e o v e r a l l usage of a l l t h e available t e c h n i c a l means o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n , b o t h g r o u n d f a c i l i t i e s and those aboard t h e a i r c r a f t .

NASA T T F-524

C H A P T E R O.NE COORDINATE SYSTEMS AND ELEMENTS O F A I R C R A F T N A V I G A T I O N 1. Elements o f Aircraft Movement

in Space

The f u n d a m e n t a l p r o b l e m o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n i n a l l s t a g e s o f f l i g h t i s m a i n t a i n i n g a g i v e n t r a j e c t o r y o f a i r c r a f t movement i n a l t i t u d e , d i r e c t i o n a n d t i m e by means o f a complex u t i l i z a t i o n o f n a v i g a t i o n a l means a n d m e t h o d s . A successful solution t o these p r o b l e m s d e p e n d s on c o n s t a n t a n d a c c u r a t e i n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g t h e position of t h e craft r e l a t i v e t o a given f l i g h t t r a j e c t o r y , t h e n a t u r e of t h e a i r c r a f t movement, and t h e a c t i o n s of t h e c r e w .
A s a r e s u l t of t h e c u r v a t u r e of t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e , f l i g h t t r a j e c t o r y of an aircraft i s c u r v i l i n e a r . However, i n t o account t h e l a r g e r a d i u s of curvature of t h e Earth's a s m a l l a r e a c a n a l w a y s b e d e l i n e a t e d on i t whose s u r f a c e a s s u m e d t o b e p l a n e ( F i g . 1.1).

any given by t a k i n g surface, can be

L e t us e r e c t a perpendicular 01Y from t h e c e n t e r o f t h e s m a l l area which w e have chosen and c o n t i n u e it u n t i l it i n t e r s e c t s the center of the Earth. Obviously, t h i s w i l l be a p e r p e n d i c u l a r l i n e , which w e can c a l l t h e v e r t i c a z of t h e Z o c u s .

I n t h e p l a n e o f t h e s m a l l area which w e have c h o s e n , l e t u s draw a s t r a i g h t l i n e t h r o u g h t h e p o i n t 01 a n d t a k e i t a s t h e X a x i s ; t h e n l e t u s draw a n o t h e r s t r a i g h t l i n e t h r o u g h t h e p o i n t 01 i n t h e plane of t h e area, perpendicular t o t h e f i r s t , and c a l l it t h e Z a x i s . F i g . 1.1. R e c t a n g u l a r Coordinate System on t h e Earth's Surface.
~-

T h u s , a t p o i n t 0 1 o n t h e E a r t h ' s surface, w e w i l l o b t a i n a r e c t a n g u l a r system of space coordinates X, Y, Z.

__
..

-.

~~

;t.

Numbers i n t h e m a r g i n i n d i c a t e p a g i n a t i o n i n t h e f o r e i g n t e x t .

The t r a v e l of a n a i r c r a f t o v e r t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e w i l l i n v o l v e b o t h a s h i f t i n t h e p o i n t 01 ( o r i g i n o f t h e c o o r d i n a t e s ) a n d t h e r o t a t i o n of t h e axes o f t h e c o o r d i n a t e system around t h e c e n t e r of t h e E a r t h ( p o i n t 0 ) . However, t h e s y s t e m o f c o o r d i n a t e s which w e have o b t a i n e d can b e u s e d for d e t e r m i n i n g t h e d i r e c t i o n s o f t h e a i r c r a f t a x e s a n d t h e component f l i g h t s p e e d v e c t o r s . Since t h e o r i g i n of t h i s system is b e i n g c o n t i n u o u s l y s h i f t e d , l e t u s d e s i g n a t e it as a g l i d i n g r e c

/8

t a n g u l a r s y s t e m of c o o r d i n a t e s .
In t h i s coordinate system, t h e f o l l o w i n g elements can be d i s t i n guished:

44

F i g . 1 . 2 . Dip Angle of t h e T r a j e c t o r y of A l t i t u d e Gain.

;
(a) P o s i t i o n o f t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l axis of t h e a i r c r a f t i n t h e horizontal plane (aircraft course),
(b) Position of the longitu d i n a l a x i s of t h e a i r c r a f t i n t h e v e r t i c a l p l a n e ( a n g l e of p i t c h o f

the a i r c r a f t ) ,

( c > Position of t h e l a t e r a l a x i s of t h e a i r c r a f t i n t h e ver t i c a l plane (lateral banking), ( d ) D i s t a n c e a l o n g t h e v e r t i c a l from t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e ( t h e a r e a w h i c h we h a v e c h o s e n ) t o t h e a i r c r a f t ( f l i g h t a l t i t u d e ) , ( e ) V e r t i c a l s p e e d ( a l t i t u d e g a i n and

loss),

( f ) C o m p o n e n t f l i g h t s p e e d a l o n g t h e X a n d Z a x e s or t h e v e c t o r o f g r o u n d s p e e d a n d i t s d i r e c t i o n ( g r o u n d s p e e d and f l i g h t a n g l e ) , ( g ) A n g u l a r v e l o c i t y o f a i r c r a f t roll, ( h ) Component wind speed along t h e

X and

Z axes of

t h e system,

or t h e w i n d v e c t o r a n d i t s d i r e c t i o n ( w i n d s p e e d and d i r e c t i o n ) .
U s u a l l y t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e c r a f t on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e i s t r e a t e d i n s u r f a c e - c o o r d i n a t e s y s t e m s , t h e most widely used of which a r e t h e g e o g r a p h i c s y s t e m a n d t h e r e f e r e n c e s y s t e m whose m a j o r a x i s c o i n c i d e s w i t h a g i v e n f l i g h t t r a j e c t o r y on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e . The p o s i t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t i n s u r f a c e - c o o r d i n a t e s y s t e m s i s a s s u m e d t o b e t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e o r i g i n o f t h e g l i d i n g s y s t e m . To a n a l y z e t h e e l e m e n t s o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n , l e t u s combine t h e X a x i s of t h e gliding-coordinate system with a given f l i g h t t r a j e c t o r y of the aircraft. I n o r d e r t o keep t h e a i r c r a f t i n t h e r e c t i l i n e a r h o r i z o n t a l
2

segment o f t h i s t r a j e c t o r y , t h e crew must m a i n t a i n a f l i g h t c o n d i t i o n i n which t h e a i r c r a f t w i l l n o t be s h i f t e d a l o n g t h e v e r t i c a l ( a l t i t u d e g a i n and l o s s ) , t h e r e w i l l be no l a t e r a l d e v i a t i o n ( t o t h e r i g h t or l e f t ) , i . e . , t h e v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y Vy a n d t h e l a t e r a l component o f t h e v e l o c i t y V z , w i l l b e equal t o z e r o , and t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l f l i g h t v e l o c i t y Vx ( a l o n g t h e X a x i s ) w i l l b e a s g i v e n . If t h e f l i g h t t r a j e c t o r y i s i n c l i n e d ( s e g m e n t s o f a l t i t u d e g a i n a n d loss), t h e c r e w m u s t h o l d t h i s t r a j e c t o r y b y m a i n t a i n i n g t h e /9 v e r t i c a l and l o n g i t u d i n a l f l i g h t v e l o c i t i e s ( V y and Vx>, i . e . , m a i n t a i n a given d i p a n g l e of t h e t r a j e c t o r y 0 ( F i g . 1 . 2 ) . Obviously, a t a constant dip angle of t h e f l i g h t t r a j e c t o r y , t h e l a t t e r w i l l have a c u r v a t u r e i n t h e v e r t i c a l p l a n e j u s t as i n horizontal flight. T h e r e f o r e , i f we n e g l e c t t h e c u r v a t u r e o f t h e h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t t r a j e c t o r y , we may a s s u m e

(1.1)

where 0 i s t h e d i p a n g l e of t h e f l i g h t t r a j e c t o r y ; X I , X 2 a r e t h e c o o r d i n a t e s of t h e i n i t i a l and f i n a l p o i n t s o f t h e s l o p i n g segment o f t h e t r a j e c t o r y ; H I , H2 r e p r e s e n t a g i v e n a l t i t u d e a t t h e i n i t i a l and f i n a l p o i n t s . When t h e a i r c r a f t t r a v e l s f r o m t h e i n i t i a l p o i n t X I t o t h e mov i n g p o i n t X , t h e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e i s changed by t h e v a l u e

AH= (. XI) tg 8, X-

(1.2)

and t h e v a l u e o f t h e moving f l i g h t a l t i t u d e i s

or i f we t a k e F o r m u l a (1.1) i n t o a c c o u n t ,

Since the a l t i t u d e during a sloping trajectory i s a variable value, a given f l i g h t t r a j e c t o r y is maintained a t a constant value of t h e v e r t i c a l velocity

vy*v,tgeo'r

v -v
y-

H2-Hl X,-X,

(1.5)

C h e c k i n g of t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t a t g i v e n v a l u e s o f the varying f l i g h t a l t i t u d e is carried out only at specific points on t h e s l o p i n g t r a j e c t o r y .

Translator's note:

tg = tan.
3

2.

Concepts o f S t a b l e and U n s t a b l e F l i g h t C o n d i t i o n s

A n a v i g a t i o n a l f l i g h t c o n d i t i o n i s d e t e r m i n e d by t h e m o t i o n p a r a m e t e r s o f a n a i r c r a f t a l o n g a t r a j e c t o r y or b y n a v i g a t i o n a l elements of f l i g h t : course, speed, and a l t i t u d e .

The m o t i o n p a r a m e t e r s o f a n a i r c r a f t a r e u s u a l l y m e a s u r e d r e l ative t o airspace. However, c o n s i d e r i n g t h a t t h e a i r s p a c e a l s o s h i f t s , t h e y a r e s e l e c t e d i n s u c h a way a s t o e n s u r e r e t a i n i n g t h e given f l i g h t t r a j e c t o r y r e l a t i v e t o t h e E a r t h l s surface. B a s e d on t h e n a t u r e o f t h e t r a j e c t o r y a n d t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n , f o u r main f l i g h t c o n d i t i o n s a r e d i s t i n g u i s h e d : h o r i z o n t a l r e c t i l i n e a r f l i g h t , a l t i t u d e g a i n , a l t i t u d e loss, a n d

/10

~~~

roll.
H o r i z o n t a l r e c t i l i n e a r f l i g h t i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t w o c o n s t a n t parameters: h e i g h t and f l i g h t d i r e c t i o n . A l t i t u d e g a i n and l o s s c o n d i t i o n s e a c h have two c o n s t a n t param eters: f l i g h t d i r e c t i o n , a n d v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y or d i p a n g l e o f t h e t r aj e c to r y

The c o n d i t i o n o f roll i s a l w a y s c o m b i n e d w i t h o n e o f t h e f i r s t t h r e e f l i g h t c o n d i t i o n s , s o t h a t t h e f l i g h t d i r e c t i o n becomes v a r i a b l e and can be r e p l a c e d by a p a r a m e t e r which c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e c u r v a t u r e o f t h e roll t r a j e c t o r y t h r o u g h t h e r a d i u s o f roll or t h e angular velocity.

A f l i g h t condition is s t a b l e i f i t s p a r a m e t e r s a c q u i r e c o n s t a n t v a l u e s , and unstable i f i t s parameters a r e v a r i a b l e .

F l i g h t p r a c t i c e shows t h a t f l i g h t c o n d i t i o n s , s t r i c t l y s p e a k i n g , a r e n e v e r f i x e d f o r any p r o l o n g e d t i m e , s i n c e t h e r e a r e always f a c t o r s changing t h e a i r c r a f t ' s motion parameters. The m a i n s i g n o f a s t a b l e f l i g h t c o n d i t i o n i s t h e e q u a l i t y t o zero of t h e first derivative of t h e given parameter with time d2S or o f t h e s e c o n d d e r i v a t i v e p a t h w i t h t i m e -

() g

d.t

For e x a m p l e , f o r t h e v e l o c i t y p a r a m e t e r V = c o n s t , i f

-dv
df

-0

dzS or - - 0.
dt2

Analogously, f o r t h e f l i g h t d i r e c t i o n parameter a l t i t u d e parameter (HI:

+=consf,

( 9 ) and t h e

i f -- 0 , dd,l
dt

H=const,

dH i f --- - 0.

dt

I f f o r c e s a r i s e d u r i n g f l i g h t w h i c h c h a n g e t h e a i r c r a f t ' s mo t i o n parameters, t h e extreme v a l u e s o f t h e motion parameters ( ? . e . , t h e p o i n t s o f t h e maxima a n d m i n i m a o n t h e c u r v e w h i c h c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e change o f t h e g i v e n p a r a m e t e r w i t h t i m e ) i n d i c a t e e q u i l i b r i u m of these forces.

A stable f l i g h t condition based on a given parameter e x i s t s o n l y a t t h e extreme p o i n t s , s i n c e t h e first d e r i v a t i v e p a r a m e t e r s b a s e d on t i m e a t these points are equal t o zero while t h e d i s t u r b i n g f o r c e s are absent.

F i g . 1 . 3 . Graph o f t h e Changes o f a N a v i g a t i o n a l P a r a m e t e r and P o i n t s w i t h a Stable Flight Condition.

The d i s t u r b i n g f o r c e s a c q u i r e a maximum v a l u e a t p o i n t s o f i n f l e c t i o n , i . e . , when t h e s e c o n d d e r i v a t i v e p a r a m e t e r s b a s e d on t i m e a r e e q u a l t o On a c u r v e c o n zero (Fig. 1.3). structed f o r the velocity parameter, t h e p o i n t s of a s t a b l e condition are d e s i g n a t e d b y o n e l i n e , w h i l e p o i n t s of maximum d i s t u r b i n g f o r c e s a r e d e s i g n a t e d by two l i n e s . From a e r o d y n a m i c s , w e know t h a t i n h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t a t a v e - l o c i t y s i g n i f i c a n t l y less than t h e speed of sound, t h e drag of an aircraft i n a counterflow is

/11 -

w h e r e ex i s t h e c o e f f i c i e n t o f d r a g o f t h e a i r c r a f t , S i s t h e c r o s s s e c t i o n a l a r e a o f t h e m i d s h i p s e c t i o n , and p i s t h e a i r d e n s i t y a t flight altitude.

I t i s obvious t h a t t h e a i r s p e e d w i l l be s t a b l e i f t h e t h r u s t o f t h e e n g i n e s ( P ) i s e q u a l t o t h e d r a g o f t h e a i r c r a f t P = Qx.

With a d i s t u r b a n c e o f t h i s e q u i l i b r i u m , t h e r e a r i s e s a d i s t u r b i n g f o r c e which changes t h e f l i g h t v e l o c i t y . For example, w i t h an i n c r e a s e i n t h e t h r u s t of t h e engines t h e d i s t u r b i n g f o r c e w i l l be equal t o :

AP=P'-c~

p, "
2 '

which c a u s e s an i n i t i a l a c c e l e r a t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t
dV -=
dt

AP m '

where m i s t h e m a s s of t h e a i r c r a f t i n kg.

L a t e r , with an increase i n v e l o c i t y , t h e drag of t h e aircraft w i l l also increase. T h e v a l u e of t h i s d r a g w i l l a p p r o a c h t h e v a l u e of t h e t h r u s t o f t h e e n g i n e s , i . e . , t h e v e l o c i t y v e r y s l o w l y ap proaches a s t a b l e value logarithmically. Changes i n a i r s p e e d which a r e a n a l o g o u s i n n a t u r e a r i s e d u r i n g c h a n g e s i n t h e v e l o c i t y o f t h e h e a d w i n d or t h e i n c i d e n t a i r f l o w a t flight altitude. For e x a m p l e , w i t h a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e v e l o c i t y o f t h e incident airflow, t h e airspeed diminishes. This provides a surplus of engine t h r u s t . Subsequently, an increase i n airspeed occurs logarithmically.

If t h e l a t e r a l component o f t h e wind s p e e d c h a n g e s , a l a t e r a l p r e s s u r e on t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e a i r c r a f t a r i s e s :

w h e r e c z i s t h e c o e f f i c i e n t o f l a t e r a l d r a g o f t h e a i r c r a f t ; S, i s t h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a o f t h e a i r c r a f t i n t h e XY p l a n e ; Y , i s t h e l a t e r a l v e l o c i t y c o m p o n e n t e q u a l t o uz. The i n i t i a l l a t e r a l a c c e l e r a t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t i s :

Subsequently, the lateral velocity of t h e aircraft w i l l log a r i t h m i c a l l y a p p r o a c h t h e l a t e r a l component o f t h e wind v e l o c i t y , i . e . , t h e f l i g h t c o n d i t i o n w i l l approach a c o n d i t i o n which i s s t a b l e in direction. Usually, during navigational c a l c u l a t i o n s f o r each parameter, i t s mean v a l u e f o r a d e f i n i t e l e n g t h o f t i m e i s c a l l e d a s t a b l e flight condition: mean v e l o c i t y , mean v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y , mean d i rection, etc. From t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f m a i n t a i n i n g f l i g h t d i r e c t i o n , a i r craft r o l l is an u n s t a b l e condition. If a g i v e n t r a j e c t o r y i s c u r v i l i n e a r , t h e r o l l c o n d i t i o n i s a l s o e x a m i n e d a s s t a b l e or u n s t a b l e . T h e e n t r a n c e or e x i t o f a n a i r c r a f t f r o m roll, a s w e l l a s roll w i t h v a r i a b l e b a n k i n g , c a n s e r v e a s e x a m p l e s o f u n s t a b l e roll c o n d i t i o n s . The r o l l i n g o f a n a i r c r a f t i s c o n s i d e r e d t o b e c o o r d i n a t e d i f t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l a x i s o f t h e a i r c r a f t c o n s t a n t l y c o i n c i d e s w i t h t.he t a n g e n t t o t h e t r a j e c t o r y o f i t s m o v e m e n t , ? . e . , e x t e r n a l or i n t e r T h i s i s a c h i e v e d by t i l t i n g t h e r u d n a l a i r c r a f t glide is absent. d e r o f t h e a i r c r a f t f o r b a n k i n g i n a roll. D u r i n g b a n k i n g o f a n a i r c r a f t , i t s l i f t (Y) i s d i r e c t e d n o t a l o n g t h e v e r t i c a l p l a n e b u t a l o n g t-he a x i s o f t h e a i r c r a f t , which i s d e f l e c t e d from it ( F i g . 1 . 4 ) .

/12

R o l l i n g o f an a i r c r a f t w i t h o u t d e s c e n t o r w i t h s t a b l e v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y i s p o s s i b l e o n l y when t h e v e r t i c a l c o m p o n e n t o f t h e l i f t ( Y 1 ) i s e q u a l t o t h e w e i g h t of t h e a i r c r a f t G. I n t h i s case, t h e h o r i z o n t a l ( c e n t r i p e t a l ) component o f t h e l i f t i s :

Yr=Gtg8.

w h e r e f3 craft.

is t h e banking angle of t h e air

Since w e a r e examining a c o o r d i n a t e r o l l (without gliding of the aircraft), t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e i n t h e roll Fig. 1.4. Resolution of Forces During
R o l l i n g of an A i r
craft.
F,=R

m V2

w i l l be e q u a l t o t h e c e n t r i p e t a l f o r c e ,
i.e.,

where m i s t h e m a s s o f t h e a i r c r a f t ; and R i s t h e r a d i u s o f t h e co o r d i n a t e d roll.

G Transforming t h i s equation, taking i n t o account t h a t m = -

9 ,

w e w i l l o b t a i n formulas f o r d e t e r m i n i n g b o t h t h e r a d i u s and p a t h o f t h e a i r c r a f t w i t h c o o r d i n a t e d roll:

F o r m u l a s ( 1 . 6 ) r e l a t e t h e r a d i u s o f s t a b l e c o o r d i n a t e d roll o f t h e a i r c r a f t w i t h t h e a i r s p e e d and a l s o w i t h banking i n r o l l i n g , and t h e y a r e used i n c a l c u l a t i o n s o f t h e r a d i u s and p a t h o f t h e a i r craft along a curvilinear f l i g h t trajectory.

3.

Form and D i m e n s i o n s o f t h e E a r t h

/3 1

I n t h e p r a c t i c e of aircraft navigation, it i s necessary first of a l l t o d e a l w i t h d i s t a n c e s a n d d i r e c t i o n s on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e which are t h e r e s u l t o f t h e mutual d i s t r i b u t i o n o f o b j e c t s through which t h e f l i g h t p a t h p a s s e s . The E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e , i t s r e l i e f a n d m u t u a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f o b j e c t s c a n b e m o s t a c c u r a t e l y e x p r e s s e d on a m o d e l o f t h e E a r t h ( a globe). H o w e v e r , a g l o b e w i t h a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e E a r t h ' s sur f a c e t h a t s a t i s f i e s t h e demands o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n would b e s o l a r g e t h a t i t s u s e i n f l i g h t would be i m p o s s i b l e . Therefore, dif f e r e n t means o f r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e E a r t h , which i s curved i n a l l d i r e c t i o n s , on a p l a n e ( s h e e t s of p a p e r ) are used.
7

The E a r t h h a s a c o m p l e x f o r m c a l l e d a g e o i d ( w i t h o u t c o n s i d e r i n g t h e l o c a l r e l i e f , i f w e imagine t h a t i t s e n t i r e s u r f a c e i s cov The s u r f a c e o f a g e o i d a t a n y p o i n t e r e d w i t h w a t e r a t sea l e v e l ) . i s p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e a c t i o n of g r a v i t y . A de s c r i p t i o n of a g e o i d by m a t h e m a t i c a l e x p r e s s i o n s i s v e r y c o m p l e x , and i f w e c o n s i d e r t h e f o l d s i n t h e r e l i e f o f t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e , t h e n it i s p r a c t i c a l l y impossible t o e x p r e s s i t s form mathematically, T h e r e f o r e , i n c a l c u l a t i o n s t h e form o f t h e E a r t h i s t a k e n as an e Z Z i p s o i d of revoZu+.ion, t h e f o r m c l o s e s t t o a g e o i d .

Fig.

1.5. G r e a t a n d S m a l l C i r c l e s on t h e E a r t h ' s S u r f a c e . a x i s o f t h e E a r t h a n d Great C i r c l e ; b ) S m a l l C i r c l e .

a ) Semi-

A c c o r d i n g t o m e a s u r e m e n t s made b y S o v i e t s c i e n t i s t s u n d e r t h e s u p e r v i s i o n of F . N . K r a s o v s k i y , t h e m a j o r s e m i a x i s o f t h i s e l l i p s o i d ( a ) , which c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e r a d i u s of t h e e q u a t o r , i s e q u a l t o 6 , 3 7 8 , 2 4 5 km. The m i n o r s e m i a x i s o f t h e e l l i p s o i d ( b ) , w h i c h coincides with t h e a x i s of t h e E a r t h ' s r o t a t i o n , is equal t o 6 , 3 5 6 , 8 6 3 km ( F i g . 1 . 5 , a ) . The f l a t t e n i n g o f t h e E a r t h a t t h e p o l e s i s

e = - -a-- b

/14

1 298.3

'

T h e s e d i m e n s i o n s show t h a t t h e E a r t h ' s e l l i p s o i d o f r e v o l u t i o n i s p r a c t i c a l l y c l o s e t o a s p h e r e ; t o s i m p l i f y t h e s o l u t i o n of t h e m a j o r i t y o f p r o b l e m s i n a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n , i t i s t a k e n as a t r u e s p h e r e , e q u i v a l e n t i n volume t o t h e E a r t h ' s e l l i p s o i d . The r a d i u s o f s u c h a s p h e r e i s e q u a l t o 6 3 7 1 km. T h e maximum d i s t o r t i o n o f d i s t a n c e s c a u s e d b y t h e r e p l a c e m e n t

o f t h e E a r t h ' s e l l i p s o i d b y a s p h e r e d o e s n o t e x c e e d 0.5%, a n d t h e d i s t o r t i o n o f d i r e c t i o n s i s n o t more t h a n 1 2 m i n u t e s o f a n g l e .

I n g e o d e s y a n d c a r t o g r a p h y , t h e p l o t t i n g o f maps, as w e l l as i n o t h e r b r a n c h e s o f s c i e n c e w h e r e more a c c u r a t e c a l c u l a t i o n s o f d i s t a n c e s and d i r e c t i o n s a r e n e c e s s a r y , t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e i s t a k e n a s a n e l l i p s o i d of r e v o l u t i o n .

4. E l e m e n t s W h i c h C o n n e c t t h e E a r t h ' s S u r f a c e
with Three-Dimensional Space

T a k i n g t h e E a r t h as a t r u e s p h e r e , w e w i l l l o c a t e a p e r p e n d i c u l a r ( a r e s t i n g pendulum) a t any p o i n t above t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e . Then, d i s r e g a r d i n g t h e p o s s i b l e i n s i g n i f i c a n t d e v i a t i o n s c a u s e d by t h e varying r e l i e f , t h e i r r e g u l a r i t y of d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e densest masses i n t h e E a r t h ' s c r u s t , and t h e t a n g e n t i a l a c c e l e r a t i o n s con nected with t h e E a r t h ' s r o t a t i o n , it i s p o s s i b l e t o consider t h a t t h e l i n e of t h e perpendicular runs i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e c e n t e r of the Earth. The p e r p e n d i c u l a r l i n e ( s e e F i g . 1 . 5 , a ) j o i n i n g t h e c e n t e r o f t h e E a r t h w i t h t h e p o i n t o f t h e o b s e r v e r ' s p o s i t i o n , and c o n t i n u e d i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e (Y), i s c a l l e d t h e geo

c e n t r i c v e r t i c a l of t h e l o c u s .
The p l a n e on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e , t a n g e n t t o t h e s p h e r e a t t h e p o i n t of t h e o b s e r v e r and p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e t r u e v e r t i c a l o f t h e l o c u s , i s c a l l e d t h e p l a n e of t h e t r u e h o r i z o n . The d i r e c t i o n a n d v e l o c i t y o f a i r c r a f t movement a t e v e r y p o i n t on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e a r e examined i n t h e p l a n e o f t h e t r u e h o r i zon, w h i l e t h e a l t i t u d e change i s examined i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e true vertical.
If another Earth), Earth's which w

we c u t t h e p l a n e o f t h i s t r u e h o r i z o n i n a n y d i r e c t i o n b y plane along the t r u e v e r t i c a l (through t h e center of t h e t h e l i n e formed by t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n o f t h i s p l a n e w i t h t h e s u r f a c e f o r m s a c l o s e d g r e a t c i r c l e , t h e mean r a d i u s o f i l l be equal t o t h e r a d i u s o f t h e Earth.

/15 -

The s h o r t e s t d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n two p o i n t s A B on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e or p a r t o f t h e a r c o f a g r e a t c i r c l e i s c a l l e d t h e o r t h o d r o m e ( s e e Fig. 1.5, a ) . T h e mean r a d i u s o f a g r e a t c i r c l e i s a s s u m e d t o b e e q u a l t o 6 3 7 1 km. The l e n g t h o f t h e c i r c u m f e r e n c e o f s u c h a r a d i u s i s e q u a l t o 4 0 , 0 0 0 km. One d e g r e e o f a r c o f a g r e a t c i r c l e i s e q u a l t o 111.1 km, w h i l e o n e m i n u t e o f a r c i s e q u a l t o 1 , 8 5 2 km. The l e n g t h o f a segment of t h e arc o f a g r e a t c i r c l e a t one minute o f a n g l e i s c a l l e d a nautical mile. With an i n t e r s e c t i o n o f t h e E a r t h ' s s p h e r e by a p l a n e which
9

d o e s n o t p a s s t h r o u g h t h e c e n t e r of t h e E a r t h , t h e l i n e o f i n t e r s e c t i o n of t h i s p l a n e w i t h t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e forms a c l o s e d s m a l l c i r c l e , t h e r a d i u s o f w h i c h w i l l a l w a y s b e l e s s t h a n t h e mean r a d i u s of t h e E a r t h . The s m a l l c i r c l e s p a r a l l e l t o t h e p l a n e o f t h e e q u a t o r are c a l l e d parallels ( s e e Fig. 1 . 5 , b ) . For t h e hurposes o f a i r c r a f t navigation, a coordinate system which unequivocally determines t h e p o s i t i o n of an a i r c r a f t and o b j e c t s on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e is necessary. Obviously, a s p h e r i c a l coordinate system w i l l be t h e most convenient ( F i g . 1 . 6 ) . A spherical coordinate sys tem i s d i s t i n g u i s h e d from a r e c t a n g u l a r s y s t e m ( C a r t e s i a n ) by the fact t h a t instead of deterF i g . 1 . 6 . R e l a t i o n s h i p Between a S p h e r i c a l System of Coordimining t h r e e distances t o a n a t e s and a R e c t a n g u l a r System. p o i n t i n t h e d i r e c t i o n s of t h e X , Y , a n d Z a x e s , we d e t e r m i n e the length of the radius-vector R from t h e c e n t e r o f t h e c o o r d i n a t e s y s t e m t o a p o i n t , and two a n gles: a n g l e X b e t w e e n t h e XY p l a n e and t h e p r o j e c t i o n o f t h e 'ra d i u s - v e c t o r (R) t o t h e p l a n e X Z , a n d a n g l e 4 b e t w e e n t h e X Z p l a n e and t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e r a d i u s - v e c t o r ( R ) . T h e r e i s an o b v i o u s r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n s p h e r i c a l a n d r e c t a n g u l a r . coordinate systems:

With a c o n s t a n t l e n g t h o f t h e r a d i u s - v e c t o r R , i f a n g l e s X and 4 a s s u m e all p o s s i b l e v a l u e s , t h e g e o m e t r i c l o c a t i o n o f t h e p o i n t s of t h e end of t h e v e c t o r r a d i u s w i l l be a s p h e r e .

To d e t e r m i n e c o o r d i n a t e s on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e , t h e r e i s n o This coorneed t o i n d i c a t e t h e r a d i u s of t h e E a r t h ( R ) each time. d i n a t e i s c o n s i d e r e d , o n c e and f o r a l l , c o n s t a n t .

Thus, t h e s p h e r i c a l coordinate system is transformed i n t o a two-dimensional s u r f a c e system which i s c a l l e d a geographic system of coordinates.

/6 1

The p l a n e o f t h e e q u a t o r a n d t h e p l a n e o f t h e p r i m e ( G r e e n w i c h ) meridian a r e taken as t h e i n i t i a l r e f e r e n c e p l a n e s i n a geographic coordinate system. The p o i n t c o o r d i n a t e s o n t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e b e a r t h e name " l o n g i t u d e o f t h e l o c u s " a n d " l a t i t u d e of t h e l o c u s " (Fig. 1.7).

10

The d i h e d r a l a n g l e b e t w e e n t h e p l a n e o f t h e p r i m e m e r i d i a n a n d t h e p l a n e of t h e m e r i d i a n o f a g i v e n p o i n t i s c a l l e d t h e l o n g i t u d e of t h e p o i n t ( A ) . Determination of t h e longitude can be given i n arc values: t h e length of the a r c o f t h e e q u a t o r (or t h e p a r a l l e l ) , expressed i n degrees, be PN tween t h e prime m e r i d i a n and t h e meridian of a given point is called the longitude of the point. Reading o f t h e l o n g i t u d e i s c a r r i e d o u t from 0 t o 180 e a s t o f t h e rpime m e r i d i a n ( e a s t long i t u d e ) a n d f r o m 0 t o 180 w e s t o f t h e rpime m e r i d i a n (west long i t u d e ) . I n navigational calcu l a t i o n s , east longitude is taken as p o s i t i v e and i s d e s i g n a t e d by a plus sign, while w e s t longitude i s n e g a t i v e a n d i s d e s i g n a t e d by a minus s i g n . However, i n c a r r y ing out navigational calculations, i t i s more c o n v e n i e n t t o c a r r y o u t a reading of longitude i n t h e e a s t e r l y d i r e c t i o n from z e r o t o
360O.

ps

Fig. 1.7. Spherical Coordinate S y s t e m on t h e E a r t h ' s S u r f a c e .

The a n g l e b e t w e e n t h e p l a n e of t h e e q u a t o r a n d t h e t r u e v e r t i c a l o f a g i v e n p o i n t (or t h e l e n g t h o f t h e m e r i d i a n a r c , e x p r e s s e d i n d e g r e e s , from t h e p l a n e of t h e e q u a t o r t o t h e p a r a l l e l o f a g i v e n p o i n t ) i s c a l l e d t h e Z a t i t u d e of t h e p o i n t ( 9 ) . Since a set of t r u e v e r t i c a l s a t a c o n s t a n t l a t i t u d e forms a cone w i t h t h e v e r t e x i n t h e c e n t e r of t h e E a r t h and an a n g l e a t t h e v e r t e x e q u a l t o 90-4, then i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e d i h e d r a l angle between t h e p l a n e s of t h e meridians, we s h a l l call a similar angle i n other spherical systems, t h e conic

angle.
Reading of t h e l a t i t u d e i s c a r r i e d o u t from t h e plane of t h e e q u a t o r t o t h e n o r t h a n d s o u t h f r o m 0 t o 9 0 ( n o r t h and s o u t h Z a t i tude). In navigational calculations, north l a t i t u d e is considered p o s i t i v e and s o u t h , n e g a t i v e .
A geographic coordinate system i s a surface c u r v i l i n e a r system, ;.e., t h e m e r i d i a n s of t h e c o o r d i n a t e g r i d on t h e E a r t h a r e n o t parallel. However, i f w e e x a m i n e t h e m e r i d i a n s a n d p a r a l l e l s on any u n i t area of t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e , t h e y t u r n o u t t o be o r t h o g o n a l ( p e r p e n d i c u l a r i n one p l a n e ) . Two s p e c i a l p o i n t s o n t h e E a r t h ' s surface ( t h e geographic poles) are an exception.

/7 1

A geographic coordinate system is used n o t only t o determine t h e l o c a t i o n o f a p o i n t ( o b j e c t ) on t h e E a r t h , b u t t o d e t e r m i n e d i r e c t i o n from one p o i n t t o a n o t h e r .

11

The a n g l e i n c l u d e d b e t w e e n t h e n o r t h e r n d i r e c t i o n o f t h e m e r i d i a n which p a s s e s t h r o u g h a g i v e n p o i n t and t h e orthodrome d i r e c t i o n Read t o a p o i n t s e t t i n g a c o u r s e i s c a l l e d t h e b e a r i n g or a z i m u t h . i n g o f t h e a n g l e s o f b e a r i n g or a z i m u t h i s d o n e c l o c k w i s e f r o m 0 t o 360O. S i n c e t h e m e r i d i a n s on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e a r e g e n e r a l l y n o t p a r a l l e l , t h e v a l u e o f t h e a z i m u t h c h a n g e s w i t h a c h a n g e i n t h e mov i n g l o n g i t u d e a l o n g t h e l i n e which j o i n s t h e two p o i n t s ; t h e g r e a t e r Therefore, f o r t h e orthodrome t h e l a t i t u d e , t h e more i t c h a n g e s . d i r e c t i o n t o g e t h e r w i t h an i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e a z i m u t h , it i s n e c e s s a r y t o mention from which meridian t h i a d i r e c t i o n i s measured. The c h a n g e i n a z i m u t h w i t h a c h a n g e i n t h e moving l o n g i t u d e d o e s n o t make i t p o s s i b l e t o u s e m a g n e t i c c o m p a s s e s f o r moving a l o n g t h e orthodrome without i n t r o d u c i n g corresponding c o r r e c t i o n s , espe c i a l l y when t h e t w o p o i n t s a r e f a r a p a r t .
If t h e m a g n e t i c d e c l i n a t i o n d o e s n o t c h a n g e , f o l l o w i n g a con s t a n t magnetic course w i l l cause t h e meridians t o i n t e r s e c t a t iden tical angles. The l i n e w h i c h i n t e r s e c t s t h e m e r i d i a n s a t a c o n s t a n t a n g l e i s c a l l e d t h e loxodrome.

I n o r d e r t o p r o c e e d t o a more d e t a i l e d e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e e l e ments o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n and t h e i r measurement, it i s n e c e s s a r y t o become a c q u a i n t e d w i t h t h e m a k i n g o f m a p s , t h e i r s c a l e s , a n d some f e a t u r e s o f c a r t o g r a p h i c p r o j e c t i o n s .

5.

C h a r t s , Maps

and C a r t o g r a p h i c P r o j e c t i o n s

The r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a s m a l l p a r t o f t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e on a plane is called a chart. D i s t o r t i o n as a r e s u l t o f t h e c u r v a t u r e o f t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e i s p r a c t i c a l l y a b s e n t on a c h a r t . The c o n v e n t i o n a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e E a r t h ' s p l a n e i s c a l l e d a map. surface in a

A map i s a c o n t i n u o u s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e E a r t h or a p a r t o f i t w i t h o u t d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s a n d f o l d s , made w i t h a variable scale according t o a d e f i n i t e r u l e . The s p h e r i c i t y o f t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e d o e s n o t a l l o w i t t o b e r e p r e s e n t e d w i t h com p l e t e a c c u r a c y on a p l a n e s u r f a c e . T h e r e f o r e , t h e r e a r e many w a y s o f p r o j e c t i n g t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e o n t o a p l a n e w h i c h make i t p o s s i b l e t o r e p r e s e n t m o s t a c c u r a t e l y on t h e map o n l y t h o s e p a r a m e t e r s ( e l e m e n t s ) which a r e most n e c e s s a r y under t h e g i v e n c o n d i t i o n s of application. M e t h o d s or l a w s o f r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e E a r t h ' s are called cartographic projections. s u r f a c e on a p l a n e

/8 1

A common g e o m e t r i c a l p r o j e c t i o n i s t h e p o i n t o f i n t e r s e c t i o n o f t h e l i n e of s i g h t ( w h i c h p a s s e s t h r o u g h t h e e y e o f t h e o b s e r v e r

12

and t h e p r o j e c t e d p o i n t ) w i t h t h e p l a n e o n t o which t h e g i v e n p o i n t is projected. I t i s a s p e c i a l case o f c a r t o g r a p h i c p r o j e c t i o n .

A c a r t o g r a p h i c p r o j e c t i o n i s set a n a l y t i c a l l y as a f u n c t i o n o f g e o g r a p h i c a l c o o r d i n a t e s on t h e E a r t h ( s p h e r e ) b e t w e e n t h e c o o r d i n a t e s o f a p o i n t on a p l a n e .

If w e c a l l o n e o f t h e m a i n d i r e c t i o n s o n a map t h e X a x i s a n d t h e perpendicular t o it t h e Z a x i s , t h e n X = F l ( r p ; A) a n d z=&('9; 1 ; )

or

P=

1) an d ii = F, (~p; A),

w h e r e p a n d 6 a r e t h e m a i n d i r e c t i o n s o n maps o f c o n i c a n d a z i m u t h a l p r o j e c t i o n s , a n d I$ a n d X a r e t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l c o o r d i n a t e s o f a p o i n t on t h e E a r t h ( s p h e r e ) . The p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e p r o j e c t i o n s w i l l d e p e n d on t h e p r o p e r t i e s of t h e s e f u n c t i o n s (F1, F2, F 3 , and F 4 ) , which must be c o n t i n u o u s a n d w e l l - d e f i n e d , s i n c e t h e map i s made w i t h o u t d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s s o t h a t a s i n g l e p o i n t o n t h e map c o r r e s p o n d s t o e v e r y p o i n t i n t h e location. Map S c a l e s The map-making a) globe. b) p r o c e s s i s d i v i d e d i n t o two s t a g e s .

The E a r t h i s d e c r e a s e d t o t h e d e f i n i t e d i m e n s i o n s o f a

The g l o b e i s u n r o l l e d t o f o r m a p l a n e .

The e x t e n t of t h e o v e r a l l d e c r e a s e i n t h e E a r t h ' s d i m e n s i o n s t o t h e f i x e d dimensions of a globe i s c a l l e d a principaz scale. A p r i n c i p a l s c a l e i s a l w a y s i n d i c a t e d o n t h e e d g e o f a map a n d makes it p o s s i b l e t o j u d g e t h e d e c r e a s e o f t h e l e n g t h o f a s e g m e n t i n t r a n s f e r r i n g i t from t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e t o t h e g l o b e . A principal scale is numerically equal t o t h e r a t i o of t h e d i s t a n c e on t h e g l o b e t o t h e a c t u a l d i s t a n c e a t a l o c a t i o n :

A. s a M= ASe.s.
4

w h e r e M i s t h e p r i n c i p a l s c a l e , A S g i s a s e g m e n t on t h e g l o b e , a n d i s a s e g m e n t on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e segment on t h e g l o b e . On m a p s , t h e p r i n c i p a l s c a l e i s u s u a l l y s h o w n a s a f r a c t i o n ( n u m e r i c a l s c a l e ) a n d by means o f a s p e c i a l s c a l e ( l i n e a r s c a l e ) .

13

The n u m e r i c a l s c a l e . i s a f r a c t i o n , t h e n u m e r a t o r o f w h i c h i s o n e , w h i l e t h e d e n o m i n a t o r s h o w s how many s u c h u n i t s o f m e a s u r e m e n t fit i n t o t h e location.

/19 F o r e x a m p l e , 1 : 1 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 means t h a t i f w e t a k e 1 c m on a maps t h e n 1 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 c m a t a l o c a t i o n ( i . e . , 1 0 km) w i l $ c o r r e s p o n d t o i t .

A l i n e a r s c a l e i s a s c a l e on a map i n w h i c h a d e f i n i t e n u m b e r o f k i l o m e t e r s a t a l o c a t i o n correspond t o s p e c i a l segments of t h e scale. However, a p r i n c i p a l s c a l e ( n u m e r i c a l and l i n e a r ) i s i n s u f f i c i e n t f o r a c c u r a t e l y m e a s u r i n g d i s t a n c e s on t h e e n t i r e f i e l d o f a map. I t i s n e c e s s a r y t o know t h e l a w s o f d i s t o r t i o n o f d i s t a n c e s and d i r e c t i o n s . The l a w s o f c h a n g e i n t h e p r i n c i p a l s c a l e a l o n g t h e map f i e l d a r e d e t e r m i n e d by a s p e c i a l s c a l e .

A special scale i s t h e r a t i o of an i n f i n i t e l y small segment i n a g i v e n p l a c e on t h e map i n a g i v e n d i r e c t i o n , t o a n a n a l o g o u s s e g A t e a c h p o i n t on t h e m a p , t h e s p e c i a l ment i n a l o c a t i o n ( g l o b e ) . scale is different. I t i s e i t h e r s o m e w h a t l a r g e r or s o m e w h a t s m a l l e r than the principal scale.
Distort ions o f Cartographic Project ions

E l l i p s e of D i s t o P t i o n s
L e t u s draw on a s p h e r e ( g l o b e ) , a n i n f i n i t e l y s m a l l c i r c l e with radius r ; l e t us a l s o designate a rectangular coordinate system' Then on t h e s p h e r e by x a n d z ( F i g . 1 . 8 , a ) .
f2

= x2

+ P.

(1.8)

Fig.

1.8.

D i s t o r t i o n o f S c a l e s on a P l a n e : ( b ) S c a l e on a P l a n e .

( a ) S c a l e on a G l o b e ;

14

I n t h e t r a n s f e r o f t h e coordinate system from t h e sphere (globe) t o the plane, the direction of the coordinate,axes is dis torted (Fig. 1.8, b). Having d e s i g n a t e d t h e s p e c i a l s c a l e s on a p l a n e (map) b y m i n t h e d i r e c t i o n X and n i n t h e d i r e c t i o n z , w e o b t a i n : XI = mx; 21 = nz

S u b s t i t u t i n g t h e l a t t e r i n (1.81,

a n d t h e n d i v i d i n g b o t h s i d e s o f t h e e q u a t i o n b y r2, w e o b t a i n

mr

+ (")

nr

(1.9)

From m a t h e m a t i c s , i t i s known t h a t t h i s i s t h e f o r m u l a o f a n e l l i p s e with conjugate diameters; therefore: a) Any i n f i n i t e l y s m a l l c i r c l e o n t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e E a r t h ' s s p h e r e i n any p r o j e c t i o n i s r e p r e s e n t e d by a n i n f i n i t e l y s m a l l e l lipse. b) On t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e E a r t h ' s s p h e r e ( g l o b e ) , i t i s p o s s i b l e t o choose two m u t u a l l y p e r p e n d i c u l a r d i r e c t i o n s which w i l l be t r a n s f e r r e d t o a map w i t h o u t a n y d i s t o r t i o n s . These d i r e c t i o n s are c a l l e d p r i n c i p a l d i r e c t i o n s . Knowing t h e s p e c i a l s c a l e s ( m a n d n ) i n t h e p r i n c i p a l d i r e c t i o n s , it i s always p o s s i b l e t o c o n s t r u c t an e l l i p s e o f d i s t o r t i o n s which w i l l make it p o s s i b l e t o judge t h e n a t u r e o f t h e d i s t o r t i o n s o f t h e p r o j e c t i o n as a whole. In the majority of projections, the d i r e c t i o n s along t h e m e r i d i a n s and p a r a l l e l s are t a k e n as t h e p r i n cipal directions.

Distortion of L e n g t h s
I f a n i n f i n i t e l y s m a l l c i r c l e on t h e E a r t h i s r e p r e s e n t e d by an e l l i p s e (Fig. 1 . 9 , b) with i t s t r a n s f e r t o a p l a n e , t h e d i s t o r t i o n o f t h e s p e c i a l scale i n any d i r e c t i o n ( A S , ) can be expressed as f o l l o w s : ASa=-- 0 1 4 - V ( W + n i p ( D (1.10) OM r

/21

15

b u t from t h e c i r c l e i n F i g u r e 1 . 9 ,

a:

~ = s ! n a r , ~ i 1 ett=cosar, wh then
ASa=

m sinza + n2 cos2 a , z

(1.11)

Fig.

1.9.

Distortion

i n a Plane: ( a ) L e n g t h on a G l o b e ; on a P l a n e .

(b) L e n g t h

Xl

Fig.

1.10.

D i s t o r t i o n of D i r e c t i o n s o n a Map. ( a ) D i r e c t i o n on a G l o b e ; ( b ) D i r e c t i o n o n a Map

i . e . , k n o w i n g t h e s p e c i a l s c a l e s for t h e p r i n c i p a l d i r e c t i o n s , we can always judge t h e value o f t h e d i s t o r t i o n o f t h e s p e c i a l s c a l e i n any d i r e c t i o n ( a n d t h e r e f o r e , t h e d i s t o r t i o n of t h e l e n g t h o f t h e segment as a w h o l e ) .

D i s t o r t i o n of D i r e c t i o n s
Let us take t h e radius r = 1 (Fig. c i r c l e on t h e E a r t h ; t h e n
tga=%-,
X

1.10)
nz

o f an i n f i n i t e l y small

w h i le t g e = - . mr

(1.12)

16

Dividing Equations

(1.12)

i n t o one a n o t h e r , w e o b t a i n :
tgB

=mtg a.
II

(1.13)

Obviously, knowing t h e s p e c i a l s c a l e s f o r t h e p r i n c i p a l d i r e c t i o n s , i t i s a l w a y s p o s s i b l e t o f i n d a n a n g l e f3 o n a map f o r a n a n g i e a i n a l o c a t i o n , and v i c e v e r s a .

D i s t o r t i o n of A r e a s
T h e d i s t o r t i o n o f a r e a s AP c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d b y a c o m p a r i s o n o r d i v i s i o n o f t h e a r e a of t h e e l l i p s e ( S e l l by t h e a r e a o f a c i r c l e (sei); s e e F i g u r e 1.11: (1.14) b u t i f we t a k e t h e r a d i u s o f t h e c i r c l e o n t h e E a r t h a s e q u a l t o 1 , then AP = ab

/22

or, i f w e e x p r e s s a a n d b b y s p e c i a l s c a l e s f o r t h e p r i n c i p a l d i r e c t i o n s , we o b t a i n : LIP = mn,, (1.15)

x
Fig.
1.11.

D i s t o r t i o n o f A r e a s o n a Map. ( a ) Area on a G l o b e ; ( b ) A r e a o n a Map.

The d i s t o r t i o n o f a r e a s i s e q u a l t o t h e p r o d u c t o f t h e s p e c i a l scales f o r t h e p r i n c i p a l d i r e c t i o n s . H e n c e , w e s e e t h a t i f w e know t h e s p e c i a l s c a l e s for t h e p r i n c i p a l d i r e c t i o n s , w e can give t h e complete c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of any map p r o j e c t i o n .

, .

17

C 1 a s s i f i c a t i o n o f C a r t o g r a p h i c P r o j e c t i,on s

T h e r e a r e many c a r t o g r a p h i c p r o j e c t i o n s . a c c o r d i n g t o two b a s i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s :

They c a n b e d i v i d e d

(a) a c c o r d i n g t o t h e n a t u r e o f t h e d i s t o r t i o n s , and (b) a c c o r d i n g t o t h e means o f c o n s t r u c t i o n ' o r t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e normal g r i d . By norma2 grid w e mean t h e c o o r d i n a t e s y s t e m o n a g l o b e w h i c h i s m o s t s i m p l y r e p r e s e n t e d o n a map. Obviously, t h i s i s a system o f m e r i d i a n s and p a r a l l e l s .

Division of Projections b y the Nature of the Distortions

The c h o i c e o f c a r t o g r a p h i c p r o j e c t i o n s d e p e n d s on t h e p r o b l e m s f o r whose s o l u t i o n t h e y a r e i n t e n d e d . According t o t h e n a t u r e of t h e e l e m e n t s w h i c h h a v e t h e l e a s t d i s t o r t i o n on a map, c a r t o g r a p h i c projections are divided i n t o t h e following groups:

1.

Isogonal o r conformal p r o j e c t i o n s

These p r o j e c t i o n s must s a t i s f y t h e r e q u i r e m e n t o f e q u a l i t y o f a n g l e s and s i m i l a r i t y o f f i g u r e s ( c o n f o r m a b i l i t y ) w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s o f u n i t areas of t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e , i . e . , s o t h a t i n p r o j e c t i n g a s u r f a c e o f a g l o b e o n t o a p l a n e (map)., t h e a n g l e s a n d s i m i l a r f i g u r e s do n o t change. b)

CI
c

I 41

I xf

IX

Fig. 1.12. C o n f o r m a b i l i t y o f F i g u r e s o n Maps. ( a ) Preserving the C o n f o r m a b i l i t y of a U n i t A r e a ; ( b ) D e s t r o y i n g t h e C o n f o r m a b i l i t y o a Long S t r i p . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e s t i p u l a t i o n , t h e a n g l e o n a map m u s t b e e q u a l t o t h e a n g l e a t t h e l o c a t i o n : L 6 = L a , b u t from ( 1 . 1 3 ) it i s ob v i o u s t h a t i n t h i s c a s e m = n. Therefore, t h e equation of s p e c i a l scales f o r p r i n c i p a l d i r e c tions is a condition for isogonality.

18

On l a r g e p a r t s o f t h e s u r f a c e , w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s o f w h i c h i t i s impossible t o d i s r e g a r d t h e change i n scale, t h e c o n f o r m a b i l i t y (and therefore t h e isogonality) are not preserved. Figure 1.12 g i v e s a n example of p r e s e r v i n g t h e c o n f o r m a b i l i t y o f a u n i t area and d e s t r o y i n g t h e c o n f o r m a b i l i t y o f a l o n g s t r i p . T h e u n i t a r e a ( F i g . 1 . 1 2 , a ) i s t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e map o n a d e f i n i t e scale without d i s t o r t i o n s . The l o n g s t r i p ( F i g . 1 . 1 2 , b ) c a n b e d i v i d e d i n t o a number o f u n i t a r e a s , e a c h o f w h i c h w i l l b e t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e map o n a s o m e w h a t c h a n g e d s c a l e . Since t h e scales mx,and nz a r e i n c r e a s e d p r o p o r t i o n a l l y i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e s t r i p , e a c h o f t h e s m a l l a r e a s i s r e p r e s e n t e d o n t h e map w i t h t h e c o n f o r m a By e q u a t i n g t h e b i l i t y b e i n g p r e s e r v e d , o n l y on a d i f f e r e n t s c a l e . /24 l a t e r a l l i m i t s o f t h e s m a l l a r e a s , w e do n o t o b t a i n a c o n f o r m a l figure, i.e., the similarity of small figures i n isogonal projec tions is preserved, while the similarity of large figures (large l a k e s , seas, e t c . ) is destroyed.

2.

Equally spaced o r equidistant projections

The e q u i v a l e n c e t o u n i t y o f t h e s p e c i a l s c a l e s f o r a p r i n c i p a l d i r e c t i o n ( m = 1 o r n = 1) i s a n e c e s s a r y c o n d i t i o n o f t h i s g r o u p of projections.

4
X

$ ? ,

T h i s m e a n s t h a t t h e map s c a l e w i l l be p r e s e r v e d i n one o f t h e p r i n c i p a l directions. T h e r e f o r e , when u s i n g s u c h a map w e c a n m e a s u r e t h e d i s t a n c e i n o n e o f t h e d i r e c t i o n s by means o f a scale. The n a t u r e o f t h e d i s t o r t i o n of c o n f o r m a b i l i t y i n t h e s e projections i s shown i n F i g . 1 . 1 3 . Here m = c o n s t , while n is a function of Z.

J,

3.

Fig. 1.13. Distortion of Conformability i n Equally Spaced P r o j e c t i o n s : ( a ) Appearance o f a Figu r e i n a L o c a t i o n ; (b) Appearance of t h e F i g u r e o n a Map.

Equally large or equivalent projections

T h i s group o f p r o j e c t i o n s must s a t i s f y the condition of equivalence of a r e a s i.e. , the product of t h e s p e c i a l scales f o r t h e p r i n c i p a l d i r e c t i o n s m u s t e q u a l u n i t y ( m n = 1); t h e r e f o r e , t h e r e l a t i o n between t h e s p e c i a l scales f o r t h e p r i n c i p a l d i r e c t i o n s w i l l be i n v e r s e l y p r o p o r t i o n a l :

m=-;

n=-.

1 m

These p r o j e c t i o n s do n o t have an e q u i v a l e n c e o f a n g l e s and a similarity of figures.

19

4.

Arbitrary projections

P r o j e c t i o n s o f t h i s g r o u p d o n o t s a t i s f y a n y of t h e c o n d i t i o n s mentioned above. H o w e v e r , t h e y a r e a l s o u s e d when c o m p a r a t i v e l y s m a l l p o r t i o n s o f t h e E a r t h ' s surface are projected onto a plane where t h e d i s t o r t i o n s o f t h e a n g l e s and t h e s c a l e s f o r t h e p r i n c i p a l d i r e c t i o n s a n d a l o n g t h e e n t i r e map f i e l d a r e i n s i g n i f i c a n t a n d t h e s i m i l a r i t y o f f i g u r e s and a r e a s which s a t i s f y t h e n e e d s o f t h e i r This group o f p r o j e c t i o n s i n practical application is preserved. c l u d e s a b a s i c f l i g h t map o n a s c a l e o f 1:1,000,000, w h i c h i s c o n s t r u c t e d a c c o r d i n g t o a s p e c i a l l a w a n d w h i c h h a s b e e n a c c e p t e d by i n t e r n a t i o n a l agreement.

For t h e p u r p o s e s o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n , t h e m o s t n e c e s s a r y c o n d i t i o n s a r e ( o b v i o u s l y ) i s o g o n a l i t y and e q u a l s c a l e o f t h e maps. E q u a l l y l a r g e a n d e q u a l l y s p a c e d p r o j e c t i o n s o f maps a r e u s e d i n a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n o n l y a s s u r v e y maps f o r s p e c i a l a p p l i c a t i o n s .

They i n c l u d e maps o f h o u r z o n e s , m a g n e t i c d e c l i n a t i o n s , c o m p o s i t e d i a g r a m s o f t o p o g r a p h i c a l map s h e e t s , c l i m a t o l o g i c a l a n d m e t e o r o l o g i c a l maps, e t c .
/25 -

D i v i s i o n of P r o j e c t i o n s A c c o r d i n g t o t h e Method of C o n s t r u c t i o n ( A c c o r d i n g t o t h e A p p e a r a n c e of t h e Normal G r i d )
Depending on t h e method o f c o n s t r u c t i o n , c a r t o g r a p h i c p r o j e c t i o n s a r e d i v i d e d i n t o s e v e r a l g r o u p s , t h e b a s e s o f which a r e t h e following: (a) group o f c y l i n d r i c a l p r o j e c t i o n s ; (b) group o f c o n i c p r o j e c t i o n s and t h e i r v a r i a n t s , projections; ( c ) group of azimuthal p r o j e c t i o n s ; (d) group of s p e c i a l p r o j e c t i o n s .

polyconic

Each of t h e s e p r o j e c t i o n s i s d i v i d e d i n t u r n i n t o t h e f o l l o w i n g categories: normal, i f t h e E a r t h ' s a x i s c o n c i d e s w i t h t h e a x i s o f t h e f i g u r e o n t o which t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e i s p r o j e c t e d ; t r a n s v e r s e , if t h e E a r t h ' s a x i s f o r m s a n a n g l e o f 90 w i t h t h e a x i s o f t h e f i g u r e , and o b l i q u e , i f t h e a x i s of t h e E a r t h d o e s n o t c o i n c i d e w i t h t h e a x i s of t h e f i g u r e and i n t e r s e c t s it a t an a n g l e which i s n o t e q u a l t o 90.
Cy1 i n d r i c a l

Projections

Normal ( e q u i v a l e n t ) cy1 i n d r i c a l p r o j e c t i o n
A l l c y l i n d r i c a l p r o j e c t i o n s a r e f o r m e d by means o f t h e i m a g i n a r y t r a n s f e r o f t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e ( g l o b e ) t o a t a n g e n t i a l or i n tersecting cylinder, with subsequent unrolling. I n F i g u r e 1 . 1 4 , a simple normal c y l i n d r i c a l p r o j e c t i o n i s g i v e n , i . e . , a p r o j e c t i o n o f t h e E a r t h on a t a n g e n t i a l c y l i n d e r ,

t h e a x i s of which c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e a x i s * o f t h e E a r t h ( g l o b e ) , while the height of t h e cylinder is proportional t o the length of the axis.

PS

Fig.

1.14.

Normal

(Equivalent) Cylindrical Projection

Fig.

1.15.

Simple E q u a l l y S p a c e d C y l i n d r i c a l P r o j e c t i o n

I n t h i s p r o j e c t i o n , t h e meridians are compressed while t h e p a r a l l e l s are extended t o a d e g r e e which i n c r e a s e s w i t h l a t i t u d e . The p r o j e c t i o n i n c l u d e s a c a t e g o r y o f e q u a l l y l a r g e a n d e q u i v a l e n t p r o j e c t i o n s , s i n c e it satisfies t h e condition o f an equivalence of areas.
I t s equation can be w r i t t e n i n t h e following form:
X = R sin v; 2 = RS,

(1.16)

where X r e p r e s e n t s t h e c o o r d i n a t e s o f a p o i n t a l o n g t h e m e r i d i a n ; Z r e p r e s e n t s t h e coordinates of a point along t h e equator; and R is the Earth's radius.

L e t u s d e t e r m i n e what t h e s p e c i a l s c a l e s f o r t h e d i r e c t i o n s are equal t o i n t h i s p r o j e c t i o n :

21

(1.17)

(1.18)

where m i s a p a r t i a l scale a l o n g a m e r i d i a n ; n i s a p a r t i a l scale along a parallel; i s a n i n c r e a s e i n d i s t a n c e on t h e map; d S g l o b e i s a n i n c r e a s e i n d i s t a n c e on t h e g l o b e .

asmap

The p r o d u c t o f t h e s p e c i a l s c a l e s i s
1

=1

mn -cos

or m = d , w h i l e n=; 1 1
n

'p

cos 'p

Therefore, the given projection is equal.

Since

m # n ; m # 1 and

n # 1 i n t h e p r i n c i p a l d i r e c t i o n s ( m e r i d i a n s and p a r a l l e l s ) it i s

n o t i s o g o n a l and n o t e q u a l l y spaced. Only i n t h e e q u a t o r i a l band, i n t h e l i m i t s f r o m 0 t o f 5 O a l o n g i t s l a t i t u d e , i s it p r a c t i c a l l y p o s s i b l e t o c o n s i d e r i t i s o g o n a l and e q u a l l y spaced.

/27 -

S i m p l e equally spaced c y l i n d r i c a l p r o j e c t i o n
If w e t a k e t h e h e i g h t of a c y l i n d e r t o be p r o p o r t i o n a l n o t t o the length of the Earth's axis, but t o t h e length of a meridian, and i n s t e a d o f simply p r o j e c t i n g w e u n f o l d t h e m e r i d i a n s t o t h e c y l i n d e r w a l l s , a s shown i n F i g . 1 . 1 5 , t h e n a s i m p l e , e q u a l l y s p a c e d I t i s r e g a r d e d as normal s i n c e cylindrical projection is obtained. t h e axis of t h e globe coincides with t h e a x i s o f t h e cylinder.
I n t h i s p r o j e c t i o n , t h e meridians w i l l be transformed t o t h e i r f u l l s i z e d u r i n g t h e i r t r a n s f e r f r o m t h e g l o b e ' s s u r f a c e t o a map ( i . e . , m = l), a n d t h e e q u a t o r a l s o w i l l b e t r a n s f o r m e d t o full s i z e ( a t t h e e q u a t o r , n = 11, w h i l e t h e p a r a l l e l s w i l l b e e x t e n d e d The m a g n i t u d e o f t h e j u s t as i n a normal ( e q u i v a l e n t ) p r o j e c t i o n . effect increases with l a t i t u d e . T h e c o o r d i n a t e g r i d o f t h e map o f t h i s p r o j e c t i o n h a s t h e a p pearance of a uniform r e c t a n g u l a r r u l i n g . I t s e q u a t i o n s have t h e form : X=R'p; 2 - R A . The s p e c i a l s c a l e s a r e e q u a l t o :

(1.19)

1 - sec = cos
'p

along the p a r a l l e l

n=

'p.

(1.20)

22

S i n c e m = 1, t h e p r o j e c t i o n i s e q u a l l y s p a c e d a l o n g t h e m e r i d i a n s and a l s o a l o n g t h e e q u a t o r . S i n c e m # n a n d mn # 1, t h e p r o j e c t i o n i s n o t i s o g o n a l and n o t e q u a l l y l a r g e , e x c e p t f o r t h e equa t o r i a l band i n t h e l i m i t s from 0 t o + 5 O a l o n g t h e l a t i t u d e , where it i s p r a c t i c a l l y p o s s i b l e t o c o n s i d e r i t i s o g o n a l and e q u a l l y l a r g e . Maps i n n o r m a l ( e q u i v a l e n t ) a n d s i m p l e , e q u a l l y d i s t a n t c y l i n maps d r i c a l p r o j e c t i o n s are u s e d i n a v i a t i o n o n l y as r e f e r e n c e s : o f h o u r z o n e s , maps o f n a t u r a l l i g h t , e t c .

I s o g o n a l cy1 i n d r i c a l p r o j e c t i o n
An i s o g o n a l c y l i n d r i c a l p r o j e c t i o n ( M e r c a t o r p r o j e c t i o n ) i s t h e most v a l u a b l e of a l l t h e c y l i n d r i c a l p r o j e c t i o n s f o r n a v i g a t i o n . I t i s o b t a i n e d from a s i m p l e , e q u a l l y spaced c y l i n d r i c a l p r o j e c t i o n by a r t i f i c i a l l y e x t e n d i n g t h e s c a l e a l o n g t h e l a t i t u d e ( l e n g t h e n i n g t h e m e r i d i a n s ) , p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e change i n s c a l e a l o n g t h e l o n g i tude. T h e c o o r d i n a t e g r i d o f t h e map o f t h i s p r o j e c t i o n i s s h o w n i n Figure 1.16. The r e a s o n f o r i t s u s e i s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e a n g l e s m e a s u r e d o n t h e map a r e e q u a l t o t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g a n g l e s a t t h e l o c a t i o n , % . e . , m = n = s e c 6.
Le t i o n of along a dinate) f i n d m: t us w r i t e an equa t h i s map p r o j e c t i o n meridian (X-coor f o r which w e can

/28

m=

dS dS

--d X
globe

Rdv '

w h e r e dS i s a n i n c r e a s e o f distance along the meridian on t h e map; a n d R d + i s a n increase i n distance along t h e meridian at the loca tion.
W must have e m = sec 'p,
W s h a l l then equate the e r i g h t - h a n d s i d e s of t h e s e equations:

Fig. 1.16. Coordinate Grid of an Isogonal Cylindrical Projection.

- .sec +,'w h e n c e R 4
dX
e :

dX-

Rd'p -a(l.21) cos

'p

23

After i n t e g r a t i n g (1.211, along the meridian:

we w i l l obtain t h e X-coordinate

X = R I n t g 45
( O

+-

i ),

(1.22)

while the Z-coordinate ple equation:

a l o n g t h e p a r a l l e l i s d e t e r m i n e d by t h e s i m

z= Rh.

(1.22a)

(m # 1

Since m = n , the projection is isogonal but not equally spaced a n d n # 1) and n o t e q u a l l y l a r g e ( m n # 1 ) .

T h e b a s i c a d v a n t a g e o f maps i n a n i s o g o n a l c y l i n d r i c a l p r o j e c t i o n i s t h e s i m p l i c i t y o f t h e i r u s e w i t h m a g n e t i c c o m p a s s e s for moving f r o m o n e p o i n t on t h e E a r t h t o a n o t h e r , s i n c e t h e loxodrome Therefore, i n t h i s p r o j e c t i o n has t h e appearance of a s t r a i g h t l i n e . t h e isogonal c y l i n d r i c a l projection has been used widely, primarily i n m a r i n e n a v i g a t i o n d u r i n g t h e c o m p i l a t i o n o f n a v a l maps. The c h a n g e i n s c a l e w i t h l a t i t u d e i s a d i s a d v a n t a g e o f n o r m a l cylindrical projections. Here, i n normal ( e q u i v a l e n t ) and s i m p l e , e q u a l l y s p a c e d c y l i n d r i c a l p r o j e c t i o n s , t h e map s c a l e i s n o t i d e n t i c a l i n t h e p r i n c i p a l d i r e c t i o n s ( n o r t h - s o u t h and e a s t - w e s t ) , s o t h a t t h e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n two p o i n t s i n d i r e c t i o n s n o t p a r a l l e l t o t h e l i n e s o f t h e g r a t i n g c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d o n l y by c a l c u l a t i o n . I n a n i s o g o n a l c y l i n d r i c a l p r o j e c t i o n , t h e map s c a l e a l o n g t h e l a t i t u d e i s a l s o v a r i a b l e , b u t a t a n y p o i n t o n t h e map i t i s i d e n t i cal in the principal directions. T h i s makes it p o s s i b l e t o m e a s u r e d i s t a n c e s b y m e a n s of c o m p a s s e s , for w h i c h a s c a l e ( v a r y i n g w i t h t h e l a t i t u d e ) i s drawn on t h e w e s t e r n an d e a s t e r n e d g e s o f t h e map. Means for m e a s u r i n g d i s t a n c e s o n maps w i t h s u c h a p r o j e c t i o n a r e i n d i c a t e d i n m a n u a l s for m a r i n e n a v i g a t i o n .

Isogonal oblique cylindrical projections

T h e b a s i s f o r c r e a t i n g maps i n a n i s o g o n a l c y l i n d r i c a l p r o j e c its isogonality. t i o n i s a property of t h e Mercator projection: S u c h p r o j e c t i o n s a r e u s e d i n t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f s p e c i a l f l i g h t maps and 1:4,000,000 which a r e o n s c a l e s o f 1:1,000,000, 1 : 2 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 , used i n c i v i l a v i a t i o n . T h e t a n g e n t i a l ( F i g . 1.17) or i n t e r s e c t i n g ( F i g . 1.18) c y l i n d e r is s i t u a t e d a t such an angle t o t h e axis of t h e globe t h a t t h e tan g e n t o f t h e c y l i n d e r ' s s u r f a c e t o t h e g l o b e or t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n r u n s along t h e f l i g h t path. Usually the s t r i p along t h e tangent does not e x t e n d m o r e t h a n 5 0 0 - 6 0 0 km t o e i t h e r s i d e o f t h e r o u t e (or t h e m i d d l e l i n e o f t h e r o u t e , i f i t h a s d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s ) , w h i l e on t h e i n t e r s e c t i n g c o n e i t d o e s n o t e x t e n d m o r e t h a n 1 0 0 0 - 1 4 0 0 km t o e i t h e r s i d e of t h e given middle l i n e of t h e r o u t e s .
24

I n p r a c t i c e , s u c h f l i g h t maps a r e i s o g o n a l , e q u a l l y s p a c e d , and e q u a l l y l a r g e ; however, s i n c e t h e c y l i n d e r i s i n c o n t a c t w i t h t h e g l o b e a l o n g t h e a r c o f a g r e a t c i r c l e or c u t s t h e g l o b e c o m p a r a t i v e l y c l o s e t o t h e a r c o f a g r e a t c i r c l e , t h e o r t h o d r o m e on t h e s e maps w i l l i n p r a c t i c e b e r e p r e s e n t e d b y a s t r a i g h t l i n e . T h e d i s t o r t i o n s o f l e n g t h s o n f l i g h t maps o f o b l i q u e t a n g e n t i a l p r o j e c t i o n s do n o t exceed 0.5%; f o r i n t e r s e c t i n g p r o j e c t i o n s t h e y do n o t .exceed 0.8%-1.2%.

/30

Fig. 1.17. Isogonal Oblique (Tangential) Cylindrical Projection.

Isogonal Oblique Fig. 1.18. (Intersecting) Cylindrical Projection.

I s o g o n a l t r a n s v e r s e and c y l i n d r i c a l G a u s s i a n p r o j e c t i o n
The a x i s o f t h e c y l i n d e r i n G a u s s i a n p r o j e c t i o n s i s p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e a x i s of r o t a t i o n o f t h e E a r t h ( g l o b e ) . The c o n s t r u c t i o n o f maps w i t h t h i s p r o j e c t i o n i s s i m i l a r t o t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f maps with oblique cylindrical projections. F o r e x a m p l e , a f l i g h t map o n a s c a l e o f 1:1,000,000 f o r L e n i n g r a d - K i e v h a s b e e n c o m p i l e d o n such a projection. H o w e v e r , on t h e w h o l e , i s o g o n a l t r a n s v e r s e c y l i n d r i c a l G a u s s i a n p r o j e c t i o n i s u s e d f o r c o m p i l i n g maps o n a l a r g e s c a l e , where t h e s p e c i a l p r i n c i p l e s o f c o n s t r u c t i o n are used.
A s p h e r o i d ( E a r t h ' s e l l i p s o i d ) i s t a k e n as t h e f i g u r e from which t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e i s p r o j e c t e d , w h i l e t h e t a n g e n t i a l c y l i n d e r on w h i c h t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e i s p r o j e c t e d h a s a n e l l i p t i c a l b a s e a c c o r d i n g t o t h e form of t h e E a r t h ' s e l l i p s o i d .

The e n t i r e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e i s d i v i d e d b y m e r i d i a n s i n t o z o n e s , e a c h o f w h i c h h a s a l a t i t u d e o f 6 O a n d i s p r o j e c t e d o n t o i t s own c y l i n d e r which i s t a n g e n t i a l t o t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e a l o n g t h e mid d l e meridian of t h e g i v e n zone. Thus, i n o r d e r t o p r o j e c t t h e whole s u r f a c e o f t h e E a r t h , it is necessary t o t u r n t h e e l l i p t i c a l c y l i n d e r mentally around t h e
25

a x i s of t h e E a r t k ' s e l l i p s o i d t h r o u g h 6O a t a t i m e , In Figure 1.19, a , t h e p r o j e c t i o n o f o n l y one zone f o r 6 O l o n g i t u d e i s shown, w h i l e i n Figure 1.19, b y the unrolling of a semicylinder after its rotat i o n around t h e E a r t h ' s a x i s i n o r d e r t o p r o j e c t several zones i s shown. W i t h s u c h a p r o j e c t i o n , a l l maps a r e c o n s t r u c t e d o n t h e scales: 1:500,000, 1:200,000, 1:100,000, 1:50,000, and 1:25,000. The l a t t e r a r e e s s e n t i a l l y c h a r t s .

/31

Fig.

1.19.

Isogonal Transverse-Cylindrical Gaussian Projectioh.

E a c h z o n e o n maps w i t h a s c a l e o f 1:200,000 a n d l a r g e r h a s i t s own s p e c i a l X a n d Y(Z) r e c t a n g u l a r c o o r d i n a t e s y s t e m , w h i c h i s c a l l e d t h e Gaussian kilometer system. M e r i d i a n s a n d p a r a l l e l s on maps o f t h i s p r o j e c t i o n a r e c u r v e d l i n e s a n d d o n o t c o i n c i d e w i t h t h e Gaussian system. The v e r t i c a l l i n e s o f t h e r e c t a n g u l a r Gaus s i a n system a r e p a r a l l e l t o t h e c e n t r a l m e r i d i a n o f t h e zone and do n o t c o i n c i d e with o t h e r meridians o f t h e zone. The a n g l e b e t w e e n t h e v e r t i c a l l i n e X o f t h e G a u s s i a n s y s t e m and t h e l i n e t o t h e o b j e c t ( p o i n t ) i s c a l l e d t h e d i r e c t i o n a l angle. I n order t o o b t a i n t h e t r u e o r magnetic d i r e c t i o n ( a n g l e ) , t h e a n g l e s o f t h e convergence o f t h e system w i t h t h e t r u e and magnetic In addition, the m e r i d i a n s a r e i n d i c a t e d o n t h e e d g e o f t h e map. v e r t i c a l s e c t i o n o f a map ( f r a m e ) a l w a y s r u n s i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f the true meridian, By m e a n s o f t h e G a u s s i a n s y s t e m a n d f i g u r e s i n t h e f r a m e s o f t h e maps, it i s p o s s i b l e t o determine t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e e q u a t o r and from t h e c e n t r a l meridian o f t h e zone t o t h e o b j e c t ( p o i n t ) . D i s t o r t i o n s o f l e n g t h s o n t h e s e maps a r e i n s i g n i f i c a n t a n d d o n o t exceed 0.14% a l o n g t h e edges o f t h e zone i n t h e l a t i t u d e which i s e q u a l t o z e r o (140 m a t 1 0 0 k m ) . Maps o n a n i s o g o n a l t r a n s v e r s e - c y l i n d r i c a l G a u s s i a n p r o j e c t i o n are used b o t h i n a v i a t i o n f o r a d e t a i l e d o r i e n t a t i o n and l o c a t i o n

26

o f t a r g e t s , a n d i n many b r a n c h e s o f t h e n a t i o n a l e c o n o m y f o r l i n k i n g p r o j e c t s , equipment, and r a d i o engineering f a c i l i t i e s i n a l o c a t i o n , 1 3 2 f o r determining geodesic r e f e r e n c e p o i n t s , and f o r a c c u r a t e geodesic c a l c u l a t i o n s o f d i s t a n c e s and d i r e c t i o n s , e t c .

Conic P r o j e c t i o n s

Conic p r o j e c t i o n s a r e c o n s t r u c t e d by p r o j e c t i n g t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e E a r t h ' s spheroid (globe) on a tangent o r i n t e r s e c t i n g cone, w i t h i t s subsequent u n r o l l i n g t o form a p l a n e s u r f a c e ( F i g . 1 . 2 0 , a ) .

( a ) Tangent ( i n t e r Construction of Conic P r o j e c t i o n s : F i g . 1 . 2 0 . s e c t i n g ) c o n e ; ( b ) U n r o l l i n g o f t h e C o n e t o Form a P l a n e .

A c c o r d i n g t o t h e p o s i t i o n s of t h e axes o f t h e g l o b e a n d c o n e , c o n i c p r o j e c t i o n s can be normal, t r a n s v e r s e , and oblique. However, i n o u r p u b l i c a t i o n s n o r m a l p r o j e c t i o n s a r e g e n e r a l l y u s e d when t h e a x j s o f t h e cone c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e a x i s of t h e g l o b e . I n a normal c o n i c p r o j e c t i o n , m e r i d i a n s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d by s t r a i g h t l i n e s , w h i l e p a r a l l e l s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d by a r c s o f c o n c e n t r i c circles (Fig. 1.20, b). From F i g u r e 1 . 2 0 , a , i t i s e a s y t o s e e t h a t t h e r a d i u s o f a p a r a l l e l of tangency (p,) c a n b e e x p r e s s e d by t h e E a r t h ' s r a d i u s :

where R i s t h e r a d i u s o f t h e E a r t h ( g l o b e ) and $ 0 i s t h e l a t i t u d e of t h e p a r a l l e l o f tangency. The e q u a t i o n o f t h i s p r o j e c t i o n i s w r i t t e n i n t h e f o l l o w i n g form:

8r.aA;

Translator's note:

P'= Po

+ R (cpo 3- cp);

(1.23)

ctg = cot,
27

where 6 and p are t h e p r i n c i p a l d i r e c t i o n s i n t h e p o l a r c o o r d i n a t e s y s t e m a l o n g t h e p a r a l l e l a n d m e r i d i a n , r e s p e c t i v e l y , a n d 01 i s t h e c o e f f i c i e n t f o r t h e a n g l e o f convergence of t h e m e r i d i a n s .

/33

S i m p l e normal c o n i c p r o j e c t i o n
A simple normal c o n i c p r o j e c t i o n i s c o n s t r u c t e d w i t h t h e con s i d e r a t i o n t h a t t h e m e r i d i a n s o n t h e w h o l e map a n d t h e p a r a l l e l o f tangency b e t r a n s f e r r e d from a g l o b e w i t h o u t d i s t o r t i o n s t o t h e i r n a t u r a l v a l u e ( i . e . , in = l), w h i l e f o r t h e p a r a l l e l s o f t a n g e n c y
($0)

m = n = 1.

Such a p r o j e c t i o n forms t h e b a s i s o f t h e improved i n t e r s e c t i n g conic Kavrayskiy p r o j e c t i o n (Fig. 1.21, a ) . I t is equally spaced, s i n c e m = 1, w h i l e o n t h e i n t e r s e c t i n g p a r a l l e l s i t i s i s o g o n a l a n d e q u a l l y l a r g e ( F i g . 1 . 2 1 , b).

intersection para1 l e l s

@ -J- @ i -b

-----

Fig.

1.21.

S i m p l e Normal C o n i c P r o j e c t i o n . ( a ) I n t e r s e c t i n g Cone; ( b ) U n f o l d i n g o f t h e Cone t o a P l a n e .

Many a i r c r a f t maps w i t h s c a l e s o f 1 : 2 , 5 0 0 , 0 0 0 , 1 : 2 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 , a n d e v e n 1 : 1 , 5 0 0 , 0 0 0 , w h i c h a r e u s e d i n a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n for g e n e r a l o r i e n t a t i o n and t h e approximate d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e p o s i t i o n o f a n a i r c r a f t by means o f r a d i o e n g i n e e r i n g f a c i l i t i e s ( a i r c r a f t r a d i o compasses, ground r a d i o g o n i o m e t e r s , e t c . ) , have been published. T h e i r p o s i t i v e f e a t u r e i f t h e i n s i g n i f i c a n t d i s t o r t i o n of l e n g t h s i n t h e s t r i p *So from t h e i n t e r s e c t i n g p a r a l l e l s , which d o e s n o t e x c e e d 0 . 3 4 % ( 3 4 0 m for 1 0 0 k m ) . Their disadvantage is t h e d i s t o r t i o n of d i r e c t i o n s , which i n c r e a s e s w i t h d i s t a n c e from the intersecting parallels.

28

Isogonal conic projection

By a n a l o g y w i t h t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a n i s o g o n a l c y l i n d r i c a l Mercator p r o j e c t i o n , d e s t r o y i n g t h e e q u a l s p a c i n g , a simple normal c o n i c p r o j e c t i o n i s t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o an i s o g o n a l p r o j e c t i o n by r e ducing (equating) t h e scale along t h e meridians t o t h e s c a l e along t h e p a r a l l e l s ( m = n). T h i s i s more v a l u a b l e f o r u s e i n a v i a t i o n . A i r c r a f t maps w i t h a s c a l e o f 1 : 2 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 a n d s u r v e y maps on s c a l e s o f 1:3,000,000, 1 : 4 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 , and 1:5,000,000 are published w i t h a normal i s o g o n a l c o n i c p r o j e c t i o n f o r a v i a t i o n . Maps w i t h a s c a l e o f 1 : 2 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 i n t h i s p r o j e c t i o n , b e s i d e s h a v i n g t h e b a s i c advantage of i s o g o n a l i t y , a l s o have d i s t o r t i o n s of l e n g t h which a r e p e r m i s s i b l e i n t h e p r a c t i c e o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n . On a n i n t e r s e c t i n g c o n e i n a s t r i p f r o m 4 0 t o 7 0 i n l a t i t u d e , t h e maximum l e n g t h d i s t o r t i o n s d o n o t e x c e e d 51.8 km f o r 1 0 0 k m .

/34 -

Fig. 1 . 2 2 . Projection:

Angle o f Convergence o f t h e M e r i d i a n s o f a Tangent Conic ( a ) A r c o f 9 P a r a l l e l on a G l o b e ; ( b ) A r c o f a P a r a l l e l o n a Map.

T h e o r t h o d r o m e on m a p s o f a n i s o g o n a l c o n i c p r o j e c t i o n f o r d i s t a n c e s u p t o 1 2 0 0 km a p p e a r s a s a p r a c t i c a l l y s t r a i g h t l i n e . This v a l u a b l e q u a l i t y i s u s e d d u r i n g f l i g h t s on c i v i l a v i a t i o n a i r l i n e s o f a v e r a g e l e n g t h by u s i n g g y r o s c o p i c and a s t r o n o m i c a l c o m p a s s e s A t g r e a t d i s t a n c e s , t h e orthodrome f o r following t h e orthodrome. ( a s a r e s u l t o f a c h a n g e i n s c a l e ) i s b e n t by a b u l g e t e n d i n g t o ward a l a r g e r s c a l e . The

loxodrome i s

r e p r e s e n t e d by an a r c o f a l o g a r i t h m i c s p i r a l .

29

T h i s c r e a t e s d i f f i c u l t i e s . i n a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n by means o f m a g n e t i c compasses. I n t h e s e i n s t a n c e s , for d i s t a n c e s u p t o 5 0 0 - 8 0 0 km i n d i r e c t i o n s which i n t e r s e c t t h e m e r i d i a n s on a map, a s t r a i g h t l i n e i s c o n s t r u c t e d , w h i l e measurement o f t h e f l i g h t a n g l e i s c a r r i e d o u t a l o n g t h e c e n t r a l m e r i d i a n o f t h e r o u t e which i s maintained i n f l i g h t by means o f a m a g n e t i c compass.

I t i s also p o s s i b l e t o c o n s t r u c t ( c o n t i n u e ) t h e l o x o d r o m e a l o n g a n a n g l e measured i n t h e middle o f t h e s t r a i g h t l i n e j o i n i n g t h e /35 c o n t r o l ( r o t a t i n g ) landmarks of t h e r o u t e .

The d i s a d v a n t a g e o f a l l maps w i t h c o n i c p r o j e c t i o n s i s t h e p r e s e n c e o f an a n g l e o f convergence o f t h e m e r i d i a n s from t h e p a r a l l e l s It is neces of t a n g e n c y ( p a r a l l e l s o f i n t e r s e c t i o n ) t o t h e p o l e . s a r y t o c o n s i d e r t h i s a n g l e when d e t e r m i n i n g d i r e c t i o n s ( f l i g h t a n g l e s ) or t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t b y m e a n s o f a i r c r a f t r a d i o compasses. I n a d d i t i o n , d e p e n d i n g on t h e p a r a l l e l s o f i n t e r s e c t i o n or t a n g e n c y , t h e a n g l e o f c o n v e r g e n c e o f t h e m e r i d i a n s w i l l b e d i f ferent.

Convergence a n g l e o f t h e m e r i d i a n s
The p r i n c i p a l s c a l e o f c o n i c p r o j e c t i o n s i s t a k e n a l o n g t h e There m e r i d i a n s a n d p a r a l l e l s o f t a n g e n c y or i n t e r s e c t i o n ( $ 0 ) . f o r e , t h e a r c MN i s e q u a l t o t h e a r c M I N I ( F i g . 1 . 2 2 ) . I t i s known t h a t on a g l o b e ( s p h e r o i d ) ( F i g . 1 . 2 2 , a ) , t h e a r c M N = r A A , where r i s t h e r a d i u s o f t h e p a r a l l e l . On a map o f a c o n i c p r o j e c t i o n (Fig. 1 . 2 2 , b) t h e arc M l N l = poA6; then
r A = poA8. A

(1.24)

But r = R cos $ 0 and P O = R c o t $ 0 , projection (1.23), A6 = aAA.

and from t h e e q u a t i o n of a c o n i c

S u b s t i t u t i n g t h e v a l u e s o f r , P O , and A 6 out the necessary reductions, we obtain:

a=Sinyo.

in

(1.24)

and c a r r y i n g

(1.25)

O b v i o u s l y , on t h e e q u a t o r t h e c o e f f i c i e n t o f c o n v e r g e n c e o f t h e m e r i d i a n s a = 0 , s i n c e s i n O o = 0 ; a t t h e p o l e s c1 = 1, s i n c e s i n 9 0 = 1, a n d i n t h e g e n e r a l c a s e f o r c e n t r a l l a t i t u d e s , O < a < l . Knowing t h e c o e f f i c i e n t a , i t i s n o t d i f f i c u l t t o d e t e r m i n e any a n g l e of convergence o f t h e m e r i d i a n s 6 a l o n g a p a r a l l e l o f t a n g e n c y or i n t e r s e c t i o n :

8 =A h ,

(1.26)

w h e r e A?,

is t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n l o n g i t u d e between t h e given meridians.

t h e c o e f f i c i e n t a w i l l b e d i f f e r e n t from

A t any o t h e r l a t i t u d e ,

30

t h e c o e f f i c i e n t a a t a l a t i t u d e of tangency ( i n t e r s e c t i o n ) . There f o r e , f o r approximate c a l c u l a t i o n s i n t h e p r a c t i c e of aircraft navi g a t i o n d u r i n g t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f f l i g h t a n g l e s or l o c a t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t , t h e mean l a t i t u d e o f t h e r o u t e , p a r t o f t h e r o u t e , or t h e d i s t a n c e between t h e a i r c r a f t and t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n , i s t a k e n as

w h e r e A2 a n d A 1 a r e t h e l o n g i t u d e s o f t h e f i n a l a n d i n i t i a l p o i n t s , A, a n d h a a r e t h e l o n g i t u d e s o f t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n a n d a i r c r a f t , r e s p e c t i v e l y , a n d $mid i s t h e m i d d l e l a t i t u d e b e t w e e n t h e i n d i c a t e d points (places). I n some c a s e s , f o r a p p r o x i m a t e d e t e r m i n a t i o n s o f t h e l o c a t i o n o f an a i r c r a f t o r t h e f l i g h t a n g l e s , t h e c o e f f i c i e n t a i s assumed c o n s t a n t f o r a g i v e n map o f a c o n i c p r o j e c t i o n . Thus, f o r example, f o r a map w i t h a s c a l e o f 1 : 2 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 and a normal i s o g o n a l c o n i c /36 p r o j e c t i o n , it i s p o s s i b l e t o l e t a m 0 . 8 , which c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e s i n e o f t h e l a t i t u d e o f t h e middle p a r a l l e l between t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n p a r a l l e l s , w h e r e t h e map s c a l e w i l l b e minimum.

Polyconic projections
Polyconic (multiconic) projections are t h e g r e a t e s t perfection o f c o n i c p r o j e c t i o n s for t h e p u r p o s e o f d e c r e a s i n g d i s t o r t i o n s o f l e n g t h s and a n g l e s i n p r o j e c t i n g t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e o n t o a p l a n e . The p r i n c i p l e o f c o n s t r u c t i o n o f s u c h p r o j e c t i o n s i s shown i n Figure 1.23, a. The c e n t r a l m e r i d i a n o f t h e p r o j e c t i o n s i s a

Fig.

1.23.

Polyconic Projection: ( a ) I n t e r s e c t i n g Cones on t h e G l o b e ; (b) U n r o l l i n g o f Cones on a P l a n e .

31

s t r a i g h t l i n e , w h i l e meridians i n t h e form of curved l i n e s are s i t u a t e d t o t h e w e s t and e a s t o f it. The p a r a l l e l s a r e c o n c e n t r i c c i r c l e s w i t h d i f f e r e n t c e n t e r s , l y i n g on t h e c e n t r a l m e r i d i a n ( F i g . 1.23, b). A s a r e s u l t of t h e i n c r e a s e i n s c a l e i n proportion to t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e c e n t r a l meridian t o t h e w e s t and e a s t , such p r o j e c t i o n s a r e used o n l y t o r e p r e s e n t t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e i n coun t i r e s extended along a meridian.

International projection
I n terms o f t h e method o f c o n s t r u c t i o n , a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l p r o j e c t i o n i s r e l a t e d t o a m o d i f i e d p o l y c o n i c p r o j e c t i o n ; i n terms o f t h e nature of t h e d i s t o r t i o n s , it is r e l a t e d t o an a r b i t r a r y pro jection. This projection w a s accepted a t an i n t e r n a t i o n a l geophysical c o n f e r e n c e i n London i n 1 9 0 9 a n d was c a l l e d I r A P r o j e c t i o n o f a n I n t e r n a t i o n a l Map o f t h e W o r l d , w i t h a S c a l e o f 1:1,000,000; C o r r e c t i o n s by t h e R u s s i a n G e o d e s i s t S h c h e t k i n " . This projection, which i s t h e most widely d i s t r i b u t e d p r o j e c t i o n a t t h e p r e s e n t time i n t h e S o v i e t U n i o n , i s u s e d f o r t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f f l i g h t maps w i t h s c a l e s o f 1:1,000,000, 1 : 2 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 , and 1:4,000,000. E v e r y s h e e t o f map w i t h a s c a l e 1:1,000,000, w h i c h e n c o m p a s s e s o f l a t i t u d e a n d 6 O of l o n g i t u d e ( i n a r a n g e o f l a t i t u d e s f r o m 0 t o 6 4 O ) , i s c o n s t r u c t e d a c c o r d i n g t o i t s own l a w , w h i c h i s g e n e r a l for a l l t h e s h e e t s o f a g i v e n l a t i t u d i n a l s t r i p . On e a c h s h e e t , t h e p r i n c i p a l s c a l e i s given along t h e o u t e r p a r a l l e l s of t h e s h e e t a s a r e s u l t o f t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n o f t h e g l o b e by a c o n e a l o n g t h e s e p a r a l l e l s ( w h e r e n = 1) a n d a l o n g t h e m e r i d i a n s , s e p a r a t e d f r o m t h e c e n t r a l m e r i d i a n o f t h e s h e e t by 2 O t o t h e w e s t and e a s t , where m = 1 (Fig. 1.24, a ) . I n t h e r a n g e o f l a t i t u d e s f r o m 64O t o 8 0 , e a c h The p r i n s h e e t o c c u p i e s 1 2 O o f l o n g i t u d e , a n d f r o m 8 0 t o 88O, 24O. c i p a l scale of these sheets is also given along the outer p a r a l l e l s o f t h e s h e e t ( t h r o u g h 4O) a n d a l o n g t h e m e r i d i a n s w h i c h a r e d i s t a n t
4O

/37

Fig.

1.24.

International Projection: ( a ) Construction of t h e Sheet; (b) B r e a k s i n t h e S p l i c i n g o f S h e e t s .

32

from t h e c e n t r a l m e r i d i a n o f t h e s h e e t by 4 and 8 O , r e s p e c t i v e l y . The r e g i o n s o f t h e p o l e s a r e p r o j e c t e d o n t o s e p a r a t e s h e e t s i n a central (polar) projection. The m e r i d i a n s i n t h i s p r o j e c t i o n a r e r e p r e s e n t e d by s t r a i g h t l i n e s which have an a n g l e o f convergence t o t h e p o l e s , s i m i l a r t o t h e c o n i c p r o j e c t i o n s , w h i l e t h e p a r a l l e l s are curved l i n e s which a r e constructed according t o a s p e c i a l mathematical l a w . The c e n t e r s o f t h e c i r c l e - p a r a l l e l s a r e s i t u a t e d on t h e c e n t r a l m e r i d i a n o f a g i v e n sample of s h e e t s , w h i l e t h e i r r a d i i are p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e cotangents of the intersection l a t i t u d e s :
R~ = ctg

R~ = c t g 'p2 e t c'..,

A c c o r d i n g t o s t u d i e s b y L i m n i t s k i y , d i s t o r t i o n s o f l e n g t h s on maps w i t h a s c a l e of 1 : 1 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 w i t h s u c h a p r o j e c t i o n , i n t h e mid d l e l a t i t u d e s does n o t exceed 0.076% ( 7 6 m i n 1 0 0 km), w h i l e d i s t o r t i o n of d i r e c t i o n s i s 5 ' . The g r e a t e s t d i s t o r t i o n s a r i s e i n t h e d i s t o r t i o n o f l e n g t h s up t o 0 . 1 4 % , a n g l e s region of t h e equator: up t o 7 ' . I n s i g n i f i c a n t d i s t o r t i o n s make i t p o s s i b l e t o c o n s i d e r t h e map as a p r a c t i c a l l y i s o g o n a l , e q u a l l y s p a c e d , and w i t h e q u a l l y l a r g e projection. A c c o r d i n g t o t h i s p r i n c i p l e , s h e e t s o f maps w i t h s c a l e s o f 1:2,000,000 a n d 1 : 4 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 a r e c o n s t r u c t e d . In a range of l a t i t u d e s f r o m 0 t o 6 4 O , t h e s h e e t o f a map w i t h a s c a l e o f 1 : 2 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 o c c u p i e s 12O of l a t i t u d e a n d 18O o f l o n g i t u d e ( n i n e s h e e t s o f a m i l l i o n t h , 3 x 3), w h i l e a map w i t h a s c a l e o f 1:4,000,000 o c c u p i e s 24 and 3 6 O , r e s p e c t i v e l y . T h e p r i n c i p a l s c a l e o f a 1 : 2 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 map i s g i v e n a l o n g t h e o u t e r p a r a l l e l s o f t h e s h e e t and t h e m e r i d i a n s w h i c h a r e d i s t a n t f r o m t h e c e n t r a l m e d i a n o f t h e s h e e t by 6 O t o t h e w e s t a n d e a s t ( F i g . 1 . 2 4 , b ) , w h i l e o n a map w i t h a s c a l e o f 1:4,000,000 t h e p a r a l l e l s which a r e d i s t a n t by 8 O 5 0 ' t o t h e n o r t h a n d 8O10' t o t h e s o u t h a r e g i v e n w i t h o u t d i s t o r t i o n s , a n d t h e m e r i d i a n s a r e 12O t o t h e w e s t a n d e a s t f r o m t h e c e n t r a l p a r a l l e l a n d the central meridian, respectively. The d i s t o r t i o n o f l e n g t h s i n t h e m i d d l e l a t i t u d e s on maps w i t h a s c a l e o f 1 : 2 , 0 ~ 0 , ~ 0 r0 a c h e s 0 . 5 % , a n d t h e d i s t o r t i o n o f t h e a n e g l e s i s 30'; o n 1 : 4 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 m a p s , d i s t o r t i o n o f l e n g t h s r e a c h e s l.5%, t h a t o f a n g l e s , 1O30'.
A d i s a d v a n t a g e o f maps i n t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l p r o j e c t i o n o n a l l s c a l e s i s t h e p r e s e n c e of d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s i n t h e s p l i c i n g o f s e v e r a l Sheets of s h e e t s , as a r e s u l t of t h e f e a t u r e s of i t s c o n s t r u c t i o n . m a p s o f o n l y o n e s t r i p or o n e c o l u m n a r e s p l i c e d w i t h o u t b r e a k s . D u r i n g s p l i c i n g o f n i n e s h e e t s o f m a p s o n a s c a l e o f 1:1,000,000 ( 3 x 3 ) , t h e d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s which arise are p a r t i a l l y evened o u t b y d e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e p a p e r , a n d t h e u s e o f s u c h a map d o e s n o t r e s u l t i n p e r c e p t i b l e d i s t o r t i o n s of l e n g t h s a n d a n g l e s . S p l i c i n g of a l a r g e number o f s h e e t s i s n o t recommended.

138

33

I t i s e v e n i m p o s s i b l e t o s p l i c e a map w i t h a s c a l e o f 1 : 2 , 0 0 0 , 000 from f o u r s h e e t s ( 2 x . 2 ) without a break. A t a l a t i t u d e of 60, t h e d i s c o n t i n u i t y o f t h e s p l i c e d s h e e t s r e a c h e s 1 . 8 cm, ;.e., 36 km (see Fig. 1.24, b ) . T h e r e f o r e , it i s p o s s i b l e t o s p l i c e o n l y o n e s t r i p or o n e c o l u m n o f t h e s e m a p s .
T h e o r t h o d r o m e w i t h a l e n g t h u p t o 1 2 0 0 km o n , m a p s w i t h a and 1:2,000,000 ( w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s o f one s h e e t ) a p p e a r s i n p r a c t i c e as a s t r a i g h t l i n e , w h i l e t h e loxodrome i s t h e arc of a logarithmic s p i r a l . U s u a l l y , i n d i r e c t i o n s which i n t e r s e c t t h e m e r i d i a n s , t h e l o x o d r o m e s e c t i o n s w i t h a l e n g t h up t o 6 0 0 km a r e l i k e w i s e c o n s t r u c t e d i n t h e f o r m o f a s t r a i g h t l i n e , w h i l e t h e f l i g h t a n g l e i s measured i n t h e middle o f a p a r t o f a r o u t e i n o r d e r t o l e s s e n by a f a c t o r o f 2 t h e e r r o r o f t h e measured a n g l e d u r i n g f l i g h t w i t h t h e u s e o f a magnetic compass.

scale o f 1:1,000,000

During t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e p o s i t i o n o f a n a i r c r a f t by means o f r a d i o c o m p a s s e s , a c o r r e c t i o n i s a l l o w e d f o r t h e c o n v e r g e n c e o f t h e m e r i d i a n s j u s t a s i n maps o f c o n i c p r o j e c t i o n s , w i t h a n a p proximate formula

6 = (A,,--

ha\ sin p.

mi d

where Xr i s t h e l o n g i t u d e o f t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n ; Xa i s t h e l o n g i t u d e o f t h e a i r ' c r a f t ; CPmid i s t h e mean l a t i t u d e b e t w e e n t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n a n d a i r c r a f t , or t h e mean l a t i t u d e o f t h e s h e e t ( s h e e t s ) i f t h e ' a p p r o x i m a t e p o s i t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t i s unknown. I n c i v i l a v i a t i o n , maps w i t h a s c a l e o f 1 : 1 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 a n d 1:2, 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 on a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l p r o j e c t i o n a r e u s e d a s f l i g h t maps, p r i m a r i l y on p i s t o n - e n g i n e a i r c r a f t and h e l i c o p t e r s , and secondly on aircraft with gas-turbine engines. Maps w i t h a s c a l e o f 1 : 4 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 a r e u s e d a s a i r c r a f t maps f o r g e n e r a l o r i e n t a t i o n a n d a p p r o x i mate d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e l o c a t i o n o f a n a i r c r a f t by means o f r a d i o engineering f a c i l i t i e s . Azimuthal /39 -

'

(Perspective) Projections

Azimuthal ( p e r s p e c t i v e ) p r o j e c t i o n s are c o n s t r u c t e d according t o t h e laws o f a s i m p l e g e o m e t r i c p e r s p e c t i v e ; t h e r e f o r e , t h e y a r e often called perspective projections. According t o t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e p l a n e o f t h e f i g u r e , azimuthal p r o j e c t i o n s a r e d i v i d e d i n t o n o r m a l or p o l a r ( F i g . 1 . 2 5 , a ) , t r a n s v e r s e or e q u a t o r i a l ( F i g . 1 . 2 5 , b), a n d o b l i q u e or h o r i z o n t a l ( F i g . 1 . 2 5 , c ) ; d e p e n d i n g on t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e c e n t e r o f t h e p r o j e c t i o n r e l a t i v e t o t h e plane of t h e f i g u r e , they can be of t h e following types (Fig. 1.26):

a ) C e n t r a l or gnomonic, when t h e c e n t e r o f t h e p r o j e c t i o n c o incides with the center of t h e Earth (globe): p o i n t A;

34

b) Steriographic, when t h e c e n t e r o f t h e p r o j e c t i o n i s s e p a r a t e d from t h e p o i n t of c o n t a c t w i t h t h e p l a n e o f t h e f i g u r e by a p o i n t B; distance equal t o the diameter of the Earth (globe):
c) Orthographic, when t h e c e n t e r o f t h e p r o j e c t i o n i s i n f i n i t e l y s e p a r a t e d from t h e p l a n e o f t h e f i g u r e : p o i n t C;
d) External, when t h e c e n t e r o f t h e p r o j e c t i o n i s l o c a t e d above t h e p l a n e o f t h e f i g u r e : p o i n t D.

Fig.

1.25.

Azimuthal P r o j e c t i o n s : ( a ) Normal; ( c ) Oblique.

(b) T r a n s v e r s e ;

1 1

A s i s e v i d e n t from F i g . 1 . 2 6 , on s u c h p r o j e c t i o n s p o i n t s M and N on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e w i l l b e p r o j e c t e d a t a d i f f e r e n t d i s t a n c e from t h e point of tangency of t h e plane o f t h e f i g u r e w i t h t h e E a r t h ' s sur face. Meridians i n azimuthal ( p o l a r ) p r o j e c t i o n s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d by s t r a i g h t l i n e s which converge t o a p o l e a t an a n g l e e q u a l t o t h e d i f ference i n longitude: 6 = AA. P a r a l l e l s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d by concentric circles, the r a d i i of which depend on t h e c e n t e r of t h e p r o j e c t i o n and t h e l a t i t u d e o f t h e position.

fi

Position of the Fig. 1.26. Centers of Projection i n Azimuthal P r o j e c t i o n s .

I n a v i a t i o n , c e n t r a l p o l a r and s t e r e o g r a p h i c p o l a r p r o j e c t i o n s are generally used.

35

Central polar (gnomonic projection)

The c e n t e r o f p r o j e c t i o n i n t h i s p r o j e c t i o n c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e center of the Earth (globe) a t the point 0 (Fig. 1.27, a ) . From F i g u r e 1 . 2 7 , projection:

it i s p o s s i b l e t o w r i t e t h e e q u a t i o n of t h i s
6 = A; p = R ctg 'p.

I n order t o have a complete i d e a of t h e p r o j e c t i o n , l e t u s f i n d t h e s p e c i a l s c a l e s ( m , n ) for t h e p r i n c i p a l d i r e c t i o n s ( m e r i d i a n s and p a r a l l e l s ) :

w h e r e dp i s t h e i n c r e a s e i n t h e r a d i u s of t h e u n r o l l i n g , i . e . , a
p o s i t i v e i n c r e a s e i n l a t i t u d e ( $ ) c o r r e s p o n d s t o a n e g a t i v e i n c r e a s e /41 in the radius (p). Integrating the latter, we obtain:
c

m=

Rd'p Rdv sec2 'p

1
L=ec2,9

or

m coset2 'p;
(1.27)

Here, r = R cos $ i s t h e r a d i u s of t h e p a r a l l e l , i . e . ,
n = cosec 'p..

(1.28)

a > P l a n e o f the Figure

90'

Fig. 1.27. C e n t r a l P o l a r (Gnomonic) P r o j e c t i o n : ( a ) Position of t h e P l a n e o f t h e F i g u r e ; ( b ) Appearance of t h e P r o j e c t i o n .

Translator's note:
36

cosec = c s c .

Therefore, t h e p r o j e c t i o n i s n o t isogonal (m # n), n o t e q u a l l y s p a c e d ( m # 1 a n d n # 11, a n d n o t e q u a l l y l a r g e ( m n # 1 ) . Although t h e p r o j e c t i o n i s n o t i s o g o n a l , t h e orthodrome on it i s r e p r e s e n t e d by a s t r a i g h t l i n e . T h i s remarkable p r o p e r t y i s ex p l a i n e d by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e p l a n e o f t h e c i r c u m f e r e n c e o f a g r e a t c i r c l e ( p l a n e of t h e o r t h o d r o m e ) a l w a y s p a s s e s t h r o u g h t h e c e n t e r o f t h e E a r t h , which i n t h i s case a p p e a r s q s t h e c e n t e r of t h e p r o jection, while the intersection of the plane of a great circle with t h e plane of t h e f i g u r e is a s t r a i g h t l i n e . S i n c e t h e p r o j e c t i o n i s n o t i s o g o n a l , t h e moving a z i m u t h o f t h e o r t h o d r o m e o n i t , i f i t i s n o t e q u a l t o 0 , 1 8 0 , 9 0 , or 2 7 0 , d o e s n o t c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e a z i m u t h on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e . D i s t o r t i o n o f d i r e c t i o n s o n t h e map w i l l b e e q u a l : (1.29) while it i s p o s s i b l e t o c a l c u l a t e t h e a c t u a l d i r e c t i o n of t h e ortho drome a t t h e l o c a t i o n a n a l o g o u s l y w i t h t h e a i d o f t h e m e a s u r e d a n g l e o n t h e map:
(1.30)

/42

w h e r e B i s t h e m e a s u r e d a n g l e o n t h e map o f a g i v e n p r o j e c t i o n , c1 i s t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g a n g l e i n a l o c a t i o n , and @ i s t h e l a t i t u d e of t h e f i n a l point of t h e orthodrome. The d i s t o r t i o n s o f d i r e c t i o n s a n d d i s t a n c e s on t h i s p r o j e c t i o n are g r e a t . I n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n , it i s i m p o s s i b l e t o u s e a p r o t r a c t o r t o m e a s u r e t h e d i r e c t i o n s a n d a s c a l e t o m e a s u r e t h e d i s t a n c e s on t h e map w i t h o u t c o r r e s p o n d i n g c o r r e c t i o n s .

A c e n t r a l p o l a r p r o j e c t i o n i s u s e d for c o n s t r u c t i n g g n o m o n i c systems, while the regularity i n the distortion of directions is u s e d for c a l c u l a t i n g t h e n o m o g r a m s o f t h e o r t h o d r o m e d i r e c t i o n .

T h e g n o m o n i c s y s t e m a n d t h e nomogram o f t h e o r t h o d r o m e d i r e c t i o n can be used f o r t h e g r a p h i c (approximate) c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e length of t h e orthodrome, t h e coordinates of i t s intermediate p o i n t s , and t h e d i r e c t i o n . The l o x o d r o m e a n d o t h e r l i n e s o f p o s i t i o n o f t h e g i v e n p r o j e c t i o n a r e r e p r e s e n t e d by complex c u r v e s . The p r o p e r t y o f o r t h o d r o m i c i t y o f a c e n t r a l p o l a r p r o j e c t i o n h a s been used f o r t h e p u b l i s h i n g o f o b l i q u e c e n t r a l p r o j e c t i o n s which have been used a t r a d i o g o n i o m e t r i c p o i n t s i n c i v i l a v i a t i o n . The m i d d l e o f t h e base ( t h e m i d d l e o f t h e o r t h o d r o m e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n two r a d i o g o n i o m e t e r s ) w a s t a k e n as t h e p o i n t o f t a n g e n c y o f t h e p l a n e o f t h e f i g u r e o f s u c h maps. I n t h i s case, t h e c o o r d i n a t e s

37

o f t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t a r e v e r y e a s i l y d e f i n e d as t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n o f t w o s t r a i g h t orthodrome b e a r i n g s ( l i n e s ) extended from t h e radiogoniometers. Maps o f t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l r a n g e f i n d i n g ( h y p e r b o l i c ) s y s t e m o f l o n g - r a n g e n a v i g a t i o n ( D S L N - 1 ) a r e made o n s u c h a p r o j e c t i o n , s i n c e t h e s p h e r i c a l h y p e r b o l a on t h e p r o j e c t i o n i s a l s o e x p r e s s e d by a hyperbola.

Equally spaced azimuthal ( c e n t r a l ) p r o j e c t i o n

T h i s p r o j e c t i o n i s c o n s t r u c t e d by c a l c u l a t i n g and t r a n s f o r m i n g conventional meridians ( r a d i i ) t o f u l l s i z e , equal t o the principal scale t r a n s f e r r e d from t h e g l o b e . The p r o j e c t i o n i s u s e d o n l y f o r t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f s p e c i a l s m a l l - s c a l e maps ( 1 : 4 0 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 ) , w h i c h a r e u s e d a s r e f e r e n c e maps f o r m e a s u r i n g d i s t a n c e s f r o m a c e n t r a l p o i n t o n t h e map. U s u a l l y a l a r g e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e or a v i a t i o n c e n t e r , f r o m w h i c h i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o know t h e s h o r t e s t o r t h o d r o m e d i s t a n c e i n a n y a i r e c t i o n t o a g i v e n p o i n t o n a map, i s c h o s e n as t h e p o i n t o f t a n gency o f t h e p l a n e o f t h e f i g u r e o f t h e p r o j e c t i o n . I n such a pro j e c t i o n , f o r e x a m p l e , a map i s c o n s t r u c t e d w i t h t h e p o i n t o f t a n g e n c y a t Vnukovo A i r p o r t , w i t h c i r c l e s p l o t t e d a t e q u a l d i s t a n c e s from t h e a i r p o r t . The g e o g r a p h i c m e r i d i a n s a n d p a r a l l e l s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d by complex c u r v e s . This does not allow t h e d i r e c t i o n s t o be measured.

/43

Stereographic polar projection

The c e n t e r o f p r o j e c t i o n i n a s t e r e o g r a p h i c p o l a r p r o j e c t i o n

Fig.

1.28. Stereographic Polar Projection: ( a ) Position of the P o i n t o f P r o j e c t i o n ; ( b ) Appearance o f t h e P r o j e c t i o n .

38

--.=1 = -I- - 1 -

..1111.--111-111

I I III

111111 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 . 1 1 1 1

11-11

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 II

i s s e p a r a t e d from t h e p o i n t of tangency o f t h e p l a n e of t h e f i g u r e by two r a d i i o f t h e g l o b e a t t h e p o i n t B ( F i g . 1 . 2 8 , a ) .

H e r e t h e a n g l e 8 = 90 - 9 , w h i l e t h e a n g l e

An e q u a t i o n o f t h e p r o j e c t i o n c a n b e d e r i v e d f r o m e q u a t i o n s o f t h e e l e m e n t s shown i n F i g u r e 1 . 2 8 .
ti = A;

e = 2R tg -

2 '

The m e r i d i a n s i n t h e p r o j e c t i o n a r e s t r a i g h t l i n e s w h i c h d i v e r g e r a d i a l l y from t h e p o l e ( F i g . 1 . 2 8 , b ) , and from t h e p o i n t o f tangency of t h e plane o f t h e paper a t an angle equal t o t h e d i f f e r ence i n longitude: 6 = Ax. The p a r a l l e l s a r e c o n c e n t r i c c i r c l e s , whose r a d i i a r e p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e tangent of t h e l a t i t u d e . The s p e c i a l s c a l e a l o n g t h e p a r a l l e l i s d e t e r m i n e d by t h e e q u a tion

/44

H e r e C$ = 9 0

8 ,

while after integration

m=
1
cos2

= sec

26 -2

(1.30)

The s p e c i a l s c a l e a l o n g t h e p a r a l l e l i s d e t e r m i n e d by t h e e q u a tion
2R tgodA

a
2

but cos 9 = cos (90 - 9)

= s i n 8 , so t h a t

e 2 = n = - SecZsin 6 2
i.e.

2 tg-

(1.31)

m = n= s e d - = secz 2

(+)90-

.
39

ip

I 1 1 1 1 II I. III.IIIIIIIIII.~111111111111111 111 1 I

11111 1 1 11

11111111 I 1111 111.1111-~-.~-I

-1

T h e r e f o r e , t h i s p r o j e c t i o n i s i s o g o n a l ( m = n), b u t n o t e q u a l l y s p a c e d ( m # 1 a n d n # 1) or e q u a l l y l a r g e ( m n # 1 ) . On maps o f a s t e r e o g r a p h i c p r o j e c t i o n , a c i r c l e d r a w n o n t h e g l o b e i s r e p r e s e n t e d by a c i r c l e on t h e p l a n e ( m a p ) ; h o w e v e r , t h e c e n t e r of t h i s c i r c l e does not coincide with t h e projection of t h e c e n t e r o f t h e c i r c l e on t h e g l o b e . T h i s makes t h e p r o j e c t i o n i n e f f e c t i v e f o r use i n rangefinding systems, since l i n e s of equal l e n g t h w i l l b e r e p r e s e n t e d by e c c e n t r i c c i r c l e s . The b a s i c a d v a n t a g e o f t h e p r o j e c t i o n i s i t s i s o g o n a l i t y a n d i n s i g n i f i c a n t d i s t o r t i o n of lengths i n the p o l a r regions. There f o r e , i t h a s b e e n u s e d f o r p u b l i s h i n g maps o f t h e p o l a r r e g i o n s with s c a l e s of 1:2,000,000, 1:3,000,000, and 1:4,000,000, which a r e u s e d f o r g e n e r a l o r i e n t a t i o n and a p p r o x i m a t e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e p o s i t i o n o f a n a i r c r a f t by m e a n s o f r a d i o d e v i c e s . The maximum d i s t o r t i o n o f l e n g t h s a t 7 0 l a t i t u d e d o e s n o t e x c e e d 3 % ( 3 km i n 1 0 0 k m ) , w h e r e a s i f t h e p l a n e o f t h e f i g u r e i s i n t e r s e c t e d ( f o r e x a m p l e , a t 70 l a t i t u d e ) , t h e d i s t o r t i o n o f t h e l e n g t h s a t t h e p o l e s d o e s n o t e x c e e d 3% ( a n d a t 60 l a t i t u d e , 4 % ) . T h e o r t h o d r o m e on maps o f a s t e r e o g r a p h i c p r o j e c t i o n h a s a n i n s i g n i f i c a n t bend toward t h e e q u a t o r and i s c o n s t r u c t e d i n p r a c t i c e as a s t r a i g h t l i n e . The l o x o d r o m e i s r e p r e s e n t e d by a l o g a r i t h m i c s p i r a l . It is p o s s i b l e t o c o n t i n u e it ( j u s t as i n c o n i c p r o j e c t i o n s ) a l o n g t h e f l i g h t a n g l e , which i s measured i n t h e middle o f t h e p a r t o f t h e s t r a i g h t l i n e j o i n i n g t h e c o n t r o l ( r o t a t i n g ) p o i n t s of t h e f l i g h t path. I n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e p o s i t i o n o f a n a i r c r a f t by means o f an a i r c r a f t r a d i o compass, a c o r r e c t i o n f o r t h e a n g l e of convergence o f the meridians i s allowed according t o t h e formula
/45 -

w h e r e A, a n d A, a r e t h e l o n g i t u d e o f t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n a n d t h e a i r craft , respectively. On maps o f a s t e r e o g r a p h i c p r o j e c t i o n , i n o r d e r t o f a c i l i t a t e determining d i r e c t i o n s i n t h e p o l a r regions according t o a sugges t i o n by V . I . A k k u r a t o v , a s u p p l e m e n t a r y s y s t e m o f " a r b i t r a r y " mer i d i a n s ( F i g . 1 . 2 8 , b ) p a r a l l e l t o t h e Greenwich m e r i d i a n ( A = O o ) and perpendicular t o it ( A = 90) i s p l o t t e d . Then t h e t r u e G r e e n wich f l i g h t a n g l e w i l l e q u a l :

where TFAar i s a n a r b i t r a r y f l i g h t a n g l e m e a s u r e d f r o m a d i r e c t i o n p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e G r e e n w i c h m e r i d i a n ( A = g o o ) ; A e = 90 i s t h e
40

l o c a t i o n of t h e r o u t e ( p a r t o f t h e p a t h ) t o t h e e a s t o f t h e Green wich m e r i d i a n ; and Xw = 270 i s t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e r o u t e ( p a r t o f t h e p a t h ) t o t h e w e s t o f t h e Greenwich m e r i d i a n .

Nomenclature o f Maps
A t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e , a map w i t h a s c a l e o f 1:1,000,000 (1 c m = 1 km) w h i c h i s e x e c u t e d i n a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l p r o j e c t i o n i s c o n s i d e r e d t h e b a s i c t o p o g r a p h i c a l map o f t h e w o r l d . As d e s c r i b e d a b o v e , e a c h s h e e t o f t h i s map e n c o m p a s s e s a t e r r i t o r y w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s o f 4 O o f l a t i t u d e and 6 O o f l o n g i t u d e . T h i s h a s made i t p o s s i b l e t o com p i l e an i n t e r n a t i o n a l d e s i g n a t i o n f o r t h e s h e e t s o f maps.

For t h e p u r p o s e o f q u i c k l y c h o o s i n g a g i v e n s h e e t o f a m a p , e a c h o f them b e a r s a d e s i g n a t i o n o f i t s r a n k i n a d e f i n i t e s y s t e m .
T h i s d e s i g n a t i o n i s c a l l e d i n t e r n a t i o n a l map nomenclature. The s h e e t s a r e s i t u a t e d i n r o w s a l o n g p a r a l l e l s w h i c h r u n f r o m t h e e q u a t o r t o a l a t i t u d e o f 84O. There a r e a t o t a l o f 2 1 rows i n each hemisphere. E a c h row i s d e s i g n a t e d by a l e t t e r i n t h e L a t i n alphabet: A , B , C , D , E , F, G , H , I , J , K , L , M , N , 0 , P , Q , R , S , T , U (maps f o r l a t i t u d e s g r e a t e r t h a n 84O a r e c o n s t r u c t e d i n p e r spective projections). E a c h s h e e t o f a row h a s a n o r d i n a l i n g o f t h e s h e e t s b e g i n s from t h e 180th w e s t t o east. T h e map s h e e t s r e f e r r i n g meridian from t h e east have t h e o r d i n a l o f map n u m b e r s a r e o b t a i n e d . number f r o m 1 t o 6 0 . Countmeridian and proceeds from t o t h e prime (Greenwich) number 31. Thus, columns /46 -

To c h o o s e t h e n e c e s s a r y map s h e e t , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o know t h e a p p r o x i m a t e c o o r d i n a t e s o f t h e p o i n t f o r whose r e g i o n t h e s h e e t i s selected.

For e x a m p l e :
69O E .

the point

c o o r d i n a t e s l a t i t u d e 50

N,

longitude

L e t u s d i v i d e t h e l a t i t u d e o f t h e p o i n t by 4 , and w e w i l l ob t a i n t h e n e c e s s a r y row o f map s h e e t s : 50 + > 12. Therefore, the map s h e e t i s l o c a t e d i n t h e t h i r t e e n t h r o w , w h i c h i s d e s i g n a t e d b y t h e l e t t e r M.

J+

L e t u s d i v i d e t h e l o n g i t u d e o f t h e p o i n t by 6 , a n d w e w i l l o b tain: 6 9 + 6 > 11. T h e o r d i n a l n u m b e r o f t h e s h e e t w i l l t h e n b e 30 + 1 2 = 42.

For c o n v e n i e n c e i n s e l e c t i n g map s h e e t s , c o m p o s i t e t a b l e s h a v e been c o n s t r u c t e d . T h e s e t a b l e s a r e e x e c u t e d on s m a l l - s c a l e maps w i t h a s t r a i g h t , e q u a l l y s p a c e d c y l i n d r i c a l p r o j e c t i o n by r u l i n g t h e i n d i c a t e d map e v e r y 4 d e g r e e s i n l a t i t u d e a n d e v e r y 6 d e g r e e s i n l o n g i t u d e , w i t h c o r r e s p o n d i n g d e s i g n a t i o n s showing t h e rows and c o l u m n s o f o r d i n a l n u m b e r s o f t h e maps ( S u p p l e m e n t 1 ) .

41

4,

I n a d d i t i o n , o n t h ' e f a c e o f e a c h map s h e e t i s a d i a g r a m s h o w i n g The how t h e g i v e n s h e e t f i t s . t o t h e a d j o i n i n g o n e ( F i g ... 1 . 2 9 ) . s h e e t on which t h i s d i a g r a m i s drawn f i t s i n t h e m i d d l e and i s shaded. S h e e t s o f maps w i t h l a r g e r s c a l e s have s t a n d a r d schemes q f arrangement with i n t h e l i m i t s o f a sheet with a scale o f 1:1,000,000.
F o r e x a m p l e , a map s h e e t w i t h a s c a l e o f 1:1,000,000 c o n t a i n s 4 map s h e e t s w i t h a scale o f 1:500,000, which are d e s i g n a t e d by l e t t e r s o f t h e R u s s i a n a l p h a b e t : A, B y C y and D . By a n a n a l o g o u s m e t h o d , t h e d i v i s i o n o f a map s h e e t w i t h a s c a l e o f 1:1,000, 0 0 0 i n t o s h e e t s w i t h l a r g e r scales i s carried out. Roman a n d A r a b i c n u m e r a l s a r e u s e d for t h e i r d e s i g n a t i o n . H e r e t h e map nomenclature r e t a i n s t h e designation of t h e s h e e t s i n t h e i n i t i a l d i v i s i o n , b e g i n n i n g w i t h a s c a l e o f 1:1,000,000 a n d u p ( F i g . 1 . 3 0 ) . F i g . 1 . 2 9 . Scheme f o r S p l i c i n g Map S h e e t s with an I n t e r n a t i o n a l Projection. T h e n o m e n c l a t u r e o f map s h e e t s w i t h s m a l l s c a l e s ( 1 : 2 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 , 1 : 2 , 5 0 0 , 0 0 0 , a n d 1:4,000,000) i s n o t i n t e r n a t i o n a l a n d i s e s t a b l i s h e d when t h e y a r e p r i n t e d i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e r e g i o n s f o r w h i c h t h e y a r e p u b l i s h e d a n d i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e d i m e n s i o n s o f t h e map s h e e t s .
Maps U s e d f o r A i r c r a f t Navigation
'

/47 -

D e p e n d i n g on t h e n a t u r e o f t h e t a s k s t o b e f u l f i l l e d , i t i s p o s s i b l e t o d i v i d e maps i n t o s e v e r a l g r o u p s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r s c a l e s .

1) Maps w i t h d e t a i l e d o r i e n t a t i o n , w i t h s c a l e s o f 1 : 5 0 0 , 0 0 0 a n d u p , a r e u s e d i n c i v i l a v i a t i o n d u r i n g f l i g h t s for s p e c i a l p u r p o s e s ( g e o m a g n e t i c mapping and p h o t o g r a p h y , c h e m i c a l t r e a t m e n t o f areas, searching f o r small objects i n t h e execution of s p e c i a l t a s k s , " j o i n i n g " o f r a d i o e n g i n e e r i n g p r o j e c t s i n a i r p o r t r e g i o n s , compi l a t i o n o f diagrams f o r p i e r c i n g c l o u d s , and f o r o t h e r p u r p o s e s ) .
2) F l i g h t maps w i t h s c a l e s o f 1 : 2 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 , 1 : 1 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 , and 1:500,000 a r e u s e d i n c i v i l a v i a t i o n a s b a s i c f l i g h t m a p s . Crews o f l i g h t a i r c r a f t and h e l i c o p t e r s a t c o m p a r a t i v e l y low s p e e d s u s e w h i l e crews o f h i g h maps w i t h s c a l e s o f 1:1,000,000 a n d 1 : 5 0 0 , 0 0 0 , s p e e d a i r c r a f t u s e maps w i t h s c a l e s o f 1 : 2 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 a n d 1:1,000,000.
3) A i r c r a f t maps w i t h s c a l e s o f 1:4,000,000, 1:3,000,000, 1 : 2 , 5 0 0 , 0 0 0 , a n d 1:2,000,000 a r e u s e d i n c i v i l a v i a t i o n for g e n e r a l o r i e n t a t i o n and p l o t t i n g o f p o s i t i o n l i n e s w i t h t h e a i d o f r a d i o For t h e s e p u r p o s e s , c r e w s e n g i n e e r i n g and a s t r o n o m i c a l f a c i l i t i e s . o f l i g h t a i r c r a f t a t l o w s p e e d s a n d h e l i c o p t e r s u s e maps w i t h o n l y t h e l a s t two s c a l e s .
42

/48

S p e c i a l maps w i t h s c a l e s o f 1 : 4 0 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 a n d u p ( t o w i t h s p e c i a l e m p h a s i s on d i f f e r e n t p u r p o s e s o f a p p l i cation: l i n e s of e q u a l d i s t a n c e from d e f i n i t e p o i n t s , a h y p e r b o l i c system, azimuths from r a d i o - e n g i n e e r i n g i n s t a l l a t i o n s , etc. are used. T h e s e i n c l u d e maps w i t h r e f e r e n c e m a t e r i a l s o f s m a l l e r s c a l e s : maps w i t h t i m e z o n e s , m a g n e t i c d e c l i n a t i o n s , c o m p o s i t e t a b l e s o f map sheets, etc. 4)
1:2,000,000),

Fig.

1.30.

Scheme for D i v i d i n g a Map S h e e t w i t h a n I n t e r n a t i o n a l Projection.

A l s o , s p e c i a l f l i g h t maps w i t h s c a l e s o f 1:1,000,000 a n d w i t h p l o t t e d and marked f l i g h t r o u t e s a r e p u b l i s h e d f o r c i v i l aviation. A s a r u l e , t h e y a r e c o m p i l e d on o b l i q u e c y l i n d r i c a l or o b l i q u e c o n i c p r o j e c t i o n s , w i t h t h e l e a s t d i s t o r t i o n s o f a n g l e s and l e n g t h s along t h e r o u t e . T h e o r t h o d r o m e o n s u c h maps i s p r a c tically a straight line.
1:2,000,000

T h e c o n t e n t s o f a map d e p e n d o n i t s s c a l e , t h e a e r o g r a p h i c f e a t u r e s of t h e r e g i o n s f o r which it i s compiled, and t h e purpose o f t h e map.

43

On maps o f a l l s c a l e s , t h e f o l l o w i n g a r e d r a w n i n some k i n d o f detail:

(a) relief;
(b) hydrography ( s e a s , r i v e r s , l a k e s ) ;
(c) populated p o i n t s ;
(d) network o f r a i l r o a d s , highways, and country r o a d s ;
(e) v e g e t a t i o n or g r o u n d c o v e r ( l a r g e f o r e s t s , meadow, swamp,
sand, desert, etc.); (f) i s o l i n e s o f m a g n e t i c d e c l i n a t i o n s and m a g n e t i c a n o m a l i e s .
The l e g e n d s o f t h e i n d i c a t e d e l e m e n t s a r e u s u a l l y e x e c u t e d on t h e maps a t t h e l o w e r e d g e o f t h e s h e e t . On m a p s , a relief

i s e x p r e s s e d by t h r e e m e t h o d s :

1) I t i s e x p r e s s e d b y i s o l i n e s o f e q u a l h e i g h t on t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e r e l i e f ( h o r i z o n t a l s ) , i . e . , l i n e s formed a t t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n of a r e l i e f w i t h h o r i z o n t a l p l a n e s which are s i t u a t e d one above t h e o t h e r , w i t h h e i g h t i n t e r v a l s d e p e n d i n g on t h e s c a l e o f t h e map; t h e h e i g h t o f t h e h o r i z o n t a l s a b o v e s e a l e v e l i s d e s i g n a t e d by numbeps.

2) I t i s e x p r e s s e d by l a y e r e d c o l o r i n g ; a s p e c i a l c o l o r d e s i g n a t e d on a s p e c i a l ( h y p s o m e t r i c ) s c a l e o n t h e l o w e r e d g e o f t h e map i s a s s i g n e d t o each i n t e r v a l of r e l i e f h e i g h t .
3) I t i s e x p r e s s e d by brown s h a d i n g , ; . e . , by s p e c i a l c o l o r i n g w i t h t h i c k e n i n g of b r o w n i n t h e h i g h e s t a r e a s o f t h e r e l i e f a n d t h e steepest slopes. This use of color gives a n a t u r a l , volumetric idea of t h e nature of t h e r e l i e f .

/49

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e a b o v e methods o f r e p r e s e n t i n g r e l i e f on maps, m a r k s o f command h e i g h t s ( w h i c h e x c e e d n e i g h b o r i n g h e i g h t s ) , w i t h a n i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e h e i g h t o f t h e s e p o i n t s above s e a l e v e l , a r e shown. H y d r o g r a p h y i s shown on m a p s b y a b l u e p e n d s on t h e s c a l e a n d p u r p o s e o f t h e map. color.

I t s d e t a i l de

P o p u l a t e d p o i n t s , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e s c a l e o f t h e map a n d t h e a r e a l d i m e n s i o n s o f t h e p o i n t s , a r e r e p r e s e n t e d b y c o n t o u r s or c o n v e n t i o n a l s y m b o l s i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e p o i n t ' s d i m e n s i o n s or i t s population. In l i g h t l y populated areas, a l l populated points a r e designated. On s m a l l - s c a l e maps o f d e n s e l y p o p u l a t e d a r e a s , some o f t h e p o i n t s a r e omitted. T h e n u m b e r o f p o i n t s d r a w n d e p e n d s on t h e s c a l e o f t h e map a n d t h e p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y o f t h e a r e a . The d e t a i l o f t h e h i g h w a y n e t w o r k d e p e n d s o n i t s d e n s i t y , t h e v e g e t a t i v e or g r o u n d c o v e r , a n d t h e s c a l e o f t h e map a n d i t s p u r p o s e . B e s i d e s t h e above g e n e r a l c o n t e n t s o f maps, specially prepared

44

f l i g h t maps r e p r e s e n t a n a v i g a t i o n a l s i t u a t i o n , ; . e . , t h e arrange ment o f r a d i o - e n g i n e e r i n g f a c i l i t i e s f o r a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n , p o s i t i o n l i n e s o f a i r c r a f t , a n d s p e c i a l m a r k i n g s f o r n a v i g a t i o n a l meas u r e m e n t s and c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e shown. On s o m e f o r m s o f s p e c i a l l y p r e p a r e d m a p s ( m a p - d i a g r a m s ) , s o m e t h e e l e m e n t s o f t h e g e n e r a l c o n t e n t s a r e o m i t t e d or s i m p l i f i e d for t h e p u r p o s e o f a m o r e d e t a i l e d a n d g r a p h i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f the navigational situation. of

6.

M e a s u r i n g D i r e c t i o n s and D i s t a n c e s on t h e E a r t h ' s S u r f a c e
Orthodrome on t h e E a r t h ' s S u r f a c e

In the practice of aircraft navigation at the present t i m e , o r t h o d r o m e d i r e c t i o n i s t h e main and most w i d e s p r e a d d i r e c t i o n .

an

I n o r d e r t o e x p l a i n a l l t h e problems connected with measuring moving a n g l e s , d i s t a n c e s , and c o o r d i n a t e s i n f l i g h t a l o n g a n o r t h o d r o m e , l e t u s e x a m i n e a n o r t h o d r o m e on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e ( F i g .

1.31).

An o r t h o d r o m e , i n g e n e r a l , l i e s a t a n a n g l e t o t h e E a r t h ' s e q u a t o r and i n t e r s e c t s it a t two p o i n t s , t h e d i s t a n c e between which ( a l o n g t h e a r c o f t h e e q u a t o r ) i s e q u a l t o 180O. Only t h e e q u a t o r , which l i k e w i s e a p p e a r s as an o r t h o d r o m e , i s a n e x c e p t i o n . I n F i g u r e 1 . 3 1 , a a n d b , l i n e X O M ~i s t h e a r c of t h e e q u a t o r , l i n e X O M i s t h e o r t h o d r o m e e x a m i n e d b y u s ; p o i n t s 10 a n d X O + 1 8 0 are t h e p o i n t s of i n t e r s e c t i o n of t h e orthodrome with t h e equator; PNXOP, i s t h e m e r i d i a n o f t h e p o i n t o f i n t e r s e c t i o n o f t h e o r t h o drome w i t h t h e e q u a t o r ; P H Y M I P s i s t h e m e r i d i a n o f t h e p o i n t M on

/50 -

Fig. 1.31. Orthodrome on t h e E a r t h ' s S u r f a c e : (a) P o s i t i o n of t h e Orthodrome on a S p h e r e ; ( b ) R e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n L o n g i t u d e s a n d L a t i t u d e s o f P o i n t s on t h e Orthodrome.

45

t h e o r t h o d r o m e ; 90 - a0 i s t h e a n g l e b e t w e e n t h e p l a n e o f t h e e q u a t o r and t h e p l a n e of t h e o r t h o d r o m e ; X i s t h e 1ondigu.de o f t h e p o i n t M ; ( i s t h e l a t i t u d e o f t h e p o i n t M; - B , +B a r e p o i n t s on t h e o r t h o I d r o m e o f maximum l a t i t u d e , w h i c h a r e c a l l e d v e r t e x p o i n t s .

L e t us e r e c t a normal t o t h e p l a n e of t h e equator a t p o i n t M1 ( s e e Fig. 1 . 3 1 , b ) and e x t e n d it t o an i n t e r s e c t i o n w i t h t h e v e r t i c a l o f p o i n t M o n t h e or thodrome ( p o i n t M2). I t is obvious t h a t t h e t r i a n g l e 0 M1M2 w i l l be a r i g h t t r i angle. H e r e MlM, w i l l b e t h e t a n g e n t line of the angle 4 .
L e t us d r o p from p o i n t s MI and M 2 , perpendiculars t o t h e aperture axis of t h e o r t h o d r o m e w i t h t h e e q u a t o r 1 0 0 . One o f them w i l l l i e i n t h e p l a n e o f t h e equator, t h e second i n t h e plane of t h e orthodrome; b o t h w i l l converge a t one p o i n t on t h e a p e r t u r e a x i s ( p o i n t N ) .

Xo

I t i s obvious t h a t l i n e M1N w i l l be
a l i n e of t h e s i n e of angle A , w h i l e an g l e M1NM2 w i l l b e t h e a p e r t u r e a n g l e o f t h e p l a n e o f t h e e q u a t o r Here t h e t r i a n g l e w i t h t h e p l a n e o f t h e o r t h o d r o m e (90 - a o ) . NM1M2 w i l l a l s o b e a r i g h t t r i a n g l e .

Fig. 1.32. Determining D i s t a n c e on a n O r t h o

drome.

T h u s , for p o i n t M a n d for a n y p o i n t o n t h e o r t h o d r o m e , following equation w i l l be v a l i d :

tg(90"-uo) = '8 'p

the

sln A
(1.32)

F o r m u l a ( 1 . 3 2 ) i s v a l i d o n l y f o r c a s e s when t h e p o i n t A 0 i s the point of origin of the longitude. When t h e l o n g i t u d e o f t h e p o i n t i s n o t e q u a l t o z e r o , t h e l o n g i t u d e o f t h e p o i n t A0 must be s u b t r a c t e d from t h e l o n g i t u d e o f t h e p o i n t M(AM), ? . e . , t h e r e f e r ence system o f l o n g i t u d e s must be r e d u c e d t o t h i s p o i n t . Then

I n t h e f u t u r e , f o r t h e s a k e o f s i m p l i c i t y , we w i l l c o n s i d e r t h e l o n g i t u d e o f A0 e q u a l t o z e r o .
I t i s p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e t h e moving a z i m u t h a c c o r d i n g t o t h e formula tg a -- tgq, sec A sec '9, (1.33)

46

C o n s i d e r i n g t h a t t g a0 = t h e form:

sin A -, i t tg 4
tg a =,tg

is possible t o reduce (1.33) t o

A cosec 'p
(1.33a)

or
of Formulas (1.33) (1.32). Since the r a t i o

ctg a = ctg h sifi y.

and (1.33a)

are o b t a i n e d by d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n

l e n g t h o f an o r t h o d r o m e , i t i s o b v i o u s t h a t t h e e l e m e n t a r y d i f f e r ence q u o t i e n t s i n X and t g w i l l a l s o be constant f o r every length of an orthodrome and w i l l e q u a l :

sin A tg 4

= t g a0 = c o n s t r e m a i n s v a l i d f o r e v e r y

sin h -=
d
d t g 'p

tg a0 = const.

Therefore,

it i s p o s s i b l e t o w r i t e ( 1 . 3 2 ) i n t h e form:
dsinh dh
d T

_-- dk - tg 4, d'p
I

wh e n c e

cos -,-1
sec2~

dh
dy

- tgao

or

On t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e , t h e l i n e a r s c a l e o f l o n g i t u d e i s e q u a l t o t h e l i n e a r s c a l e of l a t i t u d e m u l t i p l i e d by t h e c o s i n e o f l a t i tude. T h e r e f o r e , t h e t a n g e n t of t h e moving a z i m u t h of t h e o r t h o d h , d i v i d e d by t h e co drome w i l l b e e x p r e s s e d b y t h e d e r i v a t i v e 3 s i n e of t h e l a t i t u d e : dh

d?

tga=-

COS 'p

- tg =o COS a COS^ 'p

or, c o n s i d e r i n g t h a t

sin h
tg%=-

tgcp

tre a r r i v e a t ( 1 . 3 3 a )

tg a = tg h cosec y.

I n t h e p r a c t i c e o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n , it i s u s u a l l y n e c e s s a r y t o d e a l w i t h two p o i n t s on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e . With t h e ex c e p t i o n o f s p e c i a l c a s e s , n e i t h e r o f t h e m i s on t h e e q u a t o r . F o r m u l a s ( 1 . 3 2 ) a n d ( 1 . 3 3 ) c a n b e u s e d o n l y i n t h o s e c a s e s when t h e p o i n t of i n t e r s e c t i o n o f a n o r t h o d r o m e w i t h t h e e q u a t o r ( i . e . ,

47

t h e l o n g i t u d e o f a p o i n t on t h e o r t h o d r o m e , e q u a l t o z e r o ) i s known.

t h e w i d t h of which i s

Elements of a S p h e r i c a l T r i a n g l e . ( a ) T r i a n g l e on a Fig. 1.33. S p h e r e ; ( b ) R e l a t i o n s h i p o f Angles and S i d e s of a S p h e r i c a l T r i a n g l e .

L e t u s d e r i v e a n e q u a t i o n which makes i t p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e t h e c o o r d i n a t e X o f a g i v e n p o i n t on an o r t h o d r o m e on t h e b a s i s o f t h e c o o r d i n a t e s o f t w o known p o i n t s o n i t .

L e t u s assume t h a t w e have two a r b i t r a r y p o i n t s on t h e E a r t h ' s W w i l l take the differ e s u r f a c e w i t h c o o r d i n a t e s 4111 a n d 4 2 1 2 . Then, e n c e of t h e l o n g i t u d e s o f t h e s e p o i n t s a s A A ( A A = A2 - A I ) . according t o (1.32a),

Transforming t h e right-hand
sin (?I

s i d e of t h i s e q u a t i o n , w e o b t a i n :
cos AX

/53 -

k 'PI

-4) -

sln (Al

-) , A

+ cos ((Ai-

A,) sin AX

tg '92

D i v i d i n g b o t h s i d e s o f t h e e q u a t i o n by s i n ( A 1 i n g by t g 4 2 , w e w i l l have:
tg h -- tg 'PI sif(hi

A,)

and m u l t i p l y

- b)COS AA + COS (A, -4) sin (Al - A,) = cos Ah 4- ctg (Al - A,) sin LA,
cosec AA

sin A),

-
(1.34)

from which

ctg (AI

- no) = tg 'pz ctg

-ctgdk.

E q u a t i o n (1.341, w h i c h m a k e s i t p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e t h e l o n g i t u d e of t h e p o i n t of i n t e r s e c t i o n of an orthodrome with t h e is very important. Knowledge o f t h i s c o o r d i n a t e equator (A,), makes it p o s s i b l e t o c a l c u l a t e e a s i l y a l l t h e r e m a i n i n g e l e m e n t s of t h e orthodrome.

Having s u b s t i t u t e d t h e v a l u e X i n (1.34) f o r t h e v a l u e ( X I as b e f o r e , and s u b s t i t u t i n g i n t o ( 1 . 3 3 a ) t h e v a l u e c t g X f r o m ( 1 . 3 4 1 , we o b t a i n t h e f o l l o w i n g e q u a t i o n f o r a p o i n t w i t h t h e c o o r d i n a t e s 1$1X1:

XO),

ctg a = t g '92 cos '91 cosec Ah

-ctg Ah sin 71.

(1.35)

F o r m u l a ( 1 . 3 5 ) i s u s u a l l y u s e d for c a l c u l a t i n g t h e a z i m u t h o f an orthodrome a t t h e i n i t i a l p o i n t of t h e s t r a i g h t - l i n e segment o f t h e p a t h when t h e r e i s n o n e c e s s i t y f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e r e m a i n i n g elements of t h e orthodrome. I n g e n e r a l , i t i s b e t t e r t o s o l v e ( 1 . 3 4 ) i n d e p e n d e n t l y , and t h e n f i n d t h e s o l u t i o n by s u b s t i t u t i n g X i n t o ( 1 . 3 2 ) and ( 1 . 3 3 ) . Simple t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s o f (1.32) r e d u c e t o f o r m u l a s w h i c h make

it p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e t h e c o o r d i n a t e s o f i n t e r m e d i a t e p o i n t s o n an orthodrome :
tg 'p = sin h ctguo, sin A = tg 'p t g a p

(1.36) (l.36a)

Given t h e a r b i t r a r y v a l u e o f a p o i n t c o o r d i n a t e on t h e o r t h o d r o m e $ or A , i t i s p o s s i b l e t o o b t a i n t h e v a l u e o f t h e s e c o n d c o o r d i n a t e o f t h i s p o i n t on t h e b a s i s o f t h e s e f o r m u l a s . T h e f o r m u l a s f r o m ( 1 . 3 2 ) t h r o u g h ( 1 . 3 6 1 , g i v e n b y u s , make i t p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e t h e i n i t i a l and moving a z i m u t h s o f t h e o r t h o drome, and a l s o t h e c o o r d i n a t e s o f i t s i n t e r m e d i a t e p o i n t s . I n o r d e r t o d e t e r m i n e t h e l e n g t h o f t h e o r t h o d r o m e or d i s t a n c e s a l o n g i t (S) l e t u s d e r i v e e q u a t i o n s w h i c h c o n n e c t t h e c o o r d i n a t e s o f t h e p o i n t s of t h e orthodrome with i t s l e n g t h . I n F i g u r e 1 . 3 2 , t h e t r i a n g l e s ONMl and ON1Mz are s i m i l a r . The s t r a i g h t l i n e ON i s a l i n e o f t h e c o s i n e o f t h e a r c A , w h i l e ON' i s a l i n e o f t h e c o s i n e of a r c 5. ' The h y p o t e n u s e of t r i a n g l e ONMl i s e q u a l t o t h e r a d i u s o f t h e E a r t h , w h i l e t h e h y p o t e n u s e o f t r i a n g l e ON1M2 i s t h e l i n e of t h e cosines of arc 4. Therefore

/54

cos s, cos A cds ,'p. =

(1.37)

E q u a t i o n ( 1 . 3 7 ) makes i t p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t o f t h e orthodrome t o any o f i t s p o i n t s w i t h known c o o r d i n a t e s .

If t h e i n i t i a l p o i n t o f t h e o r t h o d r o m e a n d t h e c o o r d i n a t e s o f a n y two p o i n t s a l o n g it are known, t h e d i s t a n c e ( S ) b e t w e e n t h e l a t t e r i s d e t e r m i n e d as t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e d i s t a n c e s t o the i n i t i a l point:

49

S , = S - s1. I* Z
I f 2 h e c o o r d i n a t e s o f t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t a r e n o t known, a n d t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r determining t h e o t h e r elements of t h e orthodrome ( b e s i d e s t h e d i s t a n c e between t h e two p o i n t s ) i s l a c k i n g , t h e n t h e i n d i c a t e d d i s t a n c e can b e d e t e r m i n e d by t h e f o r m u l a
cos S = sin 'pl sin 'pz

+ cos 'pl cos 'p2 cos Ak.

(1.38)

For i t s d e r i v a t i o n ,

F o r m u l a (1.38) i s n o t d e r i v e d f r o m s i m p l e g e o m e t r i c r a t i o s . it is necessary t o use t h e s p h e r i c a l t r i a n g l e (PNMaMb) ( F i g . 1 . 3 3 a ) .

'

L e t u s j o i n p o i n t s P N M a a n d Mb b y v e r t i c a l s w i t h t h e c e n t e r o f t h e E a r t h 0. L e t u s d r a w t a n g e n t s t o t h e a r c s PNMa a n d PNMb a t t h e p o i n t P N up t o t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n w i t h t h e i n d i c a t e d v e r t i c a l s a t p o i n t s Ma1 a n d Mbl ( F i g . 1 . 3 3 , b ) . W w i l l o b t a i n two p l a n e tri e a n g l e s PNMalMbl a c d OMalMbl w i t h t h e common s i d e M a l M b l . Obviously, Ma1Mbl=(PNMal) 2 f ( P N M b l ) '-2PNMalPNMb liCOSMalPNMb

A t t h e same t i m e ,

Ma 1 M = (OM, b

+ ( 0 Mb ,I

- 20Ma 1OMb

COS

Ma

OMb 1

(1.39)

S i n c e M a l Mb1 i s t h e common s i d e o f t h e t r i a n g l e , t h e l e f t hand s i d e o f t h e f i r s t e q u a t i o n i s e q u a l t o t h e r i g h t - h a n d s i d e o f t h e second. T a k i n g t h e r a d i u s o f t h e E a r t h a s e q u a l t o 1, f r o m t h e r i g h t t r i a n g l e s O P N M , ~ a n d OPNMbl we f i n d :

PNM,, tg& Pqqb tg a; OM*, = sec b; = OMb1 = sec a; L MR1 PNMb TP; L Malo% 7p .
S u b s t i t u t i n g t h e i n d i c a t e d v a l u e s i n t o (1.39), w e o b t a i n : tg2 b+ tg2 a - 2tg b tg a cos P = secz a + secz'b- 2sec a sec b cos p ;
seda=l+t@a; seSb=l+tgzb

Therefore,

2 tg a tg bcos P = 2-2 Seca secb-cosp.

(1.40)
we o b t a i n :

Multiplying both s i d e s of

cos a cos b 2 s i n a sin.bcos P = cos a cos b - cosp

(1.40) b y

Formula ( 1 . 4 1 ) i s t h e f i r s t b a s i c formula of s p h e r i c a l t r i g o nometry and i s widely used i n aircraft n a v i g a t i o n with t h e use of astronomical facilities ( t h e remaining formulas of s p h e r i c a l trigo nometry a r e given i n Supplement 2 ) .
50

I n o u r case,

i.e.,

(1.41)

h a s t h e form:
cos S = sin y1 sin yz

+ cos

'pl

cos 'p2 cos M.

When d e t e r m i n i n g p o i n t c o o r d i n a t e s o f t h e o r t h o d r o m e , t h e r e i s t h e same n e c e s s i t y t o s o l v e t h e i n v e r s e p r o b l e m s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e known o r t h o c r o m i c d i s t a n c e ( S ) . F o r t h i s l e t u s r e t u r n t o F i g u r e 1 . 3 2 , i n which it i s o b v i o u s t h a t t h e l i n e M N 1 .is t h e l i n e o f t h e s i n e o f t h e a r c S , w h i l e l i n e MM2 i s e q u a l t o M N 1 c o s " 0 . A t t h e same t i m e , MM i s t h e l i n e o f t h e s i n e s f o r arc $. Therefore,
sln y = sin Scos a ,

(1.42)

Formula ( 1 . 4 2 ) makes i t p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e t h e c o o r d i n a t e i n i t i a l point. The c o o r d i n a t e X i n t h i s c a s e i s d e t e r m i n e d a c c o r d i n g t o ( 1 . 3 6 a ) .

$ a l o n g t h e t r a v e r s e d orthodrome d i s t a n c e from t h e

sin h = tg 'p tg ao.

Thus, w e have an a n a l y t i c a l form o f a l l t h e n e c e s s a r y t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e e l e m e n t s o f t h e o r t h o d r o m e on t h e Earth's surface. However, i n t h e p r a c t i c e o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n it i s s o m e t i m e s more c o n v e n i e n t t o a p p l y o t h e r f o r m u l a s w h i c h d e termine s e p a r a t e elements of t h e orthodrome. F o r e x a m p l e , i f t h e c o o r d i n a t e s o f t w o p o i n t s on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e a n d t h e o r t h o d r o m e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n t h e m S a r e known, t h e azimuth of t h e orthodrome ( a ) a t t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t can be d e t e r mined by t h e f o r m u l a
sin a =

I
[

cos 'p2 sin Ah SihS

(1.43)

Formula ( 1 . 4 3 ) can be t r a n s f o r m e d t o determine t h e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n p o i n t s a t a known a z i m u t h :

sin S =-cos 'p2 sin M sirwr

(1.43a)

I t i s obvious t h a t b o t h formulas are o b t a i n e d from t h e e q u a t i o n

sin S sin 01 = cos 'p2 sln Ah,

which i n t u r n i s d e r i v e d by means o f F i g u r e 1 . 3 4 , where l i n e B B , i s a p e r p e n d i c u l a r dropped from p o i n t B t o t h e p l a n e of t h e equat o r , and i s a l i n e of t h e s i n e o f t h e l a t i t u d e o f t h i s p o i n t , w h i l e

/56

51

l i n e B1A2 i s a p e r p e n d i c u l a r dropped from p o i n t B1 t o t h e p l a n e of t h e m e r i d i a n which p a s s e s t h r o u g h p o i n t A . Obviously,

A2B1 = cos Q~ sin dA.

Let us e r e c t another perpendicular t o t h e plane of t h e equator a t p o i n t A 2 ; we w i l l t h e n o b t a i n p l a n e A l A 2 B l B p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e p l a n e o f t h e e q u a t o r and t h e p l a n e o f t h e m e r i d i a n o f p o i n t A .

Fig. 1.34. Determining S p e c i a l Elements o f an Orthodrome.

Fig. 1.35. Determining t h e I n i t i a l Azimuth o r t h e V e r t e x o f an Orthodrome.

I f we r o t a t e t h e i n d i c a t e d p l a n e a r o u n d t h e - l i n e B A 1 i n s u c h a way t h a t i t r e m a i n s p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e p l a n e o f t h e m e r i d i a n o f p o i n t A u p t o t h e moment when l i n e A 2 A 1 b e c o m e s p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o In this t h e v e r t i c a l o f p o i n t A , t h e d i s t a n c e BA1 w i l l n o t change. c a s e , s t r a i g h t l i n e BA1 w i l l be t h e l i n e o f t h e s i n e o f t h e a r c A B , w h i l e i t s l e n g t h w i l l b e d e t e r m i n e d by t h e f o r m u l a

A1B= A2B1

sina

'

from which it f o l l o w s t h a t
sin S sin a = cos y2 sin dA.

By a s i m i l a r m e t h o d , t h e i n i t i a l a n g l e o f t h e o r t h o d r o m e or t h e l a t i t u d e of t h e v e r t e x p o i n t i s determined i f t h e azimuth o f t h e o r t h o d r o m e a t a n y p o i n t on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e i s known. I n F i g u r e 1 . 3 5 , a r c A O A B i s t h e e q u a t o r ; a r c AoMB i s t h e o r t h o d r o m e ; l i n e OPN i s t h e a x i s o f t h e E a r t h ; U P 0 i s t h e a x i s o f t h e o r t h o d r o m e ; M i s a p o i n t on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e ; and B i s t h e v e r tex point.

52

L e t us e r e c t a p e r p e n d i c u l a r PMO t o t h e v e r t i c a l o f p o i n t M from t h e c e n t e r of t h e E a r t h s o t h a t it i s l o c a t e d i n t h e p l a n e o f t h e m e r i d i a n o f p o i n t M. L e t u s a l s o draw a p l a n e p a r a l l e l t o t h e p l a n e of t h e e q u a t o r t h r o u g h t h e p o l e s P N , Po, and P M . The a n g l e s P o P ~ Oa n d P M P N O w i l l b e r i g h t a n g l e s , s i n c e l i n e s P,PN a n d P M P N l i e i n a p l a n e p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o PNO.

/57

POP@ PoPld.
'

Angle P o P ~ Oi s a l s o a r i g h t a n g l e , since t h e p l a n e o f t r i a n g l e h a s a s l o p e t o t h e a x i s p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o PMO a n d p a r a l l e l t o It i s o b v i o u s t h a t a n g l e P o O P ~i s e q u a l t o t h e l a t i t u d e o f t h e v e r t e x p o i n t , w h i l e a n g l e PMOPN i s e q u a l t o t h e l a t i t u d e o f p o i n t M. Therefore,

opN=op6 cos (PB

whence

oP&f TM; cos OFB= OP,sin a ,

(1.44)

cos (pB =sin a, = cos yM sin a.

Formula (1.44) is used t o f i n d t h e l a t i t u d e o f t h e v e r t e x p o i n t , which a l s o a p p e a r s as a complement o f t h e i n i t i a l a n g l e o f t h e o r The l o n g i t u d e o f p o i n t M r e l a t i v e t o . t h e s t a r t t h o d r o m e u p t o 90. i n g p o i n t o f t h e o r t h o d r o m e i n t h i s case c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d b y ( 1 . 3 6 a ) . W i t h a known a z i m u t h o f t h e o r t h o d r o m e a t a n y p o i n t o n t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e , t h e c o o r d i n a t e s o f i t s s t a r t i n g p o i n t can be ob t a i n e d d i r e c t l y a c c o r d i n g t o ( 1 . 3 3 a ) , from which it f o l l o w s t h a t
tg h = sin? tg a ,

(1.45)

T h e n it i s n o t d i f f i c u l t thodrome.

t o d e t e r m i n e t h e i n i t i a l a n g l e o f t h e or

I n some c a s e s , i n o r d e r t o c a l c u l a t e t h e e l e m e n t s o f . t h e o r t h o d r o m e , c o o r d i n a t e s o f t h e v e r t e x p o i n t r a t h e r t h a n of t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t a r e used. I n t h e s e c a s e s , t h e f u n c t i o n s o f t h e a0 a n g l e a r e r e p l a c e d by i n v e r s e f u n c t i o n s of t h e l a t i t u d e o f t h e v e r t e x p o i n t which are e q u a l t o them, j u s t as f u n c t i o n s o f l o n g i t u d e are, s i n c e t h e s e a n g l e s d i f f e r b y 90.

For e x a m p l e , ( 1 . 3 6 a ) h a s t h e f o r m :
cos AB = tg ? ctg ?E,

w h i l e (1.45) h a s t h e f o r m :
ctg AB = sin 'p tg u.

To e x p l a i n t h e procedure f o r d e t e r m i n i n g a l l t h e elements o f a n o r t h o d r o m e , l e t u s e x a m i n e ( a s an e x a m p l e ) a n o r t h o d r o m e w h i c h p a s s e s t h r o u g h two p o i n t s on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e w i t h t h e s e c o o r M I = l a t i t u d e 60 N , l o n g i t u d e 30 E ; M2 = l a t i t u d e 8 0 N , dinates: l o n g i t u d e 40 E .

53

F i r s t w e s h a l l c a r r y o u t t h e g e n e r a l s o l u t i o n of t h e p r o b l e m o f f i n d i n g t h e e l e m e n t s 'of a n o r t h o d r o m e . For t h i s w e s h a l l u s e (1.34). S u b s t i t u t i n g i n t o t h i s equation t h e f u n c t i o n s o f t h e coord i n a t e s of t h e p o i n t s M I and M2, w e o b t a i n :

-A,,) = tg 80"ctg W."cosec10"- ctg 10"; 54671'0*5774--fj,&l = 13,228; ctg (A, - A,,)
ctg (A,
='

0,1736

The i n i t i a l a z i m u t h o f a n o r t h o d r o m e , a c c o r d i n g t o ( 1 . 3 2 ) , w i l l be:

tg cr, = sin A ctg 7.

L e t us d e t e r m i n e it on t h e b a s i s o f t h e c o o r d i n a t e s o f p o i n t
tg cr, = sin 4"18'.ctg 60"= 0,57A.0,075 ='0.0433;
~ r= 299'. ,

/58

According t o ( 1 . 3 3 a ) ,

t h e moving a z i m u t h o f t h e orthodrome ( a )
= i4.455;

for p o i n t , M I i s e q u a l t o ctgu = ctg418'.sin600= 13,228.0.868

u = 5".

The d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t o f t h e o r t h o d r o m e t o p o i n t M I , a c c o r d i n g t o (1.371, e q u a l s
COS

S ='COS 4 " 1 8 ' * ~6'~ = 0,9972.0,5 = 0,4986; i 0

S, = 60"4',

w h i l e t h e d i s t a n c e t o p o i n t M 2 , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e same f o r m u l a , i s
COSS~=COS

14"18'*~0~80"=0,969*0,1736=0,1682;
S = 80'17'. 2

T h e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n M I a n d M, i s t h e n d e f i n e d a s t h e d i f f e r ence between t h e d i s t a n c e s t o t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t :
S = S, - S = 80'17' i

-60'04'

= 20'13'. :

C o o r d i n a t e s o f any i n t e r m e d i a t e p o i n t can be determined accord ing t o (1.36) or (1.36a).

For e x a m p l e , t h e l o n g i t u d e o f p o i n t M 2 a c c o r d i n g t o i t s l a t i
tude is
sin 12 =: tg 80"Ig 2"29' = 5,671.0,043 = 0,246;

A=

(A2-

-0)

14'15';

A2 = 39'57'.

54

Thus, a l l t h e necessary elements o f an orthodrome are e a s i l y determined. L e t u s now a s s u m e t h a t w e h a d t o d e t e r m i n e o n l y t h e a z i m u t h o f t h e o r t h o d r o m e a t p o i n t M I . For t h i s w e w i l l u s e ( 1 . 3 5 ) :

ctg a =

0.5-5.671 -0.866.5.671 0,1736 a =5. "

= 11,42251

Knowing t h e a z i m u t h o f t h e o r t h o d r o m e a t o n e o f i t s p o i n t s makes. i t p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e t h e d i s t a n c e t o a n y p o i n t b y u s i n g ( l . 4 3 a ) , or i n o u r e x a m p l e : 0,1736*0,1736 sin S = 0.3456; 0,0872 S = 2'3. 01'

I

Using t h e azimuth o f t h e orthodrome a t one p o i n t , it is p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e t h e l a t i t u d e o f t h e v e r t e x p o i n t or t h e i n i t i a l azimuth of t h e orthodrome according t o (1.44).

For our o r t h o d r o m e , u s i n g p o i n t M I , w e o b t a i n :
sin cr, = cos 60"sin 5 ' 0.5*0,0872=Q;0436; "=
~ r== ,

20 '' 3.

After t h i s , determined.

t h e intermediate p o i n t s o f an orthodrome are e a s i l y /59

Thus, it i s p o s s i b l e t o determine t h e elements of an orthodrome b e g i n n i n g w i t h t h e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n t w o p o i n t s a c c o r d i n g t o (1.38), c h a n g i n g t o t h e m o v i n g a z i m u t h a c c o r d i n g t o (1.431, a n d t h e n t o t h e l a t i t u d e of t h e vertex point according t o (1.44). O r t h o d r o m e on T o p o g r a p h i c a l Maps o f Different Projections

L e t u s e x a m i n e a n o r t h o d r o m e o n maps o f a s i m p l e e q u a l l y s p a c e d c y l i n d r i c a l p r o j e c t i o n , which e s s e n t i a l l y r e p r e s e n t s a geographical coord i n a t e s y s t e m on a s c a l e o f a n g l e s . A A sinv

/ -

AA

draw tary shal tion

T o e x p l a i n t h i s , however, l e t u s on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e a n e l e m e n n o r m a l c o n e a t some l a t i t u d e ; w e l examine it on t h e above p r o j e c (Fig. 1.36).

Fig. 1.36. Elementary Segment o f a n Orthodrome o n a Map of a C y l i n d r i

cal Projection.

A s i s a l r e a d y known, t h e r a d i u s
o f t h i s c o n e when u n r o l l e d e q u a l s :

55

or, t a k i n g t h e r a d i u s o f t h e E a r t h a s 1,
Po = ctg 'Po.

According t o l e l is equal to:

(1.20)

t h e s c a l e of t h e p r o j e c t i o n along t h e p a r a l
1
cos q

n=-.

I n o r d e r t o d r a w our u n r o l l e d c o n e o n a c y l i n d r i c a l s u r f a c e , it i s n e c e s s a r y t o s t r a i g h t e n t h e cone f i r s t and t h e n e x t e n d i t . Obviously, t h e segments of t h e meridians remain s t r a i g h t l i n e s dur i n g s t r a i g h t e n i n g of t h e cone, b u t t h e y must be u n r o l l e d t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e s u r f a c e e l e m e n t s t o an a n g l e e q u a l t o Ah s i n $. L e t u s now d r a w a s t r a i g h t l i n e A B i n t h e e a s t - w e s t on a n e l e m e n t a r y c o n e . direction

During s t r a i g h t e n i n g of t h e cone, t h e i n d i c a t e d s t r a i g h t l i n e

w i l l a c q u i r e a c u r v a t u r e , t h e r a d i u s of which w i l l be e q u a l t o t h e r a d i u s of t h e u n r o l l e d cone (r), b u t curved i n t h e o p p o s i t e d i r e c

tion. Therefore,
P = ~ A ~ B ctg ,
'Pa

D u r i n g e x t e n s i o n o f our c o n e a l o n g a p a r a l l e l t o a s c a l e n z , e a c h o f i t s e l e m e n t s ( i n c l u d i n g e l e m e n t s o f our s t r a i g h t l i n e ) w i l l 1 Therefore, t h e radius of t h e undergo an e x t e n s i o n e q u a l t o cos $ s t r a i g h t - l i n e element w i l l i n c r e a s e and w i l l equal:

/60

r ~ l= Coscp - cosec 'p. ~ ctg 'p l

A s is e v i d e n t , t h e s t r a i g h t - l i n e e l e m e n t , s i t u a t e d a l o n g t h e p a r a l l e l ( i n g e n e r a l , i n a d i r e c t i o n perpendicular t o t h e a x i s o f The s t r a i g h t - l i n e e l e m e n t s i t the cylinder) acquires a curvature. uated i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e axis of t h e cylinder does not acquire a curvature. Therefore, i f t h e s t r a i g h t - l i n e element is s i t u a t e d a t an a n g l e t o t h e a x i s o f t h e c y l i n d e r , i t s r a d i u s of c u r v a t u r e w i l l equal:
ctg '9 'AB, = cos 'p sin a
= 1

cosec 'p cosec a..

(1.46)

I n geometry, t h e c u r v a t u r e of a curve i s c o n s i d e r e d t o be a value inverse t o t h e radius of the curvature. Therefore, t h e curv a t u r e o f our e l e m e n t w i l l e q u a l :
=sin r ~ , ~ ,

'p sin

a.

(1.47)

56

An o r t h o d r o m e o n t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e d o e s n o t h a v e i t s own c u r v a t u r e o f e a c h e l e m e n t o f a n o r t h o d r o m e o n a map i n a n o r m a l , e q u a l l y s p a c e d c y l i n d r i c a l p r o j e c t i o n w i l l b e e x p r e s s e d b y (1.471, f r o m w h i c h i t i s o b v i o u s t h a t t h e maximum c u r v a t u r e o f t h e o r t h o drome w i l l b e o b s e r v e d a t i t s v e r t e x p o i n t s , w h i l e t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t s , ;.e., t h e p o i n t s o f i n t e r s e c t i o n o f t h e orthodrome w i t h t h e equator (Fig. 1 . 3 7 ) , w i l l appear as p o i n t s o f i n f l e c t i o n . T h u s , t h e o r t h o d r o m e o n a map of an equally spaced c y l i n d r i c a l p r o j e c t i o n h a s a form r e m i n i s c e n t of a s i n e curve. This curve is t h e graph of t h e r a t i o of t h e coor d i n a t e s of t h e orthodrome with a known i n i t i a l a z i m u t h ( a ) .

ILLIT

"I

gbTA

A s a r e s u l t of t h e nonisogon a l i t y of an equally spaced projec tion, the slope of a tangent t o t h e c u r v e o f t h e orthodrome d o e s n o t r e f l e c t i t s d i r e c t l y moving a z i m u t h , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n of t h e a z i m u t h a t s t a r t i n g p o i n t s .
The m o v i n g a z i m u t h o f a n o r t h o d r o m e a l o n g a c u r v e c a n b e d e t e r mined i f w e c o n s i d e r t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e s c a l e s m and n a t the investigated points. With e q u a l s c a l e s , t h e d i p a n g l e o f t h e t a n g e n t t o t h e c u r v e i s d e t e r m i n e d by t h e f o r m u l a
tgad'h

F i g . 1 . 3 7 . Graph o f an Ortho drome i n a C y l i n d r i c a l Projection.

dy

'

I n o u r c a s e , t h e s c a l e n h = no s e c 4 or n h = n 4 s e c 4 . Theref o r e , t h e a c t u a l l y moving a z i m u t h o f t h e orthodrome i n an e q u a l l y s p a c e d c y l i n d r i c a l p r o j e c t i o n i s d e t e r m i n e d by t h e f o r m u l a

tga=d)l d'p

/61

cos 'p.

I t i s obvious t h a t i n an i s o g o n a l normal c y l i n d r i c a l p r o j e c t i o n , t h e orthodrome w i l l a l s o have a shape r e m i n i s c e n t of a s i n e curve. However, a s a r e s u l t o f t h e e x t e n s i o n o f t h e s c a l e a l o n g t h e l a t i t u d e ( n = no s e c I$), t h e a m p l i t u d e o f t h i s c u r v e w i l l b e increased. The more it i s i n c r e a s e d , t h e s m a l l e r t h e i n i t i a l a z i muth o f t h e o r t h o d r o m e w i l l b e , a n d t h e g r e a t e r t h e l a t i t u d e o f t h e vertex points.

I n c o n t r a s t t o an e q u a l l y spaced p r o j e c t i o n , i n t h i s p r o j e c t i o n t h e d i p angle of t h e tangent t o t h e curve w i l l correspond t o t h e moving a z i m u t h o f t h e orthodrome a t any p o i n t , . s i n c e t h e s c a l e s along t h e l o n g i t u d e and l a t i t u d e are e q u a l t o :
m = It = sec 'p.

57

Thus, t h e orthodrome i n a c y l i n d r i c a l p r o j e c t i o n h a s t h e form of a c u r v e which i s convex i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e i n c r e a s e i n t h e T h i s f e a t u r e o f t h e o r t h o d r o m e i s common s c a l e of t h e p r o j e c t i o n . t o a l l p r o j e c t i o n s which have an i n c r e a s e i n one d i r e c t i o n . Let us c i t e a b r i e f a n a l y s i s o f t h e bend o f t h e orthodrome with a v a r y i n g map s c a l e , i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e g e n e & a l c a s e . L e t u s a s s u m e t h a t we h a v e a s p h e r i c a l t r a p e z o i d w h i c h i s r e p r e s e n t e d on a map i n t h e f o r m o f a r e c t a n g l e ( F i g . 1 . 3 8 ) . The l e n g t h o f a n y p a r a l l e l ( L A ) on t h e t r a p e z o i d i s e q u a l t o i t s l e n g t h on a r e c t a n g l e d i v i d e d by t h e s c a l e o f i t s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . The s c a l e o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e m e r i d i a n s i n any p a r t o f t h e r e c t a n g l e i s e q u a l t o one.
1 LA&-;
R

L,=1.

During extension of t h e t r a p e z o i d i n t o a r e c t a n g l e , each s t r a i g h t - l i n e e l e m e n t on i t s s u r f a c e a c q u i r e s a c u r v a t u r e .

Therefore,

f o r an e q u a l l y spaced c y l i n d r i c a l p r o j e c t i o n ,
---=_ f-A

a cos 'p
dq r

sin 7.

Since

1 -= P A

0,

f o r a s t r a i g h t l i n e p a s s i n g a t an a n g l e t o t h e
1 -- _ r

m e r i d i a n we w i l l h a v e
sin rq sin a.

A minus s i g n shows t h a t b e n d i n g o c c u r s i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f a d e c r e a s e i n t h e v a l u e o f - or i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f a n i n c r e a s e i n n the scale.

I

a
-I

I__-

+LA

---

Li"

Fig. 1.38. Conical Trapezoid R e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e Form o f a Rectangle.

F i g . 1 . 3 9 . Bending o f an O r thodrome i n t h e D i r e c t i o n s of Scale Increases.

58

L e t u s now a s s u m e t h a t w e h a v e a p r o j e c t i o n , a c h a n g e i n t h e s c a l e o f w h i c h o c c u r s i n t w o p r i n c i p a l d i r e c t i o n s [for e x a m p l e , s i m u l t a n e o u s l y i n t h e n o r t h a n d e a s t ( F i g . 1.39)].

It is obvious t h a t a s t r a i g h t l i n e AB, passing a t an angle t o t h e m e r i d i a n w i t h a change i n t h e scales i n two p r i n c i p a l d i r e c t i o n s , w i l l simultaneously undergo bending i n o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n s , i . e . , i t s component c u r v a t u r e s w i l l b e s u b t r a c t e d :

il
drp r
For t h e g e n e r a l case,
1 a -n 1 --r dz

a-

sin a -

a * 1
"p dA
cosa

sln a

- - a. cos dx

1 a mz

T h e r e f o r e , t h e o r t h o d r o m e o n maps c o n s t r u c t e d w i t h t a n g e n t i a l c y l i n d r i c a l p r o j e c t i o n s w i l l have convexity:

a t l a t i t u d e s g r e a t e r t h a n t h e l a t i t u d e of a p a r a l l e l which a) is tangent t o a geographic pole;

a t l a t i t u d e s lower t h a n t h e l a t i t u d e o f a p a r a l l e l which b) i s t a n g e n t t o t h e e q u a t o r ( F i g . 1.40).
In intersecting conic /63 projections , the ortho d r o m e h a s t h e same f o r m a s i n tangential projections. Here, i t s p o i n t of i n f l e c t i o n i s s i t u a t e d on t h e middle p a r a l l e l between the parallels of intersection.

-r tC o n ir o mset r a i g h t c --O hod

line

O f special interest i s t h e o r t h o d r o m e o n maps i n an i n t e r n a t i o n a l pro jection. A s i s known, t h e s c a l e a l o n g t h e l a t i t u d e i n t h e s e maps r e m a i n s p r a c t i c a l l y c o n s t a n t , w h i l e t h e scale along t h e l o n g i t u d e h a s s m a l l changes i n t h e l i m i t s o f e a c h map s h e e t . T h e r e f o r e , a n o r t h o d r o m e drawn a t a n an g l e t o t h e m e r i d i a n w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s o f o n e s h e e t o n t h i s map w i l l b e a wavy l i n e a r o u n d a s t r a i g h t p r i n c i p a l d i r e c t i o n . However, on maps w i t h a s c a l e o f 1 : 1 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 , d e v i a t i o n s from t h e p r i n c i p a l d i r e c t i o n w i l l be s o i n s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t t h e y are p r a c t i c a l l y u n n o t i c e a b l e , w h i l e i n t h e p l a c e s w h e r e s e p a r a t e map s h e e t s a r e s p l i c e d , b o t h p a r a l l e l s and t h e orthodrome w i l l have b r e a k s .

F i g . 1.40. O r t h o d r o m e o n a Map o f a T a n g e n t i a l Conic P r o j e c t i o n .

59

A s w e have a l r e a d y shown, t h e orthodrome i n a c e n t r a l p o l a r However, i t s moving p r o j e c t i o n i s e x p r e s s e d by a s t r a i g h t l i n e . a z i m u t h , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f t h e d i r e c t i o n s 0 , 9 0 , 1 8 0 , and 270 c a n n o t b e d e t e r m i n e d b y s i m p l e m e a s u r e m e n t s o n a map, b u t demand t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of c o r r e c t i o n s a c c o r d i n g t o ( 1 . 2 9 ) and ( 1 . 3 0 ) .
I n a p o l a r s t e r e o g r a p h i c p r o j e c t i o n , t h e orthodrome i s a l s o a nearly straight line. However, t o d e t e r m i n e i t s a z i m u t h , it i s n e c e s s a r y t o u s e g e n e r a l e q u a t i o n s o f a n o r t h o d r o m e on t h e E a r t h ' s surface. L o x o d r o m e on t h e E a r t h ' s Surface

The l o x o d r o m e d i r e c t i o n a t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e i s u s e d o n l y t o d e t e r m i n e t h e mean p a t h a n g l e o f f l i g h t o n s h o r t s e g m e n t s o f a p a t h by t h e u s e o f m a g n e t i c compasses. ' W i t h t h e u s e o f m a g n e t i c com p a s s e s , n o t a geographic b u t a magnetic loxodrome d i r e c t i o n i s used. T h i s l e a d s t o a bending o f t h e f l i g h t p a t h which does n o t l e n d i t self t o precise analytical descriptions. The u s e o f maps i n a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l p r o j e c t i o n , on w h i c h a n o r t h o d r o m e w i t h a ! e n g t h u p t o 1 2 0 0 km i s p r a c t i c a l l y r e p r e s e n t e d by a s t r a i g h t l i n e , as w e l l as t h e u s e o f r a d i o - e n g i n e e r i n g f a c i l i t i e s f o r a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n by o r t h o d r o m e b e a r i n g s , l e d t o t h e p o s i t i o n t h a t t h e orthodrome l i n e of t h e p a t h o f an a i r c r a f t i s p r a c t i c a l l y m a i n t a i n e d w i t h o u t b e i n g d e p e n d e n t o n a s y s t e m o f meas u r i n g d i r e c t i o n s on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e . I n t h i s case, a s t r i c t l y l o x o d r o m i c l i n e i s n o t t a k e n as t h e loxodrome, b u t r a t h e r an o r t h o d r o m e s e c t i o n w i t h a n i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e mean p a t h a n g l e . A p p l i c a t i o n o f p r e c i s e g y r o s c o p i c and a s t r o n o m i c a l n a v i g a t i o n a l d e v i c e s g e n e r a l l y e l i m i n a t e s t h e n e c e s s i t y o f u s i n g t h e loxodrome Therefore, i n studying the properties of a d i r e c t i o n of f l i g h t . l o x o d r o m e on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e , w e a r e l i m i t e d o n l y by t h e s m a l l amount o f a v a i l a b l e g e o m e t r i c i n f o r m a t i o n .

A s w e a l r e a d y know, a loxodrome i s a l i n e on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r face which j o i n s two p o i n t s and i n t e r s e c t s t h e m e r i d i a n s a t a con s t an t angle.

I n g e n e r a l , a loxodrome i s a s p i r a l l i n e which goes t o t h e A s a r e s u l t of t h i s , it has curvature not only i n Earth's poles. a v e r t i c a l p l a n e , b u t i n a h o r i z o n t a l p l a n e as w e l l . Meridians, t h e e q u a t o r , and p a r a l l e l s which are a l s o loxodrome l i n e s , e x p r e s s e d i n t h e f i r s t t w o c a s e s by a g r e a t c i r c l e a n d i n t h e l a s t case b y a s m a l l c i r c l e on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e , a r e t h e e x c e p t i o n . The c u r v a t u r e o f a l o x o d r o m e i n a h o r i z o n t a l p l a n e i n c r e a s e s s h a r p l y w i t h an approach t o t h e E a r t h ' s p o l e s . A s a r e s u l t , it i s n o t u s e d a t a l l for f l i g h t s i n p o l a r l a t i t u d e s .

/64

L e t u s determine t h e c u r v a t u r e of a loxodrome, i t s e x t e n s i o n ,

60

and i t s d e f l e c t i o n as compared t o t h e orthodrome d i r e c t i o n a t a given l a t i t u d e 9. T h e maximum c u r v a t u r e of a loxodrome a t a given f l i g h t a l t i t u d e w i l l o c c u r when t h e f l i g h t i s i n an e a s t e r l y or w e s t e r l y d i r e c t i o n , and it w i i l v a n i s h i n a flight t o the north or south.
L e t u s assume t h a t a f l i g h t a t a l t i t u d e $I F i g . 1 . 4 1 . L o x o d r o m e o n a Map o f a C o n i c occurs i n an e a s t e r l y Projection. direction. In t h i s case, t h e angle of t u r n o f t h e loxodrome from p o i n t A t o p o i n t B w i l l b e e q u a l t o t h e a n g l e of c o n v e r g e n c e o f t h e m e r i d i a n s ( 6 ) b e t w e e n t h e s e p o i n t s ( F i g . 1 . 4 1 ) .
8=-

(AB

- AA) sin 'PI

Its length

( S ) from p o i n t A

t o B w i l l be
S = (AB

- AA) COS 'p,

is the

w h e r e A A a n d A B a r e t h e l o n g i t u d e s o f p o i n t s A a n d B a n d $I mean l a t i t u d e b e t w e e n p o i n t s A a n d B .

The r a d i u s o f c u r v a t u r e o f t h e l o x o d r o m e ( r ~ )a n b e d e t e r m i n e d c as t h e r a t i o o f t h e l e n g t h o f p a r t ( S ) t o t h e angle o f t u r n ( 6 ) . I f we t a k e t h e r a d i u s o f t h e E a r t h a s 1, t h e n
S
ri=8

/65

=ctgrp.

(1.48)

The p a r t o f t h e l o x o d r o m e w h i c h r u n s a l o n g t h e m e r i d i a n d o e s T h e r e f o r e , i f t h e loxodrome p a s s e s n o t have a h o r i z o n t a l c u r v a t u r e . a t an angle t o t h e meridian, t h e r a d i u s of i t s c u r v a t u r e a t any point w i l l equal: r = r, COSec a = clg 'p cosec a. (1.49)

Example: Determine t h e r a d i u s o f c u r v a t u r e o f a loxodrome p a s s i n g a t a n a n g l e o f 30 t o t h e m e r i d i a n a t a l a t i t u d e o f 4 5 O .

S o l u t i on :
r = R, ctg 45" cosec 30"= ZR, = 12742

km

w h e r e R 3 i s t h e r a d i u s of t h e E a r t h .

61

The c u r v a t u r e o f t h e , l o x o d r o m e i n a h o r i z o n t a l p l a n e c r e a t e s some l e n g t h e n i n g o f t h e s t r a i g h t - l i n e p a r t s o f t h e p a t h . The l a t e r a l d e v i a t i o n s f r o m t h e l i n e o f t h e o r t h o d r o m e d i r e c t i o n may t u r n out t o be very s i g n i f i c a n t here. I n Figure 1 . 4 2 , t h e s t r a i g h t l i n e AB i s t h e orthodrome; arc AB i s t h e loxodrome; 6 i s t h e a n g l e o f t u r n of t h e lokodrome from p o i n t A t o point B. The l e n g t h o f t h e s t r a i g h t l i n e i s

w h i l e t h e l e n g t h o f t h e a r c is
AB = RB.

Lengthening o f t h e p a t h a l o n g t h e loxodrome ( A S ) by t h e f o r m u l a
& = Rs -2R sin 3

i s determined

6 . 2

(1.50)

Example: Determine t h e l e n g t h e n i n g of t h e p a t h a l o n g t h e loxo drome p a s s i n g t h r o u g h p o i n t s A a n d B on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e , w i t h A: l a t i t u d e 55O N , l o n g i t u d e 3 8 O E ; the following coordinates: B: l a t i t u d e 55O N , l o n g i t u d e 6 8 O E .
S i n c e t h e l a t i t u d e of t h e s t a r t i n g and end p o i n t s i s t h e same, t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e loxodrome c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e E a r t h ' s p a r a l l e l at a l a t i t u d e of 5 5 O . The r a d i u s o f c u r v a t u r e o f t h e l o x o d r o m e w i l l b e :
r=r;,=Rgctg55"=6371.0,7002=4461

km

The a n g l e o f t u r n of
-b=((h2-A1)slncp;

t h e l o x o d r o m e i s d e t e r m i n e d by t h e f o r m u l a
b=-3O0sin55"= -3O0-O,8192=24.576",

S u b s t i t u t i n g t h e v a l u e of t h e r a d i u s of c u r v a t u r e and t h e an we obtain: g l e of t u r n of t h e loxodrome i n t o ( 1 . 5 0 ) ,

/66

As=

24*576'4461 -2.4461 4,2127 &5,6 57.3

km

From t h i s e x a m p l e , i t i s o b v i o u s t h a t a t m i d d l e l a t i t u d e s , w i t h f l i g h t p a t h s u p t o 2 , 0 0 0 - 3 , 0 0 0 km l o n g , t h e c u r v a t u r e o f t h e loxodrome creates r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l l e n g t h e n i n g s o f t h e p a t h ( i n o u r

62

e x a m p l e , l e s s t h a n 1 % )h o w e v e r , i n a p p r o a c h i n g t h e p o l a r l a t i t u d e s , ; lengthening of the path w i l l increase, together with a decrease i n t h e r a d i u s o f c u r v a t u r e o f t h e loxodrome. S i g n i f i c a n t l e n g t h e n i n g s o f t h e p a t h a l o n g t h e loxodrome o c c u r a t m i d d l e l a t i t u d e s w i t h v e r y l o n g d i s t a n c e s b e t w e e n p o i n t s on t h e Earth's surface. F o r e x a m p l e , a t a l a t i t u d e o f 40, w i t h a d i s t a n c e o f 1 1 , 0 0 0 km b e t w e e n p o i n t s , l e n g t h e n i n g o f t h e p a t h a l o n g t h e l o x o d r o m e c a n e x c e e d 4 , 0 0 0 km, ; . e . , m o r e t h a n 3 0 % . I n Figure 1 . 4 2 , it i s obvious t h a t w i t h a c o n s t a n t r a d i u s of c u r v a t u r e o f t h e loxodrome, i t s g r e a t e s t discrepancy w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e orthodrome ( d e f l e c t i o n ) w i l l be observed a t h a l f t h e p a t h between p o i n t s A and B .
8

0 r t h o d rome
A
A2

Here

Loxodrome F i g . 1 . 4 2 . R a d i u s of C u r v a t u r e of a ~ 0 x 0 drome.

A2

- R COS

? i

or

A 2 = R (1 -cos

$).

(1.51)

I n t h e example a n a l y z e d by u s ,
A 2 = 4461 (1 -0,9771)
= 102,6

km

Thus, t h e d i s c r e p a n c y between t h e loxodrome l i n e o f t h e p a t h and t h e o r t h o d r o m e , e v e n a t c o m p a r a t i v e l y s m a l l d i s t a n c e s b e t w e e n This is p o i n t s on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e , w i l l b e v e r y s u b s t a n t i a l . t h e b a s i c c a u s e of t h e l i m i t a t i o n of t h e l e n g t h o f t h e loxodrome segments of t h e p a t h . I n t h e p r a c t i c e o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n , s i n c e t h e loxodrome d i r e c t i o n of f l i g h t i s used only i n l i m i t e d path segments, t h e a z i muth o f t h e o r t h o d r o m e ( a ) , m e a s u r e d on t h e c e n t r a l m e r i d i a n b e t w e e n t h e s t a r t i n g and end p o i n t s o f t h e segment i s t a k e n as t h e loxodrome d i r e c t i o n of t h e f l i g h t . T h i s a n g l e c a n a l s o b e d e t e r m i n e d on t h e b a s i s o f t h e a p p r o x i m a t e formula
(1.52)

/67

The l e n g t h o f t h e l o x o d r o m e s e g m e n t o f t h e p a t h m i n e d by t h e f o r m u l a

(S) is deter

(1.53)

or
(1.54)

63

1111I1111IIIIIlII.

Ill

I,

11,

I I I

Formulas (1.54) and (1.52) geometrical interpretation. Formula ( 1 . 5 3 )

are approximate and have a simple

is derived analytically.

Considering t h a t t h e loxodrome i n t e r s e c t s t h e meridians a t a constant angle, t h e r a t i o remains constant:

from which

In t h e majority of cases, i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e distance along t h e l o x o d r o m e , i t i s more a d v a n t a g e o u s t o a p p l y ( 1 . 5 3 ) . However, w i t h l o x o d r o m e d i r e c t i o n s c l o s e t o 9 0 or 2 7 0 , t h e v a l u e s $ 2 - $ 1 and cos a s i m u l t a n e o u s l y approach z e r o . This leads t o large a r i t h m e t i c e r r o r s i n c a l c u l a t i o n and u l t i m a t e l y t o a n a m b i g u i t y i n t h e solution. I n t h e s e c a s e s , i t i s more a d v a n t a g e o u s t o u s e ( 1 . 5 4 ) , t h e e r r o r s i n which w i l l be n e g l i g i b l y s m a l l , s i n c e a s m a l l d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e l a t i t u d e s b e t w e e n t h e p o i n t s m e a n s t h a t t h e mean c o s i n e o f t h e l a t i t u d e b e c o m e s p r a c t i c a l l y e q u a l t o t h e c o s i n e o f t h e mean latitude.

Example: Determine t h e loxodrome d i r e c t i o n and t h e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n p o i n t s A a n d B on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e , t h e c o o r d i n a t e s o f A : l a t i t u d e 56O N , l o n g i t u d e 38O E ; B : l a t i t u d e 68O N , which a r e : l o n g i t u d e 47O E .
Solution:
t h e loxodrome:
tga=- 47

According t o

(1.381,
COS 62" =

l e t us find t h e d i r e c t i o n of

68-33

-38

0 3 2 ; a = 1994'. ,51

Let us d e t e r m i n e t h e loxodrome d i s t a n c e a c c o r d i n g t o ( 1 . 5 3 ) :

S = l l l , l - 68-56. =I413 km
cos 1924'

Loxodrome on M a p s o f

Different Projections

A l o x o d r o m e h a s t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f a s t r a i g h t l i n e o n l y on maps of a normal i s o g o n a l c y l i n d r i c a l p r o j e c t i o n .
O n maps o f n o r m a l i s o g o n a l c o n i c a n d a z i m u t h a l p r o j e c t i o n s , t h e l o x o d r o m e is a c u r v e d l i n e i n t e r s ' e c t i n g t h e m e r i d i a n s a t a c o n T h e r e f o r e , knowing t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e loxodrome s t a n t angle a. i n o r d e r t o d r a w i t o n a map i t i s s u f f i c i e n t a t t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t

64

t o p l o t t h i s d i r e c t i o n up t o t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n w i t h t h e n e x t m e r i d i a n , where t h e i n d i c a t e d d i r e c t i o n must b e e x t e n d e d t o t h e n e x t meridian i n l i n e . Continuing our p l o t t i n g t o t h e f i n a l p o i n t , we w i l l obtain a broken l i n e very c l o s e t o t h e loxodrode. On maps w i t h n o n i s o g o n a l p r o j e c t i o n s , t h e l o x o d r o m e w i l l h a v e a v a r i a b l e a n g l e t o t h e m e r i d i a n s , which depends on t h e r a t i o o f t h e scales
t g a m = tga-

n m

(1.55)

where a i s t h e a n g l e o f i n t e r s e c t i o n of t h e loxodrome w i t h t h e m e r i d i a n a t a l o c a t i o n ; C ~ M i s t h e a n g l e of i n t e r s e c t i o n o f t h e l o x o d r o m e w i t h t h e m e r i d i a n o n a m a p ; n a n d m a r e t h e s c a l e s o f a map a t a g i v e n p o i n t a l o n g t h e p r i n c i p a l d i r e c t i o n s east-west and n o r t h south, respectively.

For e x a m p l e , o n m a p s w i t h a n e q u a l l y s p a c e d n o r m a l c y l i n d r i c a l = sec @, p r o j e c t i o n , where

tg am= tg a sec '4,

; . e . , t h e loxodrome w i l l have a c u r v a t u r e i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of a p o l e , whereas it h a s a n a t u r a l c u r v a t u r e i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e equator. General Recommendations f o r Measuring D i r e c t i o n s and D i s t a n c e s

O r t h o d r o m e d i r e c t i o n s a n d d i s t a n c e s for s t r a i g h t - l i n e s e g m e n t s o f a p a t h o f m o r e t h a n 1 2 0 0 - 1 5 0 0 km i n a l l c a s e s m u s t b e d e t e r m i n e d b y a n a l y t i c a l m e a n s , i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f t h e s c a l e s a n d map p r o j e c t i o n s used. W i t h a l e n g t h o f t h e p a t h s e g m e n t s o f more t h a n 2 0 0 0 k m , t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e p o i n t s of t h e orthodrome must a l s o be d e t e r m i n e d i n s u c h a way t h a t t h e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n t h e m d o e s n o t e x c e e d 8 0 0 - 1 0 0 0 km. On s h o r t p a t h s e g m e n t s ( u p t o 1 2 0 0 - 1 5 0 0 k m ) , t h e m e t h o d s o f d e t e r m i n i n g d i r e c t i o n s and d i s t a n c e s depend on t h e s c a l e and p r o j e c t i o n o f t h e m a p s , a s w e l l a s on t h e means a n d m e t h o d s o f a i r craft navigation used. For e x a m p l e , i n u s i n g p r e c i s e a u t o m a t i c n a v i g a t i o n a l d e v i c e s , it i s always advantageous t o use a n a l y t i c a l forms t o s o i v e t h e s e problems.
I t i s p o s s i b l e t o c a r r y o u t d i r e c t measurement o f d i s t a n c e s a n d d i r e c t i o n s o n maps b y m e a n s o f a s c a l e a n d p r o t r a c t o r , w i t h t h e l e n g t h o f t h e p a t h s e g m e n t s b e i n g n o t m o r e t h a n 1 5 0 0 km i f t h e s e maps a r e e x e c u t e d o n a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o l y c o n i c p r o j e c t i o n a n d h a v e a s c a l e o f 1:1,000,000 or 1 : 2 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 ( t h e l a t t e r w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s o f o n e (or, i n e x t r e m e c a s e s , t w o ) a d j o i n i n g ' s h e e t s ) .

/69

65

fl

W must n o t e t h a t good r e s u l t s i n m e a s u r i n g d i r e c t i o n s and d i s e t a n c e s c a n b e o b t a i n e d ' o n r o u t e maps c o n s t r u c t e d o n o b l i q u e c y l i n d r i c a l or o b l i q u e c o n i c p r o j e c t i o n s when t h e f l i g h t d i r e c t i o n c o i n How c i d e s w i t h or i s l o c a t e d c l o s e t o t h e a x i s o f t h e r o u t e map. e v e r , i n d i r e c t i o n s a t a n a n g l e t o t h e a x i s of t h e r o u t e map, t h e r e s u l t s o f m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y w o r s e e h a n on maps w i t h an i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o l y c o n i c p r o j e c t i o n .
I n u s i n g maps c o n s t r u c t e d w i t h a l l o t h e r p r o j e c t i o n s , o n l y t h e a n a l y t i c a l form of d e t e r m i n i n g d i s t a n c e s and d i r e c t i o n s , w i t h c a l c u l a t i o n o f i n t e r m e d i a t e p o i n t s a l o n g t h e orthodrome a f t e r e v e r y 200 3 0 0 km o f t h e p a t h , m u s t b e a p p l i e d . The l o x o d r o m i c f l i g h t d i r e c t i o n c a n b e on maps w i t h a n i s o g o n a l n o r m a l c y l i n d r i c a l m e n t s o f d i s t a n c e s u p t o 3 0 0 - 4 0 0 km o n t h i s u r e d by means o f a v a r y i n g s c a l e l o c a t e d on measured d i r e c t l y o n l y Here, seg projection. p r o j e c t i o n c a n b e meas t h e e d g e o f t h e map.

On maps i n o t h e r p r o j e c t i o n s , g e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g , t h e r e i s n o need t o m e a s u r e and p l o t t h e loxodrome l i n e o f t h e p a t h i n p a r t s of m3rie t h a n 3 0 0 - 4 0 0 km. Since t h e loxodromic f l i g h t d i r e c t i o n i n s h o r t p a t h segments i s u s e d a s t h e mean o r t h o d r o m e d i r e c t i o n , i t i s c o n s i d e r e d e q u a l t o t h e o r t h o d r o m e a s i n d i c a t e d b y t h e mean m e r i d i a n b e t w e e n t h e s t a r t i n g and end p o i n t s o f t h e p a t h segment. I n view o f t h e f a c t t h a t i n s h o r t s e g m e n t s o f t h e p a t h t h e lox-. odrome l i n e d o e s n o t show s i g n i f i c a n t d e v i a t i o n f r o m t h e o r t h o d r o m e a s a r u l e , i t i s n o t p l o t t e d o n maps b u t i s c o n s i d e r e d c o i n c i d e n t w i t h t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e orthodrome.

7.

S p e c i a l C o o r d i n a t e S y s t e m s on t h e E a r t h ' s S u r f a c e

I n t h e p r a c t i c e o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n , r e c t a n g u l a r and geo g r a p h i c c o o r d i n a t e systems a r e i n s u f f i c i e n t , and it i s n e c e s s a r y t o u s e a t l e a s t t h r e e or f o u r c o o r d i n a t e s y s t e m s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y .

A c t u a l l y , e l e m e n t s o f a i r c r a f t m o v e m e n t a r e e x a m i n e d i n a moving rectangular coordinate system. The c e n t e r o f a r e c t a n g u l a r s y s t e m moves i n o n e o f t h e s u r f a c e c o o r d i n a t e s y s t e m s w h i c h i s c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e g i v e n f l i g h t p a t h , which i n t u r n i s determined i n a geographic coordinate system. T h e i n d i c a t e d o r d e r o f t h e c o n n e c t i o n of t h e c o o r d i n a t e s y s t e m s i s minimal. For some p u r p o s e s , i t i s a d v a n t a g e o u s t o e x a m i n e a i r c r a f t movement r e l a t i v e t o t h e a i r s p a c e , i . e . , a s u p p l e m e n t a r y c o o r d i n a t e s y s t e m whose c e n t e r s h i f t s i n t h e moving r e c t a n g u l a r s y s t e m . With t h e u s e of gyroscopic d e v i c e s a s w e l l as a s t r o n o m i c a l it is necessary t o use a u n i v e r s a l ( s t e l l a r ) coordinate sys The u s e o f r a d i o - e n g i n e e r i n g n a v i g a t i o n a l f a c i l i t i e s i s c o n
~~

/70

ones, tem,

66

n e c t e d w i t h t h e u s e of a whole s e r i e s o f s p e c i a l t y p e s o f s u r f a c e c o o r d i n a t e s by w h i c h t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t o n t h e E a r t h s surface is determined. L e t u s examine t h e most i m p o r t a n t used i n aircraft navigation. surface coordinate systems

Orthodromi c C o o r d i n a t e System

.The orthodromic c o o r d i n a t e system f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e p a t h o f a n a i r c r a f t i s t h e one most w i d e l y u s e d a t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e . I n t h i s system, t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e s t r a i g h t - l i n e p a t h segment The l i n e p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o ( F i g . 1 . 4 3 ) i s t a k e n as t h e main a x i s X. t h e X-axis and a l s o s i t u a t e d i n t h e p l a n e o f t h e h o r i z o n i s t h e sec o n d a x i s , Z.

Fig.

1.43.

Orthodromic Coordinate System.

. I n F i g u r e 1 . 4 3 , a n g l e s 01 a n d 2 a r e t h e d i r e c t i o n s o f t h e f i r s t and second s t r a i g h t - l i n e segments of t h e p a t h , measured from t h e meridians of t h e i r s t a r t i n g p o i n t s . P o i n t s 01 a n d 0 2 a r e t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t s of t h e segments, t h e c o o r d i n a t e s of which a r e de termined i n t h e geographic coordinate system. The o r t h o d r o m e d i s t a n c e s 0102 a n d 0 2 0 3 a r e t h e l e n g t h s o f t h e s t r a i g h t - l i n e s e g m e n t s ; t h e a n g l e T A l i s t h e a n g l e o f t u r n of t h e orthodromic c o o r d i n a t e system a t point 0 2 .

/71

S i n c e an a i r c r a f t moving above t h e E a r t h s s u r f a c e i n a g i v e n d i r e c t i o n h a s o n l y s m a l l random d e v i a t i o n s from t h e g i v e n f l i g h t p a t h ( a s a r u l e , n o t more t h a n 2 0 - 3 0 km), i t i s p o s s i b l e t o t a k e t h e s p h e r i c a l s u r f a c e of t h e Earth within t h e a r e a of t h e p o s s i b l e d e v i a t i o n s o f t h e a i r c r a f t from t h e X-axis o f t h e orthodrome system as a c y l i n d r i c a l s u r f a c e . Then t h e u n r o l l i n g o f t h e c y l i n d e r g i v e s u s a r e c t a n g u l a r s y s t e m XZ on a p l a n e .
L e t u s a s s u m e t h a t a n a i r c r a f t m o v e s f r o m p o i n t 01 a t a s m a l l a n g l e t o t h e 01x1 a x i s e q u a l t o J, - a l , a n d c o v e r s a d i s t a n c e S .

67

111 . . 1.111...111111111--1...--..........II . , I

. I

I._ ._ .. _. .

... .....
,, .

- ... .

._

The c o o r d i n a t e s o f t h e a i r c r a f t a t p o i n t t h e equations:

M, ,

a r e d e t e r m i n e d by

Xa= S cos (JI - al); Za= S sin (JI - a,).

(1.56)

M e a s u r i n g t h e Xa c o o r d i n a t e c o n s t i t u t e s c h e c k i n g o f t h e p a t h o f t h e a i r c r a f t a c c o r d i n g t o d i s t a n c e , w h i l e measuring t h e Za coor d i n a t e c o n s t i t u t e s checking of t h e path according t o direction. P e r i o d i c m e a s u r e m e n t o f t h e X a a n d Z a c o o r d i n a t e s make i t p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e a l l t h e b a s i c e l e m e n t s o f a i r c r a f t movement; f o r example : a) D i r e c t i o n o f a i r c r a f t movement
($):

Jr = arctg

Za2-Zai
. .

a,

(1.57)

Xa2-Xa1

where X a l , Zal are c o o r d i n a t e s of t h e a i r c r a f t a t t h e f i r s t p o i n t . X a 2 , Za2 a r e c o o r d i n a t e s of t h e a i r c r a f t a t t h e s e c o n d p o i n t ;

b)

Speed of

a i r c r a f t movement a l o n g a g i v e n f l i g h t p a t h ( W )
(1.58)

where

t i s t h e f l y i n g t i m e o f t h e a i r c r a f t between p o i n t s Xal and

c) Remaining f l y i n g t i m e t o p o i n t 0 2
Xrem re%?

Xa2 ;

(1.59)

w h e r e Xrem d)

= 0102 - X a .

N e c e s s a r y f l i g h t d i r e c t i o n for a r r i v a l a t p o i n t 0 2 :

+ = 01-

arctg

z -k Xre

(1.60)

Formulas ( 1 . 5 5 ) t o ( 1 . 6 0 ) a r e e n t i r e l y o b v i o u s and do n o t r e q u i r e s p e c i a l d e r i v a t i o n s or p r o o f s . To r e f i n e t h e c o o r d i n a t e s o f t h e a i r c r a f t i n t h e o r t h o d r o m e s y s t e m , w e c a n u s e c o r r e c t i o n p o i n t s ( C P ) , v i s u a l or r a d a r l a n d m a r k s on t h e E a r t h s s u r f a c e , l o c a t i o n s o f g r o u n d r a d i o f a c i l i t i e s , etc. (Fig. 1.44).

/72 -

T r a n s l a t o r s note:
68

a r c t g = cot.

If t h e c o r r e c t i o n p o i n t i s o b s e r v e d from a n a i r c r a f t a t a n a n g l e 0 t o t h e g i v e n r o u t e , a t a d i s t a n c e from t h e a i r c r a f t e q u a l t o R , the coordinates of the aircraft w i l l be d e t e r m i n e d by t h e f o r m u l a s :

X,= Xc p- R COS 8; Za= X c p - R sine.

(1.61)

During f l i g h t o v e r t h e c o r r e c t i o n p o i n t , ? . e . , when t h i s p o i n t i s o b s e r v e d a t a n a n g l e e q u a l t o 90 t o t h e f l i g h t path, (1.61) is simplified and t a k e s t h e form: Fig. 1.44. Determining t h e Orthodromic Coordinates of an A i r c r a f t from a Correc
tion Point.

xa= X C P

z,= Z c p - R .

Fig. 1.45. T r a n s f e r of t h e Next Stage i n a Course t o an Orthodromic Coordinate System: ( a > w i t h t h e A i r c r a f t P o s i t i o n on t h e P a t h o f t h e G i v e n C o u r s e ; (b) w i t h D e v i a t i o n o f t h e A i r c r a f t f r o m t h e P a t h of a Given Course.

The s i m p l i c i t y o f t h e g e o m e t r i c a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s a n d t h e n a t u r a l p e r c e p t i o n of t h e c o o r d i n a t e s of t h e a i r c r a f t i n an orthodrome s y s t e m , b o t h of t h e p a t h c o v e r e d by t h e a i r c r a f t and o f t h e d e v i a t i o n a l l o w e d f r o m t h e g i v e n p a t h , make i t t h e m o s t a c c e p t a b l e c o o r d i n a t e system f o r a given f l i g h t path. I n high-speed aircraft ( a s a r e s u l t of a l a r g e t u r n i n g r a d i u s ) , i n o r d e r t o e m e r g e w i t h o u t d e v i a t i o n a t t h e n e x t s t a g e o f t h e or thodrome p a t h , it i s n e c e s s a r y t o c o n s i d e r t h e l i n e a r advance t o the angle of turn ( T A ) . This t r a n s f e r i s connected with transforma t i o n s o f t h e c o o r d i n a t e s of t h e a i r c r a f t from t h e orthodrome s y s t e m of t h e preceding s t a g e t o t h e system of t h e following stage. I n F i g u r e 1 . 4 5 , a , p o i n t M l o c a t e d on t h e f l i g h t p a t h o f t h e preceding stage of f l i g h t is t h e point of the beginning of turn f o r Obviously, t h e a r r i v a l at the flight path of the following stage. coordinates of t h i s p o i n t i n t h e system of t h e following s t a g e w i l l be e q u a l t o 69

/73 -

(1.62)

I n g e n e r a l , when t h e c o o r d i n a t e Z a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e t u r n if t h e aircraft is not located s t r i c t l y o n t h e g i v e n f l i g h t p a t h when b e g i n n i n g t h e t u r n , t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of t h e c o o r d i n a t e s m u s t b e c a r r i e d o u t a c c o r d s n g t o t h e f o l lowing formula (Fig. 1.45, b ) :

is n o t e q u a l t o z e r o , i . e . ,

x,= z sin ~n - x,re m cos T A; z2= z yn + x r e m . sin T A.

COS

(1.63)

I n t h e p r o c e s s of t u r n i n g , t h e c o o r d i n a t e s o f t h e a i r c r a f t are m e a s u r e d i n t h e s y s t e m o f t h e f o l l o w i n g p a r t of t h e f l i g h t i n w h i c h their calculation after turning is carried out. The o r t h o d r o m e s y s t e m examined by us i s sometimes c a l l e d t h e stage In orthodromic coordinate system. some i n s t a n c e s , a r e c t a n g u l a r c o o r d i n a t e s y s t e m i s u s e d for f l i g h t o v e r a n a r e a , e . g . , for m a n e u v e r i n g of an aircraft i n t h e region o f a n a i r p o r t a n d for s p e c i a l - . p u r I n t h e s e cases, pose f l i g h t s , etc. t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e meridian at F i g . 1 . 4 6 . R e c t a n g u l a r Coort h e p o i n t o f o r i g i n of t h e coor d i n a t e S y s t e m for F l i g h t d i n a t e s or some o t h e r d i r e c t i o n [for e x a m p l e , t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e o v e r a n Area. t a k e - o f f - l a n d i n g zone a t an a i r p o r t ( F i g . 1 . 4 6 1 1 i s t a k e n as t h e X - a x i s , and a r e c t a n g u l a r c o o r d i n a t e system i s c o n s t r u c t e d from t h i s . The f l i g h t i s c a r r i e d o u t a l o n g t h e g i v e n c o o r d i n a t e s o f t h e p o i n t s o f t h e r o u t e [for e x a m p l e , a l o n g t h e c o o r d i n a t e s o f t h e b e g i n n i n g of e a c h o f t h e four t u r n s i n t h e r e c t a n g u l a r m a n e u v e r o f m a k i n g a n a p p r o a c h t o l a n d a t a n a i r p o r t ( X , Z , ) , (X,Z,), ( X 3 Z 3 ) ,

(X4Z4)1.
The l i m i t s o f a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f a n a r e a l r e c t a n g u l a r c o o r d i n a t e s y s t e m a r e l i m i t e d b y t h e e f f e c t o f t h e s p h e r i c i t y of t h e E a r t h o n t h e p r e c i s i o n of measurements. In practice, without noticeable dis t o r t i o n s , s u c h a s y s t e m c a n b e u s e d w i t h i n a r a d i u s o f 3 0 0 - 4 0 0 km from t h e p o i n t of o r i g i n of t h e c o o r d i n a t e s .
I t i s a l s o a p p l i e d w i t h t h e u s e of n a v i g a t i o n a l i n d i c a t o r s i n f l i g h t , when t h e o r t h o d r o m e d i r e c t i o n o f p a r t o f t h e c o u r s e i s t a k e n as t h e X a x i s .

70

A r b i t r a r y (Ob1 i q u e and T r a n s v e r s e ) S p h e r i c a l and P o l a r C o o r d i n a t e S y s t e m s

I n t h e s o l u t i o n o f n a v i g a t i o n a l problems w i t h a geographical coordinate system i n p o l a r regions, very s i g n i f i c a n t e r r o r s arise.

A s p e c i a l c h a p t e r i s devoted t o problems o f accuracy i n air craft navigation. I n t h e present s e c t i o n , f o r t h e purpose of i l l u s t r a t i o n , o n l y ( 1 . 3 6 a ) i s examined.
I t i s obvious t h a t w i t h t h e approach of t h e a i r c r a f t t u d e e q u a l t o 90, t h e t a n g e n t 4 w i l l a p p r o a c h i n f i n i t y . s m a l l e r r o r s i n m e a s u r i n g t h e l a t i t u d e of t h e l o c a t i o n o f craft w i l l cause t h e e r r o r s i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e longitude t indefinitely.

t o a lati Therefore, the air o grow

To a v o i d a l o s s o f a c c u r a c y i n s o l v i n g n a v i g a t i o n a l p r o b l e m s , e s p e c i a l l y by a u t o m a t i c n a v i g a t i o n a l d e v i c e s , r a n d o m s p h e r i c a l c o o r d i n a t e systems are employed.

P

Arbitrary s p h e r i c a l systems d i f f e r from a g e o g r a p h i c a l s y s t e m by t h e fact t h a t t h e poles of t h e s e systems do n o t c o i n c i d e w i t h t h e g e o g r a p h i c poles. Therefore, i n t h e s e systems a l l the analytical transformations of d i s t a n c e s and d i r e c t i o n s which a r e c a r r i e d o u t for a g e o g r a p h i c c o o r d i nate system a r e j u s t i f i e d . For t r a n s f e r r i n g from a geograph i c a l c o o r d i n a t e system t o an a r b i t r a r y s p h e r i c a l s y s t e m , or v i c e v e r s a , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o d e r i v e s p e c i a l equations: l e t us examine F i g u r e 1 . 4 7 .

In Figure 1.47, a cross section

Here o f t h e E a r t h ' s s p h e r e i s shown. t h e p l a n e o f t h e c r o s s s e c t i o n i s c h o s e n i n s u c h a way a s t o p a s s through t h e c e n t e r o f t h e E a r t h and t h e p o l e s o f t h e geographic s y s t e m and t h e a r b i t r a r y c o o r d i n a t e s y s t e m s , i . e . , s o a s t o appear as t h e p l a n e o f t h e m e r i d i a n i n both t h e geographic and a r b i t r a r y s y s t e m s simultaneously. I t i s obvious t h a t such a plane e x i s t s with any d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e p o l e s o f an a r b i t r a r y s p h e r i c a l system.
L e t us a g r e e t h a t a r e a d i n g o f t h e l o n g i t u d e b o t h i n t h e geo g r a p h i c a l and a r b i t r a r y systems w i l l run from t h e i n d i c a t e d p l a n e of i n t e r s e c t i o n . L i n e s AB and A l B l i n F i g u r e 1 . 4 7 , and t h e l i n e s p a r a l l e l t o t h e m , a p p e a r as l i n e s of i n t e r s e c t i o n w i t h t h e p l a n e s o f t h e e q u a t o r and t h e p a r a l l e l s i n t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l and a r b i t r a r y systems. P o i n t P i s t h e p o l e of t h e geographic c o o r d i n a t e system; P1 i s t h e p o l e o f t h e a r b i t r a r y system; angle e i s a combination of t h e a x e s o f t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l a n d random s y s t e m s .

Fig. 1.47. Transformation of S p h e r i c a l C o o r d i n a t e s

on t h e E a r t h ' s S u r f a c e .

/75 -

71

L e t u s c h o o s e p o i n t M ( 9 1 x 1 ) on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e a n d p r o j e c t i t o n t o t h e p l a n e o f t h e c r o s s s e c t i o n ( p o i n t Mi). I t is ob v i o u s t h a t OL w i l l a p p e a r a s t h e l i n e o f t h e s i n e s o f t h e l a t i t u d e o f p o i n t M i n a n a r b i t r a r y s y s t e m , w h i l e LM1 w i l l a p p e a r a s t h e l i n e of t h e c o s i n e s o f t h e l o n g i t u d e o f p o i n t M of t h i s system i n the plane of i t s p a r a l l e l , i.e.,

LM1=
COS A1 COS ~ 1 .

The l a t i t u d e of p o i n t

M i n t h e geographical system w i l l equal: sin 'p = Ot cob e - LM, e sin

cos 0 -cos

or

sin 'p = sin

A, cos yl sin 0.

(1.64)

I t i s obvious t h a t a p e r p e n d i c u l a r dropped from p o i n t M t o t h e p l a n e o f i n t e r s e c t i o n ( p o i n t M i ) w i l l b e t h e l i n e o f t h e s i n e of t h e l o n g i t u d e i n t h e a r b i t r a r y s y s t e m i n t h e p l a n e of t h e p a r a l l e l o f t h i s p o i n t ; a t t h e same t i m e , t h e l i n e o f t h e s i n e o f t h e l o n g i t u d e i n t h e p l a n e o f t h e p a r a l l e l of t h e p o i n t i n t h e g e o g r a p h i c c o o r d i n a t e system w i l l be sin A = sin AI cos 'pl sec y.

from which it f o l l o w s t h a t
MMI - sin A, cos y1 =sin A COS 'p, =

(1.65)

F o r m u l a s ( 1 . 6 4 ) a n d ( 1 . 6 5 ) make i t p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e t h e coordinates of a p o i n t i n a geographical coordinate system accord i n g t o i t s c o o r d i n a t e s , known i n t h e a r b i t r a r y s y s t e m u n d e r t h e condition t h a t t h e plane coinciding with t h e axes of both systems i s t a k e n as t h e i n i t i a l m e r i d i a n . A f t e r s o l v i n g t h e problems ac cording t o (1.64) and ( 1 . 6 5 ) , it i s n e c e s s a r y t o i n t r o d u c e a cor r e c t i o n i n t o t h e A c o o r d i n a t e e q u a l t o t h e l o n g i t u d e of t h e P I pole i n t h e geographic coordinate system. S i n c e t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f c o n s t r u c t i o n o f s p h e r i c a l and geograph i c coordinate systems are i d e n t i c a l , f o r t h e s o l u t i o n of t h e r e v e r s e t a s k ( t r a n s f e r r i n g from t h e geographic system t o t h e a r b i t r a r y o n e ) , i t i s s u f f i c i e n t t o d r o p t h e s u b s c r i p t s i n t h e f u n c t i o n s of t h e co o r d i n a t e s o f ( 1 . 6 4 ) and ( 1 . 6 5 ) w h e r e e v e r t h e y o c c u r and t o add them where t h e y are a b s e n t :
sin TI -sin 'p COS 0 COS k COS 'p sin'$; sin AI sin k cos 'p sec ql.

F o r m u l a s ( 1 . 6 4 ) a n d ( 1 . 6 5 ) were g i v e n w i t h a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e f l a t t e n i n g o f t h e E a r t h a t t h e p o l e s , ? . e . , t h e E a r t h was t a k e n a s a s p h e r e w i t h a mean r a d i u s .

176 -

72

Position L i n e s of

a n A i r c r a f t on t h e E a r t h ' s

Surface

Thus f a r , w e h a v e examined c o o r d i n a t e s y s t e m s on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e as s y s t e m s which c o n n e c t t h e p o s i t i o n o f a n a i r c r a f t w i t h t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e d u r i n g i t s movement i n a g i v e n d i r e c t i o n . I n aircraft n a v i g a t i o n , it i s o f t e n necessary t o determine t h e e l e m e n t s of a i r c r a f t movement a c c o r d i n g t o c o n s e c u t i v e c o o r d i n a t e s . I t i s o b v i o u s t h a t means and methods f o r m e a s u r i n g t h e c o o r d i n a t e s of a n a i r c r a f t a r e n e c e s s a r y f o r t h i s p u r p o s e . Usually t h e two-dimensional s u r f a c e c o o r d i n a t e s of an aircraft a r e d e t e r m i n e d s e p a r a t e l y a c c o r d i n g t o two l i n e s o f t h e a i r c r a f t ' s p o s i t i o n m e a s u r e d a t d i f f e r e n t t i m e s or a c c o r d i n g t o t w o l i n e s measured s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . I n some c a s e s , i t i s s u f f i c i e n t t o d e t e r mine one l i n e o f t h e a i r c r a f t ' s p o s i t i o n . T h e g e o m e t r i c l o c u s o f p o i n t s of t h e p r o b a b l e l o c a t i o n o f a n a i r c r a f t o n t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e i s c a l l e d t h e p o s i t i o n Z i n e of an aircraft. Similar groups of a i r c r a f t p o s i t i o n l i n e s are c a l l e d a f a m i Zy of p o s i t i o n Z i n e s .
For example, i f t h e l a t i t u d e of t h e l o c a t i o n of an a i r c r a f t i s d e t e r m i n e d by a s t r o n o m i c means b a s e d on t h e e l e v a t i o n o f P o l a r i s , t h e p a r a l l e l on w h i c h t h e a i r c r a f t i s l o c a t e d w i l l b e a p o s i t i o n l i n e of t h e second family.

L e t u s a s s u m e t h a t t h e l o n g i t u d e of a n a i r c r a f t w a s d e t e r m i n e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y on t h e b a s i s o f t h e a l t i t u d e o f a s t a r , t h e a z i m u t h o f w h i c h i s e q u a l t o 9 0 or 2 7 0 O . The l o n g i t u d e o b t a i n e d by s u c h a method i s a p o s i t i o n l i n e o f t h e s e c o n d f a m i l y . Direct measurement o f t h e geographic c o o r d i n a t e s o f an a i r c r a f t i s p o s s i b l e o n l y by a s t r o n o m i c m e a n s , a n d n o t i n a l l c a s e s .

I n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e l o c a t i o n o f a n a i r c r a f t b y o p t i c a l or r a d i o m e t r i c means, t h e f a m i l i e s o f p o s i t i o n l i n e s g e n e r a l l y do n o t c o i n c i d e e i t h e r w i t h t h e g r i d o f g e o g r a p h i c c o o r d i n a t e s or w i t h t h e given f l i g h t d i r e c t i s n . A t t h e present t i m e , t h e r e are several types of coordinate systems which are used as f a m i l i e s o f a i r c r a f t p o s i t i o n l i n e s i n t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f r a d i o - e n g i n e e r i n g and a s t r o n o m i c f a c i l i t i e s o f aircraft navigation. They i n c l u d e t h e f o l l o w i n g :

1) A two-poZe a z i m u t h a Z s y s t e m , i n w h i c h t h e r a d i a l l i n e s ( b e a r i n g s ) d i v e r g i n g f r o m two p o i n t s on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e w i t h

known c o o r d i n a t e s a r e f a m i l i e s o f p o s i t i o n l i n e s .
2) P o l a r o r azimuthaZ r a n g e - f i n d i n g s y s t e m , i n which t h e b e a r i n g s f r o m a p o i n t o n t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e w i t h known c o o r d i n a t e s a r e t h e first f a m i l y o f p o s i t i o n l i n e s of t h i s system, and c o n c e n t r i c

/77 -

73

.I I

. I 1 .1 I 11

I 1 1 I ~ I I . ~ - 1 1 1 1 1 1 . 1

II 1111111111

1111 I I1111 Im-1111

. .I I I .. I

11.111

II

11.1

I ,

. .1 1

,.,...,,...,.

. . , . .., .

._ .._

c i r c l e s a t e q u a l d i s t a n c e s from t h e i n d i c a t e d p o i n t family

are t h e second

3) L i n e s of e q u a l a z i m u t h s ( L E A ) , w h i c h a r e p o s i t i o n l i n e s r e l a t i v e t o known p o i n t s o n t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e , a t e a c h o f w h i c h t h e a z i m u t h o f a known p o i n t r e t a i n s a c o n s t a n t v a l u e .

4) Difference-rangefinding (hyperbolic system), i n which each family of p o s i t i o n l i n e s i s b i p o l a r ; a constant difference of dis t a n c e s t o t h e p o l e s of t h e s y s t e m i s p r e s e r v e d on e a c h p o s i t i o n line. 5) Over-aZZ r a n g e f i n d i n g ( e Z Z i p t i c a Z ) s y s t e m , i n w h i c h t h e f a m i l y o f p o s i t i o n l i n e s i s b i p o l a r ; a c o n s t a n t sum o f t h e d i s t a n c e s t o t h e p o l e s o f t h e s y s t e m i s p r e s e r v e d on t h e p o s i t i o n l i n e s .
6) c o n f o c a z h y p e r b o Z i c - e Z Z i p t i c a Z s y s t e m , i n w h i c h t h e fam i l i e s of p o s i t i o n l i n e s a r e e l l i p s e s and hyperbolas confocal with them.

From t h e a b o v e l i s t o f c o o r d i n a t e s y s t e m s , i t i s e v i d e n t t h a t each has a r i s e n from t h e n a t u r e of t h e n a v i g a t i o n a l v a l u e s measured by t h e d e v i c e s u s e d . The i n d i c a t e d v a l u e s a r e c a l l e d n a v i g a t i o n a Z

parameters.
For.example, f o r a hyperbolic system t h e difference i n d i s t a n c e s s e r v e s as a n a v i g a t i o n a l p a r a m e t e r , and i n an a z i m u t h a l s y s tem ( o r f o r l i n e s o f e q u a l a z i m u t h s ) t h e a z i m u t h s e r v e s 'as a n a v i gational parameter, e t c . I n e v a l u a t i o n s of t h e accuracy of n a v i g a t i o n a l measurements, considering t h a t t h e i n t e r s e c t i n g segments of t h e p o s i t i o n l i n e s of any s y s t e m can be assumed t o be s t r a i g h t - l i n e segments i n t h e region of t h e l o c a t i o n of t h e a i r c r a f t , t h e concept of a u n i f i e d coordinate system i s sometimes i n t r o d u c e d f o r t h e purpose of study i n g t h e g e n e r a l p r o p e r t i e s o f a l l t h e above systems, i n c l u d i n g t h e g e o g r a p h i c and orthodrome s y s t e m s . I n s t u d y i n g t h e s e c o o r d i n a t e s y s t e m s , it i s n e c e s s a r y t o con n e c t e a c h o f them w i t h t h e g e o g r a p h i c s y s t e m f o r l o c a t i n g t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e p o i n t s o f t h e p o s i t i o n l i n e s , i n o r d e r t o p l o t t h e m on a map. I n a d d i t i o n , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o know t h e a n a l y t i c a l f o r m f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e c o o r d i n a t e s o f a n a i r c r a f t i n a g e o g r a p h i c or o r t h o d r o m e s y s t e m o n t h e b a s i s o f known p a r a m e t e r s o f n a v i g a t i o n a l s y s t e m s w i t h o u t p l o t t i n g p o s i t i o n l i n e s on t h e map, as i s done i n a u t o matic navigational devices. B i p o l a r Azimuthal C o o r d i n a t e System

B e a r i n g s f o r an a i r c r a f t , i . e . , orthodrome l i n e s d i v e r g i n g f r o m t w o p o i n t s o n t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e w i t h known c o o r d i n a t e s , a r e p o s i t i o n l i n e s i n t h e azimuthal coordinate system.

74

L e t u s a s s u m e t h a t w e h a v e t w o p o i n t s 01 a n d 0 2 o n t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e ( F i g . 1.48).
I f t h e map b e i n g u s e d h a s b e e n e x e c u t e d o n a p r o j e c t i o n h a v i n g t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f i s o g o n a l i t y a n d o r t h o d r o m i c i t y , e . g . , on a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l p r o j e c t i o n , t h e i n d i c a t e d p o s i t i o n l i n e s o n t h e map c a n b e t a k e n a s s t r a i g h t l i n e s o r i g i n a t i n g a t p o i n t s 01 a n d 0 2 .

/78

However, s a t i s f a c t o r y a c c u r a c y i n determining t h e coordinates of an aircraft a t t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n of t h e b e a r i n g s a s s t r a i g h t l i n e s on a map i s p r e s e r v e d a t c o m p a r a t i v e l y s m a l l d i s t a n c e s a n d o n l y on maps with an i n t e r n a t i o n a l p r o j e c t i o n . In general, f o r the precise p l o t t i n g o f p o s i t i o n l i n e s on a map, l e t u s c o n s i d e r t h e p o i n t s 01 F i g . 1.48. B i p o l a r A z i m u t h a l and 0 2 a s p o l e s o f an a r b i t r a r y Let Coordinate System. s p h e r i c a l coordinate system. us c o n s i d e r t h e d i s t a n c e s S from t h e s e p o i n t s t o a n y p o i n t on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e M a s c o m p l e m e n t s o f t h e l a t i t u d e o f p o i n t M i n t h e s e c o o r d i n a t e s y s t e m s , up t o 9 0 :
S1 = 01M = 9' 0

- '11;

S2 = OzM = 90"- 'p2-

I n t h i s case, t h e c o o r d i n a t e s of p o i n t M i n t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l s y s t e m a r e d e t e r m i n e d a c c o r d i n g t o (1.64) a n d ( 1 . 6 5 ) . T a k i n g t h e m e r i d i a n o f p o i n t 01 a s t h e p r i m e m e r i d i a n o f t h e g e o g r a p h i c s y s t e m , 0 1 a s t h e a z i m u t h a for t h e l o n g i t u d e i n t h e s p h e r i c a l s y s t e m , a n d a v a l u e 0 f . 9 0 ~f o r SI a s t h e l a t i t u d e i n t h i s system, l e t us obtain ( i n t h e geographical coordinate system)

sin 'p = cos S1cos 0 - sin a1sin SI 0, sin

where
0 = 90"- 'Po,;

sin A = sin al sin S1sec 'p.

G i v e n t h e d e f i n i t e v a l u e SI a n d s u b s t i t u t i n g d i f f e r e n t v a l u e s f o r cil, e . g . , g r e a t e r t h a n l o , f o r m u l a s l e t u s u s e t h e g i v e n f o r m u las t o find the coordinates of the points of intersection of the a z i m u t h a l l i n e s w i t h t h e c i r c l e o f e q u a l d i s t a n c e SI i n t h e g e o g r a p h i c system. G i v e n a n o t h e r v a l u e or S 1 a n d h a v i n g c a r r i e d o u t t h e same o p e r a t i o n s w i t h "1, w e w i l l o b t a i n t h e c o o r d i n a t e s o f t h e p o i n t s o f intersection of the azimuthal l i n e s with a circle of equal distance having t h i s radius. C o n t i n u i n g t o i n c r e a s e S1 t o a f u l l r a d i u s o f operation of a
75

n a v i g a t i o n a l d e v i c e , l e t us o b t a i n t h e c o o r d i n a t e s o f t h e interme d i a t e p o i n t s o f t h e a z i m u t h a l p o s i t i o n l i n e s , r u n n i n g f r o m p o l e 01 i n t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l c o o r d i n a t e system, w i t h t h e l o n g i t u d e changed Introducing a correction i n the values of the t o the value hol. l o n g i t u d e s o f t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e p o i n t s f o r t h e i n d i c a t e d v a l u e A,, l e t us o b t a i n t h e l o n g i t u d e s of t h e s e p o i n t s from t h e prime meridian of t h e geographic system. On a map o f a n y p r o j e c t i o n , b y j o i n i n g t h e p o i n t s o b t a i n e d b y l i n e s r u n n i n g f r o m p o i n t 01, we w i l l o b t a i n position l i n e s of t h e first family. I n t h i s way, it i s p o s s i b l e t o o b t a i n t h e f a m i l y o f p o s i t i o n l i n e s from p o i n t 0 2 , t a k i n g it as t h e p o l e of t h e second a r b i t r a r y s p h e r i c a l coordinate system. L e t u s now d e t e r m i n e t h e c o o r d i n a t e s o f p o i n t M i n t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l s y s t e m , b a s e d o n known a z i m u t h s m e a s u r e d a t p o i n t s 0 1 a n d 0 2 , without recourse t o t h e p l o t t i n g of position l i n e s . Let us f i r s t s o l v e t h i s problem i n t h e s p h e r i c a l system o f one o f t h e p o l e s of a navigational device, e.g., 02 (see Fig. 1.481, taking t h e azi m u t h o f p o i n t 01 a s t h e p r i m e m e r i d i a n . According t o ( 1 . 6 4 ) and ( 1 . 6 5 ) , t h e c o o r d i n a t e s of p o i n t M i n t h i s system a r e d e t e r m i n e d by t h e e q u a t i o n s :
sin 'pl = sin 9, cos 8 '

/79 -

-cus A2 cos cpz sin 0,

where

8 is the

a n g u l a r d i s t a n c e o f 0102;
s i n 11 = s i n A, cos 'p2 sec:cpl,

w h e r e A l h 2 a r e r e s p e c t i v e l y cil, " 2 . From ( 1 . 6 5 )

it i s e v i d e n t t h a t
sinkl --sinh,

- cos%

cos'pl

sink2 or---. ,sinkl

cosyl
coscpz

(1.66)

Substituting i n t o (1.52), i n g t o ( 1 . 6 4 ) , we o b t a i n :

i n s t e a d o f c o s $1 i t s v a l u e a c c o r d

sin -- A2
- tgcpz cos e - cos A2 s i n e
s i n AI

or
tg y2 = sin A, cosec hl sec 0

+ COS A,

tg 0.

(1.67)

Since t h e azimuth of p o i n t M i n t h e 02 system i s considered k n o w n , we o b t a i n e d b o t h c o o r d i n a t e s o f p o i n t M i n t h i s s y s t e m .

For t r a n s f e r r i n g t o t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l c o o r d i n a t e s y s t e m , i t i s a g a i n p o s s i b l e t o u s e ( 1 . 6 4 ) and ( 1 . 6 5 ) , c o n s i d e r i n g as a n g l e 0 t h e v a l u e $ 1 ~ 2 , a n d as t h e p r i m e m e r i d i a n t h e l o n g i t u d e o f t h e p o i n t
02 '

76

-.

..__..

I t is obvious t h a t here it is necessary t o introduce a correc t i o n i n t o t h e A 2 c o o r d i n a t e f o r t h e v a l u e o f t h e a z i m u t h of p o i n t 0 1 f r o m p o i n t 0 2 , i . e . , t h e c o r r e c t e d v a l u e o f A2 w i l l e q u a l :

(1.68)
I t i s a l s o obvious t h a t after transforming t h e coordinates i n t o /80 g e o g r a p h i c a l o n e s , it i s n e c e s s a r y t o i n t r o d u c e a c o r r e c t i o n i n t o c o o r d i n a t e A2 f o r t h e l o n g i t u d e o f p o i n t 0 2 :
A,= A -.,,A I -

(1.69)

F o r m u l a s ( 1 . 6 4 ) a n d ( 1 . 6 5 ) a l s o make i t p o s s i b l e t o i m p l e m e n t a t r a n s f e r from a s p h e r i c a l system w i t h p o l e 0 2 t o t h e orthodrome system. This i s n e c e s s a r y f o r determining t h e p o s i t i o n of an air c r a f t relative t o a given f l i g h t path. A c t u a l l y , it is p o s s i b l e t o c o n s i d e r t h e orthodrome system as a s p h e r i c a l system i f w e measure t h e X- and Z - c o o r d i n a t e s n o t a s l i n e a r b u t as a n g u l a r m e a s u r e s , i . e . , w e t a k e t h e X - c o o r d i n a t e as A and t h e Z a s $. I n t h i s i n s t a n c e , it i s advantageous t o t a k e t h e X-coordinate o f p o i n t 0 2 a s t h e p r i m e m e r i d i a n a n d t h e v a l u e 90 - Z o f t h i s p o i n t as t h e a n g l e 0 The c o o r d i n a t e s o f p o i n t M i n t h e o r t h o drome s y s t e m w i l l t h e n e q u a l :

sin X = sin 'p2 COS B

- COS A, 'p2 sin 8; cos

?In Z = sin A cos 'p2 sec X . ,

If t h e X o - c o o r d i n a t e , n o t e q u a l t o X o 2 , i s t a k e n a s t h e prime meridian, then after transforming the coordinates according t o ( 1 . 6 4 ) and ( 1 . 6 5 ) a c o r r e c t i o n e q u a l t o Xo2 i s i n t r o d u c e d i n t h e XM c o o r d i n a t e .

Goniometric Range-Finding

Coordinate System

The g o n i o m e t r i c r a n g e - f i n d i n g s y s t e m i s t h e m o s t c o n v e n i e n t s y s t e m f o r c o n v e r s i o n t o t h e g e o g r a p h i c or o r t h o d r o m e s y s t e m . Since d i r e c t i o n and d i s t a n c e are measured s i m u l t a n e o u s l y i n t h i s system, f o r conversion t o t h e geographical system it i s s u f f i c i e n t t o u s e ( 1 . 6 4 ) a n d ( 1 . 6 5 ) , t a k i n g t h e v a l u e 90 - $ o l for a n g l e 0 and A o l f o r t h e prime m e r i d i a n . I n t h i s i n s t a n c e t h e v a l u e 90 - S i s c o n s i d e r e d t h e l a t i t u d e o f t h e p o i n t M i n t h e c o o r d i n a t e s y s t e m w i t h p o l e 01, w h i l e t h e a z i muth o f p o i n t M i s c o n s i d e r e d as t h e l o n g i t u d e . In the geographical system, t h e coordinates of t h e point M w i l l equal:
sln 'p = sln '4, cos B -cos A1 cos 'pl sin 8; sin A = sin k1 cos 'pl'sec'p.

A f t e r t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , it i s n e c e s s a r y t o i n t r o d u c e a c o r r e c t i o n
77

t o t h e c o o r d i n a t e A f o r t h e l o n g i t u d e o f p o i n t 01:

(1.70)

The c o n v e r s i o n t o t h e o r t h o d r o m i c c o o r d i n a t e s y s t e m i s i m p l e m e n t e d i n t h e same m a n n e r a s w a s d o n e i n t h e b i p o l a r a z i m u t h a l s y s t e m after solving (1.67). If t h e r a d i u s o f a c t i o n o f t h e b o n i o m e t e r r a n g e - f i n d i n g c o o r d i n a t e system i s s m a l l (on t h e o r d e r of 300-400 km), it i s p o s s i b l e t o d i s r e g a r d t h e s p h e r i c i t y o f t h e E a r t h i n c o n v e r t i n g t o t h e or thodrome system and t h e problem of t r a n s f e r i s c o n s i d e r a b l y s i m p l i f i e d (Fig. 1.49). /81 -

i t i s e v i d e n t t h a t w i t h known v a l u e s o f R a n d system, t h e coordinates of point M i n t h e o r t h o d r o m e s y s t e m c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e fol lowing formulas:

In Figure 1.49,
a i n t h e goniometer range-finding

X ='Xoi $. R COS (U Z = Zol

+ R sin (a-+),

- +);

(1.71) (1.71a)

i s t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e orthodrome segment of t h e p a t h r e l a where t i v e t o p o i n t 01. Bipolar Range-Finding (Circular) Coordinate System

I n a b i p o l a r r a n g e - f i n d i n g s y s t e m ( F i g . 1.50), t h e d i s t a n c e t o t w o p o i n t s o n t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e w i t h known c o o r d i n a t e s i s a meas ured navigational parameter.

Fig. 1.49. Conversion of Polar ( G o n i o m e t e r - R a n g e - F i n d i n g ) Coo r d i n a t e s t o Orthodromic Coor dinates.

F i g . 1 . 5 0 . e i p o l a r Range-Find i n g Coordinate System.

The i n d i c a t e d d i s t a n c e i s u s u a l l y d e t e r m i n e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e t i m e o f passage o f r a d i o s i g n a l s from t h e a i r c r a f t t o t h e ground r a d i o - r e l a y equipment and back t o t h e a i r c r a f t .

78

In Figure 1.50, it is evident t h a t t h e task of determining t h e coordinates of an aircraft i n a c i r c u l a r system i s double-valued. The p o i n t o f i n t e r s e c t i o n o f t h e c i r c l e s o f e q u a l d i s t a n c e t o t h e p o l e s 01 a n d 02 i s c o n s i d e r e d t h e l o c a t i o n o f - t h e a i r c r a f t . Since t h e r e a r e t w o s u c h p o i n t s for a n y p a i r o f c i r c l e s , a d d i t i o n a l s i g n s a r e u s e d for c h o o s i n g t h e a c t u a l p o i n t , e . g . : a) Provisional

a i r c r a f t p o s i t i o n a t t h e moment o f m e a s u r e m e n t .

b) Tendency toward a change i n d i s t a n c e d u r i n g f l i g h t i n a definite direction. I n Figure 1.50, i t i s obvious t h a t i n f l y i n g from n o r t h t o s o u t h , t h e d i s t a n c e s R1 a n d R2 w i l l d e c r e a s e a t p o i n t M a n d i n c r e a s e a t point MI. On maps w i t h d i f f e r e n t p r o j e c t i o n s , c i r c u l a r p o s i t i o n l i n e s w i l l have a d i f f e r e n t appearance. U s u a l l y t h e y a r e p l o t t e d o n maps on a n o b l i q u e c e n t r a l . a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l p r o j e c t i o n o n w h i c h t h e a p proximate form o f t h e c i r c l e s i s p r e s e r v e d .
F o r p l o t t i n g t h e i n d i c a t e d l i n e s on a map w i t h a n y p r o j e c t i o n , it i s necessary t o determine t h e coordinates of t h e i r intermediate points. T h i s p r o b l e m i s s o l v e d i n t h e s a m e way a s f o r b i p o l a r a z i muthal systems, with t h e s o l e difference being t h a t a f t e r determin ing the coordinates of intermediate points, the l a t t e r are not j o i n e d by r a d i a l p o s i t i o n l i n e s , b u t by c i r c u l a r l i n e s .

/82

I n c o n v e r t i n g f r o m a c i r c u l a r t o a g e o g r a p h i c or o r t h o d r o m e s y s t e m , it i s n e c e s s a r y f i r s t t o d e t e r m i n e t h e c o o r d i n a t e s o f p o i n t M i n t h e s p h e r i c a l s y s t e m r e l a t i v e t o one o f t h e p o l e s o f t h e c i r c u l a r system. C o n s i d e r i n g t h e l i n e 0102 a s t h e i n i t i a l m e r i d i a n o f t h i s s y s t e m , t h e l a t i t u d e of p o i n t M i n t h e s y s t e m 01 a c c o r d i n g t o ( 1 . 6 4 ) w i l l be

sin.yl = sin y2 cos 0

- cos A,

cos yz sin 0 ,

w h e r e 9 i s t h e a n g u l a r d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n p o i n t s 01 a n d 0 2 ; $ 1 ; $ 2 a r e 9 0 - R1 a n d 90 - R 2 , r e s p e c t i v e l y . Carrying out simple transformations,

cos A = ,

we obtain:
(1.72)

-. Formula ( 1 . 7 2 ) makes it p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e t h e A - c o o r d i n a t e Since t h e $-coordinate i n t h i s system i s deter i n t h e 0 2 system. m i n e d d i r e c t l y a s 90 - R 2 , i t i s p o s s i b l e t o c o n s i d e r t h e p r o b l e m solved.

sin y, cos 0.- sin il cos 7, sin 0

'

79

T h e c o n v e r s i o n t o t h e g e o g r a p h i c or o r t h o d r o m e s y s t e m i s i m p l e m e n t e d b y t h e same means a s i n t h e a z i m u t h a l a n d g o n i o m e t e r range-finding systems.

Lines o f Equal Azimuths

L i n e s o f e q u a l a z i m u t h s (LEA) a r e a f a m i l y o f a i r c r a f t p o s i t i o n l i n e s w h i c h c o n v e r g e a t one p o i n t on t h e E a r t h s s u r f a c e , on e a c h o f w h i c h t h e a z i m u t h o f t h e known p o i n t r e t a i n s a c o n s t a n t v a l u e (Fig. 1.51). F o r f i n d i n g t h e l o c a t i o n o f a n a i r c r a f t , it i s u s e d a l o n g one l i n e of e q u a l a z i m u t h s o f t w o f a m i l i e s , a s i s d o n e a l o n g two b e a r i n g s i n an a z i m u t h a l b i p o l a r s y s t e m . L i n e s o f e q u a l a z i m u t h s w e r e w i d e l y u s e d i n t h e p e r i o d when t h e radiocompass ( a i r c r a f t r a d i o g o n i o m e t e r ) , measuring t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e a i r c r a f t t o t h e ground r a d i o s t a t i o n , w a s t h e most r e f i n e d nav igational facility. Along w i t h l i n e s of e q u a l a z i m u t h s , a method o f d e t e r m i n i n g t h e c o o r d i n a t e s o f an a i r c r a f t by p l o t t i n g b e a r i n g s from a r a d i o s t a t i o n t o an aircraft ( t a k i n g account of t h e convergence of t h e m e r i d i a n s b e t w e e n t h e m ) h a s become w i d e s p r e a d . An a d v a n + a g e o f t h e l i n e s o f e q u a l a z i m u t h s , i n c o m p a r i s o n w i t h b e a r i n g s f o r a n a i r c r a f t , i s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e s o l u t i o n of t h e p r o b l e m of determining an a i r c r a f t s coordinates i s independent of i t s l o c a t i o n , w h e r e a s i n o r d e r t o p l o t b e a r i n g s i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o know t h e a p p r o x i m a t e c o o r d i n a t e s o f t h e a i r c r a f t for c a l c u l a t i n g t h e c o n vergence of t h e meridians. I n e x a m i n i n g l i n e s o f e q u a l a z i m u t h s , t h e r e i s no s e n s e i n de r i v i n g an a n a l y t i c a l form o f t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s f o r c o n v e r t i n g t o t h e

/83

F i g . 1 . 5 1 . Line of Equal Azim u t h s (LEA).

Fig. 1.52. Determining t h e Coordinates of Intermediate P o i n t s o f a n LEA.

80

g e o g r a p h i c or o r t h o d r o m i c c o o r d i n a t e s y s t e m . L e t us l i m i t o u r s e l v e s t o an e x a m i n a t i o n of t h e means of c a l c u l a t i n g i n t e r m e d i a t e p o i n t s f o r p l o t t i n g t h e m o n a map i n o r d e r t o make i t p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e t h e c o o r d i n a t e s of an a i r c r a f t a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n o f t h e l i n e s o f e q u a l a z i m u t h s o f t w o f a m i l i e s o n a map w i t h a n y p r o j e c t i o n . I n F i g u r e 1 . 5 2 , one o f t h e l i n e s o f e q u a l a z i m u t h s o f a f a m i l y c o n v e r g i n g a t p o > i n t M i s shown. A t t h i s p o i n t , t h e orthodromes i n t e r s e c t i n g t h e equator a t d i f f e r e n t angles a o l , ao2, e t c . converge. A c c o r d i n g t o ( 1 . 3 2 ) , i t i s p o s s i b l e t o f i n d t h e l o n g i t u d e A0 of t h e p o i n t s of i n t e r s e c t i o n of a f a m i l y o f orthodromes with t h e e q u a t o r , given t h e v a l u e s of t h e i n i t i a l a n g l e s "0. A c c o r d i n g t o (1.44),
cos vs = cos 'p nn a.

Or s i n c e c o s c$B = s i n a o ,
cos 'p =

sin a , , sin a .

(1.73)

Formula ( 1 . 7 3 ) makes it p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e t h e l a t i t u d e o f a p o i n t on any l i n e of t h e f a m i l y o f o r t h o d r o m e s which c o n v e r g e a t p o i n t M, where t h e azimuth o f p o i n t M i s e q u a l t o t h e given v a l u e of a. The l o n g i t u d e o f t h e i n d i c a t e d p o i n t c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d a c c o r d i n g t o ( 1 . 3 6 a ) by s u b s t i t u t i n g i n t o i t t h e g i v e n i n i t i a l a n g l e o f t h e orthodrome and t h e l a t i t u d e o b t a i n e d from ( 1 . 7 3 ) . I t i s obvious t h a t t h e l o n g i t u d e o b t a i n e d w i l l be measured from t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t s o f t h e family of orthodromes. Therefore, t o reduce it t o t h e geographic system, it i s necessary t o introduce a correction for t h e l o n g i t u d e of t h e i n d i c a t e d i n i t i a l p o i n t s . Having s o l v e d t h i s problem f o r e v e r y v a l u e o f a0 w i t h g i v e n v a l u e s of a , l e t u s o b t a i n t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e p o i n t s of t h e f a m i l y of l i n e s of e q u a l azimuths. The p r o b l e m o f d e t e r m i n i n g t h e c o o r d i n a t e s o f i n t e r m e d i a t e p o i n t s on l i n e s o f e q u a l a z i m u t h s o f t h e s e c o n d f a m i l y , w h o s e p l o t t i n g on a m a p ' y i e l d s a g r i d o f i n t e r s e c t i n g a i r c r a f t p o s i t i o n l i n e s , is solved analogously. Difference-Range-Finding ( H y p e r b o l i c ) C o o r d i n a t e System

/84

The c i r c u l a r r a n g e - f i n d i n g s y s t e m o f a i r c r a f t p o s i t i o n l i n e s examined e a r l i e r i s used w i t h c o m p a r a t i v e l y s m a l l d i s t a n c e s from t h e ground r a d i o - e n g i n e e r i n g equipment t o t h e a i r c r a f t , s i n c e t h e s e n d i n g and r a d i o - r e l a y i n g of r a d i o s i g n a l s t o t h e a i r c r a f t o v e r great distances involves technical d i f f i c u l t i e s . 81

The t e c h n i c a l s o l u t i o n o f t h e p r o b l e m i s g r e a t l y s i m p l i f i e d i f , instead of relaying aircraft r a d i o s i g n a l s , we send simultaneous r a d i o s i g n a l s from two ground r a d i o - e n g i n e e r i n g i n s t a l l a t i o n s , w i t h t h e i r s u b s e q u e n t r e c e p t i o n by t h e a i r c r a f t . However, i n t h i s i n s t a n c e i t i s a d v a n t a g e o u s t o m e a s u r e n o t t h e a b s o l u t e d i s t a n c e s from t h e ground i n s t a l l a t i o r i s t o t h e aircraft, b u t o n l y t h e d i f f e r e n c e .in d i s t a n c e s t o t h e m . The s y s t e m of p o s i t i o n l i n e s f o r t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e d i s t a n c e s t o two p o i n t s on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e i s c a l l e d t h e d i f f e r e n e e - r a n g e

finding or hyperbolic system.

The g e o m e t r i c l o c u s o f p o i n t s , t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n whose d i s t a n c e s t o t w o g i v e n p o i n t s ( f o c i ) i s a c o n s t a n t v a l u e e q u a l t o 2a ( F i g . 1 . 5 3 1 , i s c a l l e d a hyperbola. The d i s t a n c e a l o n g t h e f o c a l a x i s f r o m t h e p o i n t o f i n t e r s e c t i o n of t h e f o c a l and c o n j u g a t e a x e s t o t h e peak of t h e h y p e r b o l a i s t h e v a l u e "a1'. I t i s p o s s i b l e t o d e s i g n a t e h y p e r b o l i c a i r c r a f t p o s i t i o n l i n e s o n a map b y d o u b l i n g t h e v a l u e o f as an o r d i n a l /85 number. The d i s t a n c e a l o n g t h e f o c a l a x i s f r o m t h e f o c u s t o t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n w i t h t h e c o n j u g a t e a x i s i s d e s i g n a t e d by t h e v a l u e r r e ' f . To d e t e r m i n e t h e p o s i t i o n o f a n a i r c r a f t , t w o f a m i l i e s o f h y p e r b o l i c p o s i t i o n l i n e s c o n s t r u c t e d from t h r e e p o i n t s forming A t each of these points, p a i r s of f o c a l axes are usually used. ground r a d i o - e n g i n e e r i n g i n s t a l l a t i o n s f o r synchronous t r a n s m i s s i o n of radio signals a r e established. I n o r d e r t o p l o t h y p e r b o l i c p o s i t i o n l i n e s on p r o j e c t i o n , t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e p o i n t s of h y p e r b o l a s i s y s t e m o f one o f i t s f o c i , e . g . Fi, a r e d e t e r m i n e d d i r e c t i o n F1F2 i s t a k e n a s t h e i n i t i a l m e r i d i a n o f

a map w i t h a n y n the spherical f i r s t . Here t h e t h i s system.

B e a r i n g i n mind t h e f a c t t h a t t h e l a t i t u d e of any p o i n t i n t h e F 1 s y s t e m e q u a l s 9 0 - SI and 90 S2 i n t h e F2 s y s t e m , t h e v a l u e S2, 5'1 t 2 a , a n d t a k i n g t h e d i s t a n c e FlF2 as t h e a n g l e 8, i t i s p o s s i b l e t o w r i t e (1.64) i n t h e f o l l o w i n g f o r m :

cos (SI 2a) = cos S cos 2c I

E

- cos A1 sin S1 sin 2c,

Hence
COS A1 =

,
cos s,cos 2c

Fig. 1.53. Difference-RangeFinding (Hyperbolic) Coordinate System.

82

- cos (3, + 2a) sin s1sfn 2~

(1.74)

Given the definite values of S as circles of equal radius and

changing the values of 2a, it is possible to determine the value
of X of all the hyperbolas of the family at points of intersection
with the indicated circles.

F o r conversion t o the geographical coordinate system, the intermediate points are recalculated according to (1.64) and (1.651, after which they are plotted on a map and joined by smooth lines.

Hyperbolic coordinate systems are usually used in the applica

tion of radionavigational devices with a large effective radius.
Therefore, the automatic conversion of the hyperbolic coordinates
t o geographical or orthodromic coordinates is advantageous.
The problem indicated is solved comparatively easily when all
three foci of the hyperbolic system are situated on one orthodrome
line (Fig. 1.54).
According to (1.74),

cos A, =
cos S cos 2 q - cos I
~ ~

( I 201) S

s i n &sin 2cl

--

cos S cos 2c2 I

~

- cos ( I 2%) S sin SIs i n 2c2

Expanding the value of the cosines of the sum of the angles

and carrying out a reduction, we obtain:

COS 2cl

- cos 2 q + tg S I s i n 2al s i n 2cl

. .

cos 22---cos -

2% $-

tg S1 s i n 2u2

sin 2 2

Multiplying both sides o f the equation by sin 2cl.sin 2c2 and rearranging the terms, we obtain:
cos 2c1 s i n 2 2 - cos 2c2 sin 2 c1- s i n 2 c cos 2 a l + s l n 2EI ~ 0 ~ 2 % ~ = tg S ( s i n 2cl s i n 2a2 - s i n 2 2 s i n I
h

/86

or

tg SI=

sin 2cz (cos 21-COS 2 q ) sin 2 1 Sirria2

- sin 2c2 s i n 2u1

s i n 2cl

(cos 2c2 - cos 2%)

(1.75)

The task is simplified even more if the distances FF1 and FF2 which are chosen are identical, i.e. 2cl = 2c2. In this case
tgq=

cos 2 -,cos 2al + s i n %l- sim%1 '

(1.75a)

Formulas (1.75) are used for determining the coordinates of an

83

aircraft in a spherical system with the pole at point F , bearing I in mind that ( = 90 - Si. The X-coordinate with a known value of S is easily determined
i on the basis of (1.74). For conversion t o the geographic or ortho
drome system, the same formulas (1.64) and (1.65) are used.
The problem of conversion t o the spherical (and consequently,
t o the geographic coordinate system) if the foci of the hyperbolic
system are not located on one orthodrome line (Fig. 1.551, is much
more complicated to solve.
It is obvious that (1.74) can be reduced t o the form:

cos AI =

COS

S1 cos 2cl- cos S1 cos 2a1 ~

sin S1sin 2

+ sin S1 sin !2u1

Carrying out simple transformations, we obtain:

COS 11 == ctg S1 ctg 2 1

- ctg S1cos 2al cosec 2 1 + sin %zl cosec %I

cos A, sin 2al cosec 21 ~. ctg 2 1 - cos 2 1 cosec 2 ~ 1

or
ctgS1=

(1.76)
/87 -

In Fig. 1.55 it is evident that i n the FF2 system A M = X I t f3; therefore, the following equation is valid:

cos (AI -tp) sin 2 e cogec 2c2 ctg 2, cos 242, cose42c2

ctgq=

(1.76a)

Designating the second terms of the numerators of (1.76a) by

X and the denominators by Y and reducing t o a common denominator,

we obtain:

' .
Fig. 1.54. Conversion of Hyper
bolic Coordinates t o Spherical
Coordinates (Special Case)

84

Fig. 1.55. Conversion of Hyper

bolic Coordinates t o Spherical
Coordinates (General Case).

Rearranging the terms, replacing sin A , by d 1 - cosLA, and squaring both sides o f the equation we obtain:
cos~~(Y~-cospYl)-XlY2+ X2Y1= - ~ l - c o s 2 A 1 slnPY1

or

Thus, the coordinate A 1 is determined by the solution of a quadratic equation

1/

(XZY, - x, Y2)2( Y 2 - cos pulp - (Y:-2Y1 Y2 cos $ + Y;)[(X,Y, - x,Yz)2-si112 pv:]

(1.77)

Y:: -2Y,Y,cosp

+ Y2,

where

Xl = s i n 2al cosec 2cl;

X2 = sin 2a2cosec 2c2;
Y , = ctg 2cl- COS 2al cosec 2c,;
Y2 = ctg 2cz - cos 2a2cosec 2cz.

X2,

There is no sense in substituting the indicated values X I , Y 1 , and Y2 into (1.771, since this hampers its solution greatly.

In practice, it is easier t o determine the numerical values of these magnitudes first, on the basis of the known values of 2 a 1 , 2 a 2 , 2c1, and 2 c 2 , and t o substitute them into (1.77). Knowing the coordinate A makes it possible t o determine easily the coordinate $ 1 , e.g., according t o ( 1 . 7 6 1 , keeping in mind the fact that $ 1 = 90 - Si, and then t o convert t o the geographic or orthodrome system using (1.64) and ( 1 . 6 5 ) .
Overall-Range-Finding (Elliptical) Coordinate System

/88

Hyperbolic navigational systems are the most easily implemented

technologically of a l l the range-finding systems. However, from

85

I 1

t h e p o i n t of view o f u s e i n f l i g h t , tageous.

t h e y are g e o m e t r i c a l l y disadvan

Both f a m i l i e s o f p o s i t i o n l i n e s a r e d i v e r g e n t , and a t d i s t a n c e s e x c e e d i n g 2c from t h e c e n t e r of t h e s y s t e m are p r a c t i c a l l y d i r e c t e d This leads t o an increase i n e r r o r a l o n g t h e r a d i i of t h i s c e n t e r . i n determining aircraft coordinates with an increqse i n t h e distance from t h e c e n t e r . In a d d i t i o n , with an increase i n d i s t a n c e , t h e angle of i n t e r s e c t i o n of t h e h y p e r b o l i c l i n e s of t h e two f a m i l i e s d e c r e a s e s . T h i s a l s o l o w e r s t h e a c c u r a c y of d e t e r m i n i n g t h e a i r c r a f t c o o r d i n a t e s . Combination of h y p e r b o l i c p o s i t i o n l i n e s with e l l i p t i c a l l i n e s t u r n s o u t t o b e more a d v a n t a g e o u s ( F i g . 1 . 5 6 ) .

I t i s known t h a t t h e g e o m e t r i c a l p l a c e o f p o i n t s , t h e s u m o f whose d i s t a n c e s t o two g i v e n p o i n t s ( f o c i ) i s a c o n s t a n t m a g n i t u d e The d i s t a n c e a l o n g t h e m a j o r e q u a l t o 2a, i s c a l l e d a n e z z i p s e . a x i s from i t s i n t e r s e c t i o n w i t h t h e minor a x i s t o t h e t o p of t h e e l l i p s e , i . e . , i t s s e m i - a x i s , i s c o n s i d e r e d t o be t h e v a l u e llall, i n t h i s case. The d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n o f t h e a x e s t o t h e f o c i i s c o n s i d e r e d t o be t h e ItcI1 v a l u e .
I f , in a d d i t i o n t o t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n d i s t a n c e s t o t h e f o c i , t h e d i s t a n c e t o one o f them i s m e a s u r e d , it i s e a s y t o i m p l e m e n t t h e h y p e r b o l i c - e l l i p t i c a l system of p o s i t i o n l i n e s . A c t u a l l y , i f o n e d i s t a n c e S i s known a n d t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n i t h e d i s t a n c e s A S = 2ah, obviously t h e d i s t a n c e t o t h e second f o c u s

is

2a, = 2S1 t 2 a h
where a e i s t h e m a j o r s e m i - a x i s t e r a of t h e hyperbola. of t h e e l l i p s e and ah i s t h e parame

Obvious advantages of t h e h y p e r b o l i c - e l l i p t i c a l system include the following: (a) There i s an absence of divergence i n t h e second family of p o s i t i o n l i n e s . The elliptical position lines are c l o s e d , s o t h a t t h e a c c u r a c y of determining the a i r c r a f t s p o s i t i o n a l o n g them d o e s n o t decrease with an i n c r e a s e i n distance. Hyperbolic-Ellipti Fig. 1.56. cal Coordinate System. 86 ( b ) Orthogonality of t h e
/89

position lines appears at any point of the system. In a confocal

hyperbolic-elliptical system, the position lines intersect only at
a right angle.
(c) Two foci, instead of the three f o r a hyperbolic system,
are sufficient for the construction of a confocal hyperbolic-
elliptical system. This leads t o a simplification of the transfor
mations during conversion t o a geographic or orthodrome system.
However, in spite of the advantages of a hyperbolic-elliptical
system indicated above, a wide distribution was not obtained. This
was 'connected with great technical difficulties in measuring distance
t o points on the Earth's surface at distances exceeding straight-
line geometric visibility of the object from flight altitude.
The above problem is solved by keeping on board the aircraft
a reference frequency (quartz-crystal clock) which permits syn
chronization of the transmission of radio signals from the ground
with reference signals on board the plane. It is therefore possible
to determine the travel time of the signals.
Hence, strict stabilization of the reference frequency on
board the aircraft is the main task for the technical implementation
of hyperbolic-elliptical systems.
To plot elliptical lines on a map with any projection, the intermediate points are determined according t o the same formulas as the family of hyperbolas. For example , in ( 1 . 7 4 ) , considering the second distance in it ( S 2 ) not as the sum SI + 2ah, but as the difference 2ae SI,

COB hi

= -___-

cos

s,cos 2c - cos (2a- SI) , sin s1 2~ sin

(1.78)

where X 1 is an angle with the vertex at point F 1 , measured from the

major axis of the ellipse.
Given the different values of S and determining the values of i for each of them with a constant value of 2 a , we shall obtain intermediate points of an ellipse in a spherical system F 1 .
A 1

Changing the value of 2a and performing these operations with Si, we obtain intermediate points of the next elliptical position line, etc. Recalculation of intermediate points is implemented in the geographic system according t o ( 1 . 6 4 ) and (1.65) as in other cases analyzed by us. In the hyperbolic-elliptical system, the conversion t o the
geographic or orthodromic coordinate system is very simple.

i In fact, the value of S and the parameter 2a in this system

87

a r e measured. T h e r e f o r e , (1.78) i s u s e f u l f o r t h e p r o b l e m o f c a l c u l a t i n g t h e s p h e r i c a l c o o r d i n a t e s of an a i r c r a f t along measured p a r a m e t e r s a n d f o r a s u b s e q u e n t t r a n s f e r t o t h e g e o g r a p h i c or orthodrome system.

8.

Elements o f A i r c r a f t N a v i g a t i o n

Aircraft f l i g h t s a r e c a r r i e d out i n airspace. The p h y s i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n o f a i r s p a c e , a s w e l l as t h e s p e e d a n d d i r e c t i o n o f i t s s h i f t relative t o the Earth's surface, exert a substantial influence on t h e t r a j e c t o r y of a i r c r a f t m o v e m e n t i n a g e o g r a p h i c or o r t h o d r o m i c coordinate system.
U n t i l r e c e n t l y , t h e d i r e c t measurement o f t h e s p e e d and d i r e c t i o n o f a i r c r a f t movement r e l a t i v e t o t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e w a s a problem. A t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e , t h i s problem h a s been solved. How e v e r , it i s n o t a d v i s a b l e t o i n s t a l l t h e complex and e x p e n s i v e e q u i p m e n t w h i c h m e a s u r e s t h e i n d i c a t e d p a r a m e t e r s on a l l a i r c r a f t . I n s o l v i n g n a v i g a t i o n a l p r o b l e m s , p a r a m e t e r s o f a i r c r a f t move ment r e l a t i v e t o t h e a i r s p a c e a r e u s u a l l y m e a s u r e d t o t h e g r e a t e s t e x t e n t p o s s i b l e , a n d t h e n a d d i t i o n a l p a r a m e t e r s o f t h e movement o f t h e a i r c r a f t w h i c h are c o n n e c t e d w i t h m o v e m e r t i n a i r s p a c e a r e found. Summarizing t h e m e a s u r e d p a r a m e t e r s o f a i r c r a f t movement, t h e v a l u e and d i r e c t i o n of t h e speed v e c t o r of t h e a i r c r a f t r e l a t i v e t o the Earth's surface a r e found. The p a r a m e t e r s o f a i r c r a f t m o v e m e n t w i t h w h i c h we m u s t c o n c e r n o u r s e l v e s i n c a r r y i n g o u t a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n a r e c a l l e d ezements

of a i r c r a f t navigation.
Elements of a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n a r e divided i n t o t h r e e groups which d e t e r m i n e t h e d i r e c t i o n , s p e e d , and a l t i t u d e of f l i g h t .

E l e m e n t s w h i c h d e t e r m i n e F l i g h t Direction

The b a s i c e l e m e n t w h i c h d e t e r m i n e s t h e d i r e c t i o n o f a i r c r a f t movement i n a i r s p a c e i s c a l l e d t h e a i r c r a f t c o u r s e . The a i r c r a f t course ( g e n e r a l l y d e s i g n a t e d b y y ) i s t h e a n g l e b e t w e e n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f a m e r i d i a n on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e a n d t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l a x i s of t h e a i r c r a f t i n a h o r i z o n t a l plane. U s u a l l y it i s c o n s i d e r e d t h a t t h e a i r s p e e d v e c t o r o f an a i r c r a f t i n t h e p l a n e of t h e h o r i z o n c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e longitudinal a x i s of t h e a i r c r a f t , although t h i s is a c t u a l l y not entirely true. Therefore, an understanding of t h e course o f t e n c o i n c i d e s with an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e f l i g h t a i r speed vector.
88

Depending on t h e reference system chosen, t h e f o l l o w i n g s p e c i a l v a r i e t i e s o f a i r c r a f t c o u r s e s can b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d : (a) A true course ( T C ) i s m e a s u r e d f r o m t h e n o r t h e r n e n d o f a geographic m e r i d i a n which p a s s e s through t h e p o i n t o f i n t e r s e c t i o n of t h e Earth's surface with t h e v e r t i c a l of t h e aircraft. The l a t t e r i s u s u a l l y c a l l e d t h e p o s i t i o n p o i n t o f t h e a i r c r a f t (PA): (b) The o r t h o d r o m e c o u r s e ( O C ) i s m e a s u r e d f r o m t h e n o r t h e r n end of a geographic meridian of t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t of a r e c t i l i n e a r (orthodrome) segment of t h e p a t h or from a n o t h e r c o n d i t i o n a l l y chosen ( r e f e r e n c e ) m e r i d i a n a l o n g which t h e z e r o p o i n t o f t h e course-reading scale i s established.
(c) The m a g n e t i c c o u r s e ( M C ) i s r e a d f r o m t h e n o r t h e r n e n d of t h e magnetic m e r i d i a n which p a s s e s through p o i n t PA.

/91

In addition t o these varieties of a i r c r a f t courses, there is a n o t h e r c o n c e p t , t h e compass course ( C C ) , ? . e . , a c o u r s e b a s e d on t h e r e s p o n s e s o f a compass. I n t e x t b o o k s on a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n , t h e c o n c e p t o f compass c o u r s e h a s i n c l u d e d o n l y m a g n e t i c compasses, b u t we h a v e b r o a d e n e d t h i s c o n c e p t t o i n c l u d e a l l m e t h o d s o f measuring an a i r c r a f t course with an i n s t r u m e n t .
A i r c r a f t c o u r s e s a r e m e a s u r e d by t h r e e d i f f e r e n t m e t h o d s , % . e . , s t a b i l i z a t i o n o f t h e z e r o r e a d i n g o f t h e compass a l o n g t h e m e r i d i a n s :

M a g n e t i c c o u r s e , by means o f m a g n e t i c s y s t e m s . True c o u r s e , by means of a s t r o n o m i c a l s y s t e m s . R e f e r e n c e c o u r s e , by means of gyroscopic devices.

A l l o f t h e s e m e t h o d s h a v e i n s t r u m e n t a l e r r o r s or a deviation d e s i g n a t e d b y A,. I n d i v i d u a l components of e r r o r s i n t h e c o u r s e d e v i c e s a r e components of t h e d e v i a t i o n .

Any o f t h e t h r e e t y p e s o f a i r c r a f t c o u r s e s c a n b e o b t a i n e d from r e s p o n s e s o f a c o u r s e d e v i c e , a l l o w i n g for i t s d e v i a t i o n , e . g . ,

(1.79)

I n t h e g e n e r a l case,

= c c +nc

A s a c o r r e c t i o n f o r any measurement, t h e v a l u e Ac i s c o n s i d e r e d p o s i t i v e when t h e c o m p a s s u n d e r e s t i m a t e s t h e v a l u e o f t h e m e a s u r e d m a g n i t u d e , a n d n e g a t i v e when t h e c o m p a s s r e a d i n g s a r e t o o h i g h .

89

I n t h e f u t u r e , when w e s t u d y t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p among t h e t h r e e t y p e s of a i r c r a f t c o u r s e s q w e w i l l c o n s i d e r t h a t t h e v a l u e of each h a s b e e n c o r r e c t e d for t h e d e v i a t i o n o f t h e d e v i c e .

The i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n m a g n e t i c a n d t r u e f l i g h t c o u r s e s s i n c e theqe c o u r s e s are m e a s u r e d f r o m t h e m e r i d i a n s w h i c h p a s s t h r o u g h p o i n t PA ( F i g . 1 . 5 7 a ) .

is established with the least d i f f i c u l t y ,

I n F i g . 1 . 5 7 a t h e n o r t h e r n g e o g r a p h i c m e r i d i a n is d e s i g n a t e d b y P n , t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e m a g n e t i c m e r i d i a n b y Pw. Since the magnetic meridian is s h i f t e d t o t h e l e f t r e l a t i v e t o t h e geographic meridian, t h e magnetic d e c l i n a t i o n a t the given With a p o s i t i v e d e v i a t i o n , t h e m a g n e t i c m e r i d point is negative. ian is s h i f t e d t o the r i g h t r e l a t i v e t o the geographic meridian. From t h e f i g u r e ,

/92

it i s e v i d e n t t h a t

MC =TC - AM;
TC =MC +.A ,

(1.80)

In t h e case of AM, t h e value i s negative; t h e r e f o r e , t h e abso l u t e v a l u e of t h e t r u e c o u r s e t u r n s o u t t o be l e s s t h a n t h e magnetic course. C o n v e r t i n g f r o m t h e t r u e or m a g n e t i c c o u r s e t o t h e o r t h o d r o m e c o u r s e (or v i c e v e r s a ) i s m o r e c o m p l e x ( F i g . 1 . 5 7 , b ) .

Fig.

1.57.

I n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p of A i r c r a f t Courses; and True; b: True and Orthodrome.

a:

Magnetic

The d i r e c t i o n o f t h e g e o g r a p h i c m e r i d i a n p a s s i n g t h r o u g h p o i n t PA i s d e s i g n a t e d by P n ; t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e r e f e r e n c e m e r i d i a n P r a m , i s shown by a d o t t e d l i n e w h i c h i n t e r s e c t s t h e g e o g r a p h i c Therefore meridian a t angle 6.

(1.81)

90

The v a l u e 6, t h e a n g l e o f c o n v e r g e n c e o f t h e m e r i d i a n s , i s c o n s i d e r e d p o s i t i v e when t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e g e o g r a p h i c m e r i d i a n a t p o i n t PA i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e r e f e r e n c e m e r i d i a n e x t e n d e d c l o c k w i s e ( t o t h e r i g h t ) a n d n e g a t i v e when t h e g e o g r a p h i c m e r i d i a n is shifted t o the left. On s m a l l p a t h s e g m e n t s ( 5 0 0 - 6 0 0 k m ) , t h e a n g l e o f c o n v e r g e n c e of t h e meridians is approximately equal t o : (1.82) In g e n e r a l , f o r c o n v e r t i n g from t h e orthodrome course t o a t r u e c o u r s e or v i c e v e r s a , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o d e t e r m i n e t h e l o n g i tude of t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t of t h e orthodrome of each r e c t i l i n e a r p a t h s e g m e n t , e . g . , o n t h e b a s i s o f ( 1 . 3 4 1 , or, i f t h e a z i m u t h o f t h e o r t h o d r o m e i s known a t t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t o f t h e p a t h s e g m e n t , on t h e b a s i s o f ( 1 . 3 3 a ) . The a n g l e o f c o n v e r g e n c e o f t h e m e r i d i a n s b e t w e e n t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t o f t h e p a t h s e c t i o n Mi a n d a n y m o v i n g p o i n t M on a s e c t i o n , a c c o r d i n g t o ( 1 . 3 3 a ) , w i l l be e q u a l t o
8 = a - a1 = arctg (tg A cosec '4)

/93 -

- arctg (tg A,

cosec TI),

(1.83)

where A and A 1 a r e measured from t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t o f t h e o r t h o drome. If t h e l o n g i t u d e o f a n y o t h e r p o i n t on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e , e . g . , t h e p o i n t of t a k e - o f f of t h e a i r c r a f t , i s t a k e n as t h e r e f e r ence m e r i d i a n , t h e a n g l e of convergence of t h e m e r i d i a n s w i l l be d e t e r m i n e d a s t h e sum:

a=s,+$+

...s

where 6 1 ; 6 2 a r e t h e angles of convergence of t h e meridians between t h e s t a r t i n g and end p o i n t s o f t h e p r e c e d i n g p a t h segments d e t e r m i n e d on t h e b a s i s o f ( 1 . 8 3 ) ; 6, i s t h e a n g l e o f c o n v e r g e n c e o f t h e m e r i d i a n s f r o m t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t t o t h e moving p o i n t o f t h e l a s t p a t h s e g m e n t ( o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e same f o r m u l a ) . The a n g l e o f c o n v e r g e n c e o f t h e m e r i d i a n s c a l c u l a t e d i n t h i s way a l l o w s c o n v e r s i o n f r o m a t r u e c o u r s e t o a n o r t h o d r o m e c o u r s e a n d v i c e v e r s a a t a n y f l i g h t d i s t a n c e w i t h a n y number o f b r e a k s i n the path.

_..

For c o n v e r s i o n f r o m a n o r t h o d r o m e c o u r s e t o a m a g n e t i c c o u r s e and v i c e v e r s a , ( 1 . 8 0 ) and ( 1 . 8 1 ) are u s e d , from which it f o l l o w s that

91

(1.84)

The sum o f t h e m a g n i t u d e s A M + 6 i s t a k e n a s t h e o v e r a l l c o r r e c t i o n f o r conversion from a magnetic t o a n orthodrome course and Then ( 1 . 8 4 ) a s s u m e s t h e v i c e v e r s a , a n d i s d e s i g n a t e d by A . . form :

..

OC = MCfA; MC = O C - A .

The d r i f t a n g l e i s t h e s e c o n d e l e m e n t d e t e r m i n i n g t h e d i r e c t i o n o f a i r c r a f t movement. I n an a i r c r a f t , t h e a n g l e between t h e a i r s p e e d v e c t o r and t h e groundspeed v e c t o r i n a h o r i z o n t a l plane is c a l l e d t h e d r i f t angle (Fig. 1.58). I n g e n e r a l , t h e d r i f t a n g l e i s d e s i g n a t e d by t h e I n t h o s e i n s t a n c e s when s p e c i a l d e s i g n a t i o n s for Latin l e t t e r a. c o u r s e s a r e used i n t h e s o l u t i o n s of n a v i g a t i o n a l problems t h e d r i f t a n g l e i s d e s i g n a t e d by t h e R u s s i a n l e t t e r s f o r D A .

- F i g . 1 . 5 8 . OPN i s t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e m e r i d i a n a t p o i n t In P A ; OV i s t h e d i r e c t i o - f t h e a i r s p e e d v e c t o r a n d t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l n o a x i s o f t h e a i r c r a f t ; OW i s t h e d -r e c t i o n o f t h e g r o u n d s p e e d v e c t o r i r e l a t i v e t o t h e E a r t h s s u r f a c e ; u i s t h e wind s p e e d v e c t o r .
The d r i f t a n g l e o f a n a i r c r a f t i s c o n s i d e r e d p o s i t i v e when t h e g r o u n d s p e e d v e c t o r ( v e c t o r o f a i r c r a f t movement r e l a t i v e t o t h e E a r t h s s u r f a c e ) i s f u r t h e r t o t h e r i g h t of t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l a x i s of t h e a i r c r a f t and n e g a t i v e i f it i s f u r t h e r t o t h e l e f t . The a n g l e b e t w e e n t h e n o r t h e r n e n d o f t h e m e r i d i a n a n d t h e g r o u n d s p e e d v e c t o r or t h e v e c t o r o f t h e s p e e d o f t h e a i r c r a f t r e l a t i v e t o t h e E a r t h s s u r f a c e i s c a l l e d t h e f l i g h t angle (FA). The g e n e r a l d e s i g n a t i o n f o r t h e f l i g h t a n g l e i s $. The f l i g h t a n g l e , l i k e t h e c o u r s e o f t h e a i r c r a f t , can be measured from t h e r e f e r e n c e meridian, t h e geographic meridian, and a m a g n e t i c m e r i d i a n p a s s i n g t h r o u g h p o i n t PA. S p e c i a l v a l u e s of t h e f l i g h t a n g l e s have t h e f o l l o w i n g d e s i g n a t i o n s :

/94

The P a t h Fig. 1.58. Angle o f F l i g h t .

92

( a > The o r t h o d r o m e f l i g h t a n g l e i s O F A , w i t h o b l i g a t o r y i n d i c a t i o n by a s u b s c r i p t of t h e l o n g i t u d e of t h e r e f e r e n c e meridian. For example, O F A 4 0 = 96O.

(b) (c)

The t r u e f l i g h t a n g l e i s T F A .
T h e m a g n e t i c f l i g h t a n g l e i s MFA.

I n Figure 1.58,

it i s e v i d e n t t h a t t h e f l i g h t a n g l e is g e n e r a l l y

or i n s p e c i a l c a s e s :
O F A r OC TFA L TC M F A = MC

+ DAI
+ DA; + DA;

(1.85)

The i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e s p e c i a l v a l u e s o f t h e f l i g h t a n g l e s and t h e method o f c o n v e r s i o n from one s p e c i a l v a l u e t o a n o t h e r c o r r e s p o n d s c o m p l e t e l y t o t h e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p between special values of a i r c r a f t courses:

OFA TFA

+ 6

TPA = O F A
MFA = O F A

6 = MFA

+ A; + A,; A = TFP - .A ,
=MFA

I n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e d i r e c t i o n o f a i r c r a f t movement r e l a t i v e t o /95 t h e E a r t h s s u r f a c e , i t i s s u f f i c i e n t t o know t h e c o u r s e o f t h e a i r c r a f t a s t h e a n g l e between t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e m e r i d i a n and t h e l a t e r a l a x i s of t h e a i r c r a f t , and t h e d r i f t a n g l e as t h e a n g l e be tween t h e l a t e r a l a x i s of t h e a i r c r a f t and t h e d i r e c t i o n of i t s movement. These e l e m e n t s , t o g e t h e r w i t h elements o f f l i g h t s p e e d , make i t p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e s p e e d a n d d i r e c t i o n o f t h e wind a t f l i g h t a l t i t u d e .

For p r e c i s e l y d e t e r m i n i n g t h e w i n d a t f l i g h t a l t i t u d e , i t i s necessary t o s e p a r a t e t h e p a r t of t h e d r i f t angle of an a i r c r a f t c a u s e d by t h e w i n d . I t i s obvious t h a t t o do t h i s it i s necessary

Fig. 1.59. Moment a n d C o n t r o l

Force w i t h Assymetry o f Engine Thrust.

Lateral Glide
Fig. 1.60. w i t h T r a n s v e r s e Roll.
93

t o determine t h e direation of t h e airspeed vector of t h e aircraft as t h e c o u r s e and g l i d e o f dynamic o r i g i n , a r i s i n g i n f l i g h t . There are s e v e r a l c a u s e s of l a t e r a l g l i d e i n a i r c r a f t d u r i n g flight. The b a s i c c a u s e s a r e t h e f o l l o w i n g .
1.
Assymetry o f the Engine t h r u s t or A i r c r a f t

D r a g (Fig.

1.59)

L e t u s assume t h a t w i t h s y m m e t r i c a l d r a g , o n e of t h e e n g i n e s h a s a somewhat g r e a t e r t h r u s t t h a n t h e o t h e r . The d i f f e r e n c e i n t h r u s t AP w i l l p r o d u c e t o r q u e i n t h e a i r c r a f t r e l a t i v e t o t h e v e r t i c a l a x i s , i . e . , t h e course of t h e aircraft w i l l change.

For s t a b i l i z i n g t h e f l i g h t d i r e c t i o n , a moment m u s t b e a p p l i e d t o t h e empennage o f t h e a i r c r a f t w h i c h i s e q u a l i n m a g n i t u d e and o p p o s i t e i n d i r e c t i o n t o t h e moment o f t h r u s t , i . e .

w h e r e AP is t h e a s s y m e t r y o f t h e t h r u s t ; FZ i s t h e c o n t r o l f o r c e ; LT i s t h e a r m of t h r u s t a s s y m e t r y ( f r o m t h e a x i s o f t h e e n g i n e t o t h e a x i s of t h e a i r c r a f t ) ; a n d L , i s t h e a r m o f c o n t r o l ( f r o m t h e c e n t e r of t h e empennage a r e a t o t h e c e n t e r o f g r a v i t y o f t h e a i r craft) The l a t e r a l f o r c e w h i c h c a u s e s g l i d i n g o f t h e a i r c r a f t w i l l be:

/96

F * = d .
X

APL

(1.86)

I n an analogous manner, t h e f o r c e which c a u s e s g l i d i n g o f an aircraft with assymetry of drag arises. I n t h i s i n s t a n c e , t h e moment o f r o t a t i o n o f a n a i r c r a f t c a u s e s e x c e s s d r a g on o n e wing o f t h e a i r c r a f t . The d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e l a t e r a l a x i s of t h e a i r c r a f t t o t h e c e n t e r o f i t s a p p l i c a t i o n i s the a r m of t h i s force.

2.

Allowable L a t e r a l B a n k i n g o f an A i r c r a f t
Horizontal Flight.

in

With a l l o w a b l e l a t e r a l b a n k i n g component o f t h e l i f t w i l l a p p e a r :

(Fig.

1.60), t h e h o r i z o n t a l

w h e r e G i s t h e w e i g h t of t h e a i r c r a f t a n d B i s t h e a n g l e o f banking.

lateral

For e x a m p l e , w i t h a f l y i n g w e i g h t o f t h e a i r c r a f t o f 7 5 t , t h e a l l o w a b l e b a n k i n g i n h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t , e q u a l t o lo, c a u s e s a
94

----.-._

..._. .

l a t e r a l component o f l i f t

1.3 t.

3.

Coriolis

Force

During f l i g h t i n t h e E a r t h ' s atmosphere, as a r e s u l t o f t h e d i u r n a l r o t a t i o n o f t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e , a l a t e r a l Coriolis f o r c e a c t s on t h e a i r c r a f t :

F ,

= 20,

W m sin 7,

(1.87)

where Oe i s t h e a n g u l a r v e l o c i t y of t h e E a r t h ' s r o t a t i o n ; W i s t h e speed of t h e aircraft r e l a t i v e t o t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e ; m i s t h e mass o f t h e a i r c r a f t ; a n d $ i s t h e l a t i t u d e o f t h e p o i n t P A .

4.

Two-dimensional

Fluctuations

i n t h e A i r c r a f t Course

D u r i n g t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l rolls ( w i t h o u t b a n k i n g ) , a n a i r c r a f t (as a r e s u l t of i n e r t i a ) t r i e s t o maintain t h e i n i t i a l d i r e c t i o n of movement. This causes l a t e r a l g l i d i n g of t h e a i r c r a f t V z , e q u a l t o :

w h e r e V i s t h e s p e e d o f t h e a i r c r a f t r e l a t i v e t o che a i r s p a c e , Ay i s t h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e c h a n g e i n t h e a i r c r a f t ' s c o u r s e .

and

The i n d i c a t e d l a t e r a l g l i d i n g o f a n a i r c r a f t g r a d u a l l y d i e s down a s a r e s u l t o f a c c e l e r a t i o n c a u s e d b y t h e l a t e r a l a i r f l o w over i t s surface.

5 . G l i d i n g During Changes
Component a t

i n t h e Lateral Flight Altitude

Wind

Speed

This type of g l i d i n g arises a s a r e s u l t of t h e i n e r t i a of t h e aircraft. F i r s t , l a t e r a l a i r f l o w o v e r t h e a i r c r a f t or s o m e t h i n g s i m i l a r ( g l i d i n g i n a i r s p a c e ) w i l l a p p e a r , f o l l o w e d by a change i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f a i r c r a f t movement. From t h e a b o v e f i v e e x a m p l e s o f l a t e r a l a i r c r a f t g l i d i n g , constant l a t e r a l f o r c e s are t h e causes of t h e g l i d i n g i n t h e first t h r e e cases, w h i l e a b r u p t b e g i n n i n g and g r a d u a l d i m i n u t i o n o f g l i d i n g a r e t h e c a u s e s i n t h e l a s t two c a s e s . The m a g n i t u d e o f s t a b l e g l i d i n g w i t h a c o n s t a n t l y a c t i n g l a t e r a l f o r c e can be determined according t o t h e formula

z = czs PW or

vz=f+
95

(1.89)

where Z i s t h e o p e r a t i v e l a t e r a l f o r c e ; cz i s t h e c o e f f i c i e n t o f l a t e r a l drag of t h e a i r c r a f t ; s i s t h e area of t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l s e c t i o n o f a n a i r c r a f t w i t h a v e r t i c a l p l a n e ; a n d p i s t h e mass density of the a i r f l i g h t a l t i t u d e . To c a l c u l a t e g l i d i n g i n f l i g h t , i t m u s t b e i n t e g r a t e d a n d converted t o angular g l i d e ( a g l ) :

where V z i s t h e l a t e r a l component o f t h e a i r s p e e d and V, l o n g i t u d i n a l component of l o n g i t u d i n a l s p e e d . The d i r e c t i o n o f t h e a i r s p e e d v e c t o r formula

TI,

is the

i s d e t e r m i n e d by t h e

=r+ag2

(1.91)

The d r i f t a n g l e o f a n a i r c r a f t , w h o s e c a u s e i s t h e a c t i o n o f t h e wind a t f l i g h t a l t i t u d e , w i l l b e :
a = 9- 7" =

+ - 7 -a g l

(1.92)

A s w e have a l r e a d y s a i d , determining t h e g l i d i n g of a n a i r c r a f t i n a i r s p a c e i s n e c e s s a r y only f o r p r e c i s e measurements of For t h e p u r p o s e s o f wind s p e e d a n d d i r e c t i o n a t f l i g h t a l t i t u d e . a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n , t h e r e i s no need t o s e p a r a t e o u t t h e c a u s e s o f l a t e r a l a i r c r a f t movement. E l e m e n t s Which C h a r a c t e r i z e t h e F l i g h t S p e e d o f an A i r c r a f t

The f l i g h t s p e e d o f a n a i r c r a f t i s m e a s u r e d b o t h r e l a t i v e t o t h e a i r s p a c e surrounding t h e a i r c r a f t and r e l a t i v e t o t h e E a r t h ' s surface. M e a s u r i n g t h e s p e e d o f a i r c r a f t movement r e l a t i v e t o t h e a i r space i s s i g n i f i c a n t both from t h e p o i n t o f view o f f l i g h t a e r o dynamics ( s t a b i l i t y and c o n t r o l o f t h e a i r c r a f t ) and from t h e p o i n t ov view o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n .

/98

I t i s known t h a t t h e l i f t o f a w i n g , t h e d r a g o f a n a i r c r a f t , a n d t h e s t a b i l i t y a n d c o n t r o l l a b i l i t y o f a n a i r c r a f t d e p e n d on t h e square of t h e airspeed.

F o r example, a t f l i g h t speeds which a r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y l e s s t h a n t h e s p e e d o f s o u n d , t h e d r a g o f a n a i r c r a f t i s d e t e r m i n e d by t h e formula

96

w h e r e Q i s t h e l a t e r a l d r a g o f a n a i r c r a f t , ex i s t h e d r a g c o e f f i c i e n t , S i s t h e maximum a r e a o f t h e l a t e r a l c r o s s s e c t i o n of a n a i r c r a f t , a n d p i s t h e mass a i r d e n s i t y a t f l i g h t a l t i t u d e . T h e v a l u e . -p v 2
2

c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e aerodynamic p r e s s u r e of t h e

a t m o s p h e r e on t h e s u r f a c e o f a n a i r c r a f t .

A 1 1 t h e a e r o d y n a m i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of mined r e l a t i v e t o t h i s v a l u e .

an a i r c r a f t are d e t e r

I n determining t h e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of an a i r c r a f t , the, aerodynamic p r e s s u r e (and t h e r e f o r e t h e speed of f l i g h t ) reduce t o conditions i n a standard atmosphere, i . e . , t o f l i g h t conditions n e a r t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e , w i t h a n a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e o f 7 6 0 m m Hg and an ambient a i r t e m p e r a t u r e of 1 5 O C . Therefore, speed i n d i c a t o r s which m e a s u r e a i r s p e e d on t h e b a s i s o f a e r o d y n a m i c p r e s s u r e a r e c a l i b r a t e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e p a r a m e t e r s of a s t a n d a r d a t m o s p h e r e . With a n i n c r e a s e i n f l i g h t a l t i t u d e , a i r d e n s i t y d e c r e a s e s . T o preserve aerodynamic p r e s s u r e a t f l i g h t a l t i t u d e , it i s necessary t o increase f l i g h t airspeed, although responses of t h e airspeed i n d i c a t o r which m e a s u r e a i r s p e e d on t h e b a s i s o f a e r o d y n a m i c p r e s s u r e remain constant. F l i g h t a i r s p e e d which i s m e a s u r e d on t h e b a s i s o f a e r o d y n a m i c p r e s s u r e and which i n f l u e n c e s t h e a e r o d y n a m i c s of t h e f l i g h t o f t h e a i r c r a f t i s c a l l e d aerodynamic speed (Vaer).
I t i s n e c e s s a r y t o c o n s i d e r , however, t h a t w i t h an i n c r e a s e i n f l i g h t speed, e s p e c i a l l y i n approaching t h e speed of sound, aero dynamic s p e e d d o e s n o t c o m p l e t e l y c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a n a i r c r a f t which a r e d e t e r m i n e d u n d e r t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f a s t a n d a r d a t m o s p h e r e and which a r e i n h e r e n t i n f l i g h t speed. This i s becuase t h e f a c t o r of a i r c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y begins t o e x e r t an influence. To e n s u r e s a f e p i l o t a g e o f t h e a i r c r a f t i n these instances, a corresponding correction is introduced i n t o t h e i n d i c a t i o n s of aerodynamic speed.

For t h e p u r p o s e s o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o know t h e a c t u a l s p e e d o f a n a i r c r a f t i n s p a c e .
The a c t u a l a i r s p e e d , which w e s h a l l c a l l s i m p l y a i r s p e e d ( V ) , c a n b e o b t a i n e d from a e r o d y n a m i c s p e e d by i n t r o d u c i n g c o r r e c t i o n s for t h e c h a n g e i n a i r d e n s i t y w i t h f l i g h t a l t i t u d e a n d t e m p e r a t u r e :

/99

97

w h e r e Vaer i s t h e a e r o d y n a m i c s p e e d ; AVH i s t h e c o r r e c t i o n f o r s p e e d a s a r e s u l t o f f l i g h t a l t i t u d e s ; AV$ i s t h e c o r r e c t i o n f o r is the correction s p e e d a s a r e s u l t o f a i ' r t e m p e r a t u r e ; a n d AVa.cmp. for s p e e d a s a r e s u l t o f a i r c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y C o r r e c t i o n f o r f l i g h t a l t i t u d e is of b a s i c jmportance. Cor r e c t i o n f o r a i r t e m p e r a t u r e i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y smaller and i s i n t r o d u c e d o n l y i n t h o s e c a s e s when t h e a i r t e m p e r a t u r e a t f l i g h t a l t i t u d e i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t from t h e temperature c a l c u l a t e d f o r this altitude.

A t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e , t h e r e a r e d e v i c e s which i n d i c a t e f l i g h t airspeed directly, taking a ltitude i n t o account. C o r r e c t i o n s must be i n t r o d u c e d i n t h e r e s p o n s e 6 o f t h e s e d e v i c e s o n l y f o r i n s t r u m e n t a l e r r o r s of t h e d e v i c e s and ( i n i n d i v i d u a l c a s e s ) f o r a d i s crepancy between t h e a c t u a l a i r temperature and t h e c a l c u l a t e d temperature a t a given a l t i t u d e .

I n p u b l i s h e d t e x t b o o k s on a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n , a i r s p e e d h a s b e e n c l a s s i f i e d as " i n d i c a t e d " ( m e a s u r e d on t h e b a s i s o f a e r o d y n a m i c p r e s s u r e ) b u t t r u e , and as " i n d i c a t e d , c o r r e c t e d f o r methodological and i n s t r u m e n t e r r o r s . "

S i n c e t h e r e a r e now d e v i c e s w h i c h m e a s u r e b o t h t h e s e s p e e d s , In addition, increasing airspeeds e a c h of them i s " i n d i c a t e d " . have r e q u i r e d t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of c o r r e c t i o n s i n aerodynamic flight speed. T h i s h a s c a u s e d a new c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f a i r s p e e d s . The s p e e d o f a i r c r a f t movement r e l a t i v e t o t h e E a r t h ' s i s c a l l e d f l i g h t . groundspeed ( W ) . surface

F l i g h t g r o u n d s p e e d c a n b e m e a s u r e d d i r e c t l y by means o f D o p p l e r or i n e r t i a l s y s t e m s , d e t e r m i n e d b y s i g h t i n g a l o n g a s e r i e s o f l a n d m a r k s on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e , a n d a l s o c a l c u l a t e d on t h e b a s i s o f f l y i n g t i m e b e t w e e n t w o l a n d m a r k s on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e . In a d d i t i o n , g r o u n d s p e e d c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d by a d d i n g t h e a i r s p e e d a n d wind v e c t o r s , i f t h e wind s p e e d a n d d i r e c t i o n a t f l i g h t a l t i t u d e a r e known. Navigational

Speed Triangle

The i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e e l e m e n t s o f f l i g h t d i r e c t i o n a n d s p e e d i n t h e c h o s e n frame of r e f e r e n c e of a i r c r a f t c o u r s e s i s c l e a r l y i l l u s t r a t e d by a n a v i g a t i o n a l s p e e d t r i a n g l e .

I n F i g . 1 . 6 1 a n a v i g a t i o n a l s p e e d t r i a n g l e i s shown f o r a g e n e r a l c a s e , i . e . , i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f t h e m e r i d i a n which i s u s e d as t h e b a s i s for m e a s u r i n g a n a i r c r a f t c o u r s e .

S t r a i g h t l i n e s OPN a n d O ~ P Ni n t h e f i g u r e s h o w t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e m e r i d i a n a t p o i n t PA; V i s t h e a i r s p e e d v e c t o r ; W i s t h e g r o u n d s p e e d v e c t o r ; y is t h e c o u r s e o f t h e a i r c r a f t ( C ) , a i s t h e

/1

98

d r i f t a n g l e ( D A ) ; J, i s t h e f l i g h t a n g l e ( F A ) , 6 i s t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e wind v e c t o r r e l a t i v e t o t h e m e r i d i a n f o r r e a d i n g t h e a i r c r a f t c o u r s e ; & $ i s t h e f l i g h t a n g l e o f t h e w i n d (WA) r e a d f r o m t h e g i v e n l i n e o f t h e p a t h ; a n d 6 y = a t 6 $ i s t h e c o u r s e wind a n g l e (CWA), r e a d f r o m t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l a x i s o f t h e a i r c r a f t .

A s p e e d t r i a n g l e c a n be s o l v e d g r a p h i c a l l y b y c o n s t r u c t i o n o f v e c t o r s o n p a p e r or b y a m e c h a n i c a l a p p a r a t u s , u s i n g a s p e c i a l d e v i c e ( a wind-speed i n d i c a t o r which i s a combination o f r u l e s , d i a l s , a n d h i n g e s w i t h movable a n d immovable j o i n t s ) .

A s p e e d t r i a n g l e i s s o l v e d a n a l y t i c a l l y on t h e o a s i s o f a known s i n e t h e o r e m . From F i g u r e 1 . 6 3 , i t i s c l e a r t h a t i n t h e g i v e n case t h e s i n e theorem w i l l have t h e form:

(1.93)

From (1.93) t h e v a l u e of t h e d r i f t a n g l e and t h e f l i g h t ground s p e e d a r e e a s i l y d e t e r m i n e d o n t h e b a s i s o f known v a l u e s o f t h e a i r c r a f t c o u r s e , a i r s p e e d , and t h e speed and d i r e c t i o n of t h e wind.

Now,

l e t u s d e f i n e t h e p a t h a n g l e of t h e wind:
b+ = b

- 9.

(1.94)

The d r i f t a n g l e o f a n a i r c r a f t a c c o r d i n g t o ( 1 . 9 3 ) i s d e t e r mined from t h e f o r m u l a

sin a =
U - sid 6+. V

(1.95)

The v a l u e o f t h e f l i g h t g r o u n d s p e e d i s t h e n e a s i l y d e t e r m i n e d :

V sin 6

w=
P

4.

(1.96)

These problems a r e e s p e c i a l l y simple t o solve with s l i d e r u l e s having a combination of s i n e logarithms with a l o g a r i t h m s c a l e of l i n e a r v a l u e s . 1 I n t h i s case, combining t h e loga r i t h m o f t h e s i n e o f t h e wind a n g l e with the logarithm of the airspeed, we obtain directly:

/101'

Fig. 1.61. Navigational Speed T r i a n g l e

99

I -

lg sin u - ig u = Ig sin b+- l g

v = lg sin 8,

- igW

or o n s c a l e s o f n a v i g a t i o n a l r u l e r s w i t h t h e d e s i g n a t i o n s u s e d w i t h special values f o r aircraft courses.

(1.97)

T o d e t e r m i n e wind s p e e d s a n d d i r e c t i o n s a t f l i g h t a l t i t u d e on t h e b a s i s o f known v a l u e s o f a i r s p e e d , g r o u n d s p e e d , a n d d r i f t a n g l e , l e t us use Figure 1.62.

From t h e f i g u r e , i t f o l l o w s
that
O D = VCOSDA; 01D = Vsin DA; DM=OM-OD=
W-VCOS DA.

Fig. 1.62. Determining t h e

A n g l e a n d S p e e d o f t h e Wind w i t h Known V a l u e s o f t h e Groundspeed and D r i f t Angle of t h e A i r c r a f t .

Therefore

(1.98)

Vsin D ._--. tg W A = % = - D A DM W - VCOSDA

The f l i g h t a n g l e o f t h e w i n d d e t e r m i n e d i n t h i s way p e r m i t s t h e f u r t h e r s o l u t i o n of problems on t h e b a s i s of t h e s i n e theorem [Equation (1.9311. W i t h s m a l l d r i f t a n g l e s ( p r a c t i c a l l y u p t o loo), c o s D A e 1, it i s p o s s i b l e t o c o n s i d e r i n approximation t h a t tgWA=

Vsin D A

i.e.,

w-v

(1.99)

F o r s o l u t i o n on a s l i d e r u l e ,

( 1 . 9 9 ) i s reduced t o t h e form:

Translator's note:
1 00

lg = log.

or o n a s l i d e r u l e ,
DA. WA

I--I igsinlgtg
llgspl
. -

w-v v

A f t e r f i n d i n g t h e f l i g h t a n g l e of t h e wind, t h e v a l u e o f t h e w i n d s p e e d i s d e t e r m i n e d o n t h e b a s i s of t h e s i n e t h e o r e m .

/lo2

E l e m e n t s Which D e t e r m i n e F l i g h t A l t i t u d e
The f l i g h t special initial for m e a s u r i n g f l f o r which it i s a l t i t u d e o f a n a i r c r a f t (HI i s measured f r o m a l e v e l of t h e Earths surface. The i n i t i a l l e v e l i g h t a l t i t u d e i s c h o s e n d e p e n d i n g on t h e p u r p o s e s measured.

For example, i n o r d e r t o d i s t r i b u t e t h e c o u n t e r and i n c i d e n t a l movements o f a i r c r a f t i n a i r s p a c e ( f l i g h t e c h e l o n s ) , t h e i n i t i a l l e v e l f o r m e a s u r i n g t h e a l t i t u d e on e a c h a i r c r a f t m u s t b e g e n e r a l . To e n s u r e t h e s a f e t y o f f l i g h t s o f i n d i v i d u a l a i r c r a f t a t l o w a l t i t u d e s , it i s d e s i r a b l e t h a t t h e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e be measured from t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e r e l i e f o v e r which t h e a i r c r a f t i s f l y i n g . In m a k i n g a n a p p r o a c h t o l a n d a t a n a i r p o r t , f l i g h t a l t i t u d e i s meas ured from t h e l e v e l of t h e l a n d i n g p o i n t . U s u a l l y 2 or 3 k i n d s o f a l t i t u d e s a r e m e a s u r e d a t t h e same time. T h e r e f o r e , it i s n e c e s s a r y t o c l a s s i f y them a n d t o e s t a b l i s h a r e l a t i o n s h i p between them.
A t the present t i m e , tinguished (Fig. 1.63):

t h e following kinds of a l t i t u d e s are d i s

Nabs

+Fig.
1.63.

L e v e l / r = 7 6 0 mm H g

I n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p of D i f f e r e n t Systems f o r Measuring Flight Altitude

101

( a ) A b s o l u t e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e ( H a b s > i s m e a s u r e d f r o m t h e mean l e v e l o f t h e B a l t i c S e a i n t h e same way a s t h e h e i g h t o f a r e l i e f on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e . (b) R e l a t i v e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e ( H r e l ) i s measured from t h e l e v e l o f t h e t a k e - o f f or l a n d i n g a i r p o r t .

(c) True f l i g h t a l t i t u d e ''Htr" i s measured from t h e s u r f a c e of t h e r e l i e f o v e r which t h e a i r c r a f t i s f l y i n g .

(d) Conventional barometric a l t i t u d e "H7601t i s measured from t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l b a r o m e t r i c l e v e l on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e , w h e r e t h e a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e i s e q u a l t o 7 6 0 mm Hg. Absolute, r e l a t i v e , and t r u e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e s are determined by b a r o m e t r i c a l t i m e t e r s w i t h c o r r e c t i o n o f t h e i r r e a d i n g s f o r i n s t r u m e n t a l and methodological e r r o r s . The l a t t e r c a n a l s o b e m e a s u r e d b y r a d i o a l t i m e t e r s a n d a i r c r a f t r a d a r e q u i p m e n t or d e t e r There is a r e l a t i o n s h i p be mined by a i r c r a , f t s i g h t i n g d e v i c e s . t w e e n t h e t h r e e i n d i c a t e d a l t i t u d e s which makes it p o s s i b l e t o s w i t c h from one k i n d of a l t i t u d e t o a n o t h e r . C o n v e n t i o n a l b a r o m e t r i c a l t i t u d e i s m e a s u r e d by b a r o m e t r i c altimeters without considering methodological e r r o r s , Therefore, i t h a s no d i r e c t c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e f i r s t t h r e e k i n d s o f a l t i t u d e s , and a t a high f l i g h t a l t i t u d e it can be d i s t i n g u i s h e d from t h e abso l u t e a l t i t u d e c l o s e s t t o it b y 9 0 0 - 1 0 0 0 m . The m a i n a d v a n t a g e o f a c o n v e n t i o n a l b a r o m e t r i c a l t i t u d e i s t h e c o n v e n i e n c e o f u s i n g it f o r e c h e l o n i n g f l i g h t s a c c o r d i n g t o a l t i t u d e s when t h e i m p o r t a n t t h i n g i s n o t t h e p r e c i s e m e a s u r i n g o f a l t i t u d e b u t only t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n of s a f e a l t i t u d e i n t e r v a l s between neighboring echelons. The l a t t e r c o n d i t i o n i s s a t i s f i e d , s i n c e i f we p e r m i t t w o a i r c r a f t t o m e e t i n o n e r e g i o n a n d a t o n e a l t i t u d e , t h e m e t h o d o l o g i c a l c o r r e c t i o n s i n t h e s e a i r c r a f t w i l l be i d e n t i c a l . Therefore, such a meeting cannot occur i f a i r c r a f t maintain d i f f e r e n t a l t i t u d e s b a s e d on i n s t r u m e n t s . From F i g u r e 1 . 6 3 i t i s e v i d e n t t h a t t r u e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e i s d i s t i n g u i s h e d from a b s o l u t e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e by t h e h e i g h t o f t h e r e l i e f o v e r which t h e a i r c r a f t i s f l y i n g , and from r e l a t i v e a l t i t u d e by t h e h e i g h t o f t h e r e l i e f above t h e a i r p o r t l e v e l from which r e l a t i v e a l t i t u d e i s measured:

(1.100)

w h e r e H r i s t h e a l t i t u d e o f t h e r e l i e f a b o v e s e a l e v e l ; AHr h e i g h t of t h e r e l i e f above t h e l e v e l of t h e a i r p o r t .

is the

10 2

R e l a t i v e a l t i t u d e i s d i s t i n g u i s h e d from t r u e a l t i t u d e by t h e h e i g h t o f t h e r e l i e f , w h i l e it i s d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m a b s o l u t e a l t i t u d e by t h e h e i g h t o f t h e a i r p o r t above sea l e v e l :

(1.101)

F i n a l l y , a b s o l u t e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d on t h e b a s i s o f t h e v a l u e s o f t r u e or r e l a t i v e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e :

/lo4

(1.102)

C a l c u l a t i n g F l i g h t A l t i t u d e i n Determining Distances on t h e E a r t h ' s S u r f a c e I n m e a s u r i n g d i r e c t i o n s on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e , f l i g h t a l t i t u d e d o e s n o t e x e r t a d i r e c t i n f l u e n c e on t h e v a l u e o f t h e m e a s u r e d a n g l e s or o n t h e a c c u r a c y o f t h e m e a s u r e m e n t s . A c t u a l l y , b y d i r e c t i o n o n t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e w e mean d i r e c t i o n o f t h e l i n e of i n t e r s e c t i o n o f t h e h o r i z o n p l a n e w i t h t h e p l a n e o f a g r e a t c i r c l e ( o r t h o d r o m e ) which j o i n s two p o i n t s on t h e E a r t h ' s surface. S i n c e t h e v e r t i c a l a t a n y o f t h e s e p o i n t s on t h e i n d i c a t e d l i n e l i e s i n t h e plane of a g r e a t circle, f l i g h t a l t i t u d e does not e x e r t a n i n f l u e n c e on t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e o r t h o d r o m e and t h e r e f o r e on d i r e c t i o n on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e .

--

I n m e a s u r i n g d i s t a n c e s on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e , f l i g h t a l t i t u d e can p l a y a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e and can l e a d t o l a r g e measurement e r r o r s i f w e do n o t allow f o r errors i n f l i g h t altitude (Fig. 1.64). I n t h e f i g u r e , s t r a i g h t l i n e s OAl a n d OB1 a r e v e r t i c a l s o f t h e p o s i t i o n o f a n a i r c r a f t a t p o i n t s A and B . Obviously t h e d i s t a n c e S between p o i n t s A 1 and B1 a t f l i g h t a l t i t u d e i s g r e a t e r t h a n d i s t a n c e S between p o i n t s A a n d B on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e :

Fig. 1.64. Calculating Flight Altitude i n Determining Distances. 1 03

4
.

whence

(1.104)

w h e r e R e i s t h e r a d i u s o f t h e E a r t h ( e q u a l t o 6 3 7 1 km) a n d H i s t h e flight altitude. Each k i l o m e t e r o f f l i g h t a l t i t u d e l e n g t h e n s t h e p a t h between p o i n t s on t h e E a r t h s s u r f a c e by a v a l u e e x p r e s s e d i n p e r c e n t :

/lo5

-= 0.016%. *0
6371

For e x a m p l e , a t a f l i g h t a l t i t u d e o f 1 0 km, a d i s t a n c e o n t h e E a r t h s s u r f a c e e q u a l t o 3 0 0 0 km l e n g t h e n s t o t h e v a l u e
3000~10~0,016 =4,8 6371
UA,

The i n d i c a t e d l e n g t h e n i n g o f t h e p a t h o f t h e a i r c r a f t d o e s n o t e x e r t a s u b s t a n t i a l i n f l u e n c e on t h e t i m e of t h e a i r c r a f t f l i g h t along the path. The i n f l u e n c e of f l i g h t a l t i t u d e on d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t by r a n g e f i n d i n g a n d , e s p e c i a l l y , h y p e r b o l i c d e v i c e s t u r n s o u t t o b e more s u b s t a n t i a l . L e t u s assume t h a t a r a n g e f i n d i n g d e v i c e i s l o c a t e d a t p o i n t A on t h e E a r t h s s u r f a c e , w h i l e t h e a i r c r a f t i s l o c a t e d a t p o i n t B1 , a t f l i g h t a l t i t u d e .

A s i s e v i d e n t from F i g u r e 1 . 6 6 , t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e ground radio-engineering apparatus t o the a i r c r a f t R along a straight l i n e w i l l equal A B I , while the distance along t h e Earths surface S is equal t o AB.
L e t u s d r o p a p e r p e n d i c u l a r from p o i n t A o n t h e E a r t h s s u r f a c e t o p o i n t D on t h e v e r t i c a l O B I . O b v i o u s l y ,
AB: = AD2 +- OB;,

since

10 4

(1.105)
With s m a l l a n g u l a r d i s t a n c e s S ( u p . t o 6 O a l o n g t h e a r c of t h e o r t h o d r o m e ) , when R s i n S M S , w h i l e c o s S M 1, (1.105) t a k e s t h e f o r m :

F i g u r e 1 . 6 6 c a n l i k e w i s e b e u s e d f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e maximum d i s t a n c e o f g e o m e t r i c a l v i s i b i l i t y of o b j e c t s o n t h e g r o u n d f r o m o n b o a r d t h e a i r c r a f t , or o f a n a i r c r a f t f r o m t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e .

I t i s o b v i o u s t h a t w i t h maximum v i s i b i l i t y , l i n e A B 1 m u s t b e tangent t o the Earth's surface, ;.e., it i s l o c a t e d i n t h e plane of the horizon. I n t h i s c a s e , a n g l e OABl w i l l be a r i g h t a n g l e .
Therefore

,
OA2 + A B : = OB:

or

Expanding t h e r i g h t - h a n d

side of the equation, we obtain:

C o n s i d e r i n g t h a t a t d i s t a n c e s up t o 6 0 0 - 7 0 0 k m , R t S = S , a n d e.g d i s r e g a r d i n g t h e v a l u e H 2 as n e g l i g i b l y s m a l l i n c o m p a r i s o n w i t h 2ReH, we o b t a i n t h e a p p r o x i m a t e f o r m u l a

s= v2q.
S u b s t i t u t i n g i n (1.107) t h e v a l u e o f
( 6 3 7 1 km) w e o b t a i n :

(1.107)
t h e r a d i u s of t h e E a r t h

S=1/12742H= 113fi. B e a r i n g i n mind t h a t a s a r e s u l t of t h e r e f r a c t i o n o f l i g h t or r a d i o w a v e s i n a v e r t i c a l p l a n e , t h e d i s t a n c e o f g e o m e t r i c a l v i s i b i l i t y i n c r e a s e s a p p r o x i m a t e l y by 8%, t h e p r a c t i c a l r e s u l t w i l l be :

1 05

svis= VE 122

(1.108)

F o r m u l a (1.108) d e t e r m i n e s t h e l i m i t s o f a p p l i c a b i l i t y of (1.104) or ( 1 . 1 0 6 ) . S i n c e w e have a g r e e d t o c o n s i d e r c o s S = 1 and R s i n S = S u p t o S = 6O, w h i c h o n t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e c o r r e s p o n d s t o 6 6 6 km, i t i s o b v i o u s t h a t a t f l i g h t a l t i t u d e s u p t o 2 5 km i t is always p o s s i b l e t o use (1.106).

It i s necessary t o use t h e precise.formula (1.104) a t d i s t a n c e s This is possible a t f l i g h t a l t i t u d e s exceeding o f m o r e t h a n 7 0 0 km. 2 5 km.

Fig.

1.65. Calculating F l i g h t A l t i t u d e i n Determining t h e Path L e n g t h o f E l e c t r o m a g n e t i c Wave P r o p a g a t i o n /.lo7

L e t u s p a u s e now t o d i s c u s s t h e i n f l u e n c e o f f l i g h t a l t i t u d e on t h e a c c u r a c y o f measuring d i s t a n c e s a t v e r y s m a l l r a n g e s , i . e . , i n c a s e s when l o n g r a d i o w a v e s c a p a b l e o f t r a v e l i n g a r o u n d t h e E a r t h ' s surface are used (Fig. 1.65).

I n t h e f i g u r e , ground r a d i o e n g i n e e r i n g equipment i s l o c a t e d a t p o i n t A on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e ; t h e a i r c r a f t i s a t p o i n t B a t a l t i t u d e H. L i n e A B i s t h e c u r v e o f p r o p a g a t i o n o f a r a d i o wave front.

I f w e c o n d i t i o n a l l y move t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e t o t h e r i g h t b y a v a l u e e q u a l t o H / 2 , t h e n t h e l i n e o f r a d i o wave p r o p a g a t i o n b e comes c o n c e n t r i c w i t h t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e a n d w i l l h a v e a r a d i u s o f c u r v a t u r e R 1 = Re + H/2.

Therefore, t h e i n c r e a s e i n d i s t a n c e from p o i n t A t o p o i n t B c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d as a l e n g t h e n i n g o f t h e o r t h o d r o m e a t a f l i g h t a l t i t u d e e q u a l t o H/2, i . e . ,

1 06

E l e m e n t s o f A i r c r a f t Roll
I t i s known t h a t t h e r a d i u s o f a i r c r a f t r o l l i n a i r s p a c e a t a given banking B equals:

If a f l i g h t i s c a r r i e d o u t w i t h a c o u n t e r or i n c i d e n t a l w i n d , r o l l i n g o f a n a i r c r a f t t h r o u g h a n a n g l e o f 9 0 i n v o l v e s a n i n c r e a s e or d e c r e a s e i n t h e mean r a d i u s o f r o l l of an aircraft r e l a t i v e t o t h e Earth's surface (Fig. 1.66).

.+

F )
uI 9-250 k m / h r
u1 =O; V = 600 k m / h r u, = t250k m /h r
R==

During r o l l i n g of an a i r c r a f t i n airspace, i n the first instance t h e r e w i l l be a d e v i a t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t from t h e o r i g i n a l f l i g h t d i r e c t i o n ; i n t h e second c a s e , t h e r e / l o 8 w i l l be a deviation opposite t o the o r i g i n a l .

Fig. 1.66. Deformation of the R o l l Trajectory i n the P r e s e n c e o f Wind.

I n f a c t , f o r a change i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e groundspeed v e c t o r o f a n a i r c r a f t b y 90, w i t h a s h i f t f r o m t h e p l a n e o f i n c i d e n t wind t o a l a t e r a l plane, it i s necessary t o execute a r o l l of an a i r c r a f t t o t h e r i g h t or l e f t t h r o u g h a n a n g l e o f 90 t D A Y and i n c h a n g i n g from t h e p l a n e o f i n c i d e n t wind t o a l a t e r a l wind t o a l a t e r a l p l a n e t h r o u g h a n a n g l e of 90 - D A .

Example. L e t u s e x a m i n e t h e roll o f a n a i r c r a f t t h r o u g h 9 0 , w i t h a f l i g h t a i r s p e e d o f 6 0 0 km/h a n d w i t h a c o u n t e r a n d i n c i d e n t w i n d s p e e d o f 2 5 0 km/h ( 7 0 m / s e c ) .

A c c o r d i n g t o (1.6), t h e r a d i u s o f t h e a i r c r a f t i n a i r s p a c e with banking of 1 5 O w i l l be
1672 = 10500 9,81 tg 15"

The d r i f t a n g l e a t t h e e n d o f r o l l i n g t h r o u g h 9 0 the following value:

w i l l have

20 5 DA- arctg 6oo - 2 " 3.

--

107

T h e r e f o r e , i n t h e f i r s t case it w i l l b e n e c e s s a r y t o t u r n t h e a i r c r a f t t h r o u g h 1 1 3 O , a n d i n t h e s e c o n d c a s e t h r o u g h 67O. T h e a n g u l a r v e l o c i t y o f roll a t R = 10,500 m w i l l be

= 6 0 0 km/h

(167 m/sec)

and

V.57 3 167.57.3 W = L = =0,9deg/sec R 10 500

L e t u s d e t e r m i n e t h e a d d i t i o n a l s h i f t o f t h e a i r c r a f t as a r e s u l t o f wind d u r i n g r o l l i n g i n t h e f i r s t i n s t a n c e :
70 m/sec.l13O AR, = ~9 km 0.9 d e g / s e c

and i n t h e second i n s t a n c e :

ARx == -" 5
0.9

70 * 67

km

O b v i o u s l y , d u r i n g r o l l ( i n t h e f i r s t c a s e t h r o u g h 113O a n d i n t h e s e c o n d c a s e t h r o u g h 67') t h e movement o f t h e a i r c r a f t i n d i r e c t i o n X w i l l not be i d e n t i c a l , since

B, = R sin Y P .

Then t h e g e n e r a l p a t h o f a n a i r c r a f t i n d i r e c t i o n I n t h e first c a s e ,

X w i l l equal:

Rx = 10,5 sin 113"

I n t h e second case,

+ 9 = 18,5 km

R, = 10,5 sin 67"-5 = 4,5 k m

L e t u s now d e t e r m i n e t h e l a t e r a l s h i f t o f t h e a i r c r a f t R , d u r i n g roll: I n t h e first case,

Rt= R f R s i r 1 2 3 ~ - 14,s km
and i n t h e second case

Rt=R-Rsin2$=6km.

For c o m p a r i s o n , l e t u s e x a m i n e t h e r o l l o f a n a i r c r a f t t h r o u g h w i t h a r a d i u s c a l c u l a t e d n o t on t h e b a s i s o f a i r s p e e d , b u t on t h e b a s i s of groundspeed:
90,

w10 8

Vf

us.

I n t h e f i r s t case, t h e r a d i u s of r o l l i n g is

R=

2372 =21 km 9,81 tg 15"

and i n t h e second c a s e

R=

972 =3,5 9,81 tg 1_59

km

Let us compile a t a b l e with t h e r e s u l t s obtained:

.

Roll parameters
R Y
X

u,=o
~

R,

103 10,5 10,5 10,5

10,5 21 18,5
14,5

10,5 3.5 4,5 6

From t h e t a b l e , i t i s e v i d e n t t h a t t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s c a r r i e d o u t on t h e b a s i s o f t h e g r o u n d s p e e d a r e much c l o s e r t o t h e a c t u a l r e s u l t s t h a n c a l c u l a t i o n s p n t h e b a s i s of a i r s p e e d .

----- - - _

; 7 *
/

_-----

C a l c u l a t i o n s o f roll on t h e b a s i s of groundspeed with winds a s h i g h a s 2 0 0 - 3 0 0 k m / h , when e n t e r i n g a new l i n e o f f l i g h t , w i l l b e c a r r i e d o u t w i t h an a c c u r a c y o f 1 - 2 . 5 km. Some i n a c c u r a c i e s a r i s e , b u t only i n the l a t e r a l d i r e c t i o n . How e v e r , t h i s i s n o t of p r a c t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e , since the d i r e c t i o n of d e v i a t i o n c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e new l i n e of f l i g h t .

Fig. 1.67. Approach o f a n A i r c r a f t t o a Given Line w i t h t h e P r e s e n c e o f a n Approach Angle.

With a d e c r e a s e i n t h e a n g l e o f roll, t h e t r a j e c t o r y c a l c u l a t e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e g r o u n d s p e e d comes c l o s e r t o the a c t u a l t r a j e c t o r y of Therefore, i n t h e aircraft roll. f u t u r e w e w i l l p r o c e e d f r o m f l i g h t g r o u n d s p e e d i n c a l c u l a t i n g roll. I n aircraft n a v i g a t i o n , i n c l u d i n g maneuvering before l a n d i n g , it i s n e c e s s a r y t o s o l v e t h r e e t y p e s o f p r o b l e m s , t a k i n e ; i n t o ac c o u n t t h e roll t r a j e c t o r y .

10 9

1.

Combinati'on of

Roll w i t h a S t r a i g h t L i n e

L e t u s assume t h a t an a i r c r a f t i s a p p r o a c h i n g a g i v e n l i n e of f l i g h t at a definite angle (Fig. 1.67). I t is o b v i o u s t h a t t h e a n g l e o f r o l l o f t h e a i r c r a f t f o r f o l l o w i n g a l o n g t h e g i v e n l i n e i s e q u a l t o t h e a p p r o a c h a n g l e (a). L e t u s d e t e r m i n e t h e d i s t a n c e ( Z ) from t h e g i v e n l i n e on which i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o b e g i n t h e roll s o t h a t t h e r o l l t r a j e c t o r y w i l l b e joined with t h e given l i n e .
In Figure 1.67,

/110

it i s e v i d e n t t h a t t h i s d i s t a n c e i s e q u a l t o :

Z=R-Ucosa or
= R (1

(1.109)
COS a).

Example. An a i r c r a f t a p p r o a c h e s a g i v e n l i n e o f f l i g h t w i t h a g r o u n d s p e e d o f 9 0 0 km/h a t a 2 5 O a n g l e . Determine t h e l a t e r a l d i s t a n c e from t h e l i n e of f l i g h t a t which it i s n e c e s s a r y t o b e g i n a roll f o r a s m o o t h a p p r o a c h t o t h e l i n e . S o l u t i on.

R--2502

9.81 tg 15"

= 2 6 , 5 km

Z = 26,5(1-

cos 25O) = 2,46 knl

2.

C o m b i n a t i o n of t w o rolls

I f , d u r i n g f l i g h t a l o n g a given f l i g h t l i n e , a d e v i a t i o n from i t o c c u r s a n d i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o a p p r o a c h t h e g i v e n l i n e by t h e s h o r t e s t t r a j e c t o r y , a n a p p r o a c h maneuver i s u s e d which i s a combi n a t i o n o f two r o l l s ( F i g . 1 . 6 8 ) .

Fig. 1.68. Approach of a n A i r c r a f t t o a Given F l i g h t Line with a Paral l e l Flight Line.

110

>
------_--

S i n c e t h e v a l u e of Z i n t h i s c a s e i s c o n s i d e r e d known, w h i l e t h e r a d i u s o f roll i s d e t e r m i n e d on t h e b a s i s o f t h e groundspeed and t h e given banking i n t h e roll, i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o d e t e r m i n e t h e v a l u e o f t h e a n g l e s ai = a~ o f t h e c o m b i n e d rolls.

L+

CLZ

It i s obvious t h a t i n t h i s case, i n e a c h o f t h e t w o c o m b i n e d rolls, t h e aircraft approaches t h e f l i g h t p a t h by a v a l u e 2 / 2 ; t h e r e f o r e ,

Z
-- - R ( 1 2
whence

cosa),

(1.110)

For e x a m p l e , l e t u s s a y t h a t a n a i r c r a f t h a v i n g a g r o u n d s p e e d o f 9 0 0 km/h h a s d e v i a t e d f r o m a g i v e n f l i g h t p a t h b y 5 km; t o make t h e a p p r o a c h , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o e x e c u t e t w o c o m b i n e d rolls w i t h b a n k i n g of 1 5 O t o a n g l e s u p t o 25O.

3.

Linear p r e d i c t i o n o f roll

(LPR)

L e t u s examine two s o l u t i o n s t o problems, w i t h a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e roll t r a j e c t o r y o f a n a i r c r a f t w h i c h i n c l u d e s o n e r e c t i l i n e a r p a r t of the path.

/111 L i n e a r p r e d i c t i o n o f roll i s c a l c u l a t e d i n i n s t a n c e s o f a break i n t h e f l i g h t path a t turning points i n t h e route (Fig. 1.69).

I n t h e f i g u r e , TPR i s t h e t u r n i n g p o i n t i n t h e r o u t e a n d TA i s t h e t u r n a n g l e o f t h e f l i g h t p a t h e q u a l t o t h e roll a n g l e o f a n aircraft (RA).
A s i s clear from Figure 1 . 6 9 , t h e r a d i u s of r o l l of an a i r c r a f t , a t i t s beginning and end, i s d i r e c t e d perpendicular t o t h e preceding and following orthodrome segments of t h e p a t h . The l i n e s 0-TPR f o r m t h e b i s e c t o r o f t h e a n g l e o f roll.

Thus, w e have two i d e n t i c a l r e c t a n g u l a r t r i a n g l e s w i t h v e r t e x T h e l i n e a r p r e d i c t i o n o f roll ( L P R ) i s t h e a n g l e s e q u a l t o RA/2. l i n e o f t a n g e n c y o f t h e roll a n g l e , d i v i d e d i n h a l f :

Fig. 1.69. Linear Prediction o f R o l l o f a n A i r c r a f t (LPR).

L i n e a r Lag of A i r Fig. 1.70. c r a f t R o l l (LLR).

111

LPR =Rtg

RA

-. 2

(1.111)

E x a m p l e : D e t e r m i n e L P R w i t h a f l i g h t g r o u n d s p e e d o f 9 0 0 km/h a n d a n a n g l e o f t u r n t o t h e new f l i g h t p a t h o f 40 f o r b a n k i n g i n a roll o f 1 5 O .

S o l u t i on.
R=

2502 =26,5 km 9.81 tg 15"

L P R = 26.5. tg 20" = 9,6 k m

Linear predictions i n T a b l e 1.1.

w i t h roll a n g l e s f r o m 0 t o 1 5 0 , a r e g i v e n
-

Wl km/hr
400

R, M

P r e d i c t i o n w i t h roll a n g l e s - 3mO t o 1 5 0 , k r
15"
~

/11:

'roll t o goo 450 60" 750 900 105" 120" 135" 1500 s e c
... .. .

500
600 700 800 900

7'w 10~600
14 700 18500 23 500

4600

2,O 3,1 4,2 6,O 7,7 9,7

I I I I -l--l--i " I
2,7 3,5 4,6 6,O 8,01!l,0115,0 4,3. 5,71 7,3 9,712,8,18,0,27,5 6,lI 8,210,613,818,3,25,5140,0 8,3,11,0:14,4 19,0,25,0,35,052,0 10,7,14,018.524,032,0142,070,0, 13,5 18,023,530,0140 058 087 0 1 'I 'I ' I I I '65 82 100
116

__

132 148

I n some c a s e s , t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r f l i g h t a b o v e t h e T P R w i t h t h e f l i g h t a n g l e o f t h e f o l l o w i n g p a r t o f t h e p a t h c a n a r i s e ( F i g . 1.70), e . g . , i n f l i g h t s of d i f f e r e n t k i n d s f o r t e s t i n g a i r c r a f t and ground navigational equipment. In t h e s e cases, i n s t e a d of l i n e a r predic t i o n , l i n e a r l a g o f roll ( L L R ) i s c a l c u l a t e d , w h i l e t h e r o l l i s c a r r i e d o u t i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o p p o s i t e t o t h e t u r n o f t h e new f l i g h t p a t h by t h e a n g l e

RA=3600-

TA

I n F i g u r e 1 . 7 2 , it i s c l e a r t h a t t h e LLR i s a l i n e o f t h e t a n g e n t s of t h e t u r n angle of t h e f l i g h t p a t h d i v i d e d i n h a l f , i . e . , w i t h t h e s a m e t u r n a n g l e s , t h e f o r m u l a for t h e L L R r e m a i n s t h e same as f o r t h e l i n e a r p r e d i c t i o n o f roll:

112

CHAPTER TWO
AIRCRAFT NAVIGATION U S I N G MISCELLANEOUS D E V I C E S
1.

G e o t e c h n i c a l Means o f A i r c r a f t N a v i g a t i o n
/113

G e o t e c h n i c a l means o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n c o n s t i t u t e a p o r t i o n o f t h e n a v i g a t i o n a l equipment o f a n a i r c r a f t which h a s a n autonomous c h a r a c t e r and i s u s e d u n d e r a l l f l i g h t c o n d i t i o n s , i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f t h e u s e o f o t h e r s p e c i a l d e v i c e s s u c h as t h o s e e m p l o y i n g r a d i o e n g i n e e r i n g or a s t r o n o m y , f o r e x a m p l e . Such d e v i c e s i n c l u d e t h o s e which measure t h e a i r c r a f t c o u r s e , a i r s p e e d , and f l i g h t a l t i t u d e , as w e l l as d e v i c e s f o r a u t o m a t i c s o l u t i o n of n a v i g a t i o n a l problems. G e o t e c h n i c a l d e v i c e s f o r a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n a r e b a s e d on h i g h l y d i v e r s e p h y s i c a l p r i n c i p l e s f o r t h e u s e of n a t u r a l geo physical f i e l d s of t h e Earth (magnetic, g r a v i t a t i o n a l , pressure, t h e f i e l d of e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c o s c i l l a t i o n s i n t h e o p t i c a l and i n f r a red range, etc.). The o p e r a t i o n o f t h e s e d e v i c e s i s more d e p e n d e n t o n t h e p h y s i c a l p a r a m e t e r s o f t h e medium i n w h i c h t h e f l i g h t i s being c a r r i e d out t h a n i s t h e case f o r devices employing r a d i o T h e r e f o r e , t h e y have a complex math e n g i n e e r i n g or a s t r o n o m y . ematical basis f o r t h e i r regulation, especially with regard t o t h e s y s t e m f o r making c o r r e c t i o n s t o i n s t r u m e n t r e a d i n g s .
Aircraft navigation using only geotechnical devices can be c a r r i e d o u t i n c a s e s when i t i s p o s s i b l e t o c h e c k t h e n a v i g a t i o n a l c a l c u l a t i o n s ( e v e n p e r i o d i c a l l y ) by d e t e r m i n i n g t h e l o c u s o f t h e a i r c r a f t b y o t h e r m e a n s or v i s u a l l y .

H i s t o r i c a l l y speaking, t h e development of radio-engineer i n g and a s t r o n o m i c a l means f o r a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n h a s b e e n d i r e c t e d t o w a r d a s o l u t i o n of o n l y o n e p r o b l e m , n a m e l y , t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t c o o r d i n a t e s on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e , w h i c h p r o v e d a n e c e s s a r y a d j u n c t t o t h e g e o t e c h n i c a l means o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n i n f l i g h t u n d e r c o n d i t i o n s when t h e g r o u n d w a s n o t v i s i b l e . I n r e c e n t y e a r s , t h e r e has been a development of t h e r a d i o e n g i n e e r i n g , a s t r o n o m i c a l , and a s t r o - i n e r t i a . 1 systems f o r s o l v i n g problems which a r e i n h c r e n t i n g e o t e c h n i c a l d e v i c e s f o r a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n , i . e . , measurement of t h e a i r c r a f t c o u r s e , a i r s p e e d , turn angle, altitude, etc.

/114

113

2.

Course Instruments a n d Systems

Course i n s t r u m e n t s are i n t e n d e d f o r determining t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l a x i s o f a n a i r c r a f t i n t h e p l a n e of t h e h o r i z o n or ( w h a t a m o u n t s t o t h e same t h i n g ) for m e a s u r i n g t h e c o u r s e of t h e aircraft.

I t i s n e c e s s a r y t o know t h e a i r c r a f t c o u r s e i n o r d e r t o d e t e r m i n e both t h e f l i g h t d i r e c t i o n and t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e a i r c r a f t r e l a t i v e t o o r i e n t a t i o n p o i n t s on t h e g r o u n d .

A s w e have mentioned above, t h e r e are s e v e r a l systems f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e a i r c r a f t c o u r s e , and t h e s e l e c t i o n of t h e system o f c a l c u l a t i o n i s g o v e r n e d b o t h by t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n and by t h e t e c h n i c a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r e q u i p p i n g t h e aircraft with the corresponding instruments.
A t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e , t h e r e are no c o u r s e i n s t r u m e n t s which completely s a t i s f y t h e requirements of aircraft c o n t r o l under a l l conditions. Therefore, aircraft usually are f i t t e d with several d i f f e r e n t c o u r s e i n s t r u m e n t s o p e r a t i n g on d i f f e r e n t p r i n c i p l e s and u s i n g d i f f e r e n t s y s t e m s o f c a l c u l a t i o n ; e a c h of them i s u s e d I n some under t h e c o n d i t i o n s which are most f a v o r a b l e f o r i t . cases, thes'e i n s t r u m e n t s a r e combined i n t o complexes, c a l l e d c o u r s e s y s t e m s , w h e r e t h e o p e r a t i o n of t h e i n d i v i d u a l i n s t r u m e n t s i s c l o s e l y related. T h i s makes i t p o s s i b l e t o e x p l o i t t h e p o s i t i v e q u a l i t i e s o f e a c h o f them i n a c t u a l o p e r a t i o n . Methods o f U s i n g

t h e Magnetic F i e l d o f t h e Earth t o Determine

Direction
D i r e c t i o n s on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e c a n b e m e a s u r e d m o s t ac c u r a t e l y by a s t r o n o m i c a l m e t h o d s . However, t h i s r e q u i r e s o p t i c a l v i s i b i l i t y o f t h e s k y , complex and a c c u r a t e a p p a r a t u s , and tedious calculation. D i r e c t i o n s on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d m o r e s i m p l y a n d i n many c a s e s q u i t e r e l i a b l y b y u s i n g t h e magnetic f i e l d of %he Earth. The m a g n e t i c f i e l d of t h e E a r t h ( F i g . 2 . 1 ) i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e f o l l o w i n g p a r a m e t e r s a t e v e r y p o i n t on i t s s u r f a c e :

(5;
-

(a)
(b)

D i r e c t i o n a l i t y of

t h e h o r i z o n t a l component o f %he f i e l d

D i r e c t i o n a l i t y of

t h e v e r t i c a l component o f t h e f i e l d

(5;
3

and are located i s c a l l e d The a n g l e between t h e p l a n e s

( c ) The d i r e c t i o n o f t h e p l a n e i n w h i c h t h e v e c t o r s H a n d Z l i e r e l a t i v e t o t h e geographic meridian a t t h e given p o i n t ,

The p l a n e i n w h i c h t h e v e c t o r s t h e pZane of t h e m a g n e t i c m e r i d i a n .

/115

114

of t h e magnetic and g e o g r a p h i c meridians i s c a l l e d t h e magnetic

d e c l i n a t i o n and i s r e p r e s e n t e d by AM.
The p o i n t s on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e a t w h i c h t h e m a g n e t i c m e r i d i a n s i n t e r s e c t are c a l l e d magnetic poles. Obviously , t h e h o r i z o n t a l component o f t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d i s l a c k i n g a t t h e m a g n e t i c p o l e s , w h i l e t h e i n t e n s i t y o f t h e v e r t i c a l component r e a c h e s i t s maximum v a l u e .

The m a g n e t i c g o l e s o f t h e E a r t h do not coincide with t h e geographic ones. The c o o r d i n a t e s o f t h e N o r t h M a g n e t i c P o l e a r e 74ON a n d 1 O O O W ; t h o s e of t h e South Magnetic Bole a r e 6 8 O S , 143OE ( a s o f 1 9 5 2 ) . The d e v i c e o f a f r e e l y r o t a t i n g m a g n e t i c p o i n t e r mounted i n t h e p l a n e of t h e magnetic meridian is used t o d e t e r m i n e d i r e c t i o n on t h e E a r t h ' s surface. Therefore , a t every point on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e t h e r e w i l l be a r e l i a b l e i n d i c a t i o n of t h e t h r e e p a r a m e t e r s which c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e magnetic f i e l d of t h e Earth.

The t o t a l i n t e n s i t y o f t h e m a , g n e t j c f i e l d of t h e Earth (vector T ) i s t h e r e s u l t a n t v e c t o r of H and 2 . Consequently,

Magnetic F i e l d Fig. 2.1. of t h e E a r t h .

(2.1)

The o e r s t e d ( O e ) i s t h e u n i t o f m e a s u r e m e n t f o r t h e t o t a l i n t e n s i t y of t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d , as w e l l as t h e i n t e n s i t y of i t s components; i n o t h e r w o r d s , i t i s t h e i n t e n s i t y o f a f i e l d which i n t e r a c t s w i t h a u n i t m a g n e t i c p o l e w i t h a f o r c e o f one d y n e . The l i m i t s o f c h a n g e i n t h e i n t e n s i t y o f t h e co mp o n en t s t h e magnetic f i e l d of t h e Earth a r e t h e following:

i n

(a) Horizontal: from z e r o i n t h e v i c i n i t y of t h e magnetic p o l e s t o a maximum a t t h e m a g n e t i c e q u a t o r ( 0 . 4 o e r s t e d s i n t h e v i c i n i t y of Indonesia);

(b) Vertical: from z e r o a t t h e magnetic e q u a t o r t o 0 . 6 s t e d s i n t h e v i c i n i t y of t h e magnetic p o l e s .

oer

A s m a l l e r u n i t o f i n t e n s i t y , t h e gamma ( y ) , i s u s e d f o r v e r y p r e c i s e m a g n e t i c measurements; it i s e q u a l t o one h u n d r e d t h o u s a n d t h o f an o e r s t e d .

The a n g l e w h i c h

characterizes the inclination of the vector 115

of t o t a l i n t e n s i t y of t h e magnetic f i e l d of t h e Earth t o t h e plane of t h e t r u e horizon is c a l l e d t h e magnetic incZination "0".

0 arctg

1116

2 =H

(2.2)

Charts of t h e magnetic f i e l d s are prepared f o r convenience i n using t h e magnetic f i e l d of t h e Earth t o determine d i r e c t i o n s on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e .
A c h a r t of magnetic i n c l i n a t i o n s i s extremely important f o r aircraft navigation. L i n e s j o i n i n g p o i n t s on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e w h i c h h a v e t h e same m a g n e t i c d e c l i n a t i o n a r e c a l l e d i s o g o n i c s . They a r e p r i n t e d d i r e c t l y on f l i g h t a n d l a r g e - s c a l e g e o g r a p h i c maps.

To d e t e r m i n e t h e t r u e c o u r s e , t h e m a g n e t i c d e c l i n a t i o n d e t e r mined from t h e c h a r t a t t h e l o c u s o f t h e a i r c r a f t ( w i t h i t s s i g n , as a c o r r e c t i o n ) i s e n t e r e d i n t h e r e a d i n g s o f t h e m a g n e t i c c o m p a s s . F i g u r e 2 . 2 s h o w s a map o f t h e t i o n s e n t e r e d on i t ; t h e i s o g o n i c s The p o s i t i v e the Earth's surface. by s o l i d l i n e s , w h i l e t h e n e g a t i v e World w i t h t h e m a g n e t i c d e c l i n a a r e s h o w n a s t h e y a p p e a r on i s o g o n i c s on t h e c h a r t a r e m a r k e d o n e s a r e marked by d a s h e d l i n e s .

All o f t h e i s o g o n i c s m e e t a t t h e m a g n e t i c p o l e s o f t h e E a r t h , a n d t h e compass r e a d i n g s ( a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y t h e m a g n e t i c i n c l i n a t i o n ) c h a n g e b y 180 when p a s s i n g t h r o u g h t h e m a g n e t i c p o l e .

I n a d d i t i o n , t h e i s o g o n i e s a l s o meet a t t h e g e o g r a p h i c p o l e s , s i n c e t h e d i r e c t i o n s of t h e magnetic and geographic meridians a r e opposite between t h e magnetic and geographic p o l e s , b u t coincide a f t e r p a s s i n g t h r o u g h t h e p o l e , i . e . , t h e d e c l i n a t i o n c h a n g e s by 180O. T h e map o f t h e W o r l d s h o w i n g t h e m a g n e t i c d e c l i n a t i o n s h a s t h e isogonics only f o r t h e normal magnetic f i e l d of t h e Earth. I n a d d i t i o n t o t h i s normal f i e l d , t h e r e i s a l s o an anomalous f i e l d , c a u s e d by t h e m a g n e t i z a t i o n o f t h e s o i l i n t h e u p p e r l a y e r s o f the Earth. Regions and areas of changes i n t h e d e c l i n a t i o n i n s u c h r e g i o n s a r e marked on l a r g e - s c a l e c h a r t s . The r e l i a b i l i t y o f o p e r a t i o n o f m a g n e t i c compasses a n d t h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e e r r o r s i n t h e i r r e a d i n g s d e p e n d on t h e i n t e n s i t y o f t h e h o r i z o n t a l component of t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d o f t h e E a r t h . E r r o r s i n t h e r e a d i n g s of c o m p a s s e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y when t h e a i r c r a f t i s r o l l i n g , d e p e n d o n l y on t h e i n t e n s i t y o f t h e v e r t i c a l comonent

The l i n e s on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e w h i c h c o n n e c t p o i n t s w i t h t h e same i n t e n s i t y o f t h e h o r i z o n t a l or v e r t i c a l c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e magnetic f i e l d are c a l l e d isodynamic l i n e s .

116

F i g u r e 2 . 3 s h o w s a map o f t h e W o r l d w i t h t h e i s o d y n a m i c l i n e s f o r t h e h o r i z o n t a l c o m p o n e n t of t h e E a r t h ' s m a g n e t i c f i e l d , w h i l e F i g u r e 2 . 4 shows t h o s e f o r t h e v e r t i c a l component.

Fig.

2.2.

W o r l d C h a r t of M a g n e t i c D e c l i n a t i o n s .

117

/118

Fig.

2 . 3 . W o r l d C h a r t o f I s o d y n a m i c L i n e s f o r t h e H o r i z o n t a l Com ponent of t h e E a r t h s Magnetic F i e l d .

118

/119

Fig.

2.4.

W o r l d C h a r t o f I s o d y n a m i c L i n e s f o r t h e V e r t i c a l Compo n e n t of t h e E a r t h ' s Ma.gnetic F i e l d .

Only g e n e r a l ( o u t l i n e ) c h a r t s of i s o d y n a m i c l i n e s a r e u s e d /120 i n aircraft navigation. T h e s e l i n e s d o n o t a p p e a r on f l i g h t c h a r t s . L i n e s on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e w h i c h c o n n e c t p o i n t s w i t h t h e s a m e d e c l i n a t i o n o f t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d a r e c a l l e d i s o c l i n e s . Form e r l y , o u t l i n e maps o f i s o c l i n e s w e r e u s e d j o i n t l y w i t h c h a r t s o f i s o d y n a m i c l i n e s s h o w i n g t h e t o t a l i n t e n s i t y of t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d t o determine t h e e r r o r s of magnetic compasses. A t the present t i m e , t h e s e c h a r t s are no l v n g e r u s e d , s i n c e i t i s b e t t e r t o use t h e isodynamic l i n e s of t h e h o r i z o n t a l and v e r t i c a l components of t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d .
Variations and O s c i l l a t i o n s i n the Earth's Magnetic F i e l d

T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l h y p o t h e s e s r e g a r d i n g t h e o r i g i n o f t h e mag n e t i c f i e l d o f t h e E a r t h , b u t n o n e of them h a s b e e n a d e q u a t e l y p r o v e n as o f t h e p r e s e n t t i m e . Possible f a c t o r s i n t h e formation of t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d a r e t h e s u b s u r f a c e a n d i o n o s p h e r i c e l e c t r i c a l c u r r e n t s , as w e l l as t h e m a g n e t i c i n d u c t i o n a n d m a g n e t i c h y s t e r e s i s

119

of t h e s o i l ,

c o m p o s i n g t h e s t r u c t u r e of

the Earth's

sphere.

Even i f t h e s e f a c t o r s a r e n o t p r i m a r i l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e f o r m a t i o n of t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d of t h e E a r t h , t h e y are i n any c a s e i m p o r t a n t i n f l u e n c e s on i t s s t r u c t u r e a n d s t a b i l i t y . An a n a l y s i s . o f t h e i s o l i n e s o f t h e i n t e n s i t y o f t h e c o m p o n e n t s i n t h e magnetic f i e l d of t h e Earth and t h e magnetic d e c l i n a t i o n s r e v e a l s t h a t t h e i r c o n f i g u r a t i o n i s d e t e r m i n e d b o t h by g e n e r a l l a w s o f t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f m a g n e t i c f o r c e s i n t h e f i e l d o f a mag n e t i z e d s p h e r e , as w e l l a s by l o c a l d i s t u r b a n c e s i n t h e g e n e r a l s t r u c t u r e of t h e f i e l d . Therefore, t h e s t a t i o n a r y magnetic f i e l d o f t h e E a r t h i s a s s u m e d t o c o n s i s t o f a sum o f f i e l d s : (a) The f i e l d o f t h e u n i f o r m m a g n e t i z e d s p h e r e ;

(b) The c o n t i n e n t a l f i e l d , r e l a t e d t o t h e n o n u n i f o r m i t y o f t h e r e l i e f and t h e s t r u c t u r e of t h e i n t e r n a l l a y e r s of t h e E a r t h ;

( c ) The a n o m a l o u s f i e l d , r e l a t e d t o t h e e x i s t e n c e o f d e p o s i t s of m a g n e t i c m a t e r i a l i n t h e u p p e r l a y e r s o f t h e E a r t h ' s c o r e .
A s s y s t e m a t i c o b s e r v a t i o n s of t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d of t h e E a r t h have shown, i t does n o t remain s t r i c t l y s t a tionary but undergoes constant changes. C h a n g e s or v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d of t h e E a r t h have a d i v e r s e n a t u r e .
A n n u a l or c o n s t a n t c h a n g e s i n t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d o f t h e E a r t h These v a r i a t i o n s c o n s t i t u t e t h e a r e c a l l e d secuzar v a r i a t i o n . d i f f e r e n c e between t h e average annual v a l u e s f o r t h e elements of t h e E a r t h ' s magnetism. T h e c a u s e s for t h e a n n u a l v a r i a t i o n s a r e changes i n t h e components of t h e s t a t i o n a r y f i e l d w i t h t i m e , i . e . , t h e m a g n e t i c moment o f t h e E a r t h a n d t h e c o n t i n e n t a l f i e l d . The a n n u a l v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e d e c l i n a t i o n a t m i d d l e l a t i t u d e s r e a c h e d 10-12', a n d u p t o 4 0 ' a t h i g h l a t i t u d e s ; t h e r e f o r e , when u s i n g c h a r t s o f m a g n e t i c d e c l i n a t i o n s , or i s o g o n i c s on f l i g h t c h a r t s , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o c o n s i d e r t h e p e r i o d when t h e y w e r e m a d e . If t h e c h a r t o f m a g n e t i c d e c l i n a t i o n s i s o b s o l e t e , c h a n g e s must be /121 made when u s i n g i t f o r t h e v a r i a t i o n i n t h e d e c l i n a t i o n d u r i n g t h e t i m e w h i c h h a s p a s s e d s i n c e t h e c h a r t w a s made. The d e s i r e d c o r r e c t i o n i s determined from s p e c i a l c h a r t s of t h e s e c u l a r v a r i The i s o l i n e s o f e q u a l a t i o n s of t h e magnetic f i e l d of t h e E a r t h . s e c u l a r v a r i a t i o n s i n d e c l i n a t i o n on a c h a r t a r e c a l l e d i s o p o r s . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e slow s y s t e m a t i c changes i n t h e magnetic f i e l d of t h e E a r t h , t h e r e a r e a l s o p e r i o d i c a n d e v e n c h a o t i c c h a n g e s which a r e r e l a t e d t o t h e s o - c a l l e d i n t e r n a l f i e l d of t h e E a r t h , These a r e e s t i t h e main c a u s e o f w h i c h i s i o n o s p h e r i c c u r r e n t s . m a t e d p e r i o d i c a l l y or a r e d i s r e g a r d e d e n t i r e l y .

12 0

M a g n e t i c Compasses

cases rate.

The m a g n e t i c c o m p a s s i s t h e s i m p l e s t c o u r s e d e v i c e ; i n m o s t , i t i s s u f f i c i e n t l y r e l i a b l e t h o u g h n o t s u f f i c i e n t l y accu

H o w e v e r , a s i m p l e m a g n e t i c c o m p a s s w i t h a f r e e l y t u r n i n g mag n e t i c n e e d l e i s n o t s u i t a b l e for u s e o n b o a r d a n a i r c r a f t , s i n c e i t s r e a d i n g s would b e i n a c c u r a t e and u n s t a b l e . Various kinds of i n t e r f e r e n c e would i n f l u e n c e t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e compass d u r i n g f l i g h t , including: (a) Movements o f t h e a i r c r a f t r e l a t i v e t o i t s a x i s ;

(b) V i b r a t i o n s p r o d u c e d by t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e e n g i n e s and b y t h e movement o f t h e a i r c r a f t t h r o u g h t h e a i r ; (c) The e f f e c t o f t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d o f t h e a i r c r a f t , w h i c h would c a u s e d e f l e c t i o n s o f t h e m a g n e t i c n e e d l e from t h e p l a n e o f t h e magnetic meridian, ;.e., compass d e v i a t i o n . O b v i o u s l y , a m a g n e t i c c o m p a s s w h i c h i s i n t e n d e d f o r u s e on an a i r c r a f t must have d e v i c e s f o r compensating t h e i n t e r f e r e n c e mentioned above. The s i m p l e s t f o r m o f a n a i r c r a f t m a g n e t i c co mp as s i s t h e i n t e g r a t e d compass, i . e . , one i n which t h e c o u r s e t r a n s m i t t e r ( s e n s i t i v e e l e m e n t ) and t h e i n d i c a t o r a r e combined i n a s i n g l e h o u s i n g .
O f t h e l a r g e number of t y p e s o f m a g n e t i c compasses which h a v e b e e n d e v i s e d a s of t h e p r e s e n t t i m e , t h e o n e m o s t u s e d n o w a d a y s i s t h e KI ( a n a b b r e v i a t i o n f o r t h e h i s t o r i c name o f t h e m a g n e t i c compasses which were d e v i s e d i n t h e p a s t f o r f i g h t e r a i r c r a f t ) . C o m p a s s e s u s i n g o t h e r s y s t e m s a r e c a 1 l e d d i s t a n c e - m a g n e t i c or g y r o magnetic compasses.

Any i n t e g r a t e d a v i a t i o n a l m a g n e t i c c o m p a s s c o n s i s t s o f t h e f o l l o w i n g main p a r t s ( F i g . 2 . 5 ) : T h e b o w l or c o n t a i n e r 1 o f t h e c o m p a s s , f i l l e d w i t h a damp i n g f l u i d t o d e c r e a s e t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s , u s u a l l y l i q r o i n ; on t h e b o t t o m of t h e bowl i s a p i v o t s u p p o r t f o r t h e movable p a r t o f t h e c o m p a s s , w i t h a d a m p i n g s p r i n g a n d p i v o t b e a r i n g made o f a g a t e ; The m o v a b l e p a r t o f t h e c o m p a s s , c o n s i s t i n g o f a c a r d 2 , w h i c h i s a c o m b i n a t i o n of a m a g n e t i c s y s t e m (H-shaped m a g n e t ) , a f l o a t t o r e d u c e t h e w e i g h t o f t h e c a r d a n d r e d u c e t h e f r i c t i o n on t h e b e a r i n g , a n e e d l e p i v o t , a n d a r o t a t i n g s c a l e for t h e r e a d i n g s , mounted on t h e m a g n e t i c s y s t e m ; Chamber 3 , compensating f o r thermal expansion and contracti.on

/122

121

o f t h e damping f l u i d ; t h e e x p a n s i o n chamber i s l o c a t e d a b o v e t h e This bowl and i s connected t o i t by h o l e s o f v e r y small d i a m e t e r . a l l o w s a i r b u b b l e s t o e s c a p e from t h e bowl i n t o t h e chamber and p e r m i t s t h e f l u i d t o f l o w b a c k a n d f o r t h w i t h e x p a n s i o n a n d con I t a l s o p r e v e n t s i t from s p l a s h i n g i n t h e bowl as t h e traction. a i r p l a n e moves ;
A d e v i c e 4 for g e t t i n g r i d o f d e v i a t i o n s o f t h e c o m p a s s , w h i c h c o n t a i n s s e v e r a l b a r m a g n e t s p r e s s e d i n t o drums which r o t a t e i n mutu a l l y p e r p e n d i c u l a r p l a n e s w i t h t h e a i d o f screws. Rotation of t h e drums p e r m i t s them t o b e s e t t o a p o s i t i o n w h e r e t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d of t h e b a r magnets compensates f o r t h e magnetic f i e l d of t h e a i r c r a f t a c t i n g on t h e c o m p a s s c a r d .

Fig.

2.5.

Combined M a g n e t i c Compass: Section; (b) External View.

( a ) Cross

The d e s i g n o f t h e m a g n e t i c c o m p a s s d e s c r i b e d a b o v e r e d u c e s t h e effect of i n t e r f e r e n c e with i t s o p e r a t i o n t o a c o n s i d e r a b l e d e g r e e and t h e compass r e a d i n g s a r e q u i t e s t a b l e . Nevertheless, m a g n e t i c compasses ( e s p e c i a l l y i n t e g r a t e d o n e s ) h a v e a number o f shortcomings which p r e v e n t t h e c o u r s e from b e i n g c a l c u l a t e d under certain conditions. The m o s t i m p o r t a n t o f t h e s e s h o r t c o m i n g s a r e the following: (1) A l i m i t a t i o n o f t h e c h o i c e o f m o u n t i n g l o c a t i o n for t h e compass a b o a r d t h e a i r c r a f t ; t h e i n t e g r a t e d compass must b e l o c a t e d i n a p l a c e which i s s u i t a b l e f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e c o u r s e , a n d t h e r e f o r e c l o s e t o o t h e r i n s t r u m e n t s a n d m o v i n g p a r t s for c o n t r o l l i n g t h e a i r c r a f t , which produce a l a r g e and v a r y i n g d e v i a t i o n of t h e compass; (2) T h e i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f u s i n g t h e c o m p a s s when t h e a i r c r a f t / 1 2 3 is turning. When t h e a i r c r a f t m a k e s a t u r n , s e v e r a l f a c t o r s a c t the o n t h e c o m p a s s c a r d t o move i t f r o m i t s c u s t o m a r y p o s i t i o n : p r e s s u r e o f t h e d a m p i n g f l u i d on t h e c a r d , t h e a c t i o n o f c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e o n t h e s o u t h e r n , s o m e w h a t e l o n g a t e d p o r t i o n of t h e c a r d , as w e l l as a c h a n g e i n t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d The d e v i a t i o n s o f t h e compass c a r d of t h e aircraft while turning.

122

f r o m t h e p l a n e o f t h e m a g n e t i c m e r i d i a n when t h e a i r c r a f t i s t u r n i n g a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y n o t i c e a b l e when t h e a i r c r a f t c o u r s e c r o s s e s t h e n o r t h e r n and s o u t h e r n d i r e c t i o n s . These d e v i a t i o n s are c a l l e d t h e n o r t h e r n and s o u t h e r n t u r n i n g e r r o r s . The i n s t a b i l i t y o f t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d o f t h e E a r t h a t t h e l o c u s o f t h e a i r c r a f t and i t s changes w i t h t i m e a r e t h e m a j o r s h o r t c o m i n g s of u s i n g m a g n e t i c c o m p a s s e s o f a l l t y p e s . D e v i a t i o n o f M a g n e t i c Compasses and

i t s Compensation

The c a u s e o f m a g n e t i c c o m p a s s d e v i a t i o n i s t h e p r e s e n c e o f p a r t s o n b o a r d t h e a i r c r a f t w h i c h a r e made o f m a t e r i a l s e x h i b i t i n g magnetic p r o p e r t i e s . Some o f t h e s e p a r t s h a v e a c o n s t a n t m a g n e t i c field. P a r t s o f t h i s k i n d a r e c a l l e d hard magnetic i r o n . Another g r o u p o f p a r t s a r e m a g n i t i z e d u n d e r t h e e f f e c t of t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d o f t h e E a r t h a n d a r e c a l l e d soft m a g n e t i c i r o n . A c c o r d i n g t o C o u l o m b s l a w , t h e f o r c e ( F ) of t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f m a g n e t i c masses ( m ) i s i n v e r s e l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n them (r).

T h e r e f o r e , t h e d e v i a t i o n o f t h e m a g n e t i c compass i n c r e a s e s v e r y s h a r p l y w i t h t h e a p p r o a c h of i t s s e n s i t i v e e l e m e n t t o p a r t s which have h i g h m a g n e t i z a t i o n . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e p r i n c i p l e of i n d e p e n d e n c e of t h e a c t i o n o f f o r c e s a t a g i v e n p o i n t i n t h e a i r c r a f t , i t i s p o s s i b l e t o sum t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d s coming f r o m i n d i v i d u a l p a r t s of t h e a i r c r a f t and t o s u b j e c t them t o t h e e q u i v a l e n t e f f e c t o f a s i n g l e m a g n e t i z e d bar located a t a certain point. H o w e v e r , i f we t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h e d i v e r s e n a t u r e of t h e a c t i o n o f t h e h a r d and s o f t magnetized i r o n on d i f f e r e n t c o u r s e s a n d d u r i n g d i f f e r e n t m o t i o n s o f t h e a i r craft, it is better t o subject t h i s f i e l d t o the equivalent action of b a r s w h i c h h a v e a c o n s t a n t a n d v a r y i n g m a g n e t i z a t i o n .
L e t us assume t h a t t h e e q u i v a l e n t b a r of h a r d magnetized i r o n is l o c a t e d h o r i z o n t a l l y and c o i n c i d e s with t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e longitudinal axis of the aircraft (Fig. 2.6).

WiZh a m a g n e t i c c o u r s e o f t h e a i r c r a f t e q u a l t o z e r o , t h e v e c t o r F o f t h e f i e l d i n t e n s i t y of t h e b a r c o i n c i d e s i n d i r e c t i o n w i t h t h e h o r i z o n t a l component of t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d o f t h e E a r t h H, which does n o t p r o d u c e any d e v i a t i o n o f t h e compass c a r d from t h e plane of t h e magnetic meridian.

/124

tor

I n t h e c a s e o f a i r c r a f t c o u r s e s e q u a l t o 9 0 or 2 7 0 , t h e v e c o f t h e f i e l d i n t e n s i t y of t h e b a r i s l o c a t e d a t r i g h t a n g l e s

123

t o t h e v e c t o r H , p r o d u c i n g maximum d e v i a t i o n o f t h e c a r d f r o m t h e plane of t h e magnetic meridian. H e n c e , when t h e a i r c r a f t i s t u r n i n g a r o u n d i t s v e r t i c a l a x i s through 360, t h e r e s u l t a n t v e c t o r ( P t ) of t h e hard magnetic i r o n and t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d o f t h e E a r t h w i l l c o i n c i d e a t two p o i n t s w i t h t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e m a g n e t i c m e r i d i a n , a n d w i l l b e a t a maxi mum d i s t a n c e f r o m i t a t t w o o t h e r p o i n t s . D e v i a t i o n o f t h i s k i n d is caZZed s e m i c i r c u l a r , i . e . , i t h a s z e r o v a l u e w i t h e v e r y 180 r o t a t i o n of t h e a i r c r a f t ( F i g . 2 . 7 ) . F i n a l l y , it cannot be expected t h a t i n t h e g e n e r a l case t h e equivalent bar of hard magnetic i r o n w i l l I coincide i n direction with the longitudi n a l a x i s of t h e a i r craft. However, t h i s does not a l t e r the n a t u r e of t h e semi circular deviation, but only shifts the Fig. 2.6. D e v i a t i o n o f Compass C a r d b y g r a p h of d e v i a t i o n a B a r o f Hard M a g n e t i c I r o n . r e l a t i v e t o the course scale of t h e a i r c r a f t by a n a n g l e which i s e q u a l t o t h a t between t h e a x i s o f t h e a i r c r a f t and t h e a x i s of t h e e q u i v a l e n t b a r . S e m i c i r c u l a r d e v i a t i o n o f a m a g n e t i c c o m p a s s c a n b e compen sated easily. To d o t h i s , i t i s s u f f i c i e n t t o make a b a r o f h a r d m a g n e t i c i r o n and p l a c e i t n e a r t h e compass i n s t a l l a t i o n i n s u c h a way t h a t i t s f i e l d i s o p p o s i t e t o t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e f i e l d of t h e equivalent b a r of hard magnetic i r o n .
L e t u s now a s s u m e t h a t t h e r e i s n o h a r d m a g n e t i c i r o n a b o a r d t h e aircraft, but a f i e l d of s o f t magnetic i r o n is located hori z o n t a l l y and c o n t r i b u t e s t o t h e a c t i o n of t h e e q u i v a l e n t b a r , coin ciding i n direction with the longitudinal axis of the aircraft.

T h e e s s e n c e o f t h e e f f e c t o f t h e s o f t m a g n e t i c i r o n on t h e compass r e a d i n g s c o n s i s t s i n t h e f a c t t h a t t h e b a r , which i s l o cated i n a c e r t a i n p o s i t i o n r e l a t i v e t o t h e magnetic f i e l d of t h e Earth, i s not magnetized i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e f i e l d b u t along t h e length of t h e b a r . T h e m a g n e t i z a t i o n o f t h e b a r c a n b e e x p r e s s e d by t h e f o r m

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ula
B = pHcos a ,
(2.4)

124

w h e r e B i s t h e m a g n e t i c i n d u c t i o n , l~ i s t h e m a g n e t i c p e r m e a b i l i t y o f t h e b a r , H i s t h e i n t e n s i t y o f t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d , a n d ct is t h e a n g l e between t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e i n t e n s i t y v e c t o r of t h e f i e l d a n d t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e b a r . On c o u r s e s 0 a n d 180,

i n t h i s case, t h e d i r e c t i o n
of t h e equivalent b a r coin cides with the direction o f t h e h o r i z o n t a l compo nent of t h e vector of inten s i t y of t h e magnetic f i e l d of the Earth (a = 0 ) ; although t h e magnetic induction of t h e b a r i s maximum, t h e r e w i l l b e no compass d e v i ation. I n changing t h e aircraft c o u r s e f r o m 0 t o 9 0 or from 0 t o 270, t h e magnetic F i g . 2 . 7 . G r a p h of S e m i c i r c u l a r Deviation. induction of the b a r w i l l decrease, but the angle between t h e v e c t o r s H and B w i l l increase. I t i s obvious t h a t t h e deviation w i l l then reach i t s maximum a t a c o u r s e o f 4 5 or 3 1 5 O a n d w i l l r e a c h z e r o o n c e a g a i n on c o u r s e s o f 9 0 a n d 2 7 0 . A s i m i l a r change i n d e v i a t i o n w i l l V C C U ~ i n t h e f l i g h t s e c t o r s f r o m 9 0 t o 1 8 0 a n d f r o m 1 8 0 t o 270 ( F i g . 2.8).
I t i s c l e a r i n t h e f i g u r e t h a t t h e d e v i a t i o n from t h e s o f t m a g n e t i c i r o n d u r i n g o n e c o m p l e t e t u r n of t h e a i r c r a f t a r o u n d t h e v e r t i c a l a x i s passes through zero f o u r t i m e s , i . e . , it has a quar ternary nature.

The a c t i o n o f o n e m a g n e t i c b a r o f s o f t i r o n c l e a r l y i l l u s t r a t e s t h e quarternary nature of t h e a l t e r n a t i n g magnetic f i e l d of t h e aircraft. I n p r a c t i c e , however, w i t h t h e e x c l u s i o n of r a r e cases, t h e a l t e r n a t i n g m a g n e t i c f i e l d o f t h e a i r c r a f t c a n n o t amount t o t h e e f f e c t o f one b a r o f s o f t m a g n e t i c i r o n . I n f a c t , i f w e t a k e two b a r s o f s o f t i r o n and l o c a t e them a t t o one a n o t h e r , t h e r e s u l t a n t v e c t o r of i n d u c t i o n o f t h e b a r s w i l l c o i n c i d e w i t h t h e b i s e c t r i x between them ( B 1 = B 2 ) o n l y i n t h e c a s e when t h e i n t e n s i t y v e c t o r o f t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d ( H I ) c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e b i s e c t r i x of t h e a n g l e b e t w e e n t h e b a r s ( F i g . 2 . 9 ) . I n a l l o t h e r cases, t h e i n d u c t i o n v e c t o r w i l l approach t h e a x i s of t h e b a r which i s c l o s e r t o t h e i n t e n s i t y v e c t o r of t h e magnetic field.
90

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If w e c o n s i d e r t h e a c t i o n o f one b a r , t h e v e c t o r o f m a g n e t i c i n d u c t i o n w i l l change i n v a l u e b u t w i l l always c o i n c i d e w i t h t h e

125

axis of t h e bar. T h i s e s s e n t i a l l y e x p l a i n s t h e e x i s t e n c e on t h e a i r c r a f t o f b o t h s e m i c i r c u l a r a n d q u a r t e r n a r y d e v i a t i o n as w e l l as deviations o f higher order.

Fig. Fig. Fig.

2.8.

2.8.

Fig.

2.9.

Graph o f Q u a r t e r n a r y D e v i a t i o n f r o m S o f t M a g n e t i c I r o n . M a g n e t i c I n d u c t i o n o f C r o s s e d Bars o f Soft Iron.

2.9.

I n a d d i t i o n , if w e d i s r e g a r d t h e d e v i a t i o n o f h i g h e r o r d e r , t h e d e v i a t i o n f r o m s o f t m a g n e t i c i r o n c a n n o t b e e l i m i n a t e d by u s i n g a s u i t a b l e b a r of s o f t i r o n , s i n c e i t w i l l a l s o be magnetized l i k e a l l o t h e r p a r t s of t h e a i r c r a f t and w i l l n o t l e a d t o a r e d u c t i o n b u t r a t h e r t o an increase of t h e deviation.

EquaZizing t h e Magnetic FieZd o f t h e A i r c r a f t

T h e c a u s e of m a g n e t i c c o m p a s s d e v i a t i o n o n b o a r d a n a i r c r a f t i s g e n e r a l l y a l a c k of c o i n c i d e n c e between t h e r e s u l t a n t components of t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d o f t h e a i r c r a f t w i t h t h e v e c t o r o f i n t e n s i t y of t h e E a r t h ' s magnetic f i e l d . When t h e a i r c r a f t r o t a t e s a r o u n d i t s a x i s , t h e a l t e r n a t i n g /127 magnetic f i e l d of t h e aircraft not only r o t a t e s along with i t , b u t simultaneously changes i n magnitude and s i g n . Therefore, i n order t o d e t e r m i n e t h e magnitude and s i g n o f t h e d e v i a t i o n f o r v a r i o u s a i r c r a f t c o u r s e s , it i s a d v i s a b l e t o e x p r e s s i t s f i e l d components i n t h e f o r m of f o r c e s a c t i n g a l o n g t h e a x e s o f t h e a i r c r a f t . Obviously, t h e magnitude of t h e s e f o r c e s (with t h e exception o f t h e c o m p o n e n t s made o f h a r d m a g n e t i c i r o n ) w i l l v a r y w i t h c h a n g e s i n t h e m a g n e t i c c o u r s e of t h e a i r c r a f t ( Y M ) . D e p e n d i n g on t h e n a t u r e a n d c h a r a c t e r o f t h e a c t i o n o f t h e components o f t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d on t h e s e n s i t i v e e l e m e n t o f t h e compass, w e c a n d i v i d e them i n t o t h r e e g r o u p s :

126

(1) Components o f t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d o f t h e E a r t h a l o n g t h e axes of t h e aircraft; t h e i r designations coincide with t h e desig nations f o r t h e aircraft axes X, Y, 2. The r e s u l t a n t v e c t o r o f t h e s e components i s T .
( 2 ) T h e c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d o f t h e a i r c r a f t made of hard magnetic i r o n have t h e designations: P along t h e X-axis of t h e a i r c r a f t ; Q a l o n g t h e Y - a x i s , a n d R a l o n g t h e Z - a x i s .

(3) Components o f s o f t m a g n e t i c i r o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t . As f o l l o w s f r o m w h a t h a s b e e n s a i d a b o v e , t h e y c a n n o t b e v i e w e d as a simple p a r t of t h e r e s u l t a n t vector along t h e axes of t h e air craft.

For c o n v e n i e n c e i n m a t h e m a t i c a l o p e r a t i o n s , t h e s e c o m p o n e n t s l e a d t o an e q u i v a l e n t effect of n i n e b a r s of s o f t magnetic i r o n , o f which t h r e e b a r s c o i n c i d e w i t h e a c h of t h e a x e s of t h e a i r c r a f t . T h i s means t h a t e a c h o f t h e t h r e e b a r s which c o i n c i d e w i t h a g i v e n a x i s o f t h e a i r c r a f t i s m a g n e t i z e d b y a component o f t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d of t h e E a r t h w h i c h i s l o c a t e d o n l y a l o n g some o n e a x i s o f the. aircraft.
Equivalent b a r s a , b, e a r e l o c a t e d along t h e X-axis of t h e a i r c r a f t ; b a r a i s m a g n e t i z e d by t h e component of t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d of t h e E a r t h X , b a r b by component Y , and b a r e by component 2 . E q u i v a l e n t b a r s d, e , f a r e l o c a t e d a l o n g t h e Y - a x i s , a n d b a r s g, h , k a r e l o c a t e d a l o n g t h e Z - a x i s ; t h e y a r e m a g n e t i z e d b y t h e same c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e v e c t o r ?;. The c o n t r i b u t i o n o f t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d o f t h e s o f t i r o n i n t h e a i r c r a f t t o t h e e q u i v a l e n t e f f e c t of n i n e b a r s a c q u i r e s phys i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e i n - s u m m i n g t h e m a g n e t i c i n d u c t i o n o f t h e compo nents of t h e v e c t o r T , along t h e axes of t h e a i r c r a f t .

For e x a m p l e , t h e X - c o m p o n e n t o f t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d o f t h e E a r t h a c t s on b a r s a , d , g , a n d t h e r e s u l t a n t i n d u c t i o n f r o m t h e s e t h r e e b a r s s h o w s how t h e v e c t o r o f t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d f r o m t h e s o f t mag n e t i c i r o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t ZX w o u l d b e l o c a t e d i f t h e c o m p o n e n t s of t h e magnetic f i e l d of t h e E a r t h Y and Z w e r e e q u a l t o zero.

I n o t h e r words, t h e e q u i v a l e n t b a r s are e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e vec t o r s of d i v i s i o n o f t h e m a g n e t i c i n d u c t i o n f r o m t h e components o f t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d o f t h e E a r t h a l o n g t h e a x e s of t h e a i r c r a f t ( T a b l e 2.1).
I n summing t h e m a g n e t i c f o r c e s a l o n g t h e a x e s , w e o b t a i n t h e e q u a t i o n s for t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d o f t h e a i r c r a f t :
/128

127

T h e s e f i e l d s w i l l b e u s e d a s a b a s i s for d e r i v i n g f o r m u l a s f o r t h e d e v i a t i o n o f m a g n e t i c c o m p a s s e s on a n a i r c r a f t .
TABLE 2 . 1

axis of
the aircraft

1
I

I
T X Y Z

I
I

'

R e s u l t a n t forces
E

1
I

l x
aX
dX gx

,I .

my
'

I
1

nZ
C Z fZl

ox OY oz
,

Q
R

6Y eY hY

kZ

T h e sum o f t h e v e c t o r s Y ' a n d Z' g i v e s a t o t a l v e c t o r a c t i n g on t h e s e n s i t i v e e l e m e n t o f t h e c o m p a s s .

x',

? I ;

De v i u t i o n Fo rmu Zas
I n t h e e q u a t i o n s of t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d of t h e a i r c r a f t , t h e c o n s t a n t t e r m s a r e o n l y t h e c o m p o n e n t s of t h e f i e l d o f t h e h a r d m a g n e t i c i r o n , P , Q, R . However, t o c a l c u l a t e t h e d e v i a t i o n i n h o r i z o n t a l f l i g k t , we c a n c o n s i d e r t h a t t h e m a g n e t i c i n d u c t i o n Z f r o m the vector T is constant along the v e r t i c d l axis of the a i r c r a f t ( t e r m s c Z , fZ, k Z ) . In addition, horizontal f l i g h t w i l l not involve the t h i r d equation i n (2.5), determining Z'. I f we a l s o c o n s i d e r t h a t t h e sum o f t h e v e c t o r s X a n d Y c o n s t i t u t e s t h e h o r i z o n t a l c o m p o n e n t of t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d o f t h e E a r t h

H,

X=HCQS~; U = HsinT,

t h e f i r s t two e q u a t i o n s lows :

i n (2.5)

c a n b e r e w r i t t e n t o r e a d as f o l

x = H cos 7 aH cos r bH sin 7 + CL + P ; ' U'=Hsiny+dHcosr-eHsinr+ fZ+Q,

where y

i s t h e magnetic course of t h e a i r c r a f t .

a r e t h e components of t h e magnetic f i e l d The v e c t o r s XI, Y' along t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l and t r a n s v e r s e axes of t h e a i r c r a f t a t t h e l o c u s of t h e c o m p a s s . The m a g n e t i c c o m p a s s d e v i a t i o n ( 6 ) i s e x p r e s s e d b y t h e a n g l e between t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e h o r i z o n t a l component of t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d o f t h e E a r t h H a n d t h e h o r i z o n t a l c o m p o n e n t o f t h e t o t a l magn e t i c f i e l d on t h e a i r c r a f t H ' ( F i g . 2 . 1 0 ) .

/129

128

O b v i o u s l y , t g 6 i s e q u a l t o t h e r a t i o of t h e p r o j e c t i o n o f v e c t o r HI i n a d i r e c t i o n p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e m a g n e t i c m e r i d i a n H " , t o i t s p r o j e c t i o n on t h e magnetic m e r i d i a n H " ' :

tg8=-=

H" H"

X sin 7 f Y cos 7 ' ' X cog 7 - Y' sin 7 ' '

~

If w e s u b s t i t u t e i n t o E q u a t i o n ( 2 . 7 ) t h e v a l u e s o f X' a n d I " from E q u a t i o n ( 2 . 6 1 , and a l s o r e d u c e s i m i l a r t e r m s , r e p l a c i n g t h e v a l u e s s i n y c o s y , s i n 2 y and cos2y by t h e i r obvious homologues 4 s i n 2 y , ?i ( l - c o s 2 y ) a n d % ( l t c o s 2 y ) , w e w i l l h a v e :

(2.8)

The t e r m s i n E q u a t i o n ( 2 . 8 1 , w i t h a c o e f f i c i e n t e q u a l t o u n i t y , have a c o n s t a n t c h a r a c t e r , i . e . , t h e y are independent o f t h e a i r craft course at a given magnetic l a t i t u d e . The terms which h a v e t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s 2 s i n y and 2 cos y have a q u a r t e r n a r y c h a r a c t e r . The t e r m s w i t h c o e f f i c i e n t s s i n y a n d c o s y h a v e a s e m i c i r c u l a r character.

All of t h e f o r c e s d e s i g n a t e d by v a l u e s l o c a t e d i n t h e n u m e r a t o r of E q u a t i o n ( 2 . 8 ) a r e d i r e c t e d a t a n a n g l e o f 90 t o t h e m a g n e t i c meridian while those i n t h e denominator coincide with it.

The f o r c e
~

H i s i n d e p e n d e n t of

the a i r c r a f t course;

it i s

p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l c o m p o n e n t of t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d o f t h e E a r t h a n d i s d i r e c t e d a t a n a n g l e of 9 0 t o t h e m a g n e t i c m e r i d ian. T h i s f o r c e i s r e l a t e d t o t h e m a g n e t i z a t i o n of t h e s o f t i r o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t b y tFle m a g n e t i c f i e l d o f t h e E a r t h a n d v a r i e s a s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e magnetic l a t i t u d e of t h e l o c u s of t h e a i r c r a f t . W w i l l desig e n a t e t h i s f o r c e by A o X H . T h e f o r c e cZtP i s d i r e c t e d a l o n g t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l a x i s of t h e a i r c r a f t ; it i s t h e r e s u l t o f t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l component o f t h e f i e l d from t h e h a r d magnetic i r o n P and t h e i n d u c t i o n from t h e v e r t i c a l Fig.
2.10.

G e v i a t i o n o f M a g n e t i c Compass Aboard an A i r c r a f t .

129

.component o f t h e m a g n e t i c f i n a t e d BQXH and changes w i t h l o c a t i o n only i n accordgnce o f t h e f o r c e on t h e n o r m a l t t o t h e s i n e of t h e m a g n e t i c

e l d of the Earth. This force is desig t h e magnetic l a t i t u d e of t h e aircraft /130 with t h e first t e r m . The p r o j e c t i o n o t h e magnetic meridian is proportional c o u r s e of t h e a i r c r a f t .

T h e f o r c e fZtQ i s d e s i g n a t e d b y C Q A H , a n d i s ' a n a l o g o u s i n t h e n a t u r e and c h a r a c t e r of i t s changes t o t h e f o r c e BQAH, b u t i s d i r e c t e d Consequently, i t s pro a l o n g t h e t r a n s v e r s e a x i s of t h e a i r c r a f t . j e c t i o n on t h e n o r m a l t o t h e m a g n e t i c m e r i d i a n i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e cosine of t h e magnetic course of t h e aircraft. The f o r c e s

' a - b -a n d -a r e 2 2

r e l a t e d t o t h e s o f t magnetic

i r o n on t h e a i r c r a f t , m a g n e t i z e d by t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d o f t h e E a r t h . The f o r m e r i s d e s i g n a t e d D Q A H a n d c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e double c o u r s e o f t h e a i r c r a f t ; t h e l a t t e r i s E Q X H and i s perpen d i c u l a r t o t h e double course of t h e a i r c r a f t . T h e f o r c e H+- a'b H i s d e s i g n a t e d AH. In Equation (2.8), it i s i n t h e denominagor, and t h e r e f o r e c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e magnetic meridian. If w e s u b s t i t u t e i n t o E q u a t i o n ( 2 . 8 ) t h e s e d e s i g n a t i o n s f o r t h e f o r c e s a n d d i v i d e t h e n u m e r a t o r a n d d e n o m i n a t o r b y AH, t h e L a t t e r w i l l g i v e us

Expression ( 2 . 9 ) i s c a l l e d t h e p o i n t - d e v i a t i o n f o r m u l a , and t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s AQ, BQ, CQ, D Q and E Q a r e t h e p o i n t c o e f f i c i e n t s of deviation. The p o i n t - d e v i a t i o n f o r m u l a i s i n c o n v e n i e n t t o u s e , been s i m p l i f i e d f o r p r a c t i c a l purposes. s o it has

S i n c e i t i s a l m o s t a l w a y s n e c e s s a r y t o s e l e c t a p l a c e f o r mount i n g t h e c o m p a s s on t h e a i r c r a f t w h e r e t h e d e v i a t i o n d o e s n o t e x c e e d 8-10, w e can l e t t g 6 = 6 . The d e n o m i n a t o r o f F o r m u l a ( 2 . 9 ) of a binomial:

[1

can b e e x p r e s s e d i n t h e form
(1

+ (Bo cos 7 - Cosin 7 + Do cos 27 -Eosin 27)]-1=

a
< 1, t h e

+ a)-'.

W know t h a t w i t h e the converging series:

expansion of t h e binomial gives

(1 + a ) - ~ = l - U + a 2 - a 3 . . .

For p r a c t i c a l p u r p o s e s , w e c a n l i m i t o u r s e l v e s t o t h e f i r s t

130

two terms o f t h e series

(1 +a)-* x 1 - 0 ,

so t h a t E q u a t i o n ( 2 . 9 )

assumes t h e form:

8 = (Ao f Bo sin 7 f Cocos 1

+ C, sln 7 -Do cos 27 + EOsln q . )

+ Do

SIR

27 f Eo COI 27)(1 -Bo cos 7 +

(2.10)

1131 Having c a r r i e d o u t t h e m u l t i p l i c a t i o n of t h e m u l t i p l i e r s , reduced t h e s i m i l a r t e r m s , and c a r r i e d o u t s i m p l e t r i g o n o m e t r i c conver s i o n s , Equation ( 2 . 1 0 ) assumes t h e form:

8=A

+ E sln 7 + C C O S ~D sin27 + ~ c 0 ~ + 7 + 2 Fsln37 + Gcos3y + + H sin 47 + K c o s 4 7 . ..

(2.11)

Here t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s A , B , than i n the point-deviation

C, D, E h a v e a s o m e w h a t d i f f e r e n t v a l u e formula:

The c o e f f i c i e n t s o f d e v i a t i o n o f h i g h e r o r d e r s , i , e . , p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e s i n e s and c o s i n e s 3 y , 4y, can be d i s r e g a r d e d , s i n c e t h e y a r e much s m a l l e r t h a n a n y o f t h e f i r s t f i v e c o e f f i c i e n t s . Then F o r m u l a ( 2 . 1 1 ) a s s u m e s t h e f o r m :

...,

8 =A

+ B sin 7 + C cos 7 + D sin 27 + E cos 27,

(2.12)

where A i s t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of c o n s t a n t d e v i a t i o n , B , C are t h e coef f i c i e n t s o f s e m i c i r c u l a r d e v i a t i o n , a n d D,E a r e t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of quarternary deviation. Formula ( 2 . 1 2 ) i s c a l l e d t h e approximate formula o f d e v i a t i o n , and i t s c o e f f i c i e n t s are t h e approximate d e v i a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s . However, i t i s c o m p l e t e l y s a t i s f a c t o r y f o r p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y i f w e r e c a l l t h a t o t h e r f a c t o r s a r e a c t i n g on t h e compass which are very d i f f i c u l t t o allow f o r .

C a Z c u Z a t i o n of A p p r o x i m a t e D e v i a t i o n C o e f f i c i e n t s
W w i l l a s s u m e t h a t w e know t h e d e v i a t i o n o f a m a g n e t i c com e pass at e i g h t symmetrical points: 0 , 4 5 , 9 0 , 1 3 5 , 1 8 9 , 2 2 5 , 270 a n d 315O.

According t o Equation must have t h e v a l u e s :

%=A+

(2.12),

the deviation at these points

BsinOO+CcosO"+DslnOO+EcosOO.

131

t
Since sin00 = 0 , cosOo =A

1, t h e n 6 0 = A f

C f E;

+ B sin 45" + Ccos 45' + D sin 90"-I- cos 90" E

or, i f w e c o n s i d e r t h e v a l u e s s i n 9 0 O = 1, c o s 9 0 = 0 ,
ti4, = A

+ Bsin45"+

Ccos45" f

D d

S i m i l a r l y , w e can o b t a i n a system of e q u a t i o n s f o r t h e devia t i o n of t h e e i g h t points:

=A i C E ; A f B sin45" - I Ccos 45" + D; tm=A+B-E: &&=A'+ B sin 45" Ccos 45" D;
o !
b5=

/132

(2.13)

b , w = A - C + E;
= A - B sin 45"- Ccos 45" D;
%i-o=A-B-E;
8316 = A - B sin 45" f CCOS
- D. 45"
%26

Summing E q u a t i o n

(2.13), w e o b t a i n :

-ib-kb

+ 8185 -k

+gci

f %~IJ

= 8A

or

consequently

To f i n d t h e a p p r o x i m a t e d e v i a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t B , w e m u l t i p l y e a c h o f t h e E q u a t i o n s ( 2 . 1 3 ) by t h e c o e f f i c i e n t a t B , depending on t h e a i r c r a f t c o u r s e . T h e n , k e e p i n g i n mind t h e f a c t t h a t sin45O = c o s 4 5 O , t h e e q u a t i o n s f o r 6 0 a n d 6 1 8 0 become z e r o a n d t h e r e m a i n d e r s assume t h e form:

6s sin 45" = A sin 45" ,

+ B sin2 45" + C sln2 45" + D sin 45"; + B sin2 45"- C sin2 45"-D sin 45"; + B sin2 45" + C sin2 45"-D sin 45";

8 ~ 2 A f B - 4 sin 45" - 8 ~ 2 sin 45" = A sin 45" ~ -8270 = A + B + E; -$I5 sin 45" =A sin 45"
6135 sin 45" = A

+ B sin2 45"- C sin2 45" + D sin 45".

I n s u m m i n g t h e s i x r e m a i n i n g e q u a t i o n s , t h e sum o f t h e t e r m s c o n t a i n i n g c o e f f i c i e n t A becomes z e r o , s i n c e t h r e e o f them h a v e a p l u s s i g n and t h e remaining t h r e e , symmetrical t o t h e f i r s t , have a minus s i g n . The sum o f t h e t e r m s c o n t a i n i n g c o e f f i c i e n t B i s e q u a l t o 132

2B

fi 4B s i n 2 45O, b u t s i n c e s i n 2 45O =(?)

; = 1 t h i s sum w i l l b e
2,

e q u a l t o 4B. T h e sum o f t h e t e r m s c o n t a i n i n g c o e f f i c i e n t C , a s w e l l a s t h e sum o f t h e t e r m s c o n t a i n i n g c o e f f i c i e n t D , i s e q u a l t o z e r o . Consequently, /133

2 b i l l = 4B
1=0

or

S i m i l a r l y , we c a n f i n d t h e f o r m u l a s f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e r e maining t h r e e c o e f f i c i e n t s :

D=

-C 4
1
i=O

61 COS 21i;

i-0 8

(2.14)

E=

Change i n D e v i a t i o n of M a g n e t i c Compasses a s a F u n c t i o n o f t h e M a g n e t i c L a t i t u d e o f t h e L o c u s of t h e A i r c r a f t
The d e v i a t i o n o f a m a g n e t i c c o m p a s s d e t e r m i n e d f o r a g i v e n p o i n t on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e , d o e s n o t r e m a i n f i x e d f o r o t h e r p o i n t s , b u t c h a n g e s d e p e n d i n g on t h e m a g n e t i c l a t i t u d e o f t h e l o c u s o f t h e aircraft. ~ ~ v i o u s l y , change i n d e v i a t i o n c a n n o t t a k e p l a c e as a r e s u l t a o f c h a n g e s i n t h e m a g n e t i c i n d u c t i o n of s o f t m a g n e t i c i r o n f r o m t h e h o r i z o n t a l component o f t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d o f t h e E a r t h . By t h e same t o k e n , t h e i n d u c t i o n f r o m t h e c o m p o n e n t p r o d u c i n g d e v i a t i o n w i l l change i n t h e s a m e p r o p o r t i o n with a change i n h o r i z o n t a l component o f t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d o f t h e E a r t h , as p r i n c i p a l d i r e c t i o n a l p o s i t i o n o f t h e compass c a r d . Consequently, compass d e v i a t i o n r e m a i n s c o n s t a n t .

the the the the

T h e d e v i a t i o n f r o m m a g n e t i c i n d u c t i o n o f t h e h o r i z o n t a l com p o n e n t of t h e f i e l d o f t h e E a r t h h a s a c o n s t a n t a n d q u a r t e r n a r y character:

133

ary

Hence, w e r e a c h t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e c o n s t a n t and q u a r t e r n deriation a t various magnetic l a t i t u d e s remains constant.

E s s e n t i a l l y , t h e change i n t h e d e v i a t i o n with a change i n t h e /134 magnetic l a t i t u d e i s t h e r e s u l t of t h e influence of hard magnetic i r o n a n d p a r t i a l l y as a r e s u l t o f i n d u c t i o n w i t h s o f t m a g n e t i c i r o n f r o m t h e v e r t i c a l component of t h e E a r t h ' s m a g n e t i c f i e l d . This remains constant t a k e s p l a c e b e c a u s e t h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e v e c t o r s P, w i t h a change i n t h e d i r e c t i o n a l v e c t o r H . Consequently, with an i n c r e a s e i n t h e magnetic l a t i t u d e , t h e s e m i c i r c u l a r d e v i a t i o n must increase.

I n a d d i t i o n , with an i n c r e a s e i n t h e magnetic l a t i t u d e , t h e i n d u c t i o n o f t h e s o f t m a g n e t i c i r o n f r o m t h e v e r t i c a l component of t h e E a r t h ' s f i e l d i n c r e a s e s with a simultaneous decrease i n t h e directional force H . However, i f w e c o n s i d e r t h e p r e d o m i n a n t i n f l u e n c e on t h e a i r c r a f t p r o d u c e d b y t h e h a r d m a g n e t i c i r o n , we c a n consider i n approximation t h a t t h e semicircular deviation is inversely p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l component o f t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d of the Earth.

which g i v e s t h e f o l l o w i n g f o r t h e a p p r o x i m a t e c o e f f i c i e n t s o f de v i a t i o n B and C :

(2.15)

w h e r e B 1 , C1, H I a r e t h e a p p r o x i m a t e c o e f f i c i e n t s a n d t h e h o r i z o n t a l component of t h e E a r t h ' s f i e l d a t t h e p o i n t where t h e d e v i a t i o n i s m e a s u r e d ; B,, C2, H2 a r e t h e s a m e v a l u e s a t a p o i n t w i t h a d i f f e r e n t magnetic l a t i t u d e . W i t h known c o e f f i c i e n t s B + C , t h e s e m i c i r c u l a r d e v i a t i o n a t a g i v e n p o i n t on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e f o r m ula

E l i m i n a t i o n o f D e v i a t i o n i n t h e M a g n e t i c Compasses
Modern m a g n e t i c c o m p a s s e s a r e f i t t e d w i t h a d e v i c e f o r com p e n s a t i n g o n l y s e m i c i r c u l a r d e v i a t i o n , r e s u l t i n g from h a r d magnetic iron.

134

I n a d d i t i o n , by a s u i t a b l e r o t a t i o n o f t h e compass h o u s i n g i n i t s m o u n t i n g s , w e can c o m p e n s a t e f o r t h e c o n s t a n t component of d e v i a t i o n a l o n g w i t h t h e a d j u s t m e n t e r r o r o f t h e compass. E l i m i n a t i o n o f q u a r t e r n a r y d e v i a t i o n b y m a g n e t i c means e n c o u n ters considerable technical difficulty. Therefore , i f w e keep i n mind t h e r e l a t i v e l y low v a l u e o f t h e q u a r t e r n a r y d e v i a t i o n r e l a t i v e t o t h e s e m i c i r c u l a r d e v i a t i o n , as w e l l as i t s c o n s t a n t v a l u e a t various latitudes, w e w i l l not be able t o get r i d of the latter b u t w i l l e n t e r i t on s p e c i a l g r a p h s f o r co mp as s c o r r e c t i o n . Modern r e m o t e c o n t r o l m a g n e t i c c o m p a s s e s h a v e d e v i c e s f o r m e c h a n i c a l compensation of d e v i a t i o n of a l l o r d e r s . 1135

The d e v i c e f o r c o m p e n s a t i n g s e m i c i r c u l a r d e v i a t i o n c o n s i s t s of a s y s t e m o f f o u r c y l i n d e r s m o u n t e d i n p a i r s , w i t h p e r m a n e n t m a g n e t s i n s t a l l e d i n them ( F i g . 2 . 1 1 ) . The c y l i n d e r s , i n t e n d e d f o r c o m p e n s a t i n g f o r d e v i a t i o n i n 0 a n d 180 c o u r s e s , i n w h i c h t h e f i e l d o f h a r d m a g n e t i c i r o n p r o d u c e s t h e deviation, are arranged along t h e t r a n s v e r s e a x i s of t h e air c r a f t , and p l a c e d p a r a l l e l t o t h e a x i s o f t h e a i r c r a f t i n such a way t h a t w h e n t h e y a r e r o t a t e d , t h e s m a l l m a g n e t s c a n t u r n f r o m a v e r t i c a l p o s i t i o n t o one which i s c o i n c i d e n t w i t h t h e t r a n s v e r s e a x i s of t h e a i r c r a f t . W i t h a v e r t i c a l p o s i t i o n o f t h e m a g n e t s , t h e i r f i e l d d o e s n o t h a v e a n y i n f l u e n c e on t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e compass card (neutral position, Fig. 2.11, a ) .
4

Fig. 2.11. D e v i c e f o r C o r r e c t i n g S e m i c i r c u l a r Devi (1) F r a m e ; ( 2 ) Transverse a t i o n o f t h e Compass. Cylinders; (3) Longitudinal Cylinders; (4) A c t u a t i n g Cylinders; ( 5 ) Embedded M a g n e t s . When t h e m a g n e t s a r e t i l t e d ( F i g . 2 . 1 1 , c ) , t h e h o r i z o n t a l component o f t h e i r f i e l d a p p e a r s , and c a n b e s e t s o t h a t i t i s e q u a l b u t d i r e c t e d opposite t o t h e magnetic f i e l d of t h e aircraft (hori z o n t a l component), l o c a t e d along i t s t r a n s v e r s e a x i s . The m a x i mum e f f e c t o f t h e s m a l l m a g n e t s w i l l b e o b s e r v e d w h e n t h e y a r e i n the horizontal position (Fig. 2.11, b ) . 135

The c y l i n d e r s f o r c o m p e n s a t i n g d e v i a t i o n a t c o u r s e s o f 9 0 a n d are mounted i n t h e t r a n s v e r s e a x i s o f t h e a i r c r a f t i n s u c h a way t h a t t h e s m a l l m a g n e t s c a n b e u s e d t o c o m p e n s a t e f o r t h e compo n e n t o f t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d of t h e a i r c r a f t which i s d i r e c t e d a l o n g its longitudinal axis.

270

The r o t a t i o n o f t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l a n d t r a n s v e r s e c y l i n d e r s i s a c c o m p l i s h e d b y m e a n s o f s p e c i a l h a n d l e s made o f d i a m a g n e t i c m a t e r ial. To d e t e r m i n e a n d g e t r i d o f d e v i a t i o n s , t h e a i r c r a f t i s p l a c e d o n a s p e c i a l l y p r e p a r e d s t a n d , made o f c o n c r e t e ( f o r h e a v y a i r c r a f t ) / l 3 6 b u t without a metal c o r e . The s t a n d m u s t b e o f s u f f i c i e n t s i z e s o t h a t a i r c r a f t o f a n y k i n d can be r o t a t e d i n a c i r c l e and t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e s t a n d t o o t h e r a i r c r a f t and metal s t r u c t u r e s i s a t l e a s t 200 m. The a c c u r a c y o f t h e s e t t i n g o f t h e a i r c r a f t on a g i v e n c o u r s e for d e t e r m i n i n g a n d g e t t i n g r i d o f d e v i a t i o n c a n b e c h e c k e d i n o n e of t h e f o l l o w i n g two ways:

1. D i r e c t i o n f i n d i n g o f l a n d m a r k s f r o m o n b o a r d t h e a i r c r a f t . I n t h e c e n t e r of t h e area where t h e a i r c r a f t i s t o t u r n , a magnetic d i r e c t i o n f i n d e r or t h e o d o l i t e i s m o u n t e d o n a s t a n d s o t h a t t h e i n d i c a t i n g d i a l i s l o c a t e d e x a c t l y i n a h o r i z o n t a l p o s i t i o n , and t h e z e r o r e a d i n g on t h e d i a l c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e magnetic meridian. For t h i s p u r p o s e , t h e s e i n s t r u m e n t s a r e f i t t e d wi.th a b u b b l e l e v e l a n d o r i e n t i n g m a g n e t i c n e e d l e .

T h e n t w o or t h r e e d i s t i n c t a n d p r o m i n e n t l a n d m a r k s on t h e h o r i z o n are s e l e c t e d ( t o w e r s and chimneys a r e b e s t f o r t h i s p u r p o s e ) , a n d t h e i r m a g n e t i c b e a r i n g s (MB) a r e d e t e r m i n e d w i t h t h e a i d o f a s i g h t , r o t a t i n g o n t h e d i a l u s e d for d e t e r m i n i n g t h e b e a r i n g s . T h e l a n d m a r k s s h o u l d b e l o c a t e d as f a r as p o s s i b l e f r o m t h e area s o t h a t t h e s h i f t i n g o f t h e a i r c r a f t from i t s c e n t e r d u r i n g r o t a t i o n w i l l n o t produce any n o t i c e a b l e changes i n t h e b e a r i n g s of t h e landmarks. For l i g h t a i r c r a f t , t h i s d i s t a n c e s h o u l d b e a t l e a s t 2 - 3 km; f o r l a r g e r a i r c r a f t w i t h a g r e a t e r r a d i u s o f t u r n o n t h e g r o u n d , i t s h o u l d b e a t l e a s t 5 - 6 km. A f t e r d e t e r m i n i n g and r e c o r d i n g t h e magnetic b e a r i n g s o f t h e The d i r e c t i o n l a n d m a r k s , t h e a i r c r a f t i s m o u n t e d on t h e s t a n d . f i n d e r i s p l a c e d i n f r o n t o f or b e h i n d t h e a i r c r a f t a t a d i s t a n c e o f 2 0 - 1 0 0 m , d e p e n d i n g on t h e l e n g t h o f t h e a i r c r a f t , e x a c t l y a l o n g i t s l o n g i t u d i n a l a x i s s o t h a t t h e f o r w a r d a n d r e a r p o i n t s on t h e a x i s o f t h e a i r c r a f t w i l l b e p r o j e c t e d on t h e s i g h t , e . g . , t h e c e n t e r s of t h e nose and k e e l . Then t h e d i a l on t h e d i r e c t i o n f i n d e r i s s e t t o t h e magnetic m e r i d i a n , and t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l a x i s of t h e a i r c r a f t i s m e a s u r e d , a n d i t s i n i t i a l c o u r s e i s s e t .

136

I t i s n e c e s s a r y t o r e c a l l t h a t t h e minimum d i s t a n c e f o r t h e d i r e c t i o n f i n d e r from t h e a i r c r a f t i s l i m i t e d by t h e e f f e c t o f t h e a i r c r a f t on t h e m a g n e t i c n e e d l e o f t h e d e v i a t i o n d i r e c t i o n f i n d e r , a n d t h e maximum d i s t a n c e i s s e t b y t h e l e n g t h o f t h e a i r c r a f t , s i n c e a t a d i s t a n c e o f more t h a n 1 0 0 m y w i t h a n a i r c r a f t which i s n o t v e r y l o n g , t h i s method w i l l b e i n s u f f i c i e n t l y p r e c i s e .

A f t e r t h e d i r e c t i o n f i n d e r h a s b e e n moved t o t h e a i r c r a f t , t h e magnetic n e e d l e i s f i x e d and s e t s o t h a t one of t h e s e l e c t e d l a n d m a r k s ( F i g . 2 . 1 2 ) a p p e a r s a t a c o u r s e a n g l e (CA) e q u a l t o

CA = MBL

MC

(2.17)

w h e r e MBL e q u a l s t h e m a g n e t i c b e a r i n g o f t h e l a n d m a r k a n d MC i s t h e i n i t i a l magnetic course of t h e aircraft.

I f t h e above c o n d i t i o n i s s a t i s f i e d , t h e z e r o p o i n t on t h e direction finder d i a l w i l l coincide exactly with t h e longitudinal a x i s of t h e aircraft. To s e t t h e a i r c r a f t on d e f i n i t e c o u r s e s , a t a b l e o f c o u r s e a n g l e s for landmarks f o r e a c h a i r c r a f t c o u r s e i s c o m p i l e d .

/137

F o r e x a m p l e , if t h e d e v i a t i o n h a s b e e n d e t e r m i n e d a t e i g h t p o i n t s , b u t t h e s e l e c t e d landmarks have magnetic b e a r i n g s of 115 a n d 3 2 8 O , t h e n t h e c o u r s e a n g l e s or t h e c o u r s e s w h i c h w e r e q u i r e w i l l have t h e v a l u e s shown i n T a b l e 2 . 2 .

. -

MC
0 45 90 135 I80 225 270 315

115 70 25
340

326

295 250 205

160

283 238 19 3 148

103

358 42

1-2

+2
-1

91
133 178

224
271

58
13

+2 t-2 +I
-1 +2

313

When u s i n g t h i s t a b l e , t h e s i g h t o f t h e d i r e c t i o n f i n d e r i s s e t t o a g i v e n c o u r s e a n g l e f o r a landmark and t h e a i r c r a f t is t h e n t u r n e d u n t i l t h e a x i s o f t h e s i g h t l i n e s up w i t h t h e d i r e c t i o n o f It is clear t h a t t h e aircraft is then set t h e s e l e c t e d landmark. p r e c i s e l y on t h e d e s i r e d c o u r s e . The s e c o n d l a n d m a r k i s a n e x t r a o n e i n c a s e t h e f i r s t i s ob s t r u c t e d b y some p a r t o f t h e a i r c r a f t s u c h a s t h e e m p e n n a g e o r w i n g .

137

The m e t h o d o f s e t t i n g a n a i r c r a f t on c o u r s e b y t h e m e t h o d d e s c r i b e d above f o r o b t a i n i n g t h e c o u r s e a n g l e s of landmarks i s t h e most p r e c i s e and r e l i a b l e one, e s p e c i a l l y s i n c e a f i x e d area c a n b e s e t u p a t a n a i r p o r t for c o r r e c t i n g deviaFions and doing o t h e r work t o s e t t h e b e a r i n g s of landmarks and compiling t a b l e s o f c o u r s e a n g l e s for g i v e n a i r craft courses. However, t h i s method i s n o t always p r a c t i c a b l e . I n some c a s e s , i t may b e i m p o s s i b l e t o s e l e c t s u i t a b l e landmarks, and i n o t h e r c a s e s t h e visibility may b e i n a d Fig. 2.12. D e t e r m i n a t i o n of e q u a t e f o r them t o b e s e e n . In Aircra'ft Course by t h e Course some a i r c r a f t , t h e r e may b e d i f f i culty i n fastening the direction /138 Angle o f a Landmark. f i n d e r on b o a r d t h e a i r c r a f t i n a p l a c e where t h e r e would be a c l e a r f i e l d o f v i s i o n f o r o b s e r v ing the landmarks.

2. D i r e c t i o n f i n d i n g o f a n a i r c r a f t from t h e nose o r t a i l . T h i s m e t h o d i s u s e d i n c a s e s when i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o s e t t h e a i r c r a f t on c o u r s e s o f 0 , 4 5 , 9 0 , e t c . , b y t h e m e t h o d d e s c r i b e d a b o v e .

In t h i s case, t h e aircraft is s e t each time(e.g., according t o t h e r e a d i n g s of t h e magnetic compass) t o a given c o u r s e . Then t h e d i r e c t i o n f i n d e r is l o c a t e d along t h e extension of t h e longi t u d i n a l a x i s a t a d i s t a n c e of 20-100 m from t h e a i r c r a f t , depend i n g on t h e t y p e o f t h e l a t t e r ; t h e c o r r e c n e s s o f t h e s e t t i n g o f t h e a i r c r a f t on c o u r s e i s t h e n d e t e r m i n e d a s i n t h e f i r s t c a s e b e f o r e m o u n t i n g t h e d i r e c t i o n f i n d e r on b o a r d t h e a i r c r a f t . I t may b e necessary t o t u r n t h e a i r c r a f t f o r a secondary check. This method i s l e s s c o n v e n i e n t t h a n t h e f i r s t , s i n c e it i s necessary t o s h i f t t h e d i r e c t i o n f i n d e r f o r each course, s e t it exactly along t h e extension of t h e a i r c r a f t a x i s , a d j u s t the zero on t h e d i a l a l o n g t h e m a g n e t i c m e r i d i a n , a n d m a k e t h e d i a l l e v e l , Under u n f a v i n addition t o measuring t h e distance t o t h e aircraft. o r a b l e c o n d i t i o n s a b o a r d t h e a i r c r a f t , t h i s o p e r a t i o n may h a v e t o The a d v a n t a g e o f t h i s m e t h o d b e r e p e a t e d a f t e r moving t h e a i r c r a f t . i s i t s independence of t h e e x i s t e n c e of landmarks, meteorological v i s i b i l i t y , and p e c u l i a r i t i e s of a i r c r a f t d e s i g n . S e m i c i r c u l a r d e v i a t i o n of m a g n e t i c c o m p a s s e s i s c o r r e c t e d a n d eliminated at four basic points: 0 , 180 , 90 a n d 2 7 0 .

I t i s c l e a r from ( 2 . 1 3 ) t h a t s e m i c i r c u l a r d e v i a t i o n a t t h e 0 a n d 1 8 0 p o i n t s i s e q u a l i n v a l u e , b u t o p p o s i t e i n s i g n , a n d ex.Deviation from p r e s s e d b y t h e maximum v a l u e o f c o e f f i c i e n t C .

138

c o e f f i c i e n t B i s e q u a l t o z e r o on t h e s e c o u r s e s . However, a l l of t h e s e c o u r s e s a r e s u b j e c t t o t h e a c t i o n o f a c o n s t a n t d e v i a t i o n i n t h e c o e f f i c i e n t A and q u a r t e r n a r y d e v i a t i o n E i n addition t o the semicircular deviation. T h i s means t h a t t h e v a l u e s of t h e c o n s t a n t a n d q u a r t e r n a r y d e v i a t i o n a r e e q u a l i n v a l u e and s i g n . C o n s e q u e n t l y , i f t h e d e v i a t i o n on c o u r s e O o i s s e t t o z e r o by t u r n i n g t h e c y l i n d e r o f t h e d e v i a t i o n - c o r r e c t i n g a p p a r a t u s w i t h t h e m a r k i n g IrN-S" , t h e s e m i c i r c u l a r d e v i a t i o n w i l l b e c o m p e n s a t e d f o r and t h e c o n s t a n t and q u a r t e r n a r y d e v i a t i o n w i l l s i m u l t a n e o u s l y b e compensated f o r . I t w i l l c h a n g e w i t h t h e same s i g n t o a c o u r s e Therefore, after s e t t i n g the o f 180, w h e r e i t s v a l u e d o u b l e s . a i r c r a f t t o a c o u r s e o f 180, i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o s e t t h e d e v i a t i o n n o t t o zero, b u t t o h a l f t h e r o t a t i o n of t h a t c y l i n d e r , and i n t h e reverse direction. Hence , t h e s e m i c i r c u l a r d e v i a t i o n f r o m c o e f f i c i e n t C c a n b e e l i m i n a t e d completely and p r e c i s e l y w i t h o u t d i s t u r b i n g t h e c o n s t a n t and q u a r t e r n a r y d e v i a t i o n s . A n a l o g o u s l y , by t u r n i n g t h e c y l i n d e r o f t h e d e v i a t i o n - c o r r e c t i n g a p p a r a t u s w i t h t h e m a r k i n g "E-W", i t i s p o s s i b l e t o r e d u c e t h e d e v i a t i o n t o zerio f o r a 90 c o u r s e a n d by h a l f f o r a 270 c o u r s e , /139 which c o m p l e t e l y g e t s r i d o f t h e s e m i c i r c u l a r d e v i a t i o n from c o e f f i c i e n t B without d i s t u r b i n g t h e c o n s t a n t and q u a r t e r n a r y d e v i a t i o n s .

TABLE 2 3
MC

0
180

12
+4 +7 -2

0
+2 0 -1

90 270

+5

+S

-50

45

YO

135

180

225

270

315

0 -5

Fig'.

2 . 1 3 . Graph o f D e v i a t i o n o f a M a g n e t i c Compass. 139

L.

The o p e r a t i o n w i t h s e m i c i r c u l a r d e v i a t i o n i s d e s c r i b e d i n a s p e c i a l t a b l e (Table 2.3). Obviously, t h e remaining deviation a t t h e s e p o i n t s w i l l be e q u a l t o t 2 O for c o u r s e s o f 0 a n d 180 a n d -lo f o r c o u r s e s o f 9 0 a n d 270.

A f t e r g e t t i n g r i d of t h e s e m i c i r c u l a r d e v i a t i o n , t h e a i r c r a f t i s s e t t o c o u r s e s a t 45O i n t e r v a l s a n d t h e r e m a i n i n g d e v i a t i o n i s An e x a m p l e o f t h e r e c o r d i n g i s s h o w n i n T a b l e 2 . 2 . measured.
A f t e r summing t h e r e m a i n i n g d e v i a t i o n f o r e i g h t c o u r s e s ( G r a p h 5 , T a b l e 2 . 2 ) a n d d i v i d i n g t h e sum b y e i g h t , w e o b t a i n t h e v a l u e of t h e constant deviation
A=

+ 3- 1 + 2 + 2 + 1 - 1 + 2
8

=+

The b o w l o f t h e c o m p a s s m u s t b e s e t i n i t s m o u n t i n g t o t h i s If w e d i s r e g a r d t h e v a l u e of 0.25O produced by t u r n i n g t h e value. bowl o f t h e compass t h r o u g h lo, t h e r e m a i n i n g d e v i a t i o n f o r t h e e i g h t c o u r s e s w i l l h a v e a v a l u e o f t1, t 2 , - 2 , t1, t 1 , 0 , - 2 , t 1 so t h a t t h e graph o f t h e c o r r e c t i o n s c a n b e compared w i t h t h e r e a d i n g s o f t h e compass ( F i g . 2.13). If t h e a i r c r a f t i s i n t e n d e d f o r u s e on f l i g h t s a t m a g n e t i c l a t i t u d e s w h e r e t h e r e w i l l o n l y b e s m a l l c h a n g e s , t h i s w i l l mark t h e e n d o f t h e work w i t h d e v i a t i o n . I n p r e p a r i n g f o r long d i s t a n c e f l i g h t s , w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e changes /140 i n t h e magnetic l a t i t u d e s , t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of t h e s e m i c i r c u l a r d e v i a t i o n B and C must a l s o b e found w i t h d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e i r changes w i t h magnetic l a t i t u d e . I n t h i s case, t h e c o e f f i c i e n t B w i l l b e e q u a l t o :

B-

+ I sin'0 + 2 sin 450- 2 sin + I sin + I sin 1800 + + 0-2 sin 2x0' + 1 sin 315" --
900
1.3~0

--0

+ 1,4-2+0,7 + 0 + 0 + 2-0.7 0.35. --__4

and c o e f f i c i e n t C w i l l be

C=

1+1,4-0-0,7+

1 - +0-0+0,7 -

= 0.85.

140

G y r o s c o p i c C o u r s e Devices Regardless o f t h e f a c t t h a t measures have been employed f o r a long p e r i o d of t i m e which are d i r e c t e d toward i n c r e a s i n g t h e accur a c y o f r e a d i n g s a n d t h e s t a b i l i t y o f o p e r a t i o n o f i n t e g r a t e d mag n e t i c compasses, t h e i r shortcomings have n o t been completely over come. I n a d d i t i o n , magnetic course devices are d i f f i c u l t t o use i n a f l i g h t a l o n g a n orthodrome f o r l o n g d i s t a n c e s , due t o t h e complex i t y o f t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e m a g n e t i c d e c l i n a t i o n as i t changes along the route.
A l l o f t h i s h a s made i t n e c e s s a r y t o s e e k new w a y s o f d e v i s i n g c o u r s e i n s t r u m e n t s and systems which w i l l s a t i s f y t h e r e q u i r e ments of a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n a t a l l s t a g e s and a l l c o n d i t i o n s o f flight.

The f i r s t s t e p s i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n w e r e made b y t h e r e m o t e c o n t r o l magnetic compasses, c o n t a i n i n g a magnetic t r a n s m f t t e r ( a s e n s i t i v e element) l o c a t e d a t any convenient p o i n t i n t h e a i r c r a f t , whose r e a d i n g s w e r e t r a n s m i t t e d b y means o f s p e c i a l p o t e n t i o m e t r i c t r a n s m i t t e r s t o d i a l s mounted i n t h e c o c k p i t . T h i s made i t p o s s i b l e t o m o u n t t h e c o m p a s s i n t h e p i l o t ' s f i e l d o f v i s i o n a n d e n s u r e optimum c o n d i t i o n s f o r o p e r a t i o n o f t h e compass f r o m t h e s t a n d p o i n t o f d e v i a t i o n . However, t h e r e were s t i l l c o n s i d e r a b l e shortcomings i n t h e o p e r a t i o n of t h e compass, such as i n s t a b i l i t y o f t h e r e a d i n g s w i t h m o v e m e n t of t h e a i r c r a f t a n d t h e i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f u s i n g i t when t h e a i r c r a f t w a s t u r n i n g . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e l i a b i l i t y o f o p e r a t i o n o f t h e compass de creased, since t h e potentiometric connection with r e l i a b l e contacts produced an a d d i t i o n a l d e l a y i n t h e t u r n i n g of t h e s e n s o r c a r d t o a s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r d e g r e e t h a n w a s t h e case f o r t h e r o t a t i o n o f a f r e e l y m o v i n g c a r d on i t s b e a r i n g i n a n i n t e g r a t e d c o m p a s s . The n e x t s t e p s i n i n c r e a s i n g t h e a c c u r a c y a n d r e l i a b i l i t y o f /141 o p e r a t i o n o f c o u r s e d e v i c e s w a s made b y t h e g y r o s c o p i c s e m i c o m p a s s e s and magnetic c o u r s e s e n s o r s l i n k e d w i t h g y r o s c o p i c dampers. This made i t p o s s i b l e t o u s e t h e c o u r s e i n s t r u m e n t s w h i l e t h e a i r c r a f t w a s t u r n i n g and t o a c h i e v e s t a b i l i t y o f c o u r s e r e a d i n g s under any f l i g h t conditions. Analysis of t h e induction course sensors, free of f r i c t i o n d u r i n g t u r n i n g o f a n a i r c r a f t , s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n c r e a s e d t h e r e l i a b i l i t y of magnetic compasses. H o w e v e r , t h e g r e a t e s t r e l i a b i l i t y a n d a c c u r a c y i n c o u r s e meas urements f o r a i r c r a f t h a s b e e n a c h i e v e d by t h e b u i l d i n g of complexes of c o u r s e i n s t r u m e n t s ( c o u r s e s y s t e m s ) , c o m b i n i n g t h e o p e r a t i o n of gyroscopic, magnetic, and astronomic s e n s o r s . The p r i n c i p l e o f t h e s e systems is a s t a b l e and prolongad maintenance o f t h e system

141

f o r estimating the course. w i t h a gyroscopic assembly having p e r i o d i c c o r r e c t i o n ?f t h e r e a d i n g s b y m e a n s o f a m a g n e t i c or a s t r o n o m i c a l s e n s o r , or i n p u t o f c o r r e c t i o n s m a n u a l l y a s d e s i r e d b y t h e crew.

P r i n c i p Z e o f O p e r a t i o n o f Gyroscopic I n s t r u m e n t s
The g y r o s c o p e i s a m a s s i v e b a l a n c e d b o d y , a x i s of symmetry a t a h i g h a n g u l a r v e l o c i t y . r o t a t i n g around i t s

G y r o s c o p e s a r e u s u a l l y made i n a f o r m s u c h t h a t t h e y h a v e r e l a t i v e l y low w e i g h t a n d s m a l l s i z e , y e t h a v e a maximum i n e r t i a l moment which i s r e a c h e d r e l a t i v e t o t h e b a s i c m a s s of t h e g y r o s c o p e as f a r as p o s s i b l e f r o m t h e c e n t e r o f r o t a t i o n w i t h i n t h e g i v e n dimen s i o n s of t h e g y r o s c o p e . L e t u s r e c a l l t h a t t h e i n e r t i a l moment J i n m e c h a n i c s i s t h e p r o d u c t of t h e m a s s t i m e s t h e s q u a r e o f t h e d i s t a n c e t o t h e a x i s o f r o t a t i on :

J = mr;",

(2.18)

w h e r e r l i s t h e d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e mass t o t h e a x i s o f r o t a t i o n .

For a . c o m p l e t e c y l i n d e r , w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e s t h e b a s i c mass o f a g y r o s c o p e ( F i g . 2 . 1 4 ) , t h e i n e r t i a l moment i s

m (ri - r;")

J=

(2.19)

The g y r o s c o p e h a s t w o i n t e r e s t i n g p r o p e r t i e s w h i c h a r e u s e d i n a n u m b e r o f d e v i c e s for p i l o t a g e a n d n a v i g a t i o n :

(1) A x i a Z s t a b i l i t y , i . e . , t h e a b i l i t y t o m a i n t a i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f i t s a x i s o f r o t a t i o n i n s p a c e i n t h e a b s e n c e o f moments of e x t e r n a l f o r c e s t e n d i n g t o c h a n g e t h i s d i r e c t i o n ;
( 2 ) A x i a Z p r e c e s s i o n of r o t a t i o n u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f mo ments of e x t e r n a l f o r c e , i . e . , a slow r o t a t i o n of t h e a x i s i n a p l a n e which i s p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e a p p l i e d f o r c e , w i t h maintenance of t h e d i r e c t i o n i n t h e plane of t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e f o r c e . The f i r s t p r o p e r t y of t h e g y r o s c o p e i s u s u a l l y u s e d f o r s t a b i l i z i n g t h e d i r e c t i o n s of t h e axes of t h e c o o r d i n a t e s f o r d e t e r mining t h e r e q u i r e d v a l u e s , t h e banking of t h e a i r c r a f t , t h e a n g l e of p i t c h , and t h e c o u r s e . The s e c o n d p r o p e r t y i s u s e d t o s e t t h e a x i s of t h e gyroscope i n t h e d e s i r e d p o s i t i o n , e . g . , t o t h e v e r t i c a l of t h e locus of t h e a i r c r a f t , t o t h e plane of t h e t r u e h o r i z o n , for c o m p e n s a t i o n o f t h e a p p a r e n t r o t a t i o n o f t h e a x i s d u e t o the diurnal r o t a t i o n of the Earth, e t c . In addition, the property of p r e c e s s i o n i s s o m e t i m e s e m p l o y e d i n d e v i c e s w h i c h i n t e g r a t e t h e /142

142

a c t i o n of t h e f o r c e s with t i m e , navigation devices.

l e t us

e.g.,

i n t h e construction of i n e r t i a l

T o e x p l a i n t h e p r i n c i p l e s of o p e r a t i o n o f g y r o s c o p i c d e v i c e s c o n s i d e r t h e p h y s i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e two p r o p e r t i e s of a gyroscope mentioned above.

For t h e s a k e o f s i m p l i c i t y , w e s h a l l a s s u m e t h a t t h e mass o f t h e g y r o s c o p e i s located along t h e circumference around and t h e a x i s of r o t a t i o n ( F i g . 2.15), w e s h a l l select an element of t h i s m a s s a t some p o i n t on t h e c i r c u m f e r e n c e .
L e t u s assume t h a t under t h e i n f l u e n c e of a f o r c e F, t h e a x i s of t h e gyroscope has been t i l t e d t o an a n g l e A + . Obviously, t h e d i r e c t i o n of r o t a t i o n o f t h e e l e m e n t o f mass o f t h e g y r o s c o p e d o e s n o t c h a n g e when i t p a s s e s t h r o u g h p o i n t s A a n d B , s i n c e t h e motion of t h e element a t p o i n t s A , A 1 and B y B1 t a n g e n t t o t h e circum ference remain p a r a l l e l . The t a n g e n t s t o t h e d i r e c t i o n o f m o t i o n a t t h e p o i n t C and d i a m e t r i c a l l y o p p o s i t e t o it are a t an a n g l e equal t o A+. Consequently, a t these p o i n t s t h e r e arises a difference i n the velocities
AV = V s i n A + .

Fig.

2.14.

Gyroscope Rotor.

(2.20)

The g r e a t e r t h e a n g u l a r v e l o c i t y of r o t a t i o n of t h e g y r o s c o p e and t h e r a d i u s of t h e r i n g , t h e g r e a t e r w i l l b e t h e c i r c u m f e r e p t i a l s p e e d o f t h e e l e m e n t o f mass a n d t h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e v e c t o r A V . O b v i o u s l y , t h e r e a c t i o n o f t h e mass o f t h e g y r o s c o p e must p r o duce r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e v e c t o r of v e l o c i t y change a t t h e p o i n t s C and C1, i . e . , t h e f o r c e s F and Fp arise at these points, directed P 1 opposite t o v e c t o r AV and producing t h e p r e c e s s i o n of t h e gyroscope axis. Hence, t h e i n e r t i a of t h e m a s s of t h e g y r o s c o p e w i l l c a u s e p r e c e s s i o n of t h e gyroscope a x i s . The f o r c e s p r o d u c i n g t h e p r e c e s s i o n w i l l i n t u r n c a u s e a t i l t i n g of t h e a x i s i n a p l a n e perpen d i c u l a r t o t h e a c t i o n of t h e e x t e r n a l f o r c e , thus generating iner t i a l forces analogous t o t h e precession f o r c e s b u t directed a g a i n s t the external force.
It i s easy t o see t h a the external force w i l l be no r o t a t i o n o f t h e a x i s o f D f the external force w i l l

/143 t the inertial forces directed against exactly equal t o the latter, so that t h e gyroscope i n t h e p l a n e of t h e a c t i o n be observed. 143

The p r e c e s s i o n r a t e of t h e g y r o s c o p e c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d e a s i l y i f we know t h e moment of i n e r t i a o f t h e r o t o r a n d t h e moment o f the applied external force. A c h a n g e i n t h e moment of i n e r t i a o f t h e g y r o s c o p e w i t h t i m e w i l l b e p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e moment o f t h e e x t e r n a l f o r c e

(2.21)

whence
0 1 '

M -,
JW

(2.22)

w h e r e M e q u a l s t h e moment of t h e e x t e r n a l f o r c e , J e q u a l s t h e mo ment o f i n e r t i a o f t h e g y r o s c o p e , w i s t h e a n g u l a r v e l o c i t y o f g y r o - ' scope r o t a t i o n , and w 1 i s t h e a n g u l a r v e l o c i t y of p r e c e s s i o n .

M

By t h e c h a n g e i n t h e moment of i n e r t i a of t h e gyroscope, we mean h e r e t h e c h a n g e i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e v e c t o r of i n e r

tia.
dV
A t t h e same t i m e , t h e r o t a t i o n o f t h e a x i s of t h e g y r o s c o p e t h r o u g h 180 p r o d u c e s a n o p p o s i t e m o t i o n o f a l l p o i n t s on t h e r o t o r , which amounts t o a b r a k i n g of t h e gyroscope from i t s i n i t i a l angular velocity t o zero, with a s u b s e q u e n t s p e e d i n g up i n t h e o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n t o t h e same angular velocity. 2.15.

Fig.

P r e c e s s i o n of a Gyroscope Axis.

D e g r e e of Freedom of t h e G y r o s c o p e
By d e g r e e s o f f r e e d o m i n m e c h a n i c s , we mean t h e d i r e c t i o n s o f f r e e m o t i o n o f a body which i s n o t l i m i t e d b y c o n n e c t i o n s o f any s o r t . For example, an o b j e c t s l i d i n g along a given l i n e ( r a i l ) h a s one d e g r e e of f r e e d o m ; a n o b j e c t moving i n any d i r e c t i o n i n a p l a n e h a s t w o d e g r e e s o f f r e e d o m , a n d an o b j e c t w h i c h i s m o v i n g i n t h r e e dimensional space has t h r e e degrees of freedom. B e s i d e s t h e d e g r e e s of freedom of l i n e a r m o t i o n , t h e r e a r e a l s o d e g r e e s of f r e e d o m o f r o t a t i o n a l m o t i o n o f a body a r o u n d i t s three axes. Hence,

/144

a c o m p l e t e l y f r e e body h a s s i x d e g r e e s of f r e e d o m .

144

The r o t o r s o f g y r o s c o p e s i n n a v i g a t i o n a l a n d p i l o t a g e i n s t r u ments have s u p p o r t s which l i m i t t h e i r l i n e a r motion i n a c e r t a i n d i r e c t i o n r e l a t i v e t o t h e a x e s o f t h e a i r c r a f t , s o t h a t when w e a r e t a l k i n g a b o u t t h e d e g r e e s of f r e e d o m o f a g y r o s c o p e w e a r e r e + f e r r i n g only t o t h e degrees of r o t a t i o n a l motion.

A gyroscope is considered t o be f r e e i f a l l t h r e e degrees of r o t a t i o n a l motion are free ( F i g . 2.16).

The f i r s t d e g r e e o f f r e e d o m of a gyroscope is t h e r o t a t i o n o f its r o t o r a r o u n d t h e a x i s i n b e a r i n g s A,A,. If t h e s e b e a r i n g s a r e t i g h t l y f a s t e n e d t o t h e body o f t h e machine, as i s done f o r example f o r t h e f l y w h e e l s i n machin e r y , t h e gyroscope w i l l have only one d e g r e e o f f r e e d o m . However, i f t h e s e b e a r i n g s c a n move a r o u n d an a x i s perpendicular t o A,A1 (bear ings B , B 1 ) , then t h e r e w i l l be two d e g r e e s o f f r e e d o m .
CI

If b e a r i n g s B , B 1 c a n a l s o h a v e t h e f r e e d o m t o move a r o u n d s t i l l another ( t h i r d ) a x i s , per Fig. 2.16. Gyroscope w i t h pendicular t o B,B1 (bearings C,C1), Three Degrees of R o t a t i o n a l t h e gyroscope w i l l have t h r e e degrees Freedom. of freedom and i t s a x i s can b e s e t r e a d i l y t o any d i r e c t i o n i n s p a c e .

A s w e c a n s e e f r o m F i g u r e 2 . 1 6 : t h e d e g r e e s of f r e e d o m o f t h e g y r o s c o p e a r e e n s u r e d by p a i r s o f b e a r i n g s and ( w i t h t h e e x c l u s i o n of t h e f i r s t ) r o t a t i n g frames.
A g y r o s c o p e u s u a l l y h a s two r o t a t i n g f r a m e s , i n t e r n a l and ex ternal. In course gyroscopic instruments, t h e i n t e r n a l frame, to g e t h e r with t h e r o t o r and t h e bearings of t h e gyroscope, serves The t o s e t t h e gyroscope a x i s i n t h e plane of t h e t r u e horizon. same f r a m e c o n t a i n s a s e n s i t i v e e l e m e n t f o r c o r r e c t i n g t h e g y r o scope a x i s f o r t h i s plane. The i n t e r n a l frame o f t h e g y r o s c o p e along with t h e r o t o r and s e n s i t i v e element f o r correction are c a l l e d t h e gyro assembly.

The e x t e r n a l f r a m e e n s u r e s f r e e m o t i o n o f t h e a x i s o f t h e g y r o s c o p e i n t h e p l a n e of t h e h o r i z o n ; f r o m i t s p o s i t i o n i n t h e u n i t , w e c a n g e t a n i d e a of t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e g y r o s c o p e a x i s r e l a t i v e /l45 t o t h e a x i s o f t h e a i r c r a f t , or v i c e v e r s a , t h u s m a k i n g i t p o s s i b l e t o determine t h e aircraft course.

145

D i r e c t i o n o f P r e c e s s i o n of t h e G y r o s c o p e A x i s
The d i r e c t i o n o f t h e c p r e c e s s i o n o f t h e g y r o s c o p e a x i s u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e moment o f e x t e r n a l f o r c e s c a n b e s e e n i n F i g u r e 2.15.

For a r a p i d a n d e r r o r - f r e e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e p r e c e s s i o n o f t h e gyroscope a x i s , w e u s e t h e concepts o f Ifpole o f t h e g y r o s c o p e " a n d " p o l e of t h e e x t e r n a l f o r c e " , a n d u s e t h e r u l e of t h e r i g h t - h a n d screw.

For e x a m p l e , i n o b s e r v i n g t h e r o t a t i o n o f a g y r o s c o p e w h i c h i s t u r n i n g c l o c k w i s e as v i e w e d f r o m t h e t o p ( t u r n i n g t h e screw i n w a r d ) , t h e p o l e o f t h e g y r o s c o p e w i l l b e c o n s i d e r e d as b e i n g l o c a t e d a t t h e l o w e r e n d o f i t s a x i s ( P o i n t s P a n d P I ) ; w i t h l e f t - h a n d ro t a t i o n o f t h e g y r o s c o p e , a t t h e u p p e r e n d of t h e a x i s . Analogously, w i t h a r i g h t - h a n d d i r . e c t i o n of t h e moment o f e x t e r n a l f o r c e , t h e p o l e o f t h e moment i s c o n s i d e r e d a s b e i n g d i r e c t e d a l o n g t h e s c r e w , i n i t s r e a r p o r t i o n as shown i n o u r d i a g r a m ( P o i n t (21). With a l e f t - h a n d d i r e c t i o n o f t h e moment o f e x t e r n a l f o r c e , i t s p o l e i s l o c a t e d i n t h e f r o n t p a r t o f t h e p i c t u r e ( P o i n t (2).
The p r e c e s s i o n o f t h e g y r o s c o p e i s a l w a y s d i r e c t e d i n s u c h a manner t h a t t h e p o l e of t h e g y r o s c o p e a t t e m p t s t o r e a c h t h e p o l e o f t h e e x t e r n a l f o r c e by t h e s h o r t e s t p a t h . I n our diagram, t h e lower end o f t h e gyroscope a x i s w i l l tilt b a c k w a r d , a n d t h e u p p e r o n e f o r w a r d , i . e . , if w e l o o k a t t h e draw i n g from l e f t t o r i g h t , t h e a x i s of t h e g y r o s c o p e w i l l r o t a t e c l o c k wise.

A p p a r e n t R o t a t i o n of G y r o s c o p e A x i s o n t h e E a r t h ' s S u r f a c e
A f r e e l y moving g y r o s c o p e , w i t h a n i d e a l l y s t a b i l i z e d e x t e r n a l and i n t e r n a l s u p p o r t and t h e l a c k o f n o t i c e a b l e f r i c t i o n i n t h e b e a r i n g s , t e n d s t o keep t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e a x i s of r o t a t i o n of the rotor i n space. On t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e , h o w e v e r , d u e t o t h e d i u r n a l r o t a t i o n o f t h e E a r t h a n d p a r t i a l l y d u e t o t h e c u r v i l i n e a r i t y of i t s m o t i o n a r o u n d t h e S u n , t h e r e a r i s e s a n a p p a r e n t r o t a t i o n of t h e g y r o s c o p e a x i s i n t h e v e r t i c a l and h o r i z o n t a l p l a n e s . The a p p a r e n t r o t a t i o n o f t h e g y r o s c o p e d u e t o t h e m o t i o n o f t h e E a r t h a r o u n d t h e Sun i s e x p r e s s e d a s a s l i g h t d e v i a t i o n o f t h e r o t a t i o n of t h e g y r o s c o p e a x i s f r o m t h e a p p a r e n t d i u r n a l r o t a t i o n o f t h e E a r t h , a s a r e s u l t o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h e E a r t h m a k e s a com p l e t e r o t a t i o n a r o u n d t h e Sun a l o n g i t s o r b i t i n t h e c o u r s e o f a year. This c o n d i t i o n a l r o t a t i o n amounts t o a t o t a l of about 1/365 o f t h e a p p a r e n t r o t a t i o n of t h e g y r o s c o p e d u e t o t h e d i u r n a l r o t a t i o n of the Earth. Hence, t h i s v a l u e w i l l n o t be c o n s i d e r e d i n future. 146

L e t u s c o n s i d e r t h e a p p a r e n t r o t a t i o n of t h e gyroscope a x i s a t v a r i o u s p o i n t s on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e , w h i c h a p p e a r s as a r e s u l t of t h e r o t a t i o n of t h e Earth around i t s a x i s . W w i l l assume t h a t e /146 w e h a v e a f r e e l y m o u n t e d g y r o s c o p e , w h o s e a x i s a t t h e i n i t i a l moment coincides with the v e r t i c a l of t h e locus (Fig. 2.17, a).

O b v i o u s l y , i f s u c h a g y r o s c o p e i s p l a c e d on a p o l e o f t h e E a r t h , t h e axis of i t s r o t a t i o n w i l l coincide with t h e axis of r o t a t i o n of t h e E a r t h and t h e r e w i l l b e no a p p a r e n t r o t a t i o n of t h e gyro scope a x i s (position A i n t h e diagram).

I f t h e g y r o s c o p e w i t h a v e r t i c a l a x i s i s p l a c e d on some l a t i t u d e tp ( p o s i t i o n B i n thse d i a g r a m ) , i t s a x i s w i l l b e a t a n a n g l e t o t h e a x i s o f r o t a t i o n o f t h e E a r t h , e q u a l t o 90-4. As w e c a n see from t h e d i a g r a m , t h e a p p a r e n t r o t a t i o n of t h e gyroscope a x i s w i l l d e s c r i b e a cone w i t h an a p e r t u r e a n g l e a t t h e v e r t e x e q u a l t o 2 (90-4).

I n t h e c a s e when t h e l a t i t u d e o f t h e l o c u s i s e q u a l t o z e r o ( p o s i t i o n C i n t h e d i a g r a m ) , t h e a p e r t u r e a n g l e of t h e cone w i l l b e e q u a l t o 180, i . e . , i t w i l l t u r n i n t h e p l a n e o f r o t a t i o n . Now l e t u s e x a m i n e t h e c a s e when t h e a x i s of t h e g y r o s c o p e a t t h e i n i t i a l moment i s l o c a t e d h o r i z o n t a l l y a t v a r i o u s p o i n t s on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e ( F i g . 2 . 1 7 , b ) a n d c o i n c i d e s i n d i r e c t i o n w i t h t h e m e r i d i a n of t h e E a r t h .

I t i s o b v i o u s t h a t t h e a x i s o f t h e g y r o s c o p e l o c a t e d on t h e p o l e ( p o s i t i o n A ) w i l l remain h o r i z o n t a l and w i l l r o t a t e i n t h e p l a n e o f t h e h o r i z o n w i t h t h e a n g u l a r v e l o c i t y of t h e E a r t h . The a x i s o f a g y r o s c o p e l o c a t e d a t some l a t i t u d e ( p o s i t i o n B ) w i l l de. s c r i b e a cone w i t h an a p e r t u r e a n g l e e q u a l t o 2$. The a x i s o f t h e g y r o s c o p e l o c a t e d on t h e E q u a t o r w i l l r e m a i n h o r i z o n t a l a n d w i l l h a v e no a p p a r e n t d i u r n a l r o t a t i o n . I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e i n t h i s r e g a r d t h a t i f t h e r e i s any k i n d o f c o r r e c t i n g f o r c e w h i c h a c t s c o n s t a n t l y on t h e g y r o s c o p e a x i s i n t h e p l a n e of t h e t r u e h o r i z o n , t h e a n g u l a r v e l o c i t y of t h e r o t a t i o n of t h e g y r o s c o p e a x i s i n t h e p l a n e o f t h e h o r i z o n w i l l be equal t o (Fig. 2.17, c ) : a t t h e pole, t h e angular velocity of r o t a t i o n of t h e E a r t h ; a t t h e E q u a t o r , z e r o ; a t any o t h e r p o i n t ,
w

= 52 s i n $ ,

(2.23)

where R i s t h e a n g u l a r v e l o c i t y of t h e E a r t h ' s r o t a t i o n and w i s t h e a n g u l a r v e l o c i t y of t h e a p p a r e n t r o t a t i o n of t h e gyroscope a x i s . From t h e e x a m p l e s w h i c h w e h a v e s e e n , i t i s c l e a r t h a t a f r e e l y moving g y r o s c o p e c a n b e u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t a x i s o n l y i n t h e f o l l o w i n g cases: (a) To d e t e r m i n e t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e v e r t i c a l a x i s (banking,

147

pitch)

only a t t h e poles; (course

(b) To d e t e r m i n e t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h c l o n g i t u d i n a l a x i s of t h e a i r c r a f t ) only a t t h e Equator.

I n o r d e r t o r e n d e r t h e g y r o s c o p e u s e f u l for d e t e r m i n i n g t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t a x i s a t a n y o t h e r p o i n t on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e , w e used d e v i c e s which compensate f o r t h e a p p a r e n t r o t a t i o n o f t h e a x i s of t h e g y r o s c o p e d u e t o t h e d i u r n a l r o t a t i o n o f t h e E a r t h , a s w e l l a s i t s own d r i f t , w h i c h a r i s e s a s a r e s u l t o f imperfect balance, f r i c t i o n i n the bearings, etc.

/147

Fig. 2.17. A p p a r e n t R o t a t i o n of a G y r o s c o p e on t h e ( b ) With Earth's Surface: ( a ) With V e r t i c a l A x i s ; Horizontal Axis; ( c ) With C o n s t a n t C o r r e c t i o n of t h e Axis i n t h e H o r i z o n t a l Plane.
To k e e p t h e a x i s of a g y r o s c o p e c o n s t a n t l y i n t h e v e r t i c a l p o s i t i o n , p i l o t a g e d e v i c e s ( g y r o h o r i z o n , g y r o v e r t i c a l ) , or i n t h e h o r i z o n t a l p o s i t i o n i n t h e case o f c o u r s e i n s t r u m e n t s , a r e u s u a l l y f i t t e d w i t h pendulum d e v i c e s which a c t as s e n s i t i v e e l e m e n t s r e a c t i n g t o a n y d e v i a t i o n s w h i c h may a r i s e .

The s i g n a l s f r o m t h e s e d e v i c e s a r e c o n v e r t e d t o a i r c u r r e n t s i n p n e u m a t i c d e v i c e s a n d t o m o m e n t s of s p e c i a l e l e c t r i c m o t o r s i n electrical devices.

148

E l e c t r o l y t i c g r a v i t a t i o n a l c o r r e c t i o n ( F i g . 2.18) i s most widely T h i s d e v i c e c o n s i s t s of a b u b b l e l e v e l used at t h e present t i m e . a t t a c h e d t o t h e lower p a r t of t h e gyro assembly. U n l i k e a conven t i o n a l l e v e l , i t s chamber i s f i l l e d w i t h a n e l e c t r i c a l l y c o n d u c t i v e l i q u i d ( e l e c t r o l y t e ) , w h i l e on t h e t o p of t h e s p h e r i c a l s u r f a c e are mounted f o u r c u r r e n t - c a r r y i n g c o n t a c t s . When t h e g y r o a s s e m b l y i s i n a v e r t i c a l p o s i t i o n ( F i g . 2 . 1 8 , a ) , t h e b u b b l e l e v e l i s l o c a t e d s o t h a t a l l f o u r c o n t a c t s a r e cov e r e d h a l f - w a y b y e l e c t r o l y t e , s o t h a t t h e moment a p p l i e d t o t h e /148 frame o f t h e g y r o a s s e m b l y b y t h e c o r r e c t i n g m o t o r i s e q u a l t o z e r o .
If or s o m e r e a s o n t h e g y r o a s sembly v a r i e s from t h e v e r t i c a l p o s i t i o n , the current-carrying contacts w i l l n o t b e u n i f o r m l y c o v e r e d by t h e f l u i d (Fig. 2.18, b ) , r e s u l t i n g i n a s u i t able distribution of currents t o the w i n d i n g s of a s m a l l m o t o r a n d i n a moment w h i c h i s a p p l i e d t o t h e a x i s o f t h e g y r o s c o p e i n s u c h a way t h a t t h e p r e c e s s i o n which i s p r o d u c e d b r i n g s t h e gyro assembly t o a given v e r t Fig. 2.18. Electrolytic ical position. For c o u r s e d e v i c e s Gravitational Correction. which have a v e r t i c a l e x t e r n a l frame and a h o r i z o n t a l l y l o c a t e d axis of t h e gyroscope, i n order t o c o r r e c t t h e l a t t e r t o t h e p l a n e of t h e h o r i z o n , i t i s s u f f i c i e n t t o h a v e one p a i r o f c u r r e n t - c a r r y i n g c o n t a c t s w i t h a g r a v i t a t i o n a l l e v e l , i n o r d e r t o r e g u l a t e t h e moment o f t h e f o r c e s a c t i n g o n t h e e x t e r n a l frame

..

O b v i o u s l y , f o r t h o s e d e v i c e s w h i c h m e a s u r e d i r e c t i o n on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e , i n a d d i t i o n t o d e v i c e s for c o r r e c t i n g t h e a x i s of t h e g y r o s c o p e i n t h e p l a n e of t h e t r u e h o r i z o n , t h e r e m u s t a l s o b e o t h e r d e v i c e s w h i c h c o m p e n s a t e for t h e a p p a r e n t r o t a t i o n o f t h e a x i s of t h e gyroscope i n t h e h o r i z o n t a l p l a n e due t o t h e d i u r n a l r o t a t i o n of t h e Earth.

G y r o s c o p i c Semicompass

I n p r i n c i p l e o f o p e r a t i o n , t h e g y r o s e m i c o m p a s s (GSC) i s a g y r o s c o p e w i t h t h r e e d e g r e e s of f r e e d o m a n d i t s a x i s o f r o t a t i o n l o c a t e d i n t h e h o r i z o n t a l , a v e r t i c a l e x t e r n a l frame, and a f l u i d g r a v i t a t i o n a l c o r r e c t o r , a t t a c h e d t o t h e gyro assembly. The r o t a t i o n o f t h e g y r o s c o p e r o t o r i s p r o d u c e d by a l t e r n a t i n g t h r e e - p h a s e c u r r e n t , while t h e c o r r e c t i o n of t h e a x i s i n t h e h o r i z o n t a l p o s i t i o n i s a c h i e v e d b y a n e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c moment a p p l i e d t o t h e e x t e r n a l f r a m e . The g y r o c o m p a s s h a s h a s a v e r y s e n s i t i v e b a l a n c e a n d low f r i c t i o n i n t h e a x e s o f t h e s u p p o r t s , which e n s u r e s a low i n t r i n s i c s h i f t of t h e g y r o s c o p e ( c a l l e d t ' d r i f t t t ) . I n a d d i t i o n , i n o r d e r t o compensate f o r t h i s " d r i f t " , t h e gyroscope is f i t t e d i n t h e

149

h o r i z o n t a l p l a n e w i t h a ' s p e c i a l b a l a n c i n g p o t e n t i o m e t e r and motor, w h i c h a p p l y a moment t o t h e e x t e r n a l f r a m e o f t h e g y r o s c o p e i n t h e v e r t i c a l plane. T h i s same m o t o r i s u s e d f o r c o m p e n s a t i n g t h e a p p a r e n t d i u r n a l r o t a t i o n o f t h e a x i s of t h e g y r o s c o p e , a n d i s t h e r e f o r e f i t t e d w i t h a s p e c i a l l a t i t u d i n a l p o t e n t i o m e t e r , w h i c h r e g u l a t e s t h e moment o f t h e m o t o r i n s u c h a way t h a t t h e r a t e o f p r e c e b s i o n o f t h e g y r o scope a x i s is e q u a l t o and c o i n c i d e s i n d i r e c t i o n w i t h t h e rate / 149 o f r o t a t i o n o f t h e E a r t h ' s m e r i d i a n i n t h e p l a n e of t h e t r u e h o r i zon a t t h e g i v e n l a t i t u d e . By c o m p a r i n g t h e f o r m u l a f o r t h e p r e c e s s i o n o f t h e g y r o s c o p e a x i s (2.22) and t h e formula f o r t h e angular v e l o c i t y of r o t a t i o n o f t h e E a r t h ' s m e r i d i a n ( 2 . 2 3 ) , w e c a n d e t e r m i n e t h e moment w h i c h i s required t o be a p p l i e d t o t h e gyroscope a x i s t o compensate f o r t h e d i u r n a l r o t a t i o n of t h e Earth

M = QJw s i n 9 ,

(2.24)

w h e r e M i s t h e moment a p p l i e d t o t h e g y r o s c o p e a x i s , Si i s t h e a n g u l a r r o t a t i o n a l v e l o c i t y of t h e E a r t h , J i s t h e i n e r t i a l moment o f t h e r o t o r o f t h e g y r o s c o p e i n t h e p l a n e of i t s r o t a t i o n , w i s t h e a n g u l a r v e l o c i t y of r o t a t i o n o f t h e r o t o r , a n d 9 i s t h e l a t i tude of t h e aircraft's location. W i t h a c o n s t a n t r a t e of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r o f t h e gyroscope, a l l of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s which e n t e r i n t o t h e r i g h t - h a n d s i d e of ( 2 . 2 4 ) , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f s i n $, are c o n s t a n t s . The l a t t e r m u s t b e r e g u l a t e d i n f l i g h t . T h e r e f o r e , t h e p o t e n t i o m e t e r which r e g u l a t e s t h e moment a c c o r d i n g t o t h e l a t i t u d e of t h e a i r c r a f t , as w e l l as t h e b a l a n c i n g p o t e n t i o m e t e r , a r e m o u n t e d on t h e c o n t r o l p a n e l of t h e gyrocompass ( F i g . 2.19).

F i g . 2.19. Control Panel o f KPK-52 G y r o s e m i c o m p a s s .

The e x t e r n a l frame o f t h e g y r o scope is f i t t e d with a scale f o r estimatj-ng t h e gyroscopic course and a s e l s y n - t r a n s m i t t e r f o r t r a n s m i t t i n g t h e c o u r s e t o t h e i n d i cators. The i n d i c a t i n g d i a l a n d t h e s e l s y n - t r a n s m i t t e r a r e f r e e t o r o t a t e along w i t h t h e e x t e r n a l frame and can a l s o be s e t with t h e The s e t t i n g a i d o f a motor t o any a n g l e r e l a t i v e t o t h e frame. of t h e i n d i c a t o r d i a l t o t h e zero p o s i t i o n i s accomplished manually b y t u r n i n g a s p e c i a l h a n d l e on t h e c o n t r o l p a n e l m a r k e d r r L - R ' l ( l e f t r i g h t ) , see F i g u r e 2.19. Hence, t h e gyrocompass i s a s o r t o f "keeper" f o r the course

15 0

c a l c u l a t i o n s e t by hand: t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e zero s e t t i n g of t h e c o u r s e on t h e GSC r e m a i n s c o n s t a n t i n t h e p l a n e of t h e h o r i z o n , s o t h a t t h e gyrocompass i s a n orthodromic course d e v i c e , and i s cap

a b l e of g u i d i n g a f l i g h t a l o n g a n orthodrome o v e r any d i s t a n c e .
The a d v a n t a g e o f a g y r o c o m p a s s i s i t s i n d e p e n d e n c e of o p e r a t i o n
from t h e magnetic f i e l d of t h e E a r t h , and c o n s e q u e n t l y t h e f i x e d a c c u r a c y a n d s t a b i l i t y i n o p e r a t i o n a t a n y p o i n t on t h e E a r t h ' s
s u r f a c e , as w e l l as t h e ease o f d e t e r m i n i n g t h e c o u r s e w i t h o u t a n y k i n d of m e t h o d o l o g i c a l c o r r e c t i o n s ; t h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t f o r automatic navigational devices.

/150

However , t h e g y r o s e m i c o m p a s s i s n o t a m e a s u r i n g d e v i c e , b u t one which r e t a i n s t h e c o u r s e s e t t i n g ( t h i s i s where i t g e t s i t s name o f s e m i c o m p a s s ) ; t h e r e f o r e , i t c a n n o t b e u s e d a l o n e w i t h o u t o t h e r course sensors. Nevertheless, it does not reduce t h e value of t h e g y r o s e m i c o m p a s s , s i n c e t h e u s e of o t h e r c o u r s e s e n s o r s b e c o m e s necessary only i n t h e i n i t i a l s e t t i n g of t h e readings of t h e GSC a n d a t v a r i o u s p o i n t s t o make c o r r e c t i o n s f o r t h e a c c u m u l a t e d e r r o r s i n its operation.
It is relatively easy t o eliminate errors i n the operation o f t h e GSC, w h i c h a r i s e i n t h e f o r m o f " d r i f t " . For t h i s p u r p o s e , t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e GSC i s t e s t e d on t h e g r o u n d f o r a p e r i o d o f o n e t o t w o h o u r s w i t h a n a t t e m p t b e i n g made t o u s e t h e r o t a t i o n o f t h e b a l a n c i n g p o t e n t i o m e t e r t o s e t t h e minimum e x c u r s i o n s o f t h e needle with t i m e from t h e t r u e s e t t i n g s .
If a c o n s i d e r a b l e d e v i a t i o n o f t h e n e e d l e f r o m t h e c o r r e c t r e a d i n g s of t h e gyroscope i s n o t i c e d d u r i n g f l i g h t , t h i s can be c o r r e c t e d by s h i f t i n g t h e l a t i t u d e s c a l e on t h e c o n t r o l p a n e l r e l a t i v e t o t h e a v e r a g e l a t i t u d e of t h e g i v e n p a t h s e g m e n t . T h i s means t h a t t h e d e g r e e by which t h e s c a l e i s s h i f t e d f o r e a c h d e g r e e a t t h e t i m e t h a t the d r i f t occurs w i l l be t h e following a t various flight latitudes :

Range o f L a t i t u d e s , Degrees
0 - 32 32 - 42 42 - 6 0
60 70 -

Magnitude of Scale Deviation , Degrees

4

70 90

10

20

The l a t i t u d e on t h e s c a l e m u s t b e i n c r e a s e d i f t h e t e n d e n c y o f t h e GSC i s d i r e c t e d t o w a r d a r e d u c t i o n o f t h e r e a d i n g s f o r t h e c o u r s e w i t h t i m e , and i t must b e reduced i f t h e c o u r s e r e a d i n g s increase with t i m e .

I t should be mentioned t h a t a l l s h i f t i n g mentioned above with r e g a r d t o t h e gyrosemicompass i s i n r e f e r e n c e t o n o r t h e r n l a t i t u d e s . I n southern l a t i t u d e s , t h e l a t i t u d i n a l compensations f o r the apparent

151

r o t a t i o n o f t h e a x i s of t h e g y r o s c o p e m u s t b e r e v e r s e d , s i n c e t h e rotation of the meridian takes place i n t h e opposite direction rela tive t o the northern latitudes. I n a d d i t i o n , t h e system f o r i n t r o d u c i n g c o r r e c t i o n s t o t h e movement of t h e n e e d l e of t h e g y r o s e m i compass must a l s o b e s h i f t e d t o t h e o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n . Shortcomings o f t h e gyrosemicompass i n c l u d e t h e f a c t t h a t it i s necessary t o s e t i t s readings manually a t t h e beginning of a f l i g h t a n d t o make c o r r e c t i o n s e n r o u t e . During f l i g h t , e s p e c i a l l y i n rough a i r , t h i s i n v o l v e s a c e r t a i n amount o f d i f f i c u l t y , s i n c e i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o s e p a r a t e t h e movement o f t h e i n d i c a t o r n e e d l e due t o c o u r s e v a r i a t i o n s from t h o s e motions which a r e caused by s e t t i n g t h e c o u r s e m a n u a l l y , i . e . , t h e v a l u e o f t h e c o u r s e t o w h i c h /151 t h e GSC must b e s e t becomes v a r i a b l e . In addition, t h e GSC i s s u b j e c t t o Cardan e r r o r s d u r i n g t u r n s .

The e s s e n c e o f t h e C a r d a n e r r o r s i s t h e s h i f t i n t h e r e a d i n g of t h e i n d i c a t o r d i a l during banking. When t h e a i r c r a f t i s b a n k i n g less t h a n 8 O , t h e s e e r r o r s do n o t h a v e a n y p r a c t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e , b u t t h e y r a p i d l y i n c r e a s e w i t h t h e d e g r e e of b a n k i n g a n d c a n r e a c h 6-8O.

The C a r d a n e r r o r s . h a v e a q u a t e r n a r y n a t u r e . They a r e e q u a l t o z e r o i n b a n k i n g i n t h e p l a n e o f r o t a t i o n o f t h e rotor o f t h e g y r o s c o p e a n d i n t h e p l a n e of t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e a x i s o f i t s r o t a tion. Maximum e r r o r s a r i s e when t h e g y r o s c o p e a x i s i s t h e n a t a n angle of 45O t o t h e plane of t h e banking. T h e r e f o r e , t h e a x i s of t h e g y r o s c o p e c a n - a s s u m e a n y p o s i t i o n r e l a t i v e t o t h e a x e s of t h e a i r c r a f t , a n d a l s o w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e z e r o p o i n t on t h e c o u r s e i n d i c a t o r s c a l e , a n d t h e g r a p h o f t h e b a n k i n g e r r o r i s " f l o a t i n g " , i . e . , i t s maxima a n d m i n i m a c a n a s s u m e a n y p o s i t i o n on t h e i n d i c a t o r d i a l w h i l e r e t a i n i n g t h e v a l u e s a n d p e r i o d i c i t y of t h e e r r o r s . T h e s e e r r o r s a u t o m a t i c a l l y d i s a p p e a r when t h e a i r c r a f t comes o u t o f t h e t u r n ; however, t h e y do c o n s t i t u t e c e r t a i n s h o r t c o m i n g s i n t h e p i l o t a g e of an aircraft, i . e . , they d i s t u r b t h e c o r r e c t e s t i m a t i o n o f t h e moment w h e n t h e a i r c r a f t b e g i n s t o s t o p b a n k i n g i n making a t u r n . D i s t a n c e G y r o m a g n e t i c Compass The d i s t a n c e g y r o m a g n e t i c compass ( D G M C ) h a s s i g n i f i c a n t ad vantages over t h e i n t e g r a t e d and d i s t a n c e magnetic compasses , s i n c e i t i s s u i t a b l e f o r u s e when t h e a i r c r a f t i s b a n k i n g a t a c e r t a i n a n g l e a n d c o m p l e t e l y damps t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s o f t h e m a g n e t i c c a r d i n f l i g h t i n a t u r b u l e n t atmosphere. The g y r o m a g n e t i c c o m p a s s i s a c o m b i n a t i o n o f m a g n e t i c a n d g y r o s c o p i c c o u r s e d e v i c e s , i n which t h e r o l e o f t h e c o u r s e s e n s o r i s

152

p l a y e d by t h e m a g n e t i c t r a n s m i t t e r and t h e r o l e o f t h e s t a b i l i z e r o f t h e r e a d i n g s i s p l a y e d by t h e g y r o a s s e m b l y .
L e t u s c o n s i d e r t h e combined s y s t e m which i s p r e s e n t l y u s e d f o r d i s t a n c e g y r o m a g n e t i c c o m p a s s e s , e . g . , t h e DGMC-7 ( F i g . 2 . 2 0 ) .

The b a s i c p a r t s o f t h e d i s t a n c e g y r o m a g n e t i c compass a r e t h e magnetic s e n s o r , t h e gyro assembly, and t h e main c o u r s e c o r r e c t o r . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e s e main p a r t s , t h e compass must b e f i t t e d w i t h a p o w e r s u p p l y ( n o t shown i n t h e d i a g r a m ) , as w e l l a s compen s a t i n g and r e g u l a t i n g devices: (a) (b) Compensating mechanism (combined w i t h t h e g y r o a s s e m b l y ) ; Rapid compensation b u t t o n ;

(c) A mechanism f o r c o m p e n s a t i n g t h e r e m a i n i n g d e v i a t i o n (com-/152 b i n e d w i t h t h e main c o u r s e i n d i c a t o r ) ; (d) (e) Outputs f o r c o u r s e r e p e a t e r s and o t h e r i n d i c a t o r s ; Two-channel amplifier.

The m a g n e t i c t r a n s m i t t e r o f t h e compass h a s a c a r d whose a x i s c a r r i e s a d i a l f o r s h o w i n g t h e c o u r s e d i r e c t l y on t h e t r a n s m i t t e r ( i t c a n b e u s e d t o g e t r i d o f s e m i c i r c u l a r d e v i a t i o n ) , as w e l l a s t h e b r u s h e s f o r t h e w i r e s l e a d i n g t o t h e p o t e n t i o m e t e r on t h e t r a n s m i t t e r . The t r a n s m i t t e r p o t e n t i o m e t e r h a s a t h r e e - w i r e c i r c u i t con n e c t i n g i t t o t h e gyro-assembly p o t e n t i o m e t e r , through which it r e c e i v e s a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t from t h e power s u p p l y . The t r a n s m i t t e r i n t h e damping s u s p e n s i o n i s mo u n t ed i n t h e a i r c r a f t a t a l o c a t i o n w h e r e t h e r e i s a minimum i n f l u e n c e on t h e c a r d s of t h e magnetic and e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c f i e l d s of t h e a i r c r a f t . Compensation

L-------_r

Fig.

2 . 2 0 . F u n c t i o n a l D i a g r a m o f D i s t a n c e G y r o m a g n e t i c Compass ( D G M C 1.

153

The t r a n s m i t t e r h o u s i n g carries a d e v i c e f o r c o r r e c t i n g s e m i circular deviation. If t h e s e m i c i r c u l a r d e v i a t i o n a t . t h e p o i n t where t h e magnetic s e n s o r i s mounted does n o t exceed 1-2O, t h e devia t i o n d e v i c e i s n o t u s e d , s i n c e i n t h i s case i t would n o t improve b u t would r a t h e r d e t r a c t from t h e o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s of t h e t r a n s mitter. The g y r o a s s e m b l y c o n s i s t s of t h e g y r o s c o p e w i t h a h o r i z o n t a l a x i s and a Cardan s u p p o r t , which e n s u r e s t h r e e d e g r e e s of free dom f o r t h e g y r o s c o p e r o t a t i o n . T h e e x t e r n a l frame o f t h e g y r o assembly r o t a t e s around t h e v e r t i c a l a x i s . The g y r o s c o p e i s s e t i n m o t i o n b y means o f a t h r e e - p h a s e m o t o r , w h o s e s t a t o r i s m o u n t e d o n t h e i n t e r n a l f r a m e o f t h e g y r o assem b l y and whose s h o r t - c i r c u i t e d r o t o r i s t h e r o t o r o f t h e g y r o s c o p e .

For c o r r e c t i o n o f t h e g y r o s c o p e a x i s i n t h e h o r i z o n t a l p o s i t i o n , t h e l o w e r p a r t o f t h e g y r o a s s e m b l y i s f i t t e d w i t h a twoc o n t a c t g r a v i t a t i o n a l c o r r e c t o r , whose a c t i v a t i n g mechanism i s a m o t o r w h i c h p r o d u c e s a moment o f f o r c e t h a t i s a p p l i e d t o t h e ext e r n a l frame o f t h e g y r o s c o p e and a c t s i n t h e h o r i z o n t a l p l a n e .

I f f o r some r e a s o n t h e a x i s o f t h e g y r o s c o p e v a r i e s f r o m t h e plane of t h e t r u e h o r i z o n , t h e c o n t a c t s of t h e c o r r e c t o r w i l l be c o v e r e d n o n u n i f o r m l y by t h e s h i f t i n g c o n d u c t i n g f l u i d , t h u s r e s u l t ing i n a d i s t r i b u t i o n of c u r r e n t s passing through t h e c o r r e c t o r . T h i s i n t u r n t r a n s m i t s a s i g n a l f o r a c o r r e c t i n g moment o f f o r c e A s a r e s u l t of t h e preces t o be a p p l i e d t o t h e e x t e r n a l frame. s i o n of t h e gyroscope a x i s , i t i s s h i f t e d t o a h o r i z o n t a l p o s i t i o n .

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The e x t e r n a l f r a m e o f t h e g y r o a s s e m b l y c a r r i e s a m a s t e r s e l s y n or c o n n e c t i n g t o t h e p r i n c i p a l i n d i c a t o r o f t h e c o m p a s s ( t h e p i l o t ' s i n d i c a t o r , P I ) and a t h r e e - c o n d u c t o r c o r d f o r connec t i o n t o t h e magnetic t r a n s m i t t e r . The m a s t e r s e l s y n a n d c a b l e a r e c o n n e c t e d c l o s e l y t o g e t h e r a n d c a n r o t a t e t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e e x t e r n a l f r a m e o f t h e g y r o assem bly. H o w e v e r , t h e y c a n a l s o r o t a t e r e l a t i v e t o t h e e x t e r n a l frame by m e a n s o f a s p e c i a l c o o r d i n a t i o n m e c h a n i s m . The c o o r d i n a t i o n mechanism c o n s i s t s o f a s m a l l m o t o r w i t h a r e d u c t i o n g e a r f o r t h e s l o w - c o o r d i n a t i o n regime, i n which t h e r a t e o f r o t a t i o n of t h e s e l s y n i s 1 - 4 O p e r m i n u t e . When i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o c a r r y o u t a r a p i d c o o r d i n a t i o n , t h e m o t o r i s s w i t c h e d t o r e d u c e d r e d u c t i o n b y means of t h e r a p i d - c o o r d The r a t e o f r o t a t i o n of t h e i n a t i o n button and a s p e c i a l r e l a y . s e l s y n i n t h i s c a s e i s r a i s e d t o 15-16O p e r s e c o n d . The p o t e n t i o m e t e r o f t h e g y r o a s s e m b l y i s f i r m l y f a s t e n e d t o t h e housing.

15 4

T h e c o o r d i n a t i o n o f t h e m a g n e t i c t r a n s m i t t e r w i t h a g y r o assem b l y i s a c c o m p l i s h e d as f o l l o w s ( F i g . 2 . 2 1 ) . The a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t p a s s e s t h r o u g h c o n t a c t s A and B t o r e a c h t h e p o t e n t i o m e t e r o f t h e g y r o assembly and i s p i c k e d up by p i c k u p s 1, 2 , 3 m o u n t e d o n t h e e x t e r n a l f r a m e o f t h e g y r o assem b l y , from w h i c h i t p a s s e s t o t h e p i c k u p s on t h e t r a n s m i t t e r p o t e n tiometer, l a , 2a, 3a.
I t is clear from t h e f i g u r e t h a t i f t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e brushes o f t h e c u r r e n t p i c k u p s on t h e t r a n s m i t t e r A 1 , B l r e l a t i v e t o t h e c u r r e n t l e a d s of t h e p o t e n t i o m e t e r l a , 2 a , 3a d i f f e r s from t h e p o s i t i o n of t h 8 c u r r e n t p i c k u p s o f p o t e n t i o m e t e r A , B r e l a t i v e t o t h e i r c u r r e n t c o n n e c t i o n s 1, 2 , 3 b y 90, t h e r e w i l l b e a c u r r e n t i n t h e pickups of t h e t r a n s m i t t e r .
A t t h e s a m e t i m e , between t h e c u r r e n t connection A and t h e c u r r e n t pickup A 1 i n t h i s case, t h e r e w i l l be a p o r t i o n of t h e poten t i o m e t e r i n t'he g y r o a s s e m b l y A - 1 a n d a p o r t i o n o f t h e t r a n s m i t t e r p o t e n t i o m e t e r l a - A 1 , r e p r e s e n t e d a s a sum o f t h e f o u r c i r c u m f e r ences. Such a l e n g t h o f w i n d i n g of p o t e n t i o m e t e r w i l l b e p l a c e d b e t w e e n c u r r e n t c o n n e c t i o n A a n d c u r r e n t p i c k u p B 1 ( s e g m e n t s A 2 and 2a-Bl). Consequently, a p o t e n t i a l difference w i l l develop between p o i n t s A 1 and B 1 .

W c a n r e a c h a n a n a l o g o u s c o n c l u s i o n if w e c o n s i d e r t h e p a t h e o f t h e c u r r e n t from c o n n e c t i o n B t o p i c k u p s A 1 and B 1 .
If t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e b r u s h e s o f c u r r e n t p i c k u p s A 1 a n d B 1 d i f f e r s from t h e p o s i t i o n o f c o n n e c t o r s A a n d B by an a n g l e which i s n o t 90 ( c o n s i d e r i n g t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e p o t e n t i o m e t e r / s e c t i o n s ) , t h e r e w i l l b e a c u r r e n t i n pickups A 1 and B 1 . T h i s cur-... rent is fed t o the first channel of t h e a m p l i f i e r , and t h e n t o t h e motor of t h e c o o r d i n a t i o n mechanism. The p o t e n t i o m e t e r b r u s h e s i n t h e gyro assembly, along with t h e selsyn-transmitter, begin t o r o t a t e a t a very low s p e e d u n t i l t h e r e i s an e q u i l i b r i u m of t h e cur r e n t s on p i c k u p s A 1 a n d B 1 .

Fig. m i t t

less tion

Thus, t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e m a s t e r o f t h e g y r o assembly constantly shifts t o 2.21. Potentiometric Transagree with the position of e r of Position Signal. t h e transmitter card, regard of t h e a p p a r e n t r o t a t i o n o f t h e g y r o s c o p e a x i s due t o t h e r o t a of t h e E a r t h and t h e n a t u r a l changes i n t h e gyroscope a x i s .

155

I n a s m u c h as t h e a g r e e m e n t of t h e r e a d i n g s o f t h e s e l s y n s o f t h e t r a n s m i t t e r and gyro assembly t a k e s p l a c e a t an angular veloc i t y which d o e s n o t e x c e e d 4 O p e r m i n u t e , t h e r e a d i n g s o f t h e g y r o a s s e m b l y c a n n o t show t h e i n f l u e n c e o f r a p i d c h a n g e s i n t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e t r a n s m i t t e r c a r d , ;.e., t h e mechanism f o r c o o r d i n a t i o n i s a damper which a v e r a g e s o u t t h e r e a d i n g s o f t h e compass f o r a n a v e r a g e p o s i t i o n of t h e c a r d . I n o r d e r t h a t no t r a n s m i t t e r e r r o r s b e t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e g y r o a s s e m b l y when t h e a i r c r a f t i s m a k i n g a t u r n , t h e DGMC c o m p l e x i n c l u d e s a c o r r e c t i o n s w i t c h which a u t o m a t i c a l l y s h u t s o f f t h e c o r r e c t i o n mechanism o f t h e g y r o a s s e m b l y f r o m t h e c o m p a s s c a r d when t h e a i r craft is turning. E s t i m a t i o n of t h e r e a d i n g s o f t h e a i r c r a f t s c o u r s e d u r i n g t u r n s i s made w i t h a p u r e l y g y r o s c o p i c o p e r a t i o n r e g i m e o f t h e DGMC. Inasmuch as t h e a p p a r e n t d i u r n a l r o t a t i o n o f t h e g y r o s c o p e a x i s c a n n o t e x c e e d lo i n f o u r m i n u t e s o f t u r n , w h i l e t h e t u r n i n g t i m e o f t h e a i r c r a f t a t a n a n g l e up t o 90 as a r u l e d o e s n o t e x c e e d 1 - 3 m i n u t e s , n o g r e a t e r r o r s i n t h e compass r e a d i n g s are p r o d u c e d d u r i n g t h e t u r n a n d t h e g y r o m a g n e t i c compass c a n b e u s e d s u c c e s s f u l l y f o r t u r n i n g an aircraft a t a d e s i r e d angle. Agreement of t h e g y r o a s s e m b l y w i t h t h e b a s i c c o u r s e i n d i c a t o r i s a c c o m p l i s h e d by means o f a m a s t e r s e l s y n ( F i g . 2 . 2 2 ) . Winding AB r o t a t e s i n s i d e t h e h o u s i n g o f t h e master s e l s y n , a l l o w i n g a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t t o f l o w i n t h e w i n d i n g s of t h e s e l s y n 0 - 1 , 0-2, 0-3. C u r r e n t s which a r e s y m m e t r i c a l i n p h a s e a l s o a r i s e i n t h e windings of t h e s l a v e s e l s y n 01-11, 01-21, 01-31. Hence, t h e magnetic f i e l d of t h e r e s u l t a n t c u r r e n t s of t h e s l a v e s e l s y n w i l l be p a r a l l e l t o t h e magnetic f i e l d o f t h e supply winding AB. T h e r e f o r e , i f winding A l B l of t h e s l a v e s e l s y n o c c u p i e s a p o s i t i o n which i s p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e s u p p l y w i n d i n g A B , t h e c u r r e n t i n it w i l l be e q u a l t o zero.
/155

J ,

2 1

A1B1,

a motor which t u r n s winding with an i n d i c a t o r

156

o f r e a d i n g s a n d t r a n s m i t t h e m w i t h h i g h m e c h a n i c a l moments a n d good damping. This p e r m i t s us n o t only t o o b t a i n p r e c i s e and s t a b l e r e a d i n g s w i t h t h e compass, b u t a l s o t o apply a n a d d i t i o n a l stress t o t h e c o u r s e i n d i c a t o r s or t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e l i n k s . For e x a m p l e , t h e y c a n b e u s e d t o s e t t h e m e c h a n i c a l c o m p e n s a t o r s for d e v i a t i o n , a n d t o t a k e r e a d i n g s f r o m o t h e r i n d i c a t o r s or d e v i c e s w h i c h u s e course signals. The d e v i c e f o r m e c h a n i c a l c o m p e n s a t i o n o f t h e r e s i d u a l d e v i a t i o n c o n s i s t s of a c i r c u l a r c u r v e d s t r i p w i t h s p e c i a l b e n d s , w h i c h o p e r a t e s by means o f a l e v e r a n d p i n i o n t o p r o d u c e a n a d d i t i o n a l t u r n i n g o f t h e n e e d l e on t h e s c a l e f o r s h o w i n g t h e m a g n e t i c c o u r s e . The a d j u s t m e n t s c r e w s a r e m o u n t e d a l o n g th.e e d g e o f t h e s t r i p , u s u a l l y a t every 15O, t h u s making i t p o s s i b l e t o compensate f o r t h e r e s i d u a l d e v i a t i o n p r a c t i c a l l y down t o z e r o . However, i t i s n o t recommended t h a t r e s i d u a l d e v i a t i o n g r e a t e r t h a n 2-3O b e c o m p e n s a t e d , if i t i s p o s s i b l e t o g e t r i d o f i t by a deviation device with a magnetic t r a n s m i t t e r , f o r t h e following reasons: (a) Not g e t t i n g r i d o f , b u t c o m p e n s a t i n g f o r , s e m i c i r c u l a r d e v i a t i o n l e a d s t o c o n s i d e r a b l e c h a n g e s i n i t , d e p e n d i n g on t h e magnetic l a t i t u d e of t h e l o c u s of t h e a i r c r a f t .
/156

(b) When t h e a i r c r a f t i s t u r n i n g a n d t h e m a g n e t i c c o r r e c t i o n is s w i t c h e d o f f w h i l e t h e compass i s o p e r a t i n g i n a regime o f gyro s c o p i c s t a b i l i z a t i o n , t h e mechanical compensation f o r d e v i a t i o n ( i f i t i s shown on t h e i n d i c a t o r ) c a u s e s e r r o r s i n t h e c o u r s e r e a d i n g s i n t h e form of o v e r s h o o t i n g and l a g g i n g , e q u a l t o t h e v a l u e of t h e c o m p e n s a t e d d e v i a t i o n , t h u s m a k i n g i t more d i f f i c u l t t o t u r n t h e aircraft a t a given angle. I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e mechanical compensator f o r t h e r e s i d u a l d e v i a t i o n , t h e main i n d i c a t o r h a s a d e c l i n a t i o n s c a l e whose r e v o l u t i o n t o t h e v a l u e of t h e m a g n e t i c d e c l i n a t i o n of t h e l o c u s of t h e a i r c r a f t c o n v e r t s t h e c o m p a s s r e a d i n g s from m a g n e t i c t o t r u e .
T o l i n k it w i t h o t h e r d e v i c e s , t h e main i n d i c a t o r h a s b o t h a master and a s l a v e s e l s y n , whose i n d i c a t i o n s can b e t r a n s m i t t e d e i t h e r w i t h t h e a i d o f t h e a c t i v a t i n g m o t o r s or b y a d i r e c t s e l s y n connection.

I n t h e case of d i r e c t s e l s y n c o n n e c t i o n , t h e windings o f t h e s e l s y n i n t r a n s m i t t e r AB and t h e s e l s y n of t h e i n d i c a t o r A l B l are connected i n p a r a l l e l with t h e a l t e r n a t i n g current source. In this case, t h e winding A B of the slave selsyn attempts t o set itself a c c o r d i n g t o t h e r e g u l a t i o n of t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d , p r o d u c e d b y wind; i n g s 0111, 0 1 2 1 , 0 1 3 1 , i . e . , i t a u t o m a t i c a l l y a s s u m e s t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e p o w e r w i n d i n g A B o f t h e m a s t e r s e l s y n . The d i r e c t s e l s y n c o n n e c t i o n h a s a l o w e r s e n s i t i v i t y for t h e

157

I 1 I I

m a t c h i n g o f t h e s e l s y n s a n d a s m a l l e r w o r k i n g moment, i s a r e d u c e d a c c u r a c y of t r a n s m i s s i o n . Hence, i t i s m i s s i o n s where t h e r e a r e n o p a r t i c u l a r l y h i g h demands acy, e.g., f o r p i l o t a g e course repeaters connected t o cator.

so that there used f o r t r a n s made on a c c u r t h e main i n d i

Gyroinduction Compass

In t h e preceding paragraph, it w a s mentioned t h a t t h e d i s t a n c e g y r o m a g n e t i c compass h a s c o n s i d e r a b l e a d v a n t a g e s o v e r t h e i n t e g r a t e d compass. However, t h e m a g n e t i c t r a n s m i t t e r o f t h i s compass h a s a s e r i o u s shortcoming. T h e f a c t i s , t h a t t h e m a g n e t i c moment w h i c h m o v e s t h e t r a n s m i t t e r c a r d t o t h e p l a n e of t h e m a g n e t i c m e r i d i a n i s i t s e l f v e r y s m a l l , and w h i l e i t i s s u f f i c i e n t f o r t u r n i n g t h e f l o a t i n g c a r d , it i s f r e q u e n t l y i n s u f f i c i e n t f o r overcoming t h e f r i c t i o n of t h e b r u s h e s o n t h e c u r r e n t p i c k u p s , e s p e c i a l l y i n f l i g h t a t h i g h mag netic latitudes. Therefore, t h i s t r a n s m i t t e r is unstable i n oper a t i o n and f r e q u e n t l y goes o u t of o r d e r . To o v e r c o m e t h i s s h o r t c o m i n g , new t y p e s o f i n d u c t i o n m a g n e t i c t r a n s m i t t e r s have b e e n d e v e l o p e d ; i n a d d i t i o n t o h a v i n g an i n c r e a s e d t h r e s h o l d o f s e n s i t i v i t y , t h e y d o n o t h a v e t h e a b i l i t y t o move i n /157 t h e h o r i z o n t a l p l a n e ( i n t h e a z i m u t h ) ; c o n s e q u e n t l y t h e r e a r e no. e r r o r s d u e t o s p l a s h i n g o f t h e f l u i d o v e r t h e s e n s i t i v e e l e m e n t or o b s t r u c t i o n ; t h e y a r e l e s s s e n s i t i v e t o t h e i n f l u e n c e of accelera t i o n s when t h e a i r c r a f t i s y a w i n g , a n d t h e s i z e o f t h e t r a n s m i t t e r is smaller. The o p e r a t i n g p r i n c i p l e of t h e i n d u c t i o n - t y p e s e n s i t i v e e l e ment i s t h e d e p e n d e n c e o f t h e v a l u e o f t h e a l t e r n a t i n g m a g n e t i c i n d u c t i o n of t h e c o r e upon t h e p r e s e n c e o f i t s c o n s t a n t c o m p o n e n t , e x e r t e d i n t h e c o r e by t h e h o r i z o n t a l component o f t h e t e r r e s t r i a l magnetism.

For e x a m p l e , i f t h e c o r e h a s a c o n s t a n t c o m p o n e n t o f m a g n e t i c i n d u c t i o n i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e v e c t o r O A ( F i g . 2 . 2 3 , a ) , t h e n i n o r d e r t o b r i n g i t u p t o c o m p l e t e s a t u r a t i o n i n t h i s same d i r e c The c h a n g e i n i n d u c t i o n we w i l l r e q u i r e an a d d i t i o n a l v e c t o r AB.

a)
l7

B
I

00 - UA

-f .

J
6

Fig. 2.23. I n d u c t i o n S a t u r a t i o n of t h e Core of t h e S e n s i t i v e Element: ( a ) Induction Vector Coincides with Saturation Vector; ( b ) I n d u c t i o n Vector and S a t u r a t i o n Vector are i n Opposite Directions.

158

t i o n i n t h i s case i s e x p r e s s e d by t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e v e c t o r s OB-OA. A s w e s e e f r o m F i g u r e 2 . 2 3 , b , when t h e m a g n e t i c i n d u c t i o n i s b r o u g h t up t o f u l l s a t u r a t i o n , t h e change i n i n d u c t i o n i n t h e o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n w i l l b e e q u a l t o t h e sum o f t h e v e c t o r s O A +

OB.

The t r a n s m i t t e r o f a n i n d u c t i o n compass h a s t h r e e s e n s i t i v e e l e m e n t s , e a c h o f which i s made as f o l l o w s : Two p a r a l l e l m a g n e t i c c o r e s ' m a d e o f p e r m a l l o y ( a m a t e r i a l w i t h a h i g h m a g n e t i c permea b i l i t y a n d a v e r y low v a l u e o f m a g n e t i c h y s t e r e s i s ) h a v e s e p a r a t e p r i m a r y w i n d i n g s , c o n n e c t e d i n o p p o s i t e p h a s e , a n d a common s e c o n dary winding around both cores (Fig. 2.24, a ) . A l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t /158 flows through t h e primary windings of t h e cores. O b v i o u s l y , i f t h e c o n s t a n t component of t h e m a g n e t i c i n d u c t i o n o f t h e c o r e s f r o m t h e h o r i z o n t a l c o m p o n e n t o f t h e E a r t h ' s mag n e t i c f i e l d i s z e r o , t h e v e c t o r s of i t s c h a n g e w i t h p a s s a g e o f a n a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t t h r o u g h t h e w i n d i n g w i l l b e t h e same i n b o t h Cores, b u t i n o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n s , and t h e r e w i l l b e no a l t e r n a t i n g current i n t h e secondary winding.
If t h e c o r e s h a v e a c o n s t a n t c o m p o n e n t o f m a g n e t i c i n d u c t i o n , t h e v e c t o r of t h e change i n magnetic i n d u c t i o n w i l l be g r e a t e r i n one and s m a l l e r i n t h e o t h e r ; t h i s w i l l p r o d u c e p u l s e s o f a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t as shown i n t h e g r a p h i n F i g u r e 2 . 2 4 , b . T h e mag n i t u d e of t h e c u r r e n t p u l s e s w i l l b e p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t w i c e t h e v a l u e of t h e c o n s t a n t component o f t h e m a g n e t i c i n d u c t i o n o f t h e c o r e s .

The s e n s i t i v e e l e m e n t s i n t h e t r a n s m i t t e r a r e a r r a n g e d i n t h e form of a t r i a n g l e and t h e i r secondary windings form a s o r t of master selsyn (Fig. 2.25). T h e r o t a t i n g w i n d i n g ot t h e s l a v e s e l s y n i s c o n n e c t e d t o t h e a m p l i f i e r and mounted i n a p o s i t i o n p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e r e s u l t a n t v e c t o r of t h e e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c f i e l d of t h e s l a v e s e l s y n b y means o f a n a c t i v a t i n g m o t o r w i t h r e d u c t i o n g e a r i n g . The p r i m a r y w i n d i n g o f t h i s t r a n s m i t t e r i s mo u n t ed i n a n i n t e r mediate element between t h e t r a n s m i t t e r and t h e gyro assembly i n a c o r r e c t i o n mechanism which h a s a d e v i c e f o r mechan c o m p e n s a t i o n of r e s i d u a l d e v i a t i o n a n d i s u s e d as a c o r r e c t i o n mechanism f o r t h e following system.

Fig.

2.24. S e n s i t i v e Element of Induction Transmitter: ing; ( b ) Graph o f C u r r e n t .

( a ) Wind

159

The i n d u c t i o n t r a n s m i t t e r s f o r t h e c o u r s e a r e r e l i a b l e a n d s t a b l e i n o p e r a t i o n , b u t t h e i r a c c u r a c y o f o p e r a t i o n d r o p s when the transmitter is t i l t e d t o a sufficiently greater degree than i s t h e case f o r m a g n e t i c t r a n s m i t t e r s .

A t t h e same t i m e , i f t h e t i l t i n g o f t h e t r a n s m i t t e r t a k e s p l a c e i n t h e plane perpendicular t o t h e magnetic meridian, t h e v e r t i c a l component o f t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d o f t h e E a r t h , p r o j e c t e d on t h e p l a n e of t h e s e n s i t i v e element, forms a magnetic induction normal t o t h e magnetic meridian; t h e banking deviation w i l l then be determined by t h e f o r m u l a
(2.25)

where i i s t h e b a n k i n g of t h e t r a n s m i t t e r , 0 i s t h e a n g l e between t h e plane of t h e magnetic meridian and t h e banking plane of t h e t r a n s m i t t e r , and Z,H are t h e v e r t i c a l and h o r i z o n t a l components of t h e E a r t h s f i e l d , r e s p e c t i v e l y .

For e x a m p l e , w i t h t h e r a t i o - = 3 a n d t h e a n g l e 0 = 90, e a c h H
banking r a d i u s of t h e t r a n s m i t t e r w i l l produce a n e r r o r of approx i m a t e l y 3O i n t h e o p e r a t i o n of t h e compass. The r a t i o - = 3 c o r r e s p o n d s
L

(e.g.1

t o t h e l a t i t u d e o f Moscow

/159

and i n c r e a s e s r a p i d l y w i t h an approach t o t h e p o l a r r e g i o n s . There f o r e , t h e b a n k i n g e r r o r s i n t h e i n d u c t i o n t r a n s m i t t e r c a n t a k e on very s i g n i f i c a n t values. In order t o reduce t h e e r r o r s i n i t s s e n s i t i v e e l e m e n t i s mounted on a support. The body of t h e t r a n s m i t t e r t h e p r e s s u r e on t h e a x i s o f t h e frame the induction transmitter, f l o a t mounted i n a Cardan is f i l l e d with f l u i d t o reduce of t h e Cardan suspension ( a mixture of l i g r o i n and methylvinylpyridine o i l ) . The Cardan s u s p e n s i o n e n s u r e s t h e h o r i z o n t a l p o s i t i o n of t h e s e n s i t i v e element during banking and p i t c h i n g t o w i t h i n 17O.
The i n d u c t i o n t r a n s m i t t e r , l i k e t h e magnetic one, i s mounted a b o a r d t h e a i r c r a f t i n a p o s i t i o n such t h a t it i s exposed t o t h e smallest magnetic f i e l d of t h e air c r a f t a n d one w h i c h i s as c o n s t a n t as p o s s i b l e ; a d e v i a t i o n mechanism i s mounted on i t t o r e c o r d t h e semi

Fig. 2.25. D i a g r a m S h o w i n g Conn e c t i o n o f E l e m e n t s i n S e n s o r of G y r o i n d u c t i o n Compass.

16 0

circular deviation of t h e t r a n s m i t t e r .
However, t h e c u r v i l i n e a r t r a j e c t o r y o f f l i g h t ( a l t h o u g h t h e r a d i u s of c u r v a t u r e i s v e r y g r e a t ) , i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e accelera t i o n p r o d u c e d by C o r i o l i s f o r c e s , p r o d u c e s a c o n s t a n t t i l t i n g o f t h e s e n s i t i v e e l e m e n t of t h e t r a n s m i t t e r , t h e d e v i a t i o n from which i s t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e main i n d i c a t o r a n d i t s r e p e a t e r s .

For e x a m p l e , a t t h e l a t i t u d e o f Moscow a n d a n km/hr, t h e t i l t i n g of t h e s e n s i t i v e e l e m e n t o f t h e t o t h e acceleration of t h e Coriolis forces w i l l be i m a t e l y 2 0 ' , w h i c h u n d e r g o e s d e v i a t i o n e q u a l t o lo t h e n o r t h e r l y and s o u t h e r l y ' d i r e c t i o n s .

a i r s p e e d o f 800 t r a n s m i t t e r due e q u a l t o approx in a flight in

T h e g y r o s c o p i c i n d u c t i o n c o m p a s s ( w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n of t h e i n d u c t i o n t r a n s m i t t e r ) i s b u i l t i n a m a n n e r s i m i l a r t o t h a t of t h e d i s t a n c e magnetic compass.
Its p r i n c i p a l components a r e t h e i n d u c t i o n t r a n s m i t t e r , t h e gyro assembly and t h e course i n d i c a t o r .

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e p r i n c i p a l u n i t s , t h e r e i s a l s o a power s u p p l y , a m p l i f i e r s , c o r r e c t i o n mechanism w i t h a c u r v e d d e v i c e f o r g e t t i n g /160 r i d of r e s i d u a l d e v i a t i o n , a c o n n e c t i n g chamber, a b u t t o n w i t h a mechanism for r a p i d c o o r d i n a t i o n , a c o r r e c t i o n s w i t c h , a n d r e p e a t e r s from t h e main c o u r s e i n d i c a t o r . The c o r r e c t i o n m e c h a n i s m i s t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e l i n k b e t w e e n t h e i n d u c t i o n t r a n s m i t t e r and t h e gyro assembly. The c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e i n d u c t i o n t r a n s m i t t e r a n d t h e c o r r e c t i o n m e c h a n i s m i s made w i t h a s e l s y n , w h i l e t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e c o r r e c t i o n mechanism a n d t h e g y r o a s s e m b l y , t h e g y r o a s s e m b l y w i t h t h e main i n d i c a t o r , and t h e main i n d i c a t o r w i t h t h e r e p e a t e r s i s made b y p o t e n t i o m eters. T h e m a i n i n d i c a t o r a l s o h a s a c u r v e d d e v i c e for g e t t i n g r i d of e r r o r s i n t h e d i s t a n c e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f t h e c o u r s e i n d i c a t i o n s from t h e g y r o assembly t o t h e i n d i c a t o r a t t h e f a c t o r y . The c o r r e c t i o n s w i t c h i s a t w o - s t a g e g y r o s c o p e w h i c h s e r v e s f o r a u t o m a t i c a l l y d i s c o n n e c t i n g t h e gyro assembly from t h e c o r r e c t i o n mechanism; t h i s d i s c o n n e c t s t h e c i r c u i t f o r a z i m u t h c o r r e c t i o n from t h e i n d u c t i o n t r a n s m i t t e r and d i s c o n n e c t s t h e c o r r e c t i o n of t h e h o r i z o n t a l p o s i t i o n o f t h e a x i s o f t h e g y r o s c o p e r o t o r when t h e a i r c r a f t i s m a k i n g t u r n s w i t h a n a n g u l a r v e l o c i t y g r e a t e r t h a n 36 deg/min. Disconnecting t h e induction t r a n s m i t t e r during t u r n s g e t s r i d o f t h e c o n s i d e r a b l e errors w h i c h a r i s e d u e t o t h e i n f l u e l i c e o f t h e v e r t i c a l component of t h e E a r t h ' s m a g n e t i c f i e l a 2 . In order t o ensure t h a t t h e gyroscope c o r r e c t i o n w i l l n o t be disconnected i n a t u r b u l e n t a t m o s p h e r e when t h e a i r c r a f t i s b u mp i n g a n d y a w i n g ,

16 1

t h e c o r r e c t i o n s w i t c h h a s a d e l a y mechanism which d i s c o n n e c t s t h e c o r r e c t i o n o n l y a f t e r 5 - 1 5 s e c h a v e e l a p s e d f o l l o w i n g t h e moment when t h e a i r c r a f t r e a c h e s a n a n g u l a r v e l o c i t y o f 3 6 ' d e g / m i n . The c o u r s e r e p e a t e r s a r e s i m p l e i n d e s i g n a n d c o n s i s t o f t h r e e p h a s e m a g n e t o e l e c t r i c l a g o m e t e r s whose a c c u r a c y f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e c o u r s e i s l o w e r t h a n t h a t of t h e main i n d i c a t o r . D e s p i t e t h e numerous a d v a n t a g e s of d i s t a n c e g y r o m a g n e t i c and g r y o i n d u c t i o n c o m p a s s e s o v e r i n t e g r a t e d c o m p a s s e s , t h e y d o n o t com p l e t e l y s a t i s f y t h e requirements of a i r c r a f t navigation, p a r t i c u l a r l y with regard t o automation of i t s processes, since the follow i n g s h o r t c o m i n g s of c o m p a s s e s s t i l l p e r s i s t : (a) The d e p e n d e n c e o f t h e a c c u r a c y w i t h w h i c h t h e c o u r s e i s m e a s u r e d upon t h e m a g n e t i c l a t i t u d e a n d t h e i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f u s i n g the instrument a t high magnetic l a t i t u d e s . ( b ) . The d i f f i c u l t y o f m a i n t a i n i n g a n o r t h o d r o m i c d i r e c t i o n of f l i g h t , s i n c e t h e magnetic f l i g h t a n g l e s which a r e t h e n o b t a i n e d vary. (c) The m a g n e t i c l o x o d r o m e a l o n g w h i c h a f l i g h t c a n b e c a r r i e d o u t w i t h a c o n s t a n t m a g n e t i c f l i g h t a n g l e i s a complex c u r v e , s i n c e i t - d e p e n d s on t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n o f m e r i d i a n s a n d m a g n e t i c d e c l i n a t i o n s , which l i m i t t h e l e n g t h of t h e s t r a i g h t - l i n e f l i g h t s e g m e n t s , / l 6 1 a l o n g which t h e f l i g h t a n g l e c a n b e assumed c o n s t a n t . (d) R e g a r d l e s s of a l l t h e m e a s u r e s w h i c h h a v e b e e n t a k e n t o g e t r i d of a n d c o r r e c t f o r d e v i a t i o n s , as w e l l as t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n . of m a g n e t i c d e c l i n a t i o n s , t h e a c c u r a c y o f t h e measurements o f t h e magnetic course s t i l l remain low(within t h e l i m i t s of 2 - 3 O ) . The m a j o r i t y o f t h e s e s h o r t c o m i n g s c a n b e o v e r c o m e b y u s i n g g y r o s c o p i c s e m i c o m p a s s e s w i t h h i g h a c c u r a c y , or c o u r s e s y s t e m s w h i c h make i t p o s s i b l e t o f l y i n a r e g i m e u s i n g h i g h l y s e n s i t i v e g y r o semicompasses ( t h e GSC r e g i m e ) . Details
of

D e v i a t i o n O p e r a t i o n s on D i s t a n c e G y r o m a g n e t i c and G y r o i n d u c t i o n Compasses

D e v i a t i o n o p e r a t i o n s on d i s t a n c e c o m p a s s e s a r e c a r r i e d o u t u s i n g t h e same m e t h o d a s f o r i n t e g r a t e d c o m p a s s e s , w i t h c e r t a i n c h a n g e s n e c e s s i t a t e d by f e a t u r e s o f t h e d e s i g n a n d m o u n t i n g o f t h e s e compasses. I n s e v e r a l types of a i r c r a f t , t h e s e m i c i r c u l a r d e v i a t i o n a t t h e p o i n t where t h e t r a n s m i t t e r s a r e mounted can b e v e r y low. In t h e s e cases, t h e d e v i a t i o n d e v i c e s must b e removed from t h e t r a n s m i t t e r s a n d a l l f o r m s o f d e v i a t i o n a r e c o m p e n s a t e d f o r by a mechan i c a l c o m p e n s a t o r o n t h e m a i n c o u r s e i n d i c a t o r or on t h e c o r r e c t i o n mechanism.

162

The c o m p e n s a t i o n f o r t h e r e s i d u a l d e v i a t i o n , u s i n g a mechan i c a l c o m p e n s a t o r , i s c a r r i e d o u t on 24 c o u r s e s : 0 , 15, 30, , 345O, i n w h i c h t h e a i r c r a f t i s s e t t o t h e d e s i r e d c o u r s e s , a n d a screw i s t u r n e d ( c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e c o u r s e of t h e a i r c r a f t ) i n order t o bring the remaining deviation t o zero. The g r a p h o f t h e r e m a i n i n g d e v i a t i o n on t h e main c o u r s e i n d i c a t o r i s n o t p l o t t e d . However, i f d i f f e r e n c e s i n r e a d i n g s b e t w e e n t h e main i n d i c a t o r a n d i t s r e p e a t e r s are n o t i c e d , it i s necessary t o p l o t a graph of t h e c o r r e c t i o n s f o r t h e r e a d i n g s on t h e r e p e a t e r s .

. ..

A f t e r e a c h two i n t e r m e d i a t e s e t t i n g s o f t h e a i r c r a f t on c o u r s e ( a t t h e p o i n t s 0 , 4 5 , 9 0 , 1 3 5 , 1 8 0 , 225, 270 a n d 315O), i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o mark t h e r e a d i n g s o f t h e c o m p a s s t r a n s m i t t e r on t h e s c a l e o f t h e c o m p a s s c o u r s e on t h e m a i n i n d i c a t o r ( f o r i n d u c t i o n t r a n s m i t t e r s , on t h e s c a l e o f t h e c o r r e c t i o n m e c h a n i s m ) , a n d u s e t h i s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s o f s e m i c i r c u l a r d e v i a t i o n B a n d C. The f o r m shown i n T a b l e 2 . 4 i s r e c o m m e n d e d for c o n v e n i e n c e i n d e t e r mining these c o e f f i c i e n t s .

The c o e f f i c i e n t s a r e c a l c u l a t e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e f o r m u l a s :

where 8

i i s t h e c o m p a s s d e v i a t i o n on i n d i v i d u a l c o u r s e s .
MC
0

45

a0

TABLE 2 . 4 .
-

/162

cos

sin MC

8 sin

MC

MC

8cos

MC

90
135
180
225
270
315

0
0
. 7
1

07
. 0
' -.
07 -1
-.
07

07
. 0
-.
07
-1

-.
07
0

07
.

The c a l c u l a t e d c o e f f i c i e n t s m u s t b e i n t h e f o r m o f t a b l e s , a t t a c h e d t o t h e i n s t r u m e n t p a n e l a l o n g w i t h t h e main c o u r s e i n d i cator. I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s on t h e t a b l e , i t i s a l s o n e c e s s a r y t o show t h e p l a c e w h e r e t h e d e v i a t i o n s w e r e c o r r e c t e d or t h e h o r i z o n t a l c o m p o n e n t o f t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d of t h e E a r t h a t t h e p o i n t where t h e c o r r e c t i o n w a s c a r r i e d o u t . Since the semicircular deviation,

as w e l l a s a l l i t s o t h e r

1 63

f o r m s , c a n b e made b y a m e c h a n i c a l c o m p e n s a t o r a t t h e m a g n e t i c l a t i t u d e o f t h e p o i n t where t h e c o r r e c t i o n w a s made, Formula ( 2 . 1 6 ) for c a l c u l a t i n g t h e d e v i a t i o n f o r o t h e r m a g n e t i c l a t i t u d e s a s s u m e s t h e form (2.26)

Course

Systems

The m o s t c o m p l e t e d e v i c e s f o r m e a s u r i n g t h e c o u r s e o f a n a i r craft are t h e course systems. C o u r s e s y s t e m s a r e c o m b i n a t i o n s or c o m p l e x e s o f v a r i o u s c o u r s e t r a n s m i t t e r s m o u n t e d on t h e a i r c r a f t , w i t h t h e i r r e a d i n g s d i s p l a y e d on g e n e r a l i n d i c a t o r s . Such t r a n s mitters include the following: M a g n e t i c i n d u c t i o n (MC r e g i m e ) ; A s t r o n o m i c a l (AC r e g i m e ) ; G y r o s c o p i c (GSC r e g i m e ) . I n p r i n c i p l e , t h e course system c o n s i s t s of a combination of t h e d e s i g n f e a t u r e s of a g y r o i n d u c t i o n compass, gyrosemicompass and a s t r o n o m i c a l c o u r s e t r a n s m i t t e r , whose o p e r a t i n g p r i n c i p l e w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d i n t h e c h a p t e r d e v o t e d t o a s t r o n o m i c a l means o f a i r craft navigation. The p r i m a r y f e a t u r e of t h e d e s i g n o f t h e g y r o s c o p i c p o r t i o n o f t h e c o u r s e s y s t e m i s t h e p r e s e n c e o f a t h i r d f r a m e or t h e g y r o scope with a h o r i z o n t a l a x i s , coinciding with t h e longitudinal a x i s The p u r p o s e o f t h e t h i r d frame i s t o s e l e c t t h e of t h e aircraft. C a r d a n e r r o r s i n t h e r e a d i n g s o f t h e g y r o s e m i c o m p a s s when t h e a i r - / 1 6 3 craft is turning. The u s e o f t h i s t h i r d f r a m e c o m p l e t e l y e x c l u d e s C a r d a n e r r o r s from t h e t r a n s v e r s e r o l l i n g o f t h e a i r c r a f t , s i n c e t h e s e c o n d f r a m e of t h e gyroscope ( w i t h a master s e l s y n ) w i l l always be i n a v e r t ical position. The s e t t i n g o f t h e s e c o n d f r a m e o f t h e g y r o s c o p e i n a v e r t i c a l p o s i t i o n i s a c c o m p l i s h e d by means o f a n e l e c t r i c a l c i r c u i t and a mechanical device f o r matching it w i t h t h e s o - c a l l e d gyrov e r t i c a l , m o u n t e d on a i r c r a f t f o r p i l o t a g e p u r p o s e s . The s e c o n d f e a t u r e of c o u r s e s y s t e m s i s t h e u s e ( a s a r u l e ) o f two g y r o a s s e m b l i e s , a main one a n d a s t a n d b y , which improve t h e r e l i a b i l i t y of t h e s y s t e m a n d e n s u r e r e c i p r o c a l c o n t r o l o f t h e readings. F i g u r e 2.26 shows t h e c o n t r o l p a n e l a n d t h e i n d i c a t o r o f t h e course system. The c o u r s e s y s t e m o p e r a t e s on t h e main i n d i c a t o r i n a r e g i m e i n w h i c h t h e s w i t c h for t h e o p e r a t i n g r e g i m e i s s e t a t t h e t o p p a r t o f t h e p a n e l ( M C , A C , or GSC).

1 64

MC or A C r e g i m e s ,

When s w i t c h i n g t h e c o u r s e s y s t e m f r o m t h e G S C r e g i m e t o t h e i n order t o c o r r e c t t h e readings, it is neces sary t o press the button f o r rapid correlation i n order t o adjust t h e r e a d i n g s of t h e gyro assembly t o t h e readings of these t r a n s m i t t e r s . A f t e r correlation, the switch is again r e t u r n e d t o t h e GSC p o s i t i o n . The p u s h b u t t o n c o u r s e c o n t r o l s e r v e s f o r manual s e t t i n g o f t h e v a l u e s f o r t h e course system only i n t h e GSC regime. The s w i t c h on t h e l e f t - h a n d s i d e o f t h e p a n e l , m a r k e d "N-S", i s u s e d t o switch t h e p o l a r i t y of t h e l a t i t u d i n a l p o t e n t i o m e t e r i n o r d e r t o compensate f o r t h e r o t a t i o n of t h e Earth i n t h e N o r t h e r n or S o u t h e r n H e m i s p h e r e . The c o v e r s a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e p a n e l , marked "main" a n d " s t a n d b y " , c o v e r a d j u s t m e n t s f o r t h e balancing potentiometers of t h e main and s t a n d b y g y r o a s s e m b l i e s . Methods o f U s i n g C o u r s e D e v i c e s f o r Purposes o f A i r c r a f t Navi gation /164

The m e t h o d s of u s i n g c o u r s e e q u i p m e n t d e p e n d upon t h e r e s o l v i n g p o w e r s o f t h e c o m p l e x of c o u r s e d e v i c e s m o u n t e d on t h e a i r c r a f t , t h e p r e s e n c e o f o t h e r equipment f o r purposes of a i r c r a f t navi g a t i o n , a n d a l s o on t h e d i s t a n c e , g e o g r a p h i c and m e t e o r o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s of flight. While t h e m e t e o r o l o g i c a l f l i g h t conditions along a given route (path) change i n t h e c o u r s e of t i m e a n d - c a n v a r y d e p e n d i n g on a l t i t u d e a n d d i s t a n c e of f l i g h t , t h e remaining c o n d i t i o n s f o r a g i v e n t y p e of a i r c r a f t and a given r o u t e ( a i r r o u t e ) remain c o n s t a n t . I n d i s c u s s i n g t h e methods of u s i n g c o u r s e d e v i c e s i n f l i g h t , t h e c o n s t a n t c o n d i t i o n s l i s t e d above can b e d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e groups. (1) The a i r c r a f t i s e q u i p p e d w i t h a n i n t e g r a t e d or d i s t a n c e gyromagnetic ( i n d u c t i o n ) compass. Flights are c a r r i e d out over l o n g or medium d i s t a n c e s w i t h o u t s i g n i f i c a n t c h a n g e s i n m a g n e t i c latitude. The e q u i p m e n t f o r c o n s t a n t m e a s u r e m e n t o f t h e a i r s p e e d , d r i f t a n g l e , a n d a u t o m a t i c c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e p a t h a r e l a c k i n g on the aircraft.

Fig. 2.26. Control P a n e l of Course System.

16 5

(2) T h e a i r c r a f t i s f i t t e d w i t h a d i s t a n c e g y r o m a g n e t i c or g y r o i n d u c t i o n c o m p a s s a n d a g y r o s e m i c o m p a s s or c o u r s e s y s t e m o f average accuracy. F l i g h t s a r e made o v e r l o n g d i s t a n c e s w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e changes i n magnetic l a t i t u d e . There is no equipment f o r a u t o m a t i c m e a s u r e m e n t o f t h e d r i f t a n g l e or a i r s p e e d , o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e f l i g h t a c c o r d i n g t o t h e s e p a r a m e t e r s on b o a r d t h e a i r c r a f t .

(3) The a i r c r a f t i s f i t t e d w i t h a c o u r s e s y s t e m o f h i g h a c c u r a c y , as w e l l as d e v i c e s f o r a u t o m a t i c a l l y m e a s u r i n g t h e d r i f t a n g l e , t h e a i r s p e e d , and c a l c u l a t i n g t h e p a t h . F l i g h t s a r e made a t a n y g e o g r a p h i c a l l a t i t u d e and f o r any d i s t a n c e .

Methods of U s i n g C o u r s e D e v i c e s Under C o n d i t i o n s IncZu ded i n t h e F i r s t Group

Under t h e c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e f i r s t g r o u p , ; . e . , when f l i g h t s a r e b e i n g made o v e r s h o r t d i s t a n c e s i n a i r c r a f t w h i c h h a v e s i m p l e n a v i g a t i o n equipment, t h e f o l l o w i n g methods a r e used t o p r e p a r e t h e c a l c u l a t e d d a t a and use t h e course d e v i c e s i n f l i g h t . I n p r e p a r i n g f o r a f l i g h t , t h e r o u t e o f t h e f l i g h t t o b e made i s e n t e r e d on a f l i g h t c h a r t . If t h e f l i g h t c h a r t i s one which i s i n a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l or d i a g o n a l c y l i n d r i c a l p r o j e c t i o n , t h e s t r a i g h t - l i n e p o r t i o n s of t h e f l i g h t b e t w e e n t h e t u r n i n g p o i n t s a l o n g t h e r o u t e a r e p l o t t e d as s t r a i g h t l i n e s b y means o f a r u l e r . When u s i n g c h a r t s w h i c h a r e p l o t t e d w i t h a n i s o g o n a l c y l i n d r i c a l p r o j e c t i o n (Mercator), t h e s t r a i g h t - l i n e p o r t i o n s of a f l i g h t which/l65 i s v e r y l o n g a r e p l o t t e d a s a c u r v e d l i n e on t h e b a s i s o f t h e i n t e r mediate p o i n t s a l o n g t h e orthodrome, c a l c u l a t e d by a n a l y t i c a l means. S i n c e t h e m a g n e t i c compass i s a l o x o d r o m i c c o u r s e - m e a s u r i n g d e v i c e , a n d t h e p a r t s of t h e r o u t e s w h i c h h a v e b e e n p l o t t e d a r e very nearly orthodromic, i n order t o avoid overly high deflections i n t h e loxodrome from t h e given l i n e o f f l i g h t , t h e l e n g t h o f t h e f l i g h t segments with a c o n s t a n t f l i g h t p a t h a n g l e are s e l e c t e d s o t h a t t h e i n i t i a l and f i n a l f l i g h t p a t h a n g l e s under c o n d i t i o n s of f o l l o w i n g a n o r t h o d r o m e do n o t d i f f e r by more t h a n 2 - 3 O , ? . e . , s o t h a t t h e t o t a l c o r r e c t i o n f o r t h e r e a d i n g s o f t h e m a g n e t i c compass a t t h e end of t h e segment r e l a t i v e t o i t s r e a d i n g s a t t h e begin n i n g of t h e s e g m e n t i s n o more t h a n 3 O :

A = (1,

- A,)

sin tm 4-(AMr

-)A < 3". ,

If t h e i n d i c a t e d c o r r e c t i o n i s m o r e t h a n 3 O i n t h e s t r a i g h t l i n e p o r t i o n o f t h e f l i g h t , t h i s segment i s d i v i d e d i n t o two, t h r e e or m o r e p a r t s a n d t h e f l i g h t p a t h a n g l e i s d e t e r m i n e d f o r e a c h . T h i s i s u s u a l l y n o t done by s i m p l e d i v i s i o n of a s t r a i g h t l i n e i n t o e q u a l p a r t s , b u t by s e l e c t i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o r i e n t a t i o n p o i n t s a l o n g t h e s e c t i o n o f t h e r o u t e , t h e f l i g h t between which can be made a t t h e c o n s t a n t f l i g h t p a t h a n g l e . If w e

c o n s i d e r t h e low a c c u r a c y o f t h e i n d i c a t i o n s o f t h e

166

m a g n e t i c compasses i n a r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t l e n g t h of f l i g h t segment f o r a f l i g h t with a given f l i g h t path angle, t h e l a t t e r are deter mined n o t by a n a l y t i c a l means, b u t by s i m p l e measurement o f t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e s e g m e n t on t h e c h a r t b y means o f a p r o t r a c t o r . M e a s u r e m e n t o f t h e l o x o d r o m i c f l i g h t p a t h a n g l e c a n b e made r e l a t i v e t o t h e m e r i d i a n which i n t e r s e c t s t h e segment a t a p o i n t which i s c l o s e s t t o i t s c e n t e r , c o n s i d e r i n g t h e m a g n e t i c d e c l i n a t i o n of t h i s p o i n t . H o w e v e r , t o i n c r e a s e t h e a c c u r a c y o f t h e meas u r e m e n t s , i t i s recommended t h a t i t b e done a t two p o i n t s , a t t h e beginning and end of t h e segment, considering t h e average d e c l i n a t i o n of t h e s e p o i n t s . O b v i o u s l y , i n t h e f i r s t case t h e m a g n e t i c f l i g h t a n g l e o f t h e segment w i l l be

w h i l e i n t h e s e c o n d case
MFA =

ab
~

Ce t

- A b M
__

e M
Y

w h e r e a b , Ctm, a, a r e t h e a z i m u t h s o f t h e o r t h o d r o m e a t t h e b e g i n ning, t h e middle, and end, r e s p e c t i v e l y . An a d v a n t a g e o f t h e s e c o n d m e t h o d i s t h e d o u b l e m e a s u r e m e n t of t h e angles and t h e averaging of t h e d e c l i n a t i o n s , s i n c e t h e accur a c y o f t w o m e a s u r e m e n t s a n d t h e a v e r a g i n g o f t h e i r r e s u l t i s a l w a y s 1166 h i g h e r t h a n t h e a c c u r a c y of a s i n g l e measurement. F o r t h e f i r s t g r o u p o f c o n d i t i o n s , i t i s p o s s i b l e t o h a v e some s i m p l i f i e d p r e p a r a t i o n for t h e c o u r s e e q u i p m e n t o f t h e a i r c r a f t for the flight. S i n c e t h e f l i g h t s a r e made w i t h r e l a t i v e l y l o w measurements of magnetic l a t i t u d e , t h e r e i s no need t o d e t e r m i n e t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s o f s e m i c i r c u l a r d e v i a t i o n B a n d C or t o c o n s i d e r t h e i r changes during t h e f l i g h t .
I f t h e d e v i a t i o n i s c o m p e n s a t e d by a m e c h a n i c a l c o m p e n s a t o r , i t i s assumed t o b e z e r o d u r i n g t h e f l i g h t . In considering the r e s i d u a l d e v i a t i o n , a v a l u e i s a s s i g n e d t o i t as s h o w n on t h e g r a p h .

During t h e f l i g h t , t h e course of t h e a i r c r a f t i s checked s o t h a t i t s value t o g e t h e r with t h e d r i f t angle of t h e aircraft w i l l b e e q u a l t o a g i v e n m a g n e t i c f l i g h t p a t h a n g l e o f t h e f l i g h t seg ment.

MFA,

= M C t US = MFAg.

On t h e o t h e r h a n d , s i n c e t h e m a g n e t i c c o u r s e o f t h e a i r c r a f t i s e q u a l t o t h e compass c o u r s e , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o a d d t h e compass deviation:

16 7

I l l 1

MFA,

= C C t A,

U S = MFAg.

Prob Zems
1. T h e d i r e c t i o n o f a f l i g h t s e g m e n t m e a s u r e d a l o n g t h e a v e r age meridian is e q u a l t o 4 8 O ; t h e magnetic d e c l i n a t i o n i n t h e middle o f t h e segment is t 7 O . Determine t h e g i v e n magnetic f l i g h t p a t h angle of t h e segment.

Answer:

MFAg = 4 1 O .

2. The d i r e c t i o n o f a f l i g h t s e g m e n t m e a s u r e d a l o n g t h e i n i t i a l m e r i d i a n i s e q u a l t o 1 3 6 O , 132O a t t h e f i n a l m e r i d i a n , w i t h a n i n i t i a l m a g n e t i c d e c l i n a t i o n o f t 7 O a n d a f i n a l one o f t 5 O . Deter m i n e t h e MFAg.

Answer:

MFAg

= 128O.

3. The g i v e n m a g n e t i c p a t h f l i g h t a n g l e o f a s e g m e n t i s e q u a l t o 84O, t h e d r i f t a n g l e w a s e q u a l t o - 6 O , t h e d e v i a t i o n o f t h e mag n e t i c compass i s t 4 O . Determine t h e r e q u i r e d compass c o u r s e f o r following the f l i g h t lines.

Answer:

CC

86O.

4. The c o m p a s s c o u r s e o f a n a i r c r a f t i s e q u a l t o 5 4 O , t h e Determine t h e compass d e v i a t i o n i s t 3 O , t h e d r i f t a n g l e i s + 6 O . actual f l i g h t path angle.

Answer:

MFA,

= 63O.

Methods of U s i n g Course D e v i c e s Under C o n d i t i o n s o f t h e S e c o n d Group

When f l i g h t s a r e b e i n g made o v e r l o n g d i s t a n c e s u s i n g d i s t a n c e g y r o m a g n e t i c a n d g y r o s e m i c o m p a s s e s or c o u r s e s y s t e m s , b u t w i t h o u t a n y a u t o m a t i c c o u r s e c a l c u l a t i o n , t h e u s e of c o u r s e i n s t r u m e n t s i n f l i g h t a n d p r e p a r a t i o n of c h a r t s f o r a f l i g h t i s a c c o m p l i s h e d by d e v i c e s which a r e somewhat d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h o s e which a r e recom m e n d e d f o r t h e c o n d i t i o n s of t h e f i r s t g r o u p . The m o s t i m p o r t a n t o f t h e s e d e v i c e s i s t h e p l o t t i n g o f t h e orthodromic course along t h e s t r a i g h t - l i n e segments of t h e f l i g h t w i t h a g y r o s e m i c o m p a s s or a c o u r s e s y s t e m i n t h e I r G S C " r e g i m e , w i t h p e r i o d i c c o r r e c t i o n o f t h e g y r o s c o p e c o u r s e by means o f a m a g n e t i c or a s t r o n o m i c t r a n s m i t t e r .

A s a r u l e , i n f l i g h t s over long distances, t h e f l i g h t chart /167 i s one w i t h a s c a l e of .1:2,000,000 on t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l p r o j e c t i o n . If a s t r a i g h t l i n e w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s o f o n e s h e e t o f t h i s m a p , w i t h d i s t a n c e s q t o 1 2 0 0 - 1 5 0 0 km, c a n b e a s s u m e d w i t h i n s i g n i f i c a n t e r r o r t o b e a n o r t h o d r o m e , t h e n when t w o o r m o r e s h e e t s a r e c o m b i n e d

1 68

..

s,

a n d t h e r o u t e d o e s n o t r u n a l o n g a m e r i d i a n or w h e n s h e e t s o f t h i s c h a r t are used s e p a r a t e l y a t g r e a t d i s t a n c e s , t h e orthodrome must be l o c a t e d a l o n g p o i n t s which are determined by c a l c u l a t i o n . When s p l i c i n g two a d j a c e n t s h e e t s a l o n g t h e m e r i d i a n , t h e o r t h o d r o m e h a s a s i g n i f i c a n t b r e a k i n i t , and i n t h i s case (when i t c r o s s e s t h e a d j a c e n t s h e e t s ) a s t r a i g h t l i n e cannot be t a k e n as t h e o r t h o drome. On t h e c h a r t s o f a l l o t h e r p r o j e c t i o n s , e x c e p t t h e c e n t r a l p o l a r a n d s p e c i a l r o u t e maps i n a d i a g o n a l , c y l i n d r i c a l p r o j e c t i o n , when t h e l i n e o f t h e t a n g e n t ( c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l s t r i p ) o f t h e c y l i n d e r c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e a x i s of t h e r o u t e , t h e o r t h o d r o m e i s c a l c u l a t e d a n a l y t i c a l l y a n d p l o t t e d on t h e c h a r t a c c o r d i n g t o t h e c a l c u lated intermediate points. The d i s t a n c e s f o r t h e s e c t i o n s o f t h e orthodrome a r e a l s o d e t e r m i n e d by a n a l y t i c a l means. The o r t h o d r o m i c f l i g h t p a t h a n g l e s o f t h e r o u t e s e g m e n t s u n d e r t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s a r e m e a s u r e d or c a l c u l a t e d a n a l y t i c a l l y r e l a t i v e If t h e s t r a i g h t t o t h e i n i t i a l meridian of each f l i g h t segment. l i n e segments of t h e f l i g h t have a very s h o r t l e n g t h , t h e f l i g h t p a t h a n g l e s c a l c u l a t e d from t h e i n i t i a l m e r i d i a n s of t h e segments can be a p p l i e d t o t h e system r e l a t i v e t o t h e s e l e c t e d r e f e r e n c e meridian (Fig. 2.27) according t o t h e following formula:

where 6 i s t h e a n g l e of convergence between t h e r e f e r e n c e meridians of t h e segment.

and i n i t i a l

Since t h e c o n d i t i o n f o r t h e second group assumes f l i g h t s over long d i s t a n c e s with c o n s i d e r a b l e changes i n t h e magnetic l a t i t u d e s , t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h e m a g n e t i c c o m p a s s e s m u s t b e made w i t h a c o n s i d e r a t i o n of d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e c h a n g e s i n t h e s e m i c i r c u l a r d e v i ation during the f l i g h t . C o u r s e d e v i c e s i n t e n d e d for f l i g h t s u n d e r c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e second group have d e v i c e s f o r mechanical compensation of t h e r e s i d ual deviation. T h e r e f o r e , t h e g r a p h o f t h e d e v i a t i o n f o r them i s not plotted. However, i n g e t t i n g r i d of t h e d e v i a t i o n , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o d e t e r m i n e a n d w r i t e down t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s o f d e v i a t i o n B a n d C:

I t i s t h e n n e c e s s a r y t o w r i t e down t h e i n t e n s i t y o f t h e h o r i z o n /168 t a l component o f t h e E a r t h ' s m a g n e t i c f i e l d a t t h e p o i n t where t h e d e v i a t i o n s were c o r r e c t e d .

16 9

To c a l c u l a t e t h e c h a n g e s i n t h e s e m i c i r c u l a r d e v i a t i o n d u r i n g f l i g h t , t h e corrections f o r t h e magnetic course a t d i f f e r e n t seg m e n t s o t h e r o u t e m u s t b e d e t e r m i n e d w h e n p r e p a r i n g f o r a f l i g h t . They a r e d e t e r m i n e d f o r a number o f p o i n t s a l o n g t h e f l i g h t p a t h , o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e m a g n e t i c f l i g h t a n g l e s of t h e r o u t e a t t h e s e p o i n t s w i t h a f r e q u e n c y s u c h t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e Fetween two a d j a c e n t c o r r e c t i o n s a l o n g a s t r a i g h t l i n e p a t h d o e s n o t e x c e e d lo a n d a f t e r e a c h t u r n i n g p o i n t on t h e r o u t e .

#/\
'ref
A init

I
I

I n f a c t , t h e changes i n t h e s e m i circular deviation a t correspond ing points along the route w i l l d i f f e r only s l i g h t l y from t h e c a l c u l a t e d cor r e c t i o n s , s i n c e t h e c o u r s e which i s followed w i l l b e prepared with a consid e r a t i o n of t h e d r i f t a n g l e o f t h e a i r craft. However, t h e e r r o r s which arise i n t h i s p r o c e s s w i l l be small and can be disregarded.

During t h e f l i g h t , t h e gyrosemi c o m p a s s o r t h e c o u r s e s y s t e m i s corr e c t e d f o r t h e m a g n e t i c or a s t r o n o m i c a l Fig. 2.27. Calculation t r a n s m i t t e r when f l y i n g a l o n g t h e r e f e r of F l i g h t P a t h A n g l e s e n c e m e r i d i a n s or t h e t u r n i n g p o i n t s from Reference Meridian. If t h e c o r r e c o f t h e r o u t e (TPR). t i o n i s made on t h e b a s i s o f t h e mag n e t i c t r a n s m i t t e r , t h e n t h e main i n d i c a t o r w i l l h a v e t h e r e q u i r e d This correction is equal t o the c o r r e c t i o n e n t e r e d on i t s d i a l . sum o f t h e m a g n e t i c d e c l i n a t i o n a n d t h e c h a n g e i n t h e s e m i c i r c u l a r deviation along the magnetic l a t i t u d e . For c o r r e c t i o n , t h e course system i s switched t o t h e IIMC" r e The s y s t e m gime and t h e b u t t o n i s p u s h e d t o match t h e r e a d i n g s . o p e r a t e s f o r a p e r i o d o f 1 - 2 min i n t h e s l o w c o o r d i n a t i o n r e g i m e and i s t h e n s w i t c h e d t o t h e llGSC" r e g i m e . I n t h i s m a n n e r , t h e s y s t e m s a r e c o r r e c t e d for t h e a s t r o n o m ical transmitter. H a v i n g d e t e r m i n e d t h e l a t t e r on t h e b a s i s o f t h e c o o r d i n a t e s of a s t a r a n d t h e l o c u s o f t h e a i r c r a f t , t h e s y s t e m i s s w i t c h e d t o t h e "AC" r e g i m e , t h e c o o r d i n a t i o n i s c a r r i e d o u t , T h i s means t h a t a t and t h e n s w i t c h e d back t o t h e "GSC" regime. t h e t u r n i n g p o i n t s o f t h e r o u t e , n o c o r r e c t i o n s a r e r e q u i r e d on t h e s c a l e of t h e d e c l i n a t i o n s . The c o r r e c t i o n o f t h e g y r o c o m p a s s i s made i n t h e s a m e m a n n e r , e x c e p t t h a t t h e c o u r s e i s s e t on t h e g y r o s e m i c o m p a s s n o t by com p a r i n g t h e r e a d i n g s of t h e t r a n s m i t t e r s , b u t by m a n u a l s e t t i n g on t h e b a s i s o f t h e r e a d i n g s o f t h e m a g n e t i c or a s t r o n o m i c a l t r a n s mitters. After correction, t h e f l i g h t i s c a r r i e d out with an orthodromic

170

c o u r s e u p t o t h e n e x t t u r n i n g p o i n t o f t h e r o u t e or r e f e r e n c e m e r i d

ian.
When i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o make a c o r r e c t i o n for t h e o r t h o d r o m i c c o u r s e between two r e f e r e n c e m e r i d i a n s , t h e c o r r e c t i o n i s s e t on t h e main i n d i c a t o r a n d i s e q u a l t o : f o r t h e magnetic transmitter,
A = A

/16g

sin

+m y

for t h e a s t r o n o m i c a l t r a n s m i t t e r

Then t h e r e a d i n g s a r e m a t c h e d i n t h e man n er d e s c r i b e d a b o v e .

Prob I ems

1. The e a s t l o n g i t u d e o f t h e r e f e r e n c e m e r i d i a n i s 40, the The c o o r d i n a t e s o f n o r t h l a t i t u d e o f t h e r e f e r e n c e p o i n t i s 52O. t h e s e t t i n g p o i n t of t h e r o u t e are: l o n g i t u d e 43O, l a t i t u d e 54O. The t r u e f l i g h t p a t h a n g l e o f t h e s e g m e n t a t t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t i s 67O. Determine t h e orthodromic f l i g h t p a t h a n g l e c a l c u l a t e d from t h e r e f e r e n c e m e r i d i a n .

Answer:

64.5O.

2. The i n t e n s i t y o f t h e h o r i z o n t a l c o m p o n e n t o f t h e E a r t h ' s magnetic f i e l d a t t h e p o i n t where t h e d e v i a t i o n s are c o r r e c t e d i s 0.24 o e r s t e d s , w h i l e a t a c e r t a i n p o i n t a l o n g t h e f l i g h t r o u t e i t is 0.08 oersteds. Determine t h e c o r r e c t i o n s f o r t h e magnetic c o u r s e of t h e aircraft a t t h i s p o i n t , i f t h e magnetic f l i g h t path angle o f t h e f l i g h t s e g m e n t i s e q u a l t o 60, c o e f f i c i e n t B = t 1 . 5 , a n d coefficient C = tO.9.

Answer:

t3.50.

3. The e a s t l o n g i t u d e o f t h e r e f e r e n c e m e r i d i a n i s e q u a l t o The a i r 70, t h e n o r t h l a t i t u d e of t h e r e f e r e n c e p o i n t i s 5 8 O . c r a f t i s l o c a t e d a t t h e p o i n t A = 76O, = 60; t h e magnetic declin a t i o n o f t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t i s e q u a l t o tilo, w h i l e t h e c o r r e c t i o n f o r t h e c h a n g e i n t h e s e m i c i r c u l a r d e v i a t i o n ABC = t 2 O . Determine t h e c o r r e c t i o n f o r t h e r e a d i n g s o f t h e m a g n e t i c compass f o r correction of t h e orthodromic course.

Answer:

A = t8O.

171

Methods of U s i n g Course D e v i c e s Under t h e C o n d i t i o n s o f t h e T h i r d Group

The t h i r d g r o u p o f c o n d i t i o n s f o r u s i n g c o u r s e d e v i c e s r e f e r s t o f l i g h t s i n a i r c r a f t which are f i t t e d w i t h p r e c i s e c o u r s e s y s t e m s , a p p a r a t u s f o r a u t o m a t i c measurement o f t h e a i r s p e e d of t h e a i r c r a f t , t h e d r i f t a n g l e , and automatic c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e f l i g h t path of t h e aircraft. The c o n d i t i o n s of t h e t h i r d g r o u p a s s u m e a p r o l o n g e d a u t o n o m i c a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n w i t h no v i s i b i l i t y of t h e ground o r o v e r water, w i t h c o r r e c t i o n of t h e a i r c r a f t c o o r d i n a t e s o n l y a t i n d i v i d u a l p o i n t s located significant distances apart. This places particularly strict r e q u i r e m e n t s on t h e a c c u r a c y o f t h e p l o t t i n g o f t h e o r t h o d r o m e o n t h e c h a r t s , t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e f l i g h t p a t h a n g l e s , and t h e r e t e n t i o n of systems f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e aircraft course, s i n c e t h e c o u r s e i s a b a s i s f o r t h e a u t o m a t i c c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e f l i g h t i n t e r m s of d i r e c t i o n . From t h e t h e o r e t i c a l s t a n d p o i n t , a m o r e p r e c i s e a n d c o n v e n /170 i e n t form f o r using t h e course devices under c o n d i t i o n s of t h e t h i r d group i s t h e following:

I n preparing t h e f l i g h t c h a r t s f o r each orthodrome s e c t i o n t h e f l i g h t b e t w e e n t h e t u r n i n g p o i n t s on t h e r o u t e , r e g a r d l e s s of t h e i r l e n g t h , w e d e t e r m i n e t h e c o n d i t i o n a l s h i f t i n t h e l o n g i t u d e (A,), i . e . , t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e l o n g i t u d e c a l c u l a t e d from t h e p o i n t w h e r e t h e g i v e n o r t h o d r o m e i n t e r s e c t s t h e E q u a t o r (1,) and t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l l o n g i t u d e ( A ) :

of
As

A0

A.

Here, t h e orthodromic longitude A0 i s d e t e r m i n e d for t h e s t a r t 1 i n g p o i n t o f e a c h s e g m e n t by t h e f o r m u l a

ctg A, = tgy2 ctg+l cosec AA ,

- ctg Ah.

A f t e r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e change i n t h e l o n g i t u d e , t h e l o n g i t u d e of any p o i n t a l o n g t h e r o u t e can b e c o n v e r t e d e a s i l y t o t h e o r t h o d r o m i c s y s t e m , t h u s making it p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e r e l a t i v e l y e a s i l y a l l o f t h e r e q u i r e d e l e m e n t s o f t h e o r t h o d r o m e for t h e s e p o i n t s : (a) The a z i m u t h o f t h e p o i n t o f i n t e r s e c t i o n o f t h e o r t h o d r o m e with t h e Equator (ao)

(b) The c o o r d i n a t e s o f i n t e r t e r m e d i a t e p o i n t s f o r p l o t t i n g t h e o r t h o d r o m e o n t h e map:

172

(c) drome

The i n i t i a l ,

i n t e r m e d i a t e , and f i n a l azimuths of t h e o r t h o
tg tgq=-'.

sin

vi '

(d) The d i s t a n c e t o a n y p o i n t a l o n g t h e o r t h o d r o m e (Si) f r o m t h e p o i n t of i t s i n t e r s e c t i o n w i t h t h e Equator cos

si

= c o s A0

cos

0i'

(e) The d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n a n y t w o p o i n t s a l o n g t h e o r t h o d r o m e as a d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e p o i n t o f i n t e r s e c t i o n w i t h t h e Equator

Considering t h e necessity of precisely calculating t h e course f o r a u t o m a t i c computation of t h e p a t h i n t e r m s of t h e d i r e c t i o n , and t h e d i f f i c u l t y of an e x a c t s e t t i n g of t h e c o u r s e i n f l i g h t rela t i v e t o t h e new r e f e r e n c e m e r i d i a n s , i t i s d e s i r a b l e f o r t h e c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e t h i r d group t o r e t a i n a s i n g l e system f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e c o u r s e s o v e r t h e e n t i r e l e n g t h of t h e f l i g h t f r o m t a k e o f f t o landing.

/171 I n t h i s c a s e , t h e p a t h a n g l e of t h e f i r s t orthodromic f l i g h t segment i s c o n s i d e r e d t o b e e q u a l t o t h e azimuth of t h i s segment r e l a t i v e t o t h e m e r i d i a n of t h e a i r p o r t from which t h e a i r c r a f t took o f f . The p a t h a n g l e s o f a l l s u b s e q u e n t s e g m e n t s a r e o b t a i n e d by c o m b i n i n g t h e o r t h o d r o m i c f l i g h t a n g l e ( O F A ) o f t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n with t h e t u r n angle (TA) of t h e l i n e of f l i g h t a t t h e turning points along the route (Fig. 2.28):

T h e t u r n a n g l e s a l o n g t h e l i n e of f l i g h t a r e f o u n d a s t h e d i f ferences of t h e azimuths of t h e orthodrome, i n t e r s e c t i n g a t t h e t u r n i n g p o i n t s of t h e r o u t e , determined a c c o r d i n g t o t h e formula

O b v i o u s l y , t h e l a t i t u d e o f t h e t u r n i n g p o i n t s w i l l b e common f o r t h e two o r t h o d r o m e s ; f o r one i t w i l l b e f ; n a l , for t h e o t h e r

1 73

it w i l l be i n i t i a l . A s f a r as t h e l o n g i t u d e i s c o n c e r n e d , i t i s d e t e r m i n e d on t h e b a s i s o f t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l l o n g i t u d e o f t h e t u r n i n g p o i n t o f t h e r o u t e , c o n s i d e r i n g t h e s h i f t i n l o n g i t u d e of t h e p r e v i o u s and subsequent segments.

When f l y i n g a b . o v e a c o n t i n e n t , t h e b e s t method of c o r r e c t i o n f o r t h e orthodromic course under conditions of t h e t h i r d group is t o introduce corrections i n t o t h e c o u r s e as a r e s u l t of calcu l a t i o n s of t h e a i r c r a f t p a t h .

Fig. 2.28. System f o r Calcul a t i n g P a t h A n g l e s b y Combining t h e Turn Angles along the Flight Path.

For e x a m p l e , i f t h e r e a d i n g s o f t h e c a l c u l a t i n g d e v i c e s on board t h e aircraft at both t h e i n i t i a l and f i n a l p o i n t s i n d i c a t e t h a t i t i s on t h e l i n e o f f l i g h t , b u t has undergone a l a t e r a l devia t i o n AZ during t h e f l i g h t , then
ob v i ous l y

tg AT =

AZ
-
S

w h e r e Ay e q u a l s t h e e r r o r i n t h e r e a d i n g s o f t h e o r t h o d r o m i c c o u r s e , a n d S i s t h e l e n g t h o f t h e c o n t r o l s e c t i o n of t h e f l i g h t . The s i g n o f t h e c o r r e c t i o n t o t h e c o m p a s s r e a d i n g c o i n c i d e s with t h e sign of A z . With p o s i t i v e v a l u e s o f A Z , ( a s h i f t f r o m t h e l i n e o f t h e de s i r e d f l i g h t t o t h e r i g h t ) , t h e r e a d i n g s o f t h e compass w i l l b e r e d u c e d and t h e c o r r e c t i o n must be p o s i t i v e ; i n t h e c a s e o f d e v i a t i o n t o t h e l e f t , t h e c o r r e c t i o n m u s t b e made w i t h a m i n u s s i g n . I n f l i g h t s o v e r w a t e r , when d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e c o r r e c t n e s s /172 o f t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t p a t h i n t e r m s of d i r e c t i o n i s m o r e d i f f i c u l t , t h e c o r r e c t i o n o f t h e g y r o s c o p e c o u r s e m u s t b e made by a s t r o n o m i c a l methods. T h i s means t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e orthodromic and t r u e c o u r s e s a t any p o i n t w i l l b e e q u a l t o t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e orthodromic p a t h a n g l e of t h e segment and t h e running azimuth of t h e orthodrome a t a given p o i n t :

If

t h e p o s i t i v e d i f f e r e n c e of t h e c o u r s e s t u r n s o u t t o be g r e a t e r

(or i f i t i s n e g a t i v e , t u r n s o u t t o b e s m a l l e r ) t h a n t h e d i f f e r
ence between t h e p a t h a n g l e s , t h e r e a d i n g f o r t h e orthodromic course w i l l be i n c r e a s e d and it w i l l be n e c e s s a r y t o r e d u c e it manually by t h e c o u r s e d e t e c t o r . When t h e r e a d i n g s of t h e o r t h o d r o m i c c o u r s e are low, it must b e i n c r e a s e d .

174

.-

..

.- .. -.....-_.

..

.,

II

I .

I n t h i s manner, b u t w i t h reduced accuracv, course can be c o r r e c t e d magnetically:

OC

t h e orthodromic

(MC+ M ) = OFA

~ 1 .

For t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e t h i r d g r o u p , t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h e magnetic compasses must b e c a r r i e d o u t a c c o r d i n g t o t h e r u l e s g i v e n above f o r t h e c o n d i t i o n s of t h e second group. However, t h e u s e of m a g n e t i c t r a n s m i t t e r s f o r c o r r e c t i o n o f o r t h o d r o m i c c o u r s e d u r i n g f l i g h t i s l i m i t e d t o cases when t h e r e a d i n g s of t h e o r t h o d r o m i c c o u r s e c a n n o t b e c h e c k e d on t h e b a s i s of t h e r e s u l t s o f c a l c u l a t i o n s of t h e p a t h or b y m e a n s of a s t r o n o m i c a l c o u r s e t r a n s m i t t e r s .
The m e t e o r o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s o f a p l a n n e d f l i g h t , e s p e c i a l l y o v e r l o n g d i s t a n c e s , c a l l for c a r e f u l p r e p a r a t i o n o f a l l c o u r s e e q u i p m e n t on t h e p l a n e , s i n c e i t may b e c o m e n e c e s s a r y t o u s e d e v i c e s f o r measuring t h e c o u r s e s which b e l o n g t o a l l t h r e e groups of condi tions.

3.

Barometric Altimeters

The p r i n c i p a l m e t h o d o f m e a s u r i n g f l i g h t a l t i t u d e f o r n a v i g a t i o n a l purposes i s t h e b a r o m e t r i c method. I t i s b a s e d o n t h e meas urement of t h e atmospheric p r e s s u r e a t t h e f l i g h t l e v e l of t h e a i r craft

For s p e c i a l p u r p o s e s , s u c h a s a e r i a l p h o t o g r a p h y or a e r i a l g e o d e s i c s t u d i e s , as w e l l as f o r s i g n a l i n g dangerous a p p r o a c h e s t o t h e l o c a l r e l i e f when c o m i n g i n f o r a l a n d i n g u n d e r d i f f i c u l t meteorological c o n d i t i o n s , e l e c t r o n i c devices f o r measuring a l t i t u d e a r e u s e d , which a r e more a c c u r a t e i n p r i n c i p l e t h a n t h e b a r o metric method. However, t h e y a r e n o t w i d e l y employed f o r n a v i g a t i o n a l purposes because they a r e used only f o r measuring t h e t r u e f l i g h t altitude. On t h e b a s i s o f t h e b a r o m e t r i c m e t h o d o f m e a s u r i n g a l t i t u d e , it is t h e l a w of change of atmospheric p r e s s u r e with i n c r e a s e i n h e i g h t which means t h a t t h e c a l i b r a t i o n o f t h e a l t i m e t e r d i a l m u s t b e made o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l /173 standard atmosphere.
The c o n d i t i o n s o f (a) kg/cm2. t h e s t a n d a r d atmosphere are as f o l l o w s :

The p r e s s u r e a t s e a l e v e l i s e q u a l t o 7 6 0 mm Hg,

or 1 . 0 3 3 3

(b) T h e a i r t e m p e r a t u r e a t s e a l e v e l i s +15O C w i t h a l i n e a r d e c r e a s e for f l i g h t a l t i t u d e s u p t o 1 1 , 0 0 0 m o f 6.5O for e a c h 1000 m of a l t i t u d e . Beginning a t 11,000 m y t h e a i r temperature i s c o n s i d e r e d c o n s t a n t a n d e q u a l t o -56.5O. To u n d e r s t a n d t h e o p e r a t i n g p r i n c i p l e of t h e b a r o m e t r i c a l t i m e t e r , l e t us r e c a l l t h e f a m i l i a r e q u a t i o n s from p h y s i c s which

175

d e s c r i b e t h i s s t a t e of

g a s e s and t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e i r change.

Thus , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e B o y l e - M a r i o t t e l a w , w i t h i s o t h e r m a l c o m p r e s s i o n ( i . e . , f i x e d t e m p e r a t u r e ) , t h e p r e s s u r e o f a gas c h a n g e s i n i n v e r s e p r o p o r t i o n t o i t s volume S O t h a t t h e p r o d u c t of t h e volume t i m e s t h e pressure remains constant:

pv = c o n s t ,
w h e r e p i s t h e p r e s s u r e of at temperature t . t h e gas and

v i s t h e volume o f t h e g a s

A c c o r d i n g t o t h e G a y - L u s s a c l a w , h e a t i n g a g a s b y lo C a t c o n s t a n t p r e s s u r e c a u s e s t h e g a s t o e x p a n d t o 1 / 2 7 3 . 1 o f t h e volume which it occupied a t z e r o t e m p e r a t u r e :

v-vo=
V O

273.1 t s

w h e r e 0 0 i s t h e v o l u m e a t z e r o t e m p e r a t u r e a n d t h e same p r e s s u r e . By c o m b i n i n g t h e B o y l e - M a r i o t t e t h e state equation of a gas:

p v = POVO ( t 273. I

and Gay-Lussac

laws

we obtain

- + 273.11.

T h i s e q u a t i o n i s known a s t h e C l a p e y r o n e q u a t i o n . The t e m p e r a t u r e ( t t 2 7 3 . l 0 C > i s c a l l e d t h e absolute temperature ( T I , i . e . , c a l c u l a t e d r e l a t i v e t o a b s o l u t e z e r o ( - 2 7 3 . 1 O C)l, a n d t h e c o n s t a n t v a l u e of

P V

273.1

i s c a l l e d t h e gas c o n s t a n t .

A gram m o l e c u l e o f a n y g a s ( g r a m mole , o r s i m p l y m o l e ) , i . e . , t h e number o f grams o f a g a s which i s e q u a l t o i t s m o l e c u l a r w e i g h t , a l w a y s o c c u p i e s e x a c t l y t h e same v o l u m e ( 2 2 . 4 1 l i t e r s ) a t z e r o t e m p e r a t u r e and a p r e s s u r e of 1 a t m . T h e g a s c o n s t a n t for o n e m o l e o f g a s i s c a l l e d t h e u n i v e r s a l g a s c o n s t a n t (R): L7'!

With P

= 1atm, v

= 22.41 l i t e r s .
g a s i n t h i s case as

T h e C l a p e y r o n e q u a t i o n for o n e m o l e o f sumes t h e f o r m
~~

1 T h i s v a l u e i s u s u a l l y a s s u m e d t o b a a p p r o x i m a t e l y 273O i n c a l
culations. 176

pv
The n u m e r i c a l v a l u e of

= RT.

t h e universal gas constant is

R = 1*033*n410=84,8k g / c m ( d e g r e e s / m o l e ) .
273.1

I n t e c h n i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n s , t h e w e i g h t of t h e g a s i s u s u a l l y T h e r e f o r e , w e do n o t u s e t h e u n i v e r s a l expressed i n kilograms. gas constant b u t r a t h e r t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c gas constant

where M i s t h e number o f grams o f g a s p e r m o l e , weight. Then

or i t s m o l e c u l a r

pt,

BT.

The c o n s t a n t B f o r a i r i s 2 9 . 2 7 m / d e g r e e . By u s i n g t h e g a s c o n s t a n t , we c a n f i n d t h e w e i g h t d e n s i t y o f a i r ( y ) a t a given p r e s s u r e p and absolute temperature T .

L e t u s d e f i n e a n a r e a on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e m e a s u r i n g 1 c m 2 , a n d e r e c t a v e r t i c a l c o l u m n on i t w h i c h e x t e n d s u p w a r d t o t h e l i m i t s of t h e E a r t h ' s atmosphere (Fig. 2 . 2 9 ) .

Obviously, t h e drop i n pressure with increased a l t i t u d e t o t h e d i s t a n c e AH a t a c e r t a i n h e i g h t w i l l b e e q u a l t o :

Ap = rAH=

BT

AH

or

Ap

AH
-4

BT

(2.27)

By u s i n g E q u a t i o n ( 2 . 2 7 ) a n d t h e a l t i t u d e t e m p e r a t u r e g r a d i e n t , / l 7 5 w e obtain t h e so-called barometric formula

(2.28) w h e r e T O i s t h e t e m p e r a t u r e on t h e g r o u n d u n d e r s t a n d a r d c o n d i t i o n s e q u a l t o 281O K , a n d t g r i s t h e v e r t i c a l t e m p e r a t u r e g r a d i e n t .

1 77

I1

I1

Formula ( 2 . 2 8 ) i s o b t a i n e d from Formula ( 2 . 2 7 ) , i n f i n i t e l y s m a l l values:

switching t o

2 =d
H
p
BT'

(2.27a)

Integrating (2.27a)

a n d k e e p i ng i n mind t h a t

TH = T O - g r H ,

we obtain:
PH H

P O

or

Fig.

2.29.

Column o f A i r o n t h e Earth's Surface.

Solving Equation ( 2 . 2 8 ) f o r H , w e o b t a i n t h e s t a n d a r d hypso metric formula f o r t h e troposphere: (2.29)

t g ra n d B , w e

S u b s t i t u t i n g i n t o Formula ( 2 . 2 9 ) obtain:

t h e n u m e r i c a l v a l u e s of TO,

(2.30)

W can use Formula ( 2 . 3 0 ) t o c a l c u l a t e t h e hypsometric t a b l e s e w h i c h r e l a t e t h e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e up t o 1 1 , 0 0 0 m t o t h e a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e ; t h e s e t a b l e s a r e used t o a d j u s t and c o r r e c t altimeters.

Under t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f a s t a n d a r d a t m o s p h e r e , t h e a i r t e m perature at a l t i t u d e s g r e a t e r than 11,000 m i s considered t o be c o n s t a n t , s o t h a t t h e b a r o m e t r i c f o r m u l a for t h e s e a l t i t u d e s c a n b e w r i t t e n as f o l l o w s : (2.31) W o b t a i n Formula ( 2 . 3 1 ) by i n t e g r a t i n g Equation e 1 1 , 0 0 0 m a n d c o n s i d e r T H e q u a l t o Til: (2.27) f o r /176

178

or

Solving Equation (2.31) f o r H, w e o b t a i n t h e s t a n d a r d s t a t e f o r m u l a o f t h e h y p s o m e t r i c t a b l e ( T a b l e 2 . 5 ) or a l t i t u d e s g r e a t e r t h a n 11,000 m.

H = 11 OOO

+ BTI1In PI1 PH
-a
~ ~~

(2.32)

H,
~

TABLE 2 . 5 .

a,

PHI

uN Hg
~~

Hg uM

PHI

TH,"K
219,25
265
1.0 265
1.0 265
1.0 265
1.0 265
1.0 265
1.0 265
1.0 265
1.0 265
1.0 265
1.0 265
1.0 265
1.0 265
1.0 265
1.0 265
1.0 265
1.0 265
1.0 265
1.0 265
1.0 216,50

m_ /sec
272
9. 250
9. 250
9. 250
9. 250
9. 250
9. 295,0
250
9. 250
9. 295,0
250
9. 250
9. 250
9. 250
9. 250
9. 250
9. 250
9. 250
9. 250
9. 250
9. 250
9.

-500 0 500 1000 I 500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 6000 6 500 70 0 0 7500 8000 8500 90 0 0 9500 I0000

806. Z
702
6. 760 1. 64j 7. 034.2 562 9. 501 6. 558
2. 432
9. 422 6. 429 3. 45l 0, 387 7. 338 5. 302 3. 378 0. 268 8. 269 6. 281 4. 205
3. 238
1. 182
9.

212 9.5 280 2.0 247 8.5 215 8.0 282 7.5 250 7.0 217 7.5 285 6.0 252 6.5 220 6.0 287 5.5 255 5.0 222 5.5 290 4.0 257 4.5 225 4.0 292 3.5 260 3.0 227 3.5 295 2.0 262 2.5 230 2.0

321 4. 302 4. 383 3. 364 3. 344 3. 332,5 305 3. 385 2. 365 2. 345 2. 325 2. 305 2. 384 1. 316,3 343 1. 322 1. 301 1. 380 0. 359 0. 337 0. 316 0. 294
9.

10500 11 OOO 12000 13000 14000 15000 16000 17000 18000 19000 20000 2 000 1 22000 23000 24000 25000 26000 27000 28000
29000
30000

134 8.0 196 6,0 148 4.7 137 2.2 156 0.7 90.24 7.7 70 6.2 58 5.1 62 48,Ol 4.0 10 3.2 50 29.90 2.4 55 2.1 18 1.3 86 1.1 59 13,59 1.0 16 99 .1 84 .6

Note: T h e t a b l e for a d j u s t i n g a n d c o r r e c t i n g t h e b a r o m e t r i c a l t i m e t e r s is given i n abbreviated form. The v a l u e a r e p r e s e n t s t h e speed of sound a t f l i g h t a l t i t u d e under s t a n d a r d c o n d i t i o n s , g i v e n i n t h e f o u r t h column o f t h e t a b l e .
= 216.5O, a n d s h i f t i n g S u b s t i t u t i n g t h e value of B and T t o t h e l o g t e n ( I n N = 2.30259 I g N ) , t h i s f o r m u l a assumes t h e form:

179

I.'

F o r m u l a s ( 2 . 3 0 ) a n d ( 2 . 3 3 1 , s u i t a b l e for c o m p i l i n g h y p s o m e t - /177 ri c t a b l e s and c a l i b r a t i n g a l t i m e t e r s , are n o t completely s u i t a b l e f or c a l c u l a t i n g t h e m e t h o d o l o g i c a l e r r o r s i n t h e a l t i m e t e r , r e l a t e d t o a f a i l u r e o f t h e a c t u a l a i r t e m p e r a t u r e a t h e i g h t s from z e r o t o t h e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e of t h e a i r c r a f t t o a g r e e w i t h t h e c o n d i t i o n s of t h e standard atmosphere. S i n c e t h e accur,acy o f a l t i t u d e measurement i s a f f e c t e d by t h e air temperature not only at the f l i g h t a l t i t u d e but a t a l l inter m e d i a t e l a y e r s f r o m t h e o n e on t h e g r o u n d up t o t h a t a t t h e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e , it i s b e t t e r t o u s e t h e formula which r e l a t e s t h e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e n o t t o t h e t e m p e r a t u r e g r a d i e n t , b u t t o t h e average temper a t u r e o f t h e column o f a i r which w e h a v e s e l e c t e d , and t o u s e t h i s t o c a l c u l a t e a hypsometric t a b l e f o r a d j u s t i n g and c o r r e c t i n g baro metric altimeters. This formula has t h e form:
H-BT

in--o P

av PH

(2.34)

Formula ( 2 . 3 4 ) i s o b t a i n e d by i n t e g r a t i n g E q u a t i o n ( 2 . 2 7 a ) a t a constant average temperature:

whence

If w e c o n s i d e r t h a t

GV=273 + LV=273 1 + - ,

z,)

and t h e v a l u e B = 29.27, by u s i n g t h e c o e f f i c i e n t f o r t r a n s i t i o n from n a t u r a l l o g a r i t h m s t o t h e l o g 1 0 , Formula ( 2 . 3 4 ) assumes t h e form :

T h i s f o r m u l a i s known a s t h e L a p l a c e f o r m u l a .
D e s c r i p t i o n of a B a r o m e t r i c A l t i m e t e r

T h e s e n s i t i v e e l e m e n t i n t h e b a r o m e t r i c a l t i m e t e r i s a cor r u g a t e d m a n o m e t r i c ( a n e r o i d ) b o x 1 ( F i g . 2 . 3 0 1 , made o f b r a s s . The box h a s two r i g i d p o i n t s ( o n t h e t o p a n d b o t t o m c o r r u g a t e d s u r f a c e s ) , o n e o f w h i c h i s f i x e d or t i g h t l y f a s t e n e d t o t h e c a s i n g o f t h e a p p a r a t u s , w h i l e t h e o t h e r i s movable.

180

-_

--I1111

I I 1111I 1 1 1 1 I1111II I I 1.11111111

I I

111.11 I 111 1 1

In principle, with a gas.

t h e a n e r o i d b o x c a n b e e i t h e r e v a c u a t e d or f i l l e d / 1 7 8

U s u a l l y , t h e s p a c e w i t h i n t h e box i s f i l l e d w i t h a gas t o a p r e s s u r e s u c h t h a t when t h e b o x i s h e a t e d , t h e t h e r m a l l o s s e s o f i t s e l a s t i c p r o p e r t i e s w i l l b e r o u g h l y compensated by a n i n c r e a s e i n g a s p r e s s u r e w i t h i n t h e b o x when i t i s h e a t e d . The c a s i n g o f t h e a l t i m e t e r i s h e r m e t i c a l l y s e a l e d a n d c o n n e c t e d by a n i p p l e t o a s e n s o r o f t h e a t m o s p h e r i c ( s t a t i c ) p r e s sure.

Fig.,.

2.30.

S c h e m a t i c Diagram of Altimeter.

Barometric

When t h e a i r c r a f t i s l o c a t e d a t s e a l e v e l , t h e a n e r o i d b o x i s c o m p r e s s e d t o t h e maximum d e g r e e , s i n c e t h e a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e a c t i n g on i t h a s a maximum v a l u e . W i t h a g a i n i n a l t i t u d e , t h e a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e i n t h e cham b e r d e c r e a s e s and t h e a n e r o i d box expands due t o i t s e l a s t i c prop e r t i e s , s h i f t i n g i t s m o v a b l e c e n t e r ( w i t h b i m e t a l l i c s h a f t 2 ) up ward.
A s it moves, t h e c e n t e r d i s p l a c e s r o d 3 , which i n t u r n a c t s through a l e v e r 4 t o convey a r o t a r y motion t o s h a f t 5 .

Shaft 5 carries a toothed s e c t o r 6 with a counterweight, f i t t e d w i t h a c o g w h e e l 7 , w h i c h t r a n s m i t s t h e movement t o t h e p o i n t e r through another gear. Thus, t h e motion of t h e c e n t e r of t h e box i s used t o i n d i c a t e t h e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e on t h e s c a l e o f t h e i n s t r u m e n t . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e p a r t s l i s t e d above, t h e k i n e m a t i c p o r t i o n of t h e i n s t r u m e n t i n c l u d e s elements i n t e n d e d f o r r e g u l a t i n g t h e

181

i n s t r u m e n t a n d a d j u s t i n g t h e b a c k l a s h i n t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n mechan

ism.

1. Zero-point b i m e t a l l i c compensator, This device is intended/l79 f o r compensating t h e temperature changes i n t h e elastic p r o p e r t i e s If t h e a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e i n t h e of t h e box f o r z e r o a l t i t u d e . c a s i n g of t h e instrument i s s e t t o z e r o a l t i t u d e , b u t t h e temper a t u r e o f t h e b o x i n c r e a s e s , t h e loss o f e l a s t i c p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e material i n t h e box creates a d d i t i o n a l compression, causing t h e i n d i c a t o r n e e d l e t o s h i f t from t h e z e r o a l t i t u d e r e a d i n g . The b i m e t a l l i c s t r i p b e n d s as t h e t e m p e r a t u r e c h a n g e s , due t o d i f f e r e n t c o e f f i c i e n t s o f l i n e a r e x p a n s i o n f o r t h e two m a t e r i a l s o f which i t i s made. By r o t a t i n g t h e s t r i p i n i t s s o c k e t , i t i s p o s s i b l e t o s e t it i n a p o s i t i o n such t h a t t h e d e f l e c t i o n i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e s h i f t of t h e c e n t e r of t h e box w i l l e x a c t l y correspond t o the additional t r a v e l of t h i s center, but i n t h e opposite direc tion. Then r o d 3 r e m a i n s i n p l a c e a n d t h e i n d i c a t o r n e e d l e w i l l n o t move f r o m t h e z e r o p o s i t i o n .
2. T h e r e g u l a t i n g mechanism o f of s t r i p 4 and a n adjustment screw. t h e device.
This consists

T u r n i n g t h e s c r e w p u s h e s t h e s t r i p away f r o m r o d 5 , c h a n g i n g This i s used t o r e g u l a t e t h e angular veloc t h e a r m of t h e l e v e r . i t y of r o t a t i o n of t h e s h a f t , i . e . , t h e transmission r a t i o of t h e apparatus. The t r a n s m i s s i o n r a t i o o f t h e r o t a t i o n o f t h e s h a f t i s s e t s o t h a t t h e r e a d i n g s of t h e n e e d l e c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e atmo s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e i n t h e casing of t h e a p p a r a t u . ~ .

3 . H i g h t e m p e r a t u r e c o m p e n s a t o r . When t h e e l a s t i c p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e box change due t o t h e e f f e c t o f t e m p e r a t u r e , t h i s n o t o n l y causes an a d d i t i o n a l compression a t z e r o a l t i t u d e b u t a l s o changes t h e amount b y w h i c h i t s c e n t e r moves w i t h a c h a n g e i n a l t i t u d e . For c o m p e n s a t i o n o f t h i s e r r o r , s t r i p 4 i s o f b i m e t a l l i c c o n s t r u c tion. When t h e i n s t r u m e n t is h e a t e d , a n d t h e t r a v e l o f t h e c e n t e r o f t h e b o x i n c r e a s e s , t h e e n d of t h e s t r i p b e n d s away f r o m t h e s h a f t , t h u s r e d u c i n g t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n r a t i o f o r r o t a t i n g s h a f t 5 a n d compen s a t i n g f o r t h e i n c r e a s e i n s e n s i t i v i t y of t h e box.
I t is important not t o confuse t h e instrumental temperature e r r o r s o f t h e i n s t r u m e n t , which a r e compensated by t h e z e r o a n d a l t i t u d e b i m e t a l l i c compensators, with t h e methodological temper ature errors i n the altimeter.
The i n s t r u m e n t a l e r r o r s a r e r e l a t e d t o t h e t e m p e r a t u r e i n t h e c a s i n g o f t h e i n s t r u m e n t , a c t i n g on t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e mater i a l from which t h e s e n s i t i v e e l e m e n t i s made, a n d c a n b e overcome by c o m p e n s a t o r s

The m e t h o d o l o g i c a l e r r o r s w h i c h a r e r e l a t e d t o t h e n a t u r e o f t h e changes i n p r e s s u r e with f l i g h t a l t i t u d e can only b e c o r r e c t e d by s p e c i a l f o r m u l a s . The b u i l d i n g o f a c o m p e n s a t o r f o r methodo

182

l o g i c a l e r r o r s i s i m p o s s i b l e , s i n c e i n t h e g e n e r a l case t h e temper a t u r e of t h e casing is not equal t o t h e average a i r temperature f r o m z e r o a l t i t u d e up t o t h e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e o f t h e a i r c r a f t . I n o r d e r t o i n c r e a s e t h e a c c u r a c y of t h e a l t i t u d e r e a d i n g s , /180 a l t i m e t e r s a r e made w i t h t w o p o i n t e r s . T h i s means t h a t t h e a n e r o i d b o x i s made d o u b l e , i n c r e a s i n g t h e t r a v e l o f t h e m o v a b l e c e n t e r by a f a c t o r o f two. Between t h e t o o t h e d s e c t o r and t h e a x i s o f t h e p o i n t e r , t h e r e are a d d i t i o n a l g e a r s which i n c r e a s e t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n r a t i o o f t h e mechanism s e v e r a l t i m e s . The main p o i n t e r o f t h e i n s t r u m e n t makes s e v e r a l r e v o l u t i o n s ; t h e number o f r e v o l u t i o n s of t h e p o i n t e r i s e q u a l t o t h e change i n a l t i t u d e i n thou sands of meters. I n addition, t h e r e is a pressure scale 8 f o r s e t t i n g t h e al timeter readings re l a t i v e t o a desired level. The a l t i m e t e r mechanism, a l o n g w i t h t h e a x i s o f t h e main p o i n t e r , i s r o t a t e d w i t h i n t h e h o u s i n g by means o f a r a c k a n d p i n i o n 9 , c o n s i s t i n g o f a d r i v i n g g e a r 1 0 a n d a d r i v e n g e a r 11. T h u s , t h e m a i n p o i n t e r o f t h e i n s t r u m e n t c a n b e s e t t o any d i v i s i o n on t h e s c a l e . S i m u l t a n e o u s l y , by means o f d r i v i n g g e a r 1 0 , t h e p r e s s u r e s c a l e which can b e u s e d i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e main s c a l e t o d e t e r m i n e t h e p r e s s u r e a t t h e l e v e l a t which t h e f l i g h t altitude is calculated.
8 is s e t i n motion,

I n t h e VD-10 a n d VD-20 a l t i m e t e r s , a m o v a b l e r i n g i s m o u n t e d a r o u n d t h e main s c a l e ; i t i s r o t a t e d by means of a r a c k and p i n i o n and d r i v i n g g e a r 10 a t an angular v e l o c i t y e q u a l t o t h e r a t e of t u r n o f t h e mechanism. I t i s u s e d f o r s h i f t i n g a movable i n d e x a l o n g t h e c i r c u l a r s c a l e of t h e i n s t r u m e n t , and can b e s e t t o t h e b a r o m e t r i c a l t i t u d e o f t h e a i r p o r t where t h e l a n d i n g i s t o b e made. T h i s s e r v e s t h e same p u r p o s e as t h e p r e s s u r e s c a l e . However, t h e l a t t e r can o n l y be used o v e r a r a n g e o f p r e s s u r e s from 6 7 0 t o 790 m m Hg, w h i l e t h e m o v a b l e i n d e x c a n b e s e t t o a n y a i r p o r t a l t i t u d e . I n c a s e s when p r e s s u r e s c a l e s a r e n o t s u f f i c i e n t f o r a i r p o r t s located a t high a l t i t u d e s , t h e pressure a t t h e l e v e l of t h e air p o r t is n o t measured aboard t h e aircraft, b u t r a t h e r t h e baromet r i c a l t i t u d e o f t h e a i r c r a f t i s u s e d f o r s e t t i n g t h e movable i n d e x of t h e a l t i m e t e r . Errors

i n Measuring A l t i t u d e w i t h a Barometric Altimeter

The e r r o r s i n m e a s u r i n g t h e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e w i t h b a r o m e t r i c altimeters can be divided i n t o instrumental and methodological e r r o r s : These are r e l a t e d t o i n c o r r e c t adjustment . I r ~ s t r u m e n t a le r r o r s . o f t h e a l t i m e t e r , f r i c t i o n ( w e a r ) i n t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n mechanism, as w e l l as t e m p e r a t u r e e f f e c t s on t h e m a t e r i a l o f t h e s e n s i t i v e element. The e r r o r s f r o m s o - c a l l e d h y s t e r e s i s a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y

183

i m p o r t a n t , i . e . , t h e r e s i d u a l deformation o f t h e s e n s i t i v e box w i t h changes i n f l i g h t a l t i t u d e of t h e aircraft over wide l i m i t s . In addition, instrumental errors include errors i n sensing t h e s t a t i c p r e s s u r e , r e l a t e d t o dynamic f l i g h t of t h e a i r c r a f t .

/181

Methodological e r r o r s . I n t h e b a r o m e t r i c method o f measur i n g a l t i t u d e , t h e s e include e r r o r s i n correspondence of t h e i n i t i a l a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e , t h e p r e s s u r e a l o n g t h e f l i g h t r o u t e , and t h e average air temperature with t h e calculated data.
Under f l i g h t c o n d i t i o n s e n c o u n t e r e d i n c i v i l a i r c r a f t , method o l o g i c a l e r r o r s i n measuring a l t i t u d e i n approaching a i r c r a f t are e x t r e m e l y r a r e , s o t h a t t h e s e e r r o r s do n o t d i s t u r b t h e m u t u a l p o s i t i o n of t h e a i r c r a f t a n d a r e n o t t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t . However, t h e y do have s i g n i f i c a n t value i n determining t h e safe f l i g h t a l t i t u d e a b o v e t h e r e l i e f , as w e l l as i n making s p e c i a l f l i g h t s ( f o r p u r poses of aerial photography, e.g.1. I n p r a c t i c e , t h e b a r i c s t a g e a t low f l i g h t a l t i t u d e s ( t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n a l t i t u d e which corresponds t o a drop i n p r e s s u r e of 1 m m Hg) i s c o n s i d e r e d r o u g h l y e q u a l t o 11 m . However, a t f l i g h t a l t i t u d e s of 20,000 m y t h e b a r i c s t a g e i s e q u a l t o 1 5 5 m , i . e . , 1 4 t i m e s g r e a t e r t h a n on t h e g r o u n d . T h e i n c r e a s e i n t h e b a r i c s t a g e w i t h f l i g h t a l t i t u d e , as w e l l as t h e e r r o r s i n m e a s u r i n g s t a t i c p r e s s u r e due t o a e r o d y n a m i c p r o c esses, c o m p l i c a t e a p r e c i s e measurement of t h e b a r o m e t r i c a l t i t u d e a t great a l t i t u d e s and high speeds. In a f l i g h t according t o a t a b l e of c o r r e c t i o n s , it i s rela t i v e l y easy t o compensate f o r i n s t r u m e n t a l e r r o r s i n t h e a p p a r a t u s , r e l a t e d only t o i t s r e g u l a t i o n . Consideration of a l l o t h e r i n s t r u mental e r r o r s p r e s e n t s g r e a t e r d i f f i c u l t y , s o t h a t a l l measures a r e u s u a l l y t a k e n t o r e d u c e t h e m t o a minimum b y c a r e f u l l y p r e p a r i n g t h e a p p a r a t u s , s e l e c t i n g t h e p o i n t o f c a l i b r a t i o n , and d e s i g n ing the static pressure sensor. M e t h o d o l o g i c a l e r r o r s i n a l t i m e t e r s a r e e s t i m a t e d by d e t e r mining t h e t r u e a l t i t u d e of t h e a i r c r a f t above t h e r e l i e f f o r s p e c i a l purposes and i n c a l c u l a t i n g safe f l i g h t a l t i t u d e s above t h e r e l i e f . Changes i n a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e a l o n g t h e f l i g h t r o u t e , r e l a t i v e t o sea l e v e l , are c a l c u l a t e d i n b a r i c s t a g e s , s o t h a t t h e lowest f l i g h t a l t i t u d e o s c i l l a t e s as f o l l o w s :

For e x a m p l e , i f t h e p r e s s u r e m e a s u r e d a t s e a l e v e l a t t h e p o i n t w h e r e t h e a l t i t u d e i s m e a s u r e d d i f f e r s f r o m 7 6 0 mm Hg t o 1 5 m m , t h e m e t h o d o l o g i c a l e r r o r i n measuring t h e a l t i t u d e from t h e l e v e l of 7 6 0 mm w i l l b e 1 5 - 1 1 = 1 6 5 m .

184

H e n c e , i f t h e c o r r e c t e d p r e s s u r e i s g r e a t e r t h a n 7 6 0 mm H g , i . e . , e q u a l t o 7 7 5 mm i n our e x a m p l e , t h e r e a d i n g s o f t h e a l t i m e t e r w i l l b e reduced and t h e c o r r e c t i o n w i l l have t o c a r r y a p l u s s i g n , while i f t h e corrected pressure is lower than t h e c a l c u l a t e d p r e s s u r e , it w i l l have a minus s i g n .

/182

Methodological e r r o r s i n t h e a l t i m e t e r , which a r i s e due t o a f a i l u r e o f t h e a c t u a l mean a i r t e m p e r a t u r e t o c o i n c i d e w i t h t h e c a l c u l a t e d t e m p e r a t u r e , a r e a c c o u n t e d f o r by means o f a n a v i g a t i o n a l s l i d e r u l e , a d e s c r i p t i o n of which i s g i v e n below. Proceeding from t h e f a c t t h a t t h e i n s t r u m e n t i n d i c a t e s a f l i g h t a l t i t u d e on t h e b a s i s o f t h e c a l c u l a t e d mean t e m p e r a t u p e o f t h e a i r , a n d t h e c o r r e c t e d a l t i t u d e m u s t b e d e t e r m i n e d on t h e b a s i s of t h e a c t u a l a l t i t u d e , t h e e q u a t i o n r e a d s as f o l l o w s : Hinst
= BT

av.c.

1n-j-Q ;

Hcorr

= BT

av.a.

In,

Po p

where T a v a c i s t h e a v e r a g e c a l c u l a t e d t e m p e r a t u r e and TaVsa. i s t h e average a c t u a l temperature. Whence

c o rr

- -H i n s t
T av. c.

h v .

a.

Theref o r e

(2.35)

w h e r e To a n d TH a r e t h e t e m p e r a t u r e s on t h e g r o u n d a n d a t f l i g h t altitude , respectively.
By u s i n g F o r m u l a ( 2 . 3 5 ) , w e c a n c a l c u l a t e t h e s c a l e s o f t h e n a v i g a t i o n a l s l i d e r u l e NL-10 f o r making c o r r e c t i o n s i n t h e r e a d i n g s of a l t i m e t e r s f o r a i r t e m p e r a t u r e u p t o a l t i t u d e s o f 1 2 , 0 0 0 m .

For a l t i t u d e s a b o v e 1 2 , 0 0 0 m y t h e c o r r e c t e d a l t i t u d e i s f o u n d by t h e f o r m u l a
m

corr w h e r e TH, a n d TH

- 11,000 =

a - Hinst TH
C

- ll,OOO>,

are t h e a c t u a l and c a l c u l a t e d temperatures a t

the altitude. 185

The n a v i g a t i o n a l s l i d e r u l e f o r t h e s e a l t i t u d e s i s a l s o p r o v i d e d w i t h l o g a r i t h m i c scales a c c o r d i n g t o t h e f o r m u l a

co r r

-11,000)

= lgTH

+
a

lg

Hinst

-11,000
(2.36)

216.5O /183

4.

Airspeed I n d i c a t o r s

T h e f l i g h t o f a n a i r c r a f t t a k e s p l a c e i n t h e medium o f a i r , s o t h a t a s i m p l e s t a n d e a s i e s t method f r o m t h e t e c h n i c a l s t a n d p o i n t f o r measuring a i r s p e e d would b e t o measure t h e aerodynamic p r e s s u r e or s o - c a l l e d v e l o c i t y h e a d o f t h e i n c i d e n t a i r f l o w .

For p u r p o s e s o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n , t h e s p e e d of t h e a i r c r a f t r e l a t i v e t o t h e s i n c e t h e a i r m a s s p r a c t i c a l l y always has tive t o the latter. A t the present t i m e , t i a l methods of m e a s u r i n g t h e s p e e d r e l a t i t h e measurement of a i r s p e e d does n o t l o s e i n t h e presence of such equipment.

i t i s b e t t e r t o measure s u r f a c e of t h e ground, i t s own m o v e m e n t r e l a t h e r e a r e r a d i a l a n d i n e r v e t o t h e ground, but i t s s i g n i f i c a n c e even

The f a c t i s t h a t t h e s t a b i l i t y a n d m a n e u v e r a b i l i t y o f a n a i r c r a f t depen.ds on t h e a i r s p e e d . In a d d i t i o n , t h e o p e r a t i o n a l regime o f t h e m o t o r s on t h e a i r c r a f t a n d t h e f u e l c o n s u m p t i o n d e p e n d on the airspeed. The o p e r a t i n g p r i n c i p l e of a i r s p e e d i n d i c a t o r s i s b a s e d on a m e a s u r e m e n t of t h e a e r o d y n a m i c p r e s s u r e of t h e i n c i d e n t a i r f l o w . The r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e r a t e o f m o t i o n o f a l i q u i d or g a s and i t s dynamic a n d s t a t i c p r e s s u r e w a s f i r s t e s t a b l i s h e d by t h e S t . P e t e r s b u r g A c a d e m i c i a n D a n i e l B e r n o u l l i (1738), w o r k i n g w i t h i n c o m p r e s s i b l e l i q u i d s or g a s e s ( F i g . 2 . 3 1 ) . According t o t h e p r i n c i p l e of i n s e p a r a b i l i t y of flow, t h e prod u c t o f t h e s p e e d of a n a i r c u r r e n t ( V ) m u l t i p l i e d b y t h e c r a s s s e c t i o n a l area of a t u b e ( S ) must b e uniform everywhere w i t h i n i t s cross section. Consequently, i n a narrow p a r t of t h e t u b e , t h e speed of t h e flow must b e g r e a t e r t h a n i n a wide s e c t i o n . I n t h e g e n e r a l c a s e , i f t h e t u b e i s n o t h o r i z o n t a l , a mass o f g a s m e n t e r s t h e t u b e d u r i n g a t i m e At w h i c h i n t r o d u c e s a n e n e r g y c o n s i s t i n g of t h r e e components: t h e p o t e n t i a l energy of t h e gas

t h e k i n e t i c energy

V: --. 2
ni

a n d t h e work o f i n f l u x i n t o t h e t u b e

18 6

I 1I

where g i s t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n due t o t h e E a r t h ' s g r a v i t y , h i s t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e g a s l e v e l s , a n d p i s t h e gas p r e s s u r e i n s i d e t h e tube. These components d e t e r m i n e t h e e n e r g y o f t h e g a s f l o w i n g o u t of t h e tube. Therefore

/184

The p r o d u c t S V A t i s t h e volume of f l u i d f l o w i n g t h r o u g h t h e cross section of t h e tube i n a t i m e A t . Therefore, dividing t h e mass i n t o t h e v o l u m e g i v e s u s t h e d e n s i t y ( p ) , w h i c h i s

Fig.

2.31.

Flow i n a Tube w i t h V a r y i n g Cross Section.

tal,

If t h e t u b e t h r o u g h which t h e c u r r e n t i s f l o w i n g i s h o r i z o n hl = h2, therefore

(2.37)

i . e . , t h e sum o f t h e d y n a m i c a n d s t a t i c p r e s s u r e s a t a n y p o i n t i n t h e t u b e r e m a i n s c o n s t a n t , s i n c e t h e dynamic component i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e gas d e n s i t y ( f l u i d d e n s i t y ) a n d t h e s q u a r e o f t h e speed of flow.

For a d i a b a t i c c o m p r e s s i o n , i . e . , w h e n t h e p r o c e s s t a k e s p l a c e with compression of t h e gas ( a i r ) without exchange of h e a t energy w i t h t h e s u r r o u n d i n g medium, which a l m o s t a l w a y s c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d v a l i d f o r h i g h s p e e d e v e n t s , t h i s e q u a t i o n t a k e s t h e form:
(2.38)

w h e r e y i s t h e u n i t w e i g h t ( w e i g h t d e n s i t y ) of t h e g a s , V i s t h e i n t e r n a l (thermal) energy of t h e g a s , and E is t h e p o t e n t i a l energy of t h e g a s .

187

T h e r e f o r e , a change i n t h e r a t e of a i r f l o w d u r i n g f l i g h t due t o t h e f l o w b e i n g r e t a r d e d i s u s u a l l y n e g l i g i b l e ; t h e component E c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d c o n s t a n t a n d may b e o m i t t e d f r o m t h e e q u a t i o n . Then e a c h o f t h e r e m a i n i n g t e r m s of t h e e q u a t i o n , i f w e m u l t i p l y them by m g , w i l l c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e component e n e r g y i n c l u d e d i n a u n i t mass o f g a s f l o w : V2/2g e q u a l s t h e k i n e t i c e n e r g y o f t h e f l o w ( f o r a u n i t mass m V 2 / 2 ) , p / y i s t h e e n e r g y o f t h e p r e s s u r e , a n d U i s t h e thermal energy.

For m e a s u r e m e n t s o f a i r s p e e d , w e c a n u s e s e n s o r s w h i c h a l l o w us t o s e p a r a t e t h e dynamic a i r p r e s s u r e from t h e s t a t i c p r e s s u r e .

F i g u r e 2.32 tube).

/185

shows t h e o p e r a t i o n of a n a i r p r e s s u r e s e n s o r ( P i t o t

I n t h e cross s e c t i o n of t h e a i r f l o w , t h e speed V I w i l l cor respond t o t h e a i r s p e e d , and t h e p r e s s u r e p 1 w i l l correspond t o t h e static pressure of t h e a i r at f l i g h t a l t i t u d e .

I
Air-Pressure Fig. 2.32. (1) S t a t i c P r e s s u r e p s t ; Sensor ( P i l o t Tube). ( 2 ) T o t a l P r e s s u r e ptotal.

Within t h e l i m i t s of t h e opening i n t h e s e n s o r f o r t o t a l pres s u r e , t h e r a t e of flow w i l l be equal t o zero ( t h e c r i t i c a l current or c u r r e n t o f c o m p l e t e b r a k i n g ) . Obviously, a t t h i s p o i n t t h e pressure p 2 w i l l correspond t o t h e t o t a l p r e s s u r e ( t h e v e l o c i t y head p l u s t h e s t a t i c p r e s s u r e ) , a n d E q u a t i o n ( 2 . 3 8 ) a c q u i r e s t h e f o l l o w i n g f o r m for t h i s c a s e :

(2.39)

L e t u s c o n s i d e r t h a t f o r a i r s p e e d s u p t o 4 0 0 k m / h r t h e com p r e s s i o n of t h e a i r can b e d i s r e g a r d e d , i . e . , t h e v a l u e s y and U are constants. Then E q u a t i o n ( 2 . 3 9 ) assumes t h e form:

v2
where y

- PtotalPst
YH

29-

(2.40)

H is t h e u n i t weight of gas a t a given a l t i t u d e . S i n c e y H = p H g ( w h e r e p H i s t h e mass d e n s i t y ) , t h e d i f f e r e n c e

188

between t h e t o t a l and s t a t i c p r e s s u r e s to

( v e l o c i t y head) w i l l be equal

whence (2.41)

The t o t a l p r e s s u r e a l o n g t h e t u b e i s a d m i t t e d t o t h e i n t e r i o r of a f l e x i b l e b o x . The s t a t i c p r e s s u r e r e a c h e s t h e h e r m e t i c a l l y s e a l e d c h a m b e r o f t h e i n d i c a t o r t h r o u g h a n o p e n i n g made i n t h e s i d e of t h e pressure s e n s o r and through a n i p p l e . A s a result, there w i l l b e a p r e s s u r e d r o p b e t w e e n t h e i n t e r n a l s p a c e o f t h e box and /186 t h e medium s u r r o u n d i n g t h e b o x , w h i c h w i l l b e e q u a l t o t h e v e l o c i t y head. T h i s d r o p c a u s e s movement o f t h e t o p o f t h e b o x , w h i c h c a n t r a n s m i t i t s movement by means o f a s y s t e m o f g e a r s s i m i l a r t o t h e mechanism i n a s i n g l e - p o i n t e r a l t i m e t e r , e v e n t u a l l y moving a p o i n t e r on a n a x i s t o s h o w t h e a i r s p e e d on a s c a l e w h i c h i s g r a d u a t e d i n kilometers per hr. can be used t o d e s c r i b e a i r s p e e d i n d i c a t o r s I f we i n t r o d u c e t h e w e i g h t d e n s i t y t o t h i s formula i n t h e form Formula (2.41)

for l o w s p e e d s , s u c h a s t h e U S - 3 5 0 .

whence

v =

(2.42)

I t i s c l e a r from t h i s formula t h a t i n o r d e r t o determine t h e t r u e a i r s p e e d , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o know n o t o n l y t h e v a l u e o f t h e v e l o c i t y head, b u t a l s o t h e a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e and t h e temper ature of the a i r at f l i g h t a l t i t u d e .

T h e a i r s p e e d , w h i c h i s m e a s u r e d o n l y on t h e b a s i s o f t h e v e l o c I n view i t y h e a d , i s c a l l e d t h e a e r o d y n a m i c or i n d i c a t e d s p e e d . o f t h e f a c t t h a t c a l i b r a t i o n o f t h e s p e e d i n d i c a t o r i s made f o r f l i g h t c o n d i t i o n s a t sea l e v e l a t s t a n d a r d t e m p e r a t u r e and a i r p r e s s u r e , during f l i g h t under these conditions t h e indicated speed w i l l be equal t o t h e t r u e airspeed. Under o t h e r c o n d i t i o n s , however, t h e i n d i c a t e d s p e e d must b e c o n v e r t e d t o t h e t r u e a i r s p e e d .
A t high a l t i t u d e s and speeds, t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e a i r

189

s p e e d and t h e i n d i c a t e d s p e e d becomes s o s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t it becomes d i f f i c u l t t o use t h e l a t t e r f o r navigational purposes. In addi t i o n , f o r a i r s p e e d s above 400 km/hr, it becomes n e c e s s a r y t o t a k e Therefore, f o r t h e c o m p r e s s i o n o f t h e a i r i n t o a c c o u n t as w e l l . a i r c r a f t o p e r a t i n g a t h i g h a l t i t u d e s and s p e e d s , a combined s p e e d i n d i c a t o r "CSI" h a s been developed, which measures both t h e i n d i c a t e d and t r u e a i r s p e e d . I n terms o f i t s d e s i g n , t h i s i n d i c a t o r d i f f e r s f r o m t h e u s u a l s p e e d i n d i c a t o r s i n t h a t t h e s p e e d i s measured i n two ways: ( a ) T h e f i r s t m e t h o d c o n s i s t s o f t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l s y s t e m for i n d i c a t i n g speed and i s used t o measure t h e i n d i c a t e d a i r s p e e d ( t h e l a r g e p o i n t e r on t h e d i a l ) ; (b) The s e c o n d s y s t e m i n c o r p o r a t e s a s p e c i a l c o m p e n s a t o r f o r c h a n g e s i n a i r d e n s i t y w i t h a l t i t u d e b y m e a n s o f a s y s t e m o f g e a r s /187 a n d i s u s e d t o measllre t h e a i r s p e e d . The c o m p e n s a t o r i s a n a n e r o i d b o x , w h i c h c h a n g e s t h e l e n g t h of t h e a r m of a c o n t r o l l e v e r , increasing t h e l a t t e r ' s mechanical a d v a n t a g e when t h e a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e ( a s w e l l a s t h e d e n s i t y of t h e a i r a t f l i g h t a l t i t u d e ) i s reduced, and v i c e v e r s a .

I t s h o u l d b e mentioned t h a t i n t h e case of h i g h s p e e d a i r c r a f t , t h e s e n s o r f o r t o t a l p r e s s u r e i s u s u a l l y s e p a r a t e d from t h e s t a t i c p r e s s u r e i n d i c a t o r , s o t h a t i t i s p o s s i b l e t o s e l e c t t h e most s u i t T h i s means t h a t a b l e p o s i t i o n f o r m o u n t i n g them on t h e a i r c r a f t . t h e r o l e o f t h e s t a t i c p r e s s u r e i n d i c a t o r i s p l a y e d by o p e n i n g s w h i c h a r e made o n t h e l a t e r a l s u r f a c e o f t h e f u s e l a g e o f t h e a i r c r a f t and are l i n k e d t o t h e i n s t r u m e n t i t s e l f by t u b i n g .

In ulation sion of tor for addition t o t h e d e t a i l s of design described above, t h e reg o f t h e s y s t e m s i n t h e C S I a r e made b y t a k i n g t h e c o m p r e s t h e a i r i n t o a c c o u n t when t h e f l o w i s r e t a r d e d i n t h e d e t e c t o t a l pressure.

T h e r e f o r e , c o m p r e s s i o n o f t h e a i r on b r a k i n g w i l l b e accom p a n i e d by h e a t i n g , and t h e r e f o r e by an i n c r e a s e i n i t s i n t e r n a l energy. The r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e i n t e r n a l e n e r g y o f t h e g a s , p r e s s u r e , and w e i g h t d e n s i t i e s i s e x p r e s s e d by t h e formula:

its

(2.43)

i s t h e r a t i o o f t h e s p e c i f i c heats r e t h e g a s when i t bV i s h e a t e d , w i t h r e t e n t i o n o f c o n s t a n t p r e s s u r e and c o n s t a n t volume.

where K =

190

For a i r , t h i s c o e f f i c i e n t i s K = 1.4.
By s u b s t i t u t i n g t h e v a l u e U i n t o F o r m u l a ( 2 . 3 9 1 , w e c a n c h a n g e i t t o r e a d as f o l l o w s :

or

(2.44) A f t e r m a k i n g some s i m p l e c o n v e r s i o n s ,

taking pst/yl

out of t h e parentheses, w e w i l l have: (2.45)

For t h e a d i a b a t i c p r o c e s s , t h e r e i s a n e q u a t i o n w h i c h i s k n o w n / l 8 8 as t h e M e n d e l e y e v - C l a p e y r o n e q u a t i o n :

from which w e o b t a i n f o r o u r c a s e
1

S u b s t i t u t i n g t h e v a l u e y1/y2 i n F o r m u l a

(2.45),

we o b t a i n

Assuming t h a t y 1 = Y H , s o t h a t P s t / y l equation i n t h e form:

= BTH, w e can r e w r i t e t h i s

and f i n a l l y o b t a i n t h e f o r m u l a which c a n b e u s e d t o c a l i b r a t e t h e combined s p e e d i n d i c a t o r by t h e a i r s p e e d i n t h e c h a n n e l f o r s u b s o n i c airspeeds:

V=

K-

(2.46)

19 1

The t e m p e r a t u r e a t f l i g h t a l t i t u d e ( T H ) i s assumed t o b e s t a n d a r d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e ( o r p s t ) , i . e . , up t o 1 1 , 0 0 0 m y T H = 288O-6.5OHY a n d a b o v e 11,000 m T H = 216.5O K ( - 5 6 . 5 O C). To c a l i b r a t e t h e a i r s p e e d i n d i c a t o r , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o know t h e p r e s s u r e i n i t s manometric box and i n t h e housing o f t h e appar a t u s , corresponding t o t h e p r e s s u r e i n t h e s e n s o r s of t o t a l and s t a t i c pressure under t h e given f l i g h t conditions. Therefore, (2.46) i s s o l v e d r e l a t i v e t o t h e p r e s s u r e s and assumes t h e form:

(2.47)

or, i f w e i n s e r t t h e n u m e r i c a l v a l u e s o f K ,

9, B,

A s w e have already pointed o u t , (2.46) i s v a l i d f o r subsonic A t s p e e d s which exceed t h e s p e e d o f sound, t h e flow airspeeds. of t h e p a r t i c l e s d i f f e r s from t h e i r flow a t s u b s o n i c s p e e d .

/189

The l o c a l c o m p r e s s i o n p r o d u c e d i n t h e a i r b y t h e a i r c r a f t c a n n o t propagate i t s e l f i n t h e atmosphere faster t h a n t h e speed of sound. Therefore, at supersonic speeds, l o c a l interruptions i n d e n s i t y are produced, i n which t h e r a t e of f l o w d e c r e a s e s s h a r p l y while the pressure increases sharply.

W know t h a t t h e r a t e a t w h i c h s o u n d t r a v e l s ( a ) i n a i r d e e p e n d s o n l y o n t h e t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e medium a n d i s e x p r e s s e d b y t h e formula

a = JKqBT.
I n o t h e r words, i f g = 9 . 8 1 m/sec2, and t h e c o e f f i c i e n t is e q u a l t o 1 . 4 , w h i l e B = 29.27 m/degree,
= ) / m T = 20.3

for a i r

1/T m / s e c .
sound

T h e r a t i o o f t h e a i r s p e e d t o t h e r a t e o f p r o p a g a t i o n of

i n a i r i s c a l l e d t h e Mach number:
V M = - a'
If w e r e p l a c e K g B T i n F o r m u l a ( 2 . 4 6 ) b y a 2 , w e w i l l h a v e t h e e x p r e s s i o n f o r M (Mach n u m b e r ) f o r s u b s o n i c a i r s p e e d s :

(2.48)

19 2

The l a t t e r f o r m u l a i n d i c a t e s t h a t i n o r d e r t o d e t e r m i n e t h e Mach n u m b e r , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o know o n l y t h e v e l o c i t y h e a d a n d There i s no n e c e s s i t y the static pressure at f l i g h t altitudes. t o measure a i r t e m p e r a t u r e f o r t h i s purpose.
F or s u b s o n i c a i r s p e e d s , t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e t o t a l p r e s s u r e , t h e s t a t i c p r e s s u r e , a n d t h e Mach n u m b e r i s e X r e s s e d P as f o llows :

P - total-

'st P st

M- K-

-.

2K
1
~

1 -

- 1.
'

(2.49)

I n t h i s f o r m u l a , i f w e r e p l a c e M 2 by i t s v a l u e as o b t a i n e d i n E q u a t i o n ( 2 . 4 8 ) , w e w i l l o b t a i n t h e f o r m u l a for c a l i b r a t i n g t h e airspeed indicator f o r supersonic airspeeds:

Pst

(2.50)

1.4,

If w e s u b s t i t u t e t h e n u m e r i c a l v a l u e s o f K f o r a i r , e q u a l t o i n Equation ( 2 . 5 0 ) , w e can c o n v e r t i t t o t h e s i m p l e r form:

/190

Errors

i n Measuring A i r s p e e d

Errors i n measuring airspeed, l i k e those involved i n measuring f l i g h t a l t i t u d e , c a n b e d i v i d e d i n t o i n s t r u m e n t a l a n d me-thodolog i c a l ones. I n s t r u m e n t a l e r r o r s i n c l u d e t h o s e which a r e r e l a t e d t o i m p r o p e r a d j u s t m e n t of t h e a p p a r a t u s a n d i n s t a b i l i t y of i t s o p e r a t i o n w i t h c h a n g e s i n t h e t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e mechanism i n t h e d e v i c e . In addition, instrumental errors also include errors i n sensing dynamic and e s p e c i a l l y s t a t i c p r e s s u r e s w i t h s e n s o r s which depend on t h e m o u n t i n g l o c a t i o n o n t h e a i r c r a f t . I n s t r u m e n t a l e r r o r s are c o r r e c t e d by c o r r e c t i o n c h a r t s , which a r e c o m p i l e d wh.en t h e a p p a r a t u s i s t e s t e d , t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t t h e errors i n indicating the static pressure f o r a given type of air craft. M e t h o d o l o g i c a l errors i n c l u d e t h o s e i n v o ' l v i n g f a i l u r e o f t h e a c t u a l a i r temperature a t f l i g h t a l t i t u d e t o correspond with t h e

193

c a l c u l a t e d t e m p e r a t u r e f o r combined i n d i c a t o r s of s p e e d , and w i t h t h e temperature and p r e s s u r e f o r o t h e r speed i n d i c a t o r s . S t r i c t l y s p e a k i n g , t h e methodological c o r r e c t i o n s which must be taken i n t o account i n converting t h e indicated speed t o t h e air+ soeed, are n o t i n s t r u m e n t e r r o r s , s i n c e t h e i n d i c a t e d speed has i t s own i n d e p e n d e n t v a l u e . However, f r o m t h e n a v i g q t i o n a l s t a n d p o i n t , it i s convenient t o c o n s i d e r them methodological e r r o r s . I n aircraft n a v i g a t i o n , it i s p o s s i b l e t o use both t h e s i n g l e p o i n t e r d i a l f o r i n d i c a t e d s p e e d ( T y p e U S - 3 5 0 or US-700), a s w e l l as t h e combined i n d i c a t o r (Type CSI-1200) and o t h e r s , s o t h a t t h e methods of c a l c u l a t i n g t h e methodological e r r o r s can be viewed sepa rately.
I t s h o u l d b e m e n t i o n e d f i r s t of a l l t h a t t h e d i a l s o f s p e e d i n d i c a t o r s are c a l i b r a t e d t o t a k e i n t o account t h e compressibil i t y of t h e a i r f o r a t r u e a i r s p e e d e q u a l t o t h e i n d i c a t e d speed,

I n f a c t , a t h i g h a l t i t u d e s , t h e t r u e a i r s p e e d i s almost always much g r e a t e r t h a n t h e i n d i c a t e d s p e e d , s o t h a t i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o c o n s i d e r t h a t t h e r e i s a n e r r o r i n t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e com p r e s s i o n of t h e a i r a t t h e a c t u a l a n d c a l c u l a t e d a i r s p e e d s : "comp

-
- "c0mp.a.

-AV

c0mp.c.

There are s p e c i a l , p r e c i s e formulas f o r determining t h e cor r e c t i o n s f o r AVcomp f o r u s e w i t h i n d i c a t o r s o f i n s t r u m e n t s p e e d a t s u b s o n i c a n d s u p e r s o n i c a i r s p e e d s , a n d t h e y a r e u s e d t o draw u p a t a b l e of c o r r e c t i o n s ( F i g . 2 . 3 3 ) ; w e w i l l l i m i t o u r s e l v e s discussing only t h e simple approximate formula (2 w h e r e Vir?d i s t h e i n d i c a t e d a i r s p e e d a n d A V c o m p f o r t h e indicated speed.

is the correction

I n t h e a p p r o x i m a t e f o r m u l a g i v e n a b o v e , a s w e l l as i n t h e g r a p h w h i c h i s t h e r e s u l t o f a c c u r a t e f o r m u l a s , t h e c o r r e c t i o n s f o r com It p r e s s i o n a r e d e t e r m i n e d o n l y as a f u n c t i o n o f f l i g h t a l t i t u d e . i s c l e a r t h a t t h i s i n v o l v e s an e r r o r which i s r e l a t e d t o a f a i l u r e of t h e a c t u a l a i r t e m p e r a t u r e a t t h e g i v e n a l t i t u d e t o c o r r e spond t o s t a n d a r d t e m p e r a t u r e . However, if w e r e c a l l t h a t l a r g e v a r i a t i o n s i n t e m p e r a t u r e u s u a l l y o c c u r o n l y a t low a l t i t u d e s , w h e r e high-speed a i r c r a f t p r a c t i c a l l y n e v e r f l y , t h e s e e r r o r s can be d i s regarded.

A f t e r making t h e c o r r e c t i o n s i n t h e i n d i c a t e d speed f o r t h e compression of t h e a i r , conversion o f t h e l a t t e r i n t o a i r s p e e d s i s d o n e on a n n a v i g a t i o n a l s l i d e r u l e .

19 4

S i n c e t h e d i a l of t h e i n d i c a t e d a i r s p e e d i s c a l i b r a t e d by t h e formula

and t h e a i r s p e e d is

t h e n i f w e d i v i d e t h e s e c o n d f o r m u l a by t h e f i r s t w e w i l l o b t a i n : (2.52)

+gr

= 6 . 5 deg/km,

L e t u s s u b s t i t u t e i n t o Formula ( 2 . 2 8 ) t h e f o l l o w i n g v a l u e s : T o = 288O K , a n d B = 2 9 . 2 7 . W w i l l then obtain: e

PH =P ( 1 o

-0 . 0 2 2 6 ~ p ~ ,
we

and i f w e l e t t h e v a l u e p H b e s u b s t i t u t e d i n t o Formula ( 2 . 5 2 ) , w i l l obtain:

1 (1 -0,0226H$6628

or

'true-

Ig Vinst+-1g(273+ 1 2

fH)-- 1 Ig288-2.628lg(l-O,0226H).

(2.53)

A c c o r d i n g t o F o r m u l a ( 2 . 5 3 ) we c a n c o n v e r t t h e l o g a r i t h m i c s c a l e s of n a v i g a t i o n a l s l i d e r u l e s f o r c o n v e r t i n g t h e i n d i c a t e d airspeed into the true airspeed. C a l i b r a t i o n of t h e combined s p e e d i n d i c a t o r on t h e b a s i s o f t h e t r u e a i r s p e e d i s p e r f o r m e d by t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t t h e compres s i b i l i t y of t h e a i r over t h e e n t i r e range of t h e scale. The methodo l o g i c a l e r r o r i n t h e reading is r e l a t e d only t o t h e differences between t h e a c t u a l a i r temperature and t h e c a l c u l a t e d temperature at the flight altitude.
1192 S i n c e t h e a i r s p e e d , as shown b y a c o m b i n e d s p e e d i n d i c a t o r u n d e r s t a n d a r d t e m p e r a t u r e c o n d i t i o n s , i s e x p r e s s e d b y t h e formula

195

I1

a n d t h e c o r r e c t e d v a l u e f o r t h e a i r s p e e d a t f l i g h t a l t i t u d e i n ac cordance with t h e actual temperature i s [(Ptotal-Pst + i fl- 1 1 , ) ~

p st
if w e d i v i d e t h e s e c o n d f o r m u l a i n t o t h e f i r s t , w e w i l l h a v e : V
or
corr

=V

CSI

1/

g1
P

(2.54)

After looking up t h e logarithm of t h e l a t t e r , w e w i l l o b t a i n a f o r m u l a w h i c h c a n b e u s e d t o c o n s t r u c t t h e l o g a r i t h m i c s c a l e on t h e N L - 1 O M for a c o m b i n e d s p e e d i n d i c a t o r :

(2.54a) Relationship Between Errors i n Speed F1 i g h t A 1 t i t u d e I n d i c a t o r s and

I n d e s c r i b i n g t h e e r r o r s i n b a r o m e t r i c a l t i m e t e r s and a i r s p e e d i n d i c a t o r s , i n s t r u m e n t a l e r r o r s of aerodynamic o r i g i n are found, which a r e r e l a t e d t o e r r o r s i n r e c o r d i n g t h e s t a t i c p r e s s u r e by the air pressure sensors. E x p e r i e n c e h a s shown t h a t a e r o d y n a m i c e r r o r s i n t h e s p e e d i n d i c a t o r s due t o i n c o r r e c t r e c o r d i n g of t h e dynamic p r e s s u r e are n e g l i g i b l y small by comparison w i t h t h e e r r o r s i n i n c o r r e c t re cording of s t a t i c p r e s s u r e . T h i s i s e x p l a i n e d by t h e f a c t t h a t it it immensely e a s i e r t o measure t h e p r e s s u r e of a r e t a r d e d a i r f l o w w i t h a s e n s o r t h a t i s aimed i n t o t h e a i r f l o w , t h a n i t i s t o s e l e c t a l o c a t i o n on a n a i r c r a f t f o r a s t a t i c - p r e s s u r e s e n s o r , s u c h t h a t t h e l a t t e r w i l l n o t b e d i s t o r t e d by t h e a i r f l o w o v e r t h e body o f the aircraft.

I n connection w i t h t h e f a c t t h a t t h e s t a t i c p r e s s u r e from t h e s e n s o r i s t r a n s m i t t e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y t o t h e h e r m e t i c chambers of t h e s p e e d a n d a l t i t u d e i n d i c a t o r s , t h e r e m u s t b e a m u t u a l r e l a

19 6

t i o n s h i p between t h e e r r o r s i n t h e measurement of a l t i t u d e and s p e e d owing t o e r r o r s i n r e c o r d i n g t h e p r e s s u r e . A t t h e same t i m e , t h e v e l o c i t y h e a d a c c o r d i n g t o w h i c h t h e d i a l of t h e speed i n d i c a t o r i s c a l i b r a t e d i s equal t o (2.55) Since t h e e r r o r s i n measuring t h e v e l o c i t y head are e q u a l t o t h e e r r o r s i n measuring t h e s t a t i c p r e s s u r e , then (2.56) The s t a t i c Under s t a n d a r d c o n d i t i o n s , P O = 0 . 1 2 5 k g / s e c 2 / m 4 . The s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y o f m e r p r e s s u r e i s u s u a l l y g i v e n i n m m Hg. c u r y i s 1 3 . 6 , s o t h a t t h e p r e s s u r e of 1 k g / c m 2 w o u l d e q u a l l O , O O O / 1 3 . 6 = 7 3 5 m m Hg.
On t h e o t h e r h a n d , s i n c e t h e p a r a m e t e r p h a s m 4 i n t h e d e n o m i n a t o r , t h e p r e s s u r e e x p r e s s e d by ( 2 . 5 6 ) , r e l a t i v e t o a n a r e a o f 1 m 2 , must be d i v i d e d by 1 0 , 0 0 0 t o d e t e r m i n e t h e v a l u e f o r 1 c m 2 , SO t h a t w e f i n a l l y obtain APst= 735.0.125
2.10000

/193

A ( W) -0.0048 A ( V z ) .

Example:

A t a n i n d i c a t e d s p e e d o f 396 k m / h r ( 1 1 0 m / s e c ) , a t a f l i g h t a l t i t u d e of 5000 m y t h e aerodynamic c o r r e c t i o n f o r t h e speed Find t h e aerodynamic e r r o r i n i n d i c a t o r i s 36 k m / h r , ( 1 0 m / s e c ) . the altimeter.

Sol u t i on:
ApP,t=0.0048(11M- IO@) =0.0048.2100= 10.8 mm Hg

According t o t h e hypsometric t a b l e , t h e b a r i c s t a g e a t a f l i g h t a l t i t u d e o f 5 0 0 0 m i s e q u a l t o 1 8 . 5 mm Hg; h e n c e , t h e a e r o dynamic component i n t h e a l t i m e t e r e r r o r i s

AH = - 1 0 . 8 . 1 8 . 5

= - 200 m.

Formula ( 2 . 5 6 ) i s an approximate one, b u t it y i e l d s s u f f i c i e n t l y a c c u r a t e r e s u l t s u p t o a n i n d i c a t e d a i r s p e e d of 4 0 0 k m / h r . The a l t i m e t e r error c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d m o r e p r e c i s e l y i f w e know t h e dynamic p r e s s u r e and t a k e i n t o account t h e compression o f t h e a i r at different instrument readings. T a b l e 2.6 shows t h e v e l o c i t y head a t v a r i b u s i n d i c a t e d a i r s p e e d s , and can be used t o d e t e r m i n e t h e aerodynamic c o r r e c t i o n s of t h e altimeter. T h e t h i r d c o l u m n i n T a b l e 2 . 6 s h o w s t h e mano

19 7

I l l 1

I l l

I 1

m e t r i c s t a g e , i . e . , t h e change i n p r e s s u r e w i t h change i n a i r s p e e d If w e m u l t i p l y t h e a e r o d y n a m i c c o r r e c t i o n o f t h e s p e e d by 1 km/hr. i n d i c a t o r by t h e manometric s t a g e and t h e n u s e t h e h y p s o m e t r i c t a b l e , it w i l l be easy t o determine t h e aerodynamic c o r r e c t i o n f o r t h e altimeter f o r a given f l i g h t a l t i t u d e .

TABLE 2.6.
'inst
I

/ 19 4
_.

1 km/hr 06 .5
0,s

50 100 150 200 250 300

350
400 450

500 550
600

0.89 3.57 8 14.3 22.37 32.4 44.27 58.25 74.23 92.35 112.7 135.7

0.054 0,089 0,126 0,162 0*2 0.24 0.28 0.32 0.36 0,41 0.46 0.53

700 800 900 loo0 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800

188.3 252 322 418 522.8 645.8 787.2 947.2 1125,4 1317.6 1525.7 1748.8

0,96
1.04 1.23 1.42 1.6 1.78 1,92 2,08 2.23 2.4

inst
F i g . 2.33.
G r a p h of C o r r e c t i o n s for A i r C o m p r e s sion.

19 8

5.

Measurement o f t h e Temperature o f t h e Outside Air

Measurement o f t h e t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e o u t s i d e a i r d u r i n g f l i g h t is necessary first of a l l f o r determining t h e t r u e values of t h e a i r s p e e d and f l i g h t a l t i t u d e .

/195 The t h e r m o m e t e r f o r m e a s u r i n g t h e o u t s i d e a i r t e m p e r a t u r e i s a r e m o t e - c o n t r o l l e d i n s t r u m e n t , i . e . , i t s s e n s i t i v e e l e m e n t i s mounted o u t s i d e t h e c a b i n o f t h e a i r c r a f t a n d i:s e x p o s e d t o t h e a i r f l o w , w h i l e t h e i n d i c a t o r i s mounted on t h e i n s t r u m e n t p a n e l i n t h e c o c k p i t .

A t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e , e l e c t r i c t h e r m o m e t e r s a r e u s e d f o r meas u r i n g t h e o u t s i d e a i r temperature, and t h e i r o p e r a t i n g p r i n c i p l e i s b a s e d on t h e c h a n g e s i n e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y of m a t e r i a l s d e p e n d i n g on t h e i r temp e r a t u r e

2.34

A s c h e m a t i c d i a g r a m o f s u c h a t h e r m o m e t e r i s shown i n F i g u r e a n d c o n s i s t s o f a n e l e c t r i c a l b r i d g e made o f r e s i s t o r s .

I f t h e arms o f t h e b r i d g e 1 a n d 1 1 , a s w e l l a s 2 a n d 2 1 , h a v e . t h e same r e s i s t a n c e w h e n c o n n e c t e d i n p a i r s , n o s u p p l y v o l t a g e w i l l flow t h r o u g h b r i d g e AB and c o n s e q u e n t l y t h r o u g h t h e t e m p e r a t u r e indicator.

One a r m o f t h e b r i d g e ( 2 1 ) i s made o f a m a t e r i a l w h i c h h a s a high thermoelectric coefficient, a n d i s m o u n t e d on t h e s u r f a c e of t h e a i r c r a f t t o be exposed t o airflow. D e p e n d i n g on t h e t e m p e r a t u r e of a r m 2 1 , i t s r e s i s t a n c e c h a n g e s , t h u s a f f e c t i n g t h e amount o f c u r r e n t which p a s s e s through b r i d g e A B with t h e temperature indicator connected t o it. Fig. 2.34. S c h e m a t i c Diagram of E l e c t r i c Thermometer. Thermometers of t h i s k i n d , when u s e d a t low a i r s p e e d s , i n d i c a t e t h e t e m p e r a t u r e w i t h a n a c c u r a c y o f 2-3O. However, a t h i g h a i r s p e e d s , due t o d r a g a n d a d i a b a t i c c o m p r e s s i o n o f t h e a i r f l o w on t h e f o r w a r d s e c t i o n o f t h e s e n s o r , t h e l a t t e r i s s u b j e c t e d t o l o c a l h e a t i n g t h a t c r e a t e s m e t h o d o l o g i c a l errors i n m e a s u r i n g t e m p e r ature.

For an e x a c t determination of t h e methodological e r r o r s of t h i s thermometer, w e w i l l r e q u i r e a s e n s o r with complete braking of t h e a i r f l o w , as i s t h e c a s e i n s e n s o r s u s e d t o m e a s u r e t h e t o t a l pressure i n airspeed indicators.
If w e k e e p i n mind t h a t y = p / B T ,

(2.44)

can b e changed t o

19 9

r e a d as f o l l o w s :

w h e r e TT i s t h e t e m p e r a t u r e o f

t h e retarded flow.

Therefore (2.57)

/196

If w e s u b s t i t u t e i n ( 2 . 5 7 ) w i l l obtain

the values
v2

K =

1 . 4 and B = 29.27,

we

AT= A t = 2000

where V i s t h e v e l o c i t y ,

e x p r e s s e d i n m/sec.

Fig. 2.35. S e n s o r s for E l e c t r i c T h e r m o m e t e r f o r Measuring Outside A i r Temperature. ( a ) TUE; ( b ) TNV. S i n c e t h e c o n v e r s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t f o r c h a n g i n g from m / s e c t o i s 3 . 6 , f o r a s p e e d e x p r e s s e d i n km/hr (2.57a) P r a c t i c a l l y s p e a k i n g , i t i s h i g h l y u n s u i t a b l e t o u s e thermom e t e r s f o r measuring o u t s i d e a i r t e m p e r a t u r e which have complete r e t a r d a t i o n o f a i r f l o w , s i n c e i n t h i s case t h e s e n s o r w i l l n o t b e exposed t o t h e flow and t h i s w i l l r e s u l t i n a high thermal i n e r t i a of t h e thermometer, ?.e. , r a p i d changes i n temperature during f l i g h t , which c o u l d t a k e p l a c e a t h i g h f l i g h t s p e e d s , would n o t be d e t e c t e d by t h e t h e r m o m e t e r .

km/hr

For s e n s o r s w h i c h a r e e x p o s e d t o t h e a i r f l o w , t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of d r a g i s w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s o f 0 . 5 t o 0 . 8 5 . The TUE a n d T N V t h e r

mometers i n u s e a t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e h a v e c o e f f i c i e n t s o f d r a g which a r e n e a r l y t h e same ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y 0 . 7 ) . The s c a l e of c o r r e c t i o n s f o r t h e thermometer f o r measuring o u t s i d e a i r temperature (TUE), l o c a t e d on t h e n a v i g a t i o n a l s l i d e r u l e , c a n b e u s e d w i t h s u f f i c i e n t a c c u r a c y f o r t h e TNV thermometers as w e l l . The s e n s o r o f t h e TUE t h e r m o m e t e r i s in t h e s h a p e of a r o d

200

w i t h a w i n d i n g on t h e s u r f a c e , c o v e r e d b y a c y l i n d r i c a l h o u s i n g (Fig. 2.35, a ) . When a f l o w o f a i r p a s s e s t h r o u g h s u c h a s e n s o r , i t i s h e a t e d on one s i d e .

/19 7

T h e s e n 5 o r o f t h e T N V t h e r m o m e t e r i s made i n t h e f o r m o f a de Lava1 nozzle. The s e n s i t i v e e l e m e n t i s l o c a t e d i n t h e n a r r o w e s t p o r t i o n of t h e nozzle (Fig. 2.35, b ) and t h e a i r flows symmetrically over it. Therefore, t h i s s e n s o r has less thermal i n e r t i a and gives more a c c u r a t e r e a d i n g s i n d i f f e r e n t f l i g h t r e g i m e s .

6.

A v i a t i o n Clocks

The m e a s u r e m e n t o f t i m e p l a y s a n e x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n aircraft navigation, s i n c e t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e path of t h e air c r a f t on t h e b a s i s o f t h e component a i r s p e e d a n d t i m e i s i n v o l v e d i n almost a l l navigational equations. T h i s means t h a t a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e a i r s p e e d p l a c e s i n c r e a s e d demands on t h e a c c u r a c y o f t h e measurement o f t i m e . It i s e s p e c i a l l y important t o have an exact d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e moments o f p a s s a g e o v e r c o n t r o l c h e c k p o i n t s , ;.e., i n t h i s c a s e , t h e exact measurement n o t of e l a p s e d t i m e b u t o f t i m e s e g m e n t s b e t w e e n t h e m o m e n t s when t h e a i r c r a f t i s p a s s i n g over landmarks. T h e r e a r e a l s o f a c t o r s w h i c h demand h i g h a c c u r a c y i n d e t e r For mining t h e time and t h e e x a c t o p e r a t i o n of a v i a t i o n c l o c k s . example, t h e coincidence of t h e f l i g h t p l a n s of i n d i v i d u a l a i r c r a f t , communication w i t h t h e tower , and e s p e c i a l l y i n a s t r o n o m i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n s , w h e r e a n e r r o r i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e e l a p s e d t i m e o f 1 min could produce an e r r o r i n determining t h e a i r c r a f t coordinates of 2 7 km. T h e o p e r a t i n g p r i n c i p l e o f a l l e x i s t i n g d e v i c e s for m e a s u r i n g t i m e i s t h e i r c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e t i m e r e q u i r e d for some s t a n d a r d event t o occur. I n t h i s c a s e , t h e s t a n d a r d e v e n t is t h e p e r i o d of o s c i l l a t i o n o f t h e b a l a n c e w h e e l o f a c l o c k ( a c i r c u l a r pendu lum). A l l o f t h e r e m a i n i n g mecLdnism of t h e c l o c k a c t s m a i n l y as a m e c h a n i c a l c o u n t e r o f t h e number o f o s c i l l a t i o n s o f t h e pendu lum. H o w e v e r , i t e x e r t s a c o n s i d e r a b l e i n f l u e n c e on t h e a c c u r a c y o f o p e r a t i o n o f t h e c l o c k ; w h e n t h e m a i n s p r i n g o f a c l o c k i s wound c o m p l e t e l y , t h e c l o c k r u n s s o m e w h a t f a s t e r , a n d when t h e s p r i n g h a s r u n down t h e c l o c k r u n s s l o w e r . The most i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n m e a s u r i n g t i m e i s p l a y e d by t h e a c c u r a c y o f a d j u s t m e n t o f t h e a c t u a l p e r i o d o f o s c i l l a t i o n o f t h e pendulum.
W know t h a t t h e p e r i o d o f o s c i l l a t i o n o f a b o d y a r o u n d i t s e a x i s ( t o r s i o n a l o s c i l l a t i o n ) is r e l a t e d t o t h e deformation of t h e body as d e t e r m i n e d by t h e f o r m u l a

201

w h e r e T i s t h e p e r i o d of o s c i l l a t i o n o f t h e b o d y a r o u n d t h e a x i s , J i s t h e moment of i n e r t i a o f t h e b o d y , a n d D i s t h e m o d u l u s o f torsion. The p r o d u c t of t h e modulus of t o r s i o n t i m e s t h e a n g l e t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e b o d y r o t a t e s ( 4 ) i s t h e t o r s i o n a l moment:

M = D4.
The p e r i o d o f o s c i l l a t i o n o f a b a l a n c e c a n b e a d j u s t e d b o t h /198 by c h a n g i n g i t s moment o f i n e r t i a ( f o r w h i c h p u r p o s e a d j u s t i n g s c r e w s a r e l o c a t e d a l o n g i t s o u t e r c i r c u m f e r e n c e ) , or b y c h a n g i n g t h e mod u l u s of t o r s i o n . T h e moment o f i n e r t i a o f t h e b a l a n c e w h e e l i s c h a n g e d b y s c r e w i n g t h e a d j u s t i n g s c r e w s s y m m e t r i c a l l y i n or o u t a l o n g t h e e n t i r e c i r c u m f e r e n c e , i n o r d e r n o t t o d i s t u r b t h e b a l a n c e of t h e pendulum. T h i s m e a n s t h a t a p o r t i o n o f t h e mass i s b r o u g h t c l o s e r t o or moved f u r t h e r away f r o m t h e c e n t e r o f r o t a t i o n o f t h e b a l a n c e . The m o d u l u s o f t o r s i o n i s a d j u s t e d by means o f a h a i r s p r i n g ; t h e b a l a n c e w h e e l i s a d j u s t e d by c h a n g i n g t h e f r e e l e n g t h o f t h e h a i r s p r i n g , f o r w h i c h p u r p o s e a movable s t o p , w h i c h a c t s as a r e g u l a t o r , is' m o u n t e d n e a r t h e p o i n t w h e r e t h e h a i r s p r i n g i s f a s t e n e d .
I t s h o u l d b e m e n t i o n e d t h a t many f a c t o r s a f f e c t t h e p r e c i s i o n w i t h which a clock o p e r a t e s , b u t t h e most i m p o r t a n t ones are temperature and magnetic eff6cts. T h e r e f o r e , a number o f m e a s u r e s are taken t o exclude t h e s e f a c t o r s .

T h e b a l a n c e w h e e l o f a n a c c u r a t e c l o c k i s u s u a l l y made o f b i metallic m a t e r i a l and d i v i d e d a l o n g t h e p l a n e of t h e d i a m e t e r . When t h e t e m p e r a t u r e f a l l s a n d t h e f l e x i b i l i t y o f t h e h a i r s p r i n g i n c r e a s e s ( t h e m o d u l u s D i n c r e a s e s ) , o n e - h a l f of t h e b a l a n c e e x p a n d s a n d i t s e n d s move f u r t h e r away f r o m t h e c e n t e r o f r o t a t i o n , t h u s compensating f o r t h e temperature e r r o r i n t h e clock. The h a r m f u l e f f e c t of m a g n e t i c f i e l d s on t h e a c c u r a c y o f c l o c k s c a n u s u a l l y b e overcome by u s i n g d i a m a g n e t i c p a r t s i n t h e b a l a n c e w h e e l , h a i r s p r i n g a n d e s c a p e m e n t , or e l s e t h e e n t i r e c l o c k m e c h a n i s m i s p l a c e d w i t h i n a s h i e l d e d h o u s i n g made o f i r o n a l l o y . Special Requirements f o r Aviation Clocks I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e g e n e r a l r e q u i r e m e n t s for c l o c k m e c h a n i s m s ( h i g h a c c u r a c y , compensation f o r t e m p e r a t u r e and magnetic e f f e c t s ) , a v i a t i o n c l o c k s h a v e a d d i t i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t s p l a c e d upon t h e m : (a) P r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t v i b r a t i o n and shock, s o t h a t t h e clocks on a n a i r c r a f t m u s t b e m o u n t e d i n s p e c i a l s h o c k m o u n t i n g s .

202

(b) Ensuring r e l i a b l e o p e r a t i o n u n d e r c o n d i t i o n s of l o w t e m p e r a t u r e ; f o r t h i s purpose, a v i a t i o n clocks are usually f i t t e d with electric heaters.

(c) R e l i a b i l i t y a n d a c c u r a c y o f o p e r a t i o n u n d e r v a r i o u s con ditions. The h a n d s , n u m e r a l s , a n d p r i n c i p a l s c a l e d i v i s i o n s a r e made l a r g e r a n d c o v e r e d w i t h a l u m i n o u s m a t e r i a l t o p e r m i t t h e i r use during night f l i g h t s . (d) The p o s s i b i l i t y o f m e a s u r i n g s i m u l t a n e o u s l y s e v e r a l t i m e parameters. T h i s means t h a t s e v e r a l d i a l s a r e u s u a l l y d r i v e n b y t h e mechanism. A v i a t i o n c l o c k s o f t h e ACCH t y p e ( a v i a t i o n c l o c k - c h r o n o m e t e r w i t h h e a t e r ) a r e made t o s a t i s f y a l l t h e c o n d i t i o n s l i s t e d a b o v e . The e l a p s e d t i m e i s i n d i c a t e d on t h e s e c l o c k s b y a main d i a l T o c a l c u l a t e t h e t o t a l f l i g h t t i m e or t h e with a central pointer. f l i g h t time over i n d i v i d u a l s t a g e s , t h e r e is an a d d i t i o n a l scale i n t h e upper p a r t of t h e clock. The s t a r t o f t h e c l o c k h a n d s i s m a r k e d on t h i s s c a l e , w h i l e t h e t i m e when t h e y s t o p a s w e l l a s t h e r e s e t t i n g t o z e r o a r e a c c o m p l i s h e d b y p u s h i n g a b u t t o n on t h e l e f t hand s i d e of t h e c l o c k h o u s i n g . T h i s same b u t t o n , when p u l l e d o u t , i s u s e d t o wind t h e main s p r i n g o f t h e c l o c k . Below t h e " f l i g h t t i m e " s c a l e , t h e r e i s a p i l o t l i g h t w h i c h i s u s e d t o s i g n a l t h e f o l l o w i n g by means o f a s p e c i a l s h u t t e r : (a) (b) (c)
S t a r t o f mechanism:

/199

red light.

S t o p mechanism: Pause:

t h e l i g h t i s h a l f r e d and h a l f w h i t e .

white l i g h t .

T o measure s h o r t t i m e e v e n t s , t h e c l o c k i s f i t t e d w i t h a sweep hand ( t h i n c e n t r a l p o i n t e r ) and an a d d i t i o n a l s c a l e a t t h e bottom of t h e a p p a r a t u s where t h e m i n u t e s a r e c o u n t e d . The sweep h a n d i s s t a r t e d , s t o p p e d a n d h e l d by p r e s s i n g a b u t t o n on t h e r i g h t hand s i d e of t h e h o u s i n g .

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e A C C H , t h e a v i a t i o n c h r o n o m e t e r 1 3 ChP i s currently i n use. I t employs a p o t e n t i o m e t r i c c i r c u i t ; t h e v e r s i o n f i t t e d w i t h i n d i c a t o r s i s t h e 2 0 ChP. This chronometer, e s p e c i a l l y intended f o r purposes of astronomical o r i e n t a t i o n , i s operated by remote c o n t r o l and c o n s i s t s of t h r e e main i n d i c a t o r s : (a) An e l a p s e d - t i m e i n d i c a t o r w h o s e r e a d i n g s a r e a l w a y s l i n k e d t o t h e chronometer a t t h e t r a n s m i t t e r . (b) Two t i m e i n d i c a t o r s f o r m e a s u r i n g t h e a l t i t u d e o f l u m i n aries; t h e i r readings are a l s o connected t o t h e chronometer a t t h e t r a n s m i t t e r , b u t a t t h e moment o f m e a s u r e m e n t o f t h e a l t i t u d e o f

20 3

t h e l u m i n a r y by means of a s e x t a n t , a s t o p s i g n a l i s s e n t t o o n e of them a n d t h e t i m e o f m e a s u r e m e n t i s n o t e d .

A f t e r t h e r e a d i n g i s made, t h e m i n u t e h a n d i s s e t t o t h e e l a p s e d t i m e a c c o r d i n g t o t h e r e a d i n g s of t h e f i r s t d i a l by p u s h i n g t h e button. Each t i m e t h e b u t t o n i s p r e s s e d , t h e h a n d moves f o r w a r d

one minute. The s w e e p s e c o n d h a n d l i n e s u p w i t h t h e r e a d i n g s o f t h e t r a n s m i t t e r immediately a f t e r t h e i n d i c a t o r i s switched on. These d i a l s do n o t have any hour hands. The t i m e i n h o u r s i s d e t e r m i n e d by r e a d i n g s f r o m a Type ACCH c l o c k .

7.

Navigational Sights

A t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e , n a v y g a t i o n a l s i g h t s a r e 11.sed o n l y f o r s p e c i a l p u r p o s e s s u c h as a e r i a l p h o t o g r a p h y . They a r e n o t u s e d i n passenger aircraft. T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l t y p e s of n a v i g a t i o n a l s i g h t s , w h i c h d i f f e r /200 i n t h e i r design. However, a l l a r e i n t e n d e d f o r m e a s u r i n g t h e c o u r s e a n g l e s o f l a n d m a r k s ( C A L I a n d t h e i r v e r t i c a l a n g l e s (VA). The c o u r s e a n g l e g i t u d i n a l a x i s of t h e The v e r t i c a l a n g l e i s where t h e a i r c r a f t i s

of a Zandmark i s t h e a n g l e b e t w e e n t h e l o n
a i r c r a f t and t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e landmark. t h e angle between t h e v e r t i c a l a t t h e p o i n t l o c a t e d and t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e landmark.

T h e s i g h t c a n b e u s e d t o s o l v e a g r e a t many n a v i g a t i o n a l p r o b l e m s r e l a t e d t o d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e l o c u s of t h e a i r c r a f t and t h e parameters of i t s motion.

Fig. ing;

2.36. D e t e r m i n i n g t h e V a l u e ( a ) o f A i r c r a f t Bera ( b ) o f t h e D i s t a n c e f r o m a Landmark t o t h e A i r c r a f t Vertical.

1. D e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e locus of t h e a i r c r a f t i n terms o f t h e c o u r s e and v e r t i c a l a n g l e s o f t h e landmark ( F i g . 2 . 3 6 ) . In t h i s c s e , t h e t r u e b e a r i n g from t h e landmark t o t h e a i r c r a f t i s ( F i g . 2.36, a ) T B A = T C t C A L 2 180,

204

while t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e landmark t o t h e v e r t i c a l of t h e a i r craft (Fig. 2.36, b ) is

S = H t g VA,
where TBA i s t h e t r u e b e a r i n g f r o m t h e landmark t o t h e a i r c r a f t , TC i s t h e t r u e c o u r s e o f t h e a i r c r a f t , CAL i s t h e c o u r s e a n g l e o f t h e l a n d m a r k , H i s t h e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e , a n d VA i s t h e v e r t i c a l a n g l e of t h e landmark. Obviously, i f t h e a i r c r a f t course i s determined by a magnetic compass, i n o r d e r t o s o l v e t h i s problem w e must a l s o add t o t h e r e a d i n g s o f t h e compass t h e c o r r e c t i o n s f o r t h e d e v i a t i o n o f t h e compass o f t h e m a g n e t i c d e c l i n a t i o n of t h e l o c u s o f t h e a i r c r a f t .
TC = CC

AM.

T h e c o r r e ' c t i o n for t h e d e v i a t i o n of t h e m e r i d i a n s b e t w e e n l a n d m a r k s a n d t h e l o c u s of t h e a i r c r a f t i n t h i s c a s e i s n o t t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t , s i n c e t h e m e a s u r e m e n t o f t h e v e r t i c a l a n g l e s c a n b e made s a t i s f a c t o r i l y up t o 7 0 - 7 5 O , i . e . , a t d i s t a n c e s w h i ch d o n o t e x c e e d / 2 0 1 three t o four times the f l i g h t a l t i t u d e . I n s o l v i n g t h i s p r o b l e m , i t i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t t o know t h e t r u e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e a b o v e t h e l e v e l of t h e v i s i b l e l a n d m a r k , since e r r o r s i n determining t h e distance w i l l be proportional t o t h e e r r o r s i n measuring t h e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e . Therefore, the readings o f t h e a l t i m e t e r must b e s u b j e c t e d t o c o r r e c t i o n s f o r t h e i n s t r u mental and m e t h o d o l o g i c a l e r r o r s and t h e ele.vation of t h e landmark above s e a l e v e l must a l s o b e t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t if measurements a r e n o t b e i n g made i n a l e v e l l o c a t i o n .

2. D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e l o c a t i o n o f an a i r c r a f t i n terms of t h e b e a r i n g s f r o m two l a n d m a r k s ( F i g . 2 . 3 7 ) . In this case,

IPS1 = TC IPS2 = TC

+ +

CALI

180O;

CAL2 f 10. 8'

T h e p o s i t i o n of t h e a i r c r a f t i s d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n o f b e a r i n g s I P S 1 a n d I P S 2 on t h e map. If t h e d i r e c t i o n f i n d i n g i s made o v e r g r e a t d i s t a n c e s , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e p o l a r r e g i o n s , t h e measurements o f t h e b e a r i n g s must i n c l u d e a c o r r e c t i o n f o r t h e d i s placement of t h e meridians. An a d v a n t a g e o f t h i s m e t h o d i s i t s i n d e p e n d e n c e o f f l i g h t a l t i t u d e , and c o n s e q u e n t l y , of t h e n a t u r e of t h e l o c a l r e l i e f . However, t h i s method r e q u i r e s c a r e f u l measurement o f t h e c o u r s e - ? g l e o f t h e s e c o n d l a n d m a r k , s i n c e t h e a i r c r a f t may move c o n s i d e r a b l y away f r o m t h e l i n e o f t h e f i r s t b e a r i n g d u r i n g a p r o l o n g e d measurement.

20 5

3. D e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e d r i f t a n g l e of t h e a i r c r a f t a c c o r d ing t o visual points. T o d e t e r m i n e t h e d r i f t a n g l e by t h i s means, t h e s i g h t i s s e t - a t a c o u r s e a n g l e o f 180 a n d a z e r o v e r t i c a l a n g l e .

With a n e x a c t m a i n t e n a n c e o f t h e course, by t h e p i l o t , o b s e r v i n g . t h e d i r e c t i o n s of v i s u a l p o i n t s and t u r n i n g t h e s i g h t t o keep it p a r a l l e l t o t h e course c h a r t , the s i g h t i s s e t i n t h e d i r e c t i o n i n which The t h e a i r c r a f t i s moving. . d r i f t angle of t h e aircraft i s t h e n c a l c u l a t e d on a s p e c i a l scale. T h i s method i s u s e d f o r low f l i g h t a l t i t u d e s , i . e . , with r a p i d l y changing v i s u a l l'andmarks.

4. Determination of the d r i f t a n g l e of an a i r c r a f t b y using a backsight. T h e e s s e n c e o f t h i s m e t h o d l i e s i n t h e meas/202 urement o f t h e c o u r s e a n g l e a t which v i s u a l p o i n t s r e c e d e from t h e a i r c r a f t . A f t e r s e t t i n g t h e s i g h t , as i n m e a s u r i n g t h e d r i f t a n g l e i n t e r m s o f t h e l o c a t i o n o f v i s u a l p o i n t s (CAL = 180, V A = 0 ) , t h e p i l o t waits u n t i l t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c v i s u a l p o i n t appears i n t h e cross h a i r s of t h e s i g h t a t t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e bubble l e v e l i n these cross hairs. T h e n , k e e p i n g t h e a i r c r a f t s t r i c t l y on c o u r s e , t h e p i l o t w a i t s u n t i l t h e landmark l e a v e s t h e c r o s s h a i r s i n t h e v e r t i c a l p l a n e a t a n a n g l e o f 4 0 - 5 0 a t a v e r a g e a l t i t u d e s or 1 5 20 a t h i g h a l t i t u d e s . Then, by t u r n i n g t h e s i g h t , h e matches t h e v i s u a l p o i n t with t h e course marking and c a l c u l a t e s t h e d r i f t angle.

Fig. 2.37. D e t e r m i n i n g t h e POs i t i o n L i n e o f a n A i r c r a f t by Two o f i t s B e a r i n g s .

5. D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e d r i f t a n g l e o f an a i r c r a f t by s i g h t ing forward. I n m e a s u r i n g t h e d r i f t a n g l e by s i g h t i n g f o r w a r d , t h e s i g h t is s e t t o t h e zero course angle and a v i s u a l p o i n t i s s e l e c t e d on t h e c o u r s e c h a r t , wh i ch p r e f e r a b l y l i e s a t a v e r t i c a l a n g l e o f 4 5 or 2 6 . 5 O . I n t h i s c a s e , w i t h VA = 45O, t h e d i s t a n c e t o t h e l a n d m a r k w i l l b e e q u a l t o t h e a l t i t u d e , w h i l e a t V A = 26.5O it w i l l equal half the altitude:
S = H t g VA.

Then, k e e p i n g t h e a i r c r a f t s t r i c t l y on c o u r s e , t h e s i g h t i s s e t t o z e r o on t h e s c a l e o f v e r t i c a l a n g l e s a n d t h e p i l o t w a i t s u n t i l t h e v i s u a l p o i n t c r o s s e s t h e t r a n s v e r s e l i n e on t h e c r o s s h a i r s on t h e s i g h t ( t r a v e r s e of t h e l a n d m a r k ) . Noting t h e l a t e r a l d e v i a t i o n of t h e landmark i n d e g r e e s , i t i s p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e t h e l i n e a r l a t e r a l d e v i a t i o n as f o l l o w s :

206

Sg = H t g V A .

of

The d r i f t a n g l e o f t h e a i r c r a f t i s d e t e r m i n e d a s t h e r a t i o its i n i t i a l distance t o its f i n a l distance:

A t d r i f t a n g l e s o n t h e o r d e r o f l o o , t h e t a n g e n t US c a n b e r e p l a c e d by i t s v a l u e , w h i l e t h e t a n g e n t VU2 can be r e p l a c e d by t h e v a l u e o f t h e l a t e r a l d e v i a t i o n (LD):

or, w i t h a n i n i t i a l v a l u e o f V A 1 = 4 5 O , V A 1 = 2 6 . 5 O Y US = 2 L D .

US = L D ;

with an i n i t i a l

A l l t h r e e o f t h e s e m e t h o d s d e s c r i b e d a b o v e for d e t e r m i n i n g t h e ' d r i f t a n g l e a r e u s e d i n l o c a t i o n s w h i c h h a v e many l a n d m a r k s , i . e . , where i t i s e a s y t o p i c k o u t a v i s u a l landmark a t t h e d e s i r e d visual angle.

of

6 . D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e g r o u n d s p e e d o f t h e a i r c r a f t b y means a backsight. To d e t e r m i n e t h e g r o u n d s p e e d b y t h i s m e t h o d , r h e s i g h t i s s e t o n t h e c o u r s e a n g l e s c a l e t o 180, a n d t o z e r o o n t h e v e r t i cal angle scale. The b u b b l e i n t h e l e v e l i s s e t a t t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n of t h e c r o s s h a i r s .

Having s e l e c t e d t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p o i n t as i t p a s s e s t h r o u g h / 2 0 3 t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n of t h e s i g h t , t h e s w e e p s e c o n d h a n d i s s t a r t e d a n d t h e p i l o t w a i t s u n t i l t h i s p o i n t h a s moved t o a v e r t i c a l a n g l e
O f

35-40.

T h e n t h e c o u r s e m a r k i n g o f t h e s i g h t i s made t o c o i n c i d e w i t h t h e v i s u a l p o i n t a n d t h e s i g h t i s s e t t o V A = 45O. T h e moment w h e n t h e v i s u a l p o i n t a g a i n c r o s s e s t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n of t h e c r o s s h a i r s I n t h i s case, t h e i n t h e s i g h t , t h e sweep second hand i s s t o p p e d . p a t h t r a v e l e d by t h e a i r c r a f t w i l l be e q u a l t o t h e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e ground s p e e d c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d by t h e s i m p l e form ula

w h e r e H i s t h e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e a n d t i s t h e t i m e m e a s u r e d by t h e sweep s e c o n d hand.

7. D e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e d r i f t a n g l e and t h e ground s p e e d of t h e a i r c r a f t from a landmark l o c a t e d t o t h e s i d e . T h i s method i s u s e d i n t h e c a s e when i t i s d e s i r e d t o m e a s u r e t h e d r i f t a n g l e a n d t h e ground speed and t h e p i l o t h a s o n l y one landmark a t h i s d i s p o s a l ,
20 7

which i s n o t l o c a t e d a l o n g t h e l i n e c a r e f u l t o keep t h e aircraft s t r i c t l t h e s i g h t a t t h e landmark and waits t o 4 5 or 315O, d e p e n d i n g o n w h e t h e r t h e f l i g h t path of t h e aircraft.

of f l i g h t o f t h e a i r c r a f t . Being y on c o u r s e , h e l o o k s t h r o u g h u n t i l its course angle is equal i t i s t o t h e l e f t or r i g h t o f

A t a c o u r s e a n g l e f o r t h e l a n d m a r k o f 4 5 or 3 1 5 O , t h e v e r t i c a l a n g l e of t h e landmark i s measured and t h e sweep second hand is started.

-\

---/--

F i g . 2. 3 8 . Determining t h e D r i f t A n g l e a n d Ground Speed b y a Landmark L o c a t e d t o t h e Side.

Leaving t h e s e t t i n g of t h e v e r t i c a l a n g l e i n t h e same p o s i tion, the sight is rotated t o follow t h e motion of t h e landmark, n o t i n g i t s f i x e d p o s i t i o n on t h e c o u r s e A t t h e beginning (up t o chart. CAL = 90 + U S ) , t h e d i s t a n c e t o t h e landmark w i l l d e c r e a s e , b u t C3n then w i l l increase again. s e q u e n t l y , t h e landmark w i l l a t f i r s t move away t o o n e s i d e f r o m t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n of t h e cross h a i r s a n d w i l l t h e n a g a i n b e g i n t.0 a p p r o a c h i t . A t t h e moment when t h e l a n d mark i s a t t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n of t h e c r o s s h a i r s , t h e sweep s e c o n d hand i s stopped and t h e course a n g l e o f t h e landmark i s calculated. 2.38)

If C A L I = 4 5 O , t h e b i s e c t r i x o f t h e t r i a n g l e OAB ( F i g . w i l l be l o c a t e d a t t h e c o u r s e a n g l e , which i s e q u a l t o :
-

CALbis -

45O+CAL2 2

w h i l e t h e d r i f t a n g l e of t h e a i r c r a f t w i l l b e e q u a l t o CALbis-900, so that

/204

us
I f C A L I = 315O,

CAL2-135O. 2

CALbis

- 315O bis

+
2

CALz

US = C A L

-270

or

us
208

CAL7 - 2 25O
2

A t p o i n t s 1 and 2 t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e a i r c r a f t t o t h e land mark i s e q u a l t o

Consequently, t h e d i s t a n c e between p o i n t s 1 and 2 i s d e t e r mined by t h e f o r m u l a

51-2

= 2H t g V A s i n

C A L 1+CALL 2

C l e a r l y , t h e r e a s o n f o r t h e change i n t h e c o u r s e a n g l e of t h e landmark from C A L I t o C A L 2 , w a s t h e s h i f t of t h e a i r c r a f t from p o i n t 0 t o p o i n t 01, s o t h a t

Consequently, t h e ground speed i s

The m a j o r i t y o f n a v i g a t i o n a l p r o b l e m s w h i ch w e h a v e d i s c u s s e d , w h i c h a r e s o l v e d b y m e a n s o f m e c h a n i c a l or o p t i c a l s i g h t s , c a n b e s o l v e d u s i n g t h e r a d i o d e v i c e s which a r e i n s t a l l e d nowadays a b o a r d modern t u r b o p r o p a n d j e t a i r c r a f t , which w i l l b e d e s c r i b e d i n t h e next chapter.

20 9

I-

8.

Automatic Navigation Instruments

I n S e c t i o n 2 of C h a p t e r I , i t w a s m e n t i o n e d t h a t i n t h e g e n e r a l c a s e , a l l t h e e l e m e n t s of a f l i g h t r e g i m e a r e n o t s t r i c t l y f i x e d , with t h e exception of t h e extreme p o i n t s of d e v i a t i o n from a given trajectory. T h e r e f o r e , t h e crew o f a n a i r c r a f t m u s t c o n s t a n t l y d e a l with average values of measured n a v i g a t i o n a l elements (average course, average speed, average wind, e t c . ) .
If a l l t h e e l e m e n t s which h a v e b e e n m e n t i o n e d h a d a c o n s t a n t /205 given v a l u e , t h e p r a c t i c a l problems of a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n could b e s o l v e d q u i t e simply and t h e q u e s t i o n o f automating t h e p r o c e s s e s o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n would b e s u p e r f l u o u s .

Without u s i n g automatic n a v i g a t i o n d e v i c e s , t h e p i l o t of an a i r c r a f t must s y s t e m a t i c a l l y c a r r y o u t o b s e r v a t i o n s u s i n g a l l t h e n a v i g a t i o n a l i n s t r u m e n t s , a v e r a g e them f o r t i m e i n t e r v a l s c o v e r i n g t h e o b s e r v a t i o n t i m e , and r e c o r d t h e t i m e of change i n average v a l u e s of t h e measured parameters. This introduces considerable tedious However, i f t h e p i l o t work i n t o t h e t a s k o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n . d i d n o t d e v o t e s u f f i c i e n t a t t e n t i o n t o c h a n g e s i n t h e e l e m e n t s of a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n , i t w o u l d s o o n h a v e a n e f f e c t on t h e p r e c i s i o n of aircraft navigation. T h e s i m p l e s t d e v i c e u s e d for a u t o m a t i n g t h e c o m p u t a t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t p a t h i n terms o f t h e c h a n g i n g v a l u e s of n a v i g a t i o n a l param e t e r s and times i s t h e a u t o m a t i c n a v i g a t i o n a l d e v i c e , which h a s been d e v i s e d on t h e b a s i s o f t h e g e n e r a l f e a t u r e s o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n . A t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e , t h e n a v i g a t i o n i n d i c a t o r Type N I - S O B , i s widely used. W s h a l l now d i s c u s s i t s d e s i g n a n d t h e m e t h o d o f i t s e application. The NI-50B n a v i g a t i o n i n d i c a t o r i s a n a u t o m a t i c n a v i g a t i o n d e v i c e w h i c h c a l c u l a t e s t h e p a t h o f t h e a i r c r a f t on t h e b a s i s o f s i g n a l s f r o m s e n s o r s for t h e c o u r s e a n d a i r s p e e d , t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t t h e measured wind s p e e d d u r i n g f l i g h t . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e i n d i c a t o r can b e u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e wind p a r a m e t e r s a t t h e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e . C a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e p a t h of t h e a i r c r a f t w i t h t h e u s e of t h e N I - S O B c a n b e p e r f o r m e d b o t h on t h e b a s i s o f o r t h o d r o m i c s y s t e m s of c o o r d i n a t e s f o r s t r a i g h t - l i n e f l i g h t s e g m e n t s , as w e l l as i n a r e c t a n g u l a r s y s t e m of c o o r d i n a t e s w i t h a n y o r i e n t a t i o n o f i t s a x e s . W i t h o u t g o i n g i n t o t h e d e t a i l s of t h e d e s i g n o f t h e i n s t r u m e n t , l e t us examine i t s s c h e m a t i c diagram, p u r p o s e , and o p e r a t i n g p r i n c i p l e s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l p a r t s , as w e l l as t h e ways i n w h i c h t h e s y s t e m as a w h o l e c a n b e e m p l o y e d . autoThe n a v i g a t i o n i n d i c a t o r c o n s i s t s of t h e f o l l o w i n g p a r t s : matic speed i n d i c a t o r , c o n t r o l u n i t , automatic course-setting device, wind i n d i c a t o r , and d e v i c e f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e a i r c r a f t c o o r d i n a t e s (Fig. 2.39).

210

The a u t o m a t i c s p e e d c o n t r o l c o n s i s t s o f a d e v i c e w h i c h c o n v e r t s t h e p r e s s u r e from t h e s e n s o r s of t o t a l and s t a t i c p r e s s u r e i n t o elec trical s i g n a l s , corresponding i n value t o t h e airspeed of t h e air c r a f t , a c c o r d i n g t o Formula ( 2 . 4 7 a )

2060 T

The a u t o m a t i c s p e e d c o n t r o l h a s t wo h o r i z o n t a l m a n o m e t r i c b o x e s . One o f t h e m ( a n e r o i d 1) i s u s e d t o m e a s u r e t h e s t a t i c p r e s s u r e , w h i l e t h e o t h e r i s u s e d t o measure t h e a e r o d y n a m i c p r e s s u r e 2 as t h e d i f f e r ence between p t o t a l and pst. /206 Both b o x e s a r e c o n n e c t e d by means o f l i n k i n g mechanisms t o po t e n t i o m e t e r s 3, which r e g u l a t e t h e c u r r e n t r a t i o i n t h e b a l a n c i n g c i r c u i t , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e r a t i o o f t h e dynamic p r e s s u r e t o t h e s t a t i c pressure.
I t i s c l e a r f r o m F o r m u l a ( 2 . 4 7 , a ) t h a t t h e r a t i o o f t h e dy namic p r e s s u r e t o t h e s t a t i c p r e s s u r e i s n o t l i n e a r l y r e l a t e d t o the airspeed of t h e aircraft. In order t o develop e l e c t r i c a l s i g n a l s which a r e p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e a i r s p e e d , t h e c o n t r o l u n i t c o n t a i n s an a u t o m a t i c s p e e d c o n t r o l mechanism. T h i s mechanism c o n s i s t s o f a m a g n e t i c s i g n a l a m p l i f i e r 4 , coming from t h e a u t o m a t i c s p e e d con t r o l , a c t i v a t i n g motor 5 , and a p o t e n t i o m e t e r 6 w i t h a s p e c i a l pro f i l e , which l e v e l s o u t t h e n o n l i n e a r i t y of t h e s i g n a l s from t h e a u t o m a t i c airspeed control. T h u s , t h e t u r n a n g l e of t h e a x i s o f t h e p o t e n t i o m e t e r of t h e a n a l y z i n g mechanism becomes p r o p o r t i o n a l t o the airspeed.

amp l i f i e r

coor

automatic course control Fig. 2.39. S c h e m a t i c Diagram o f N a v i g a t i o n a l I n d i c a t o r .

211

By m e a n s of a s e c o n d p o t e n t i o m e t e r , c o n n e c t e d b y i t s a x i s o f r o t a t i o n t o t h e a c t i v a t i n g mechanism, s e n d s o u t e l e c t r i c a l s i g n a l s which are p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e a i r s p e e d , i n t h e form o f a DC v o l t age. The a u t o m a t i c c o u r s e c o n t r o l i s i n t e n d e d t o d i s t r i b u t e t h e s i g n a l s which are p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e a i r s p e e d , a l o n g t h e axes of t h e c o o r d i n a t e s for c a l c u l a t i n g t h e p a t h .

L e t us assume t h a t w e must make a f l i g h t o v e r a p a t h segment with t h e orthodromic f l i g h t angle $ (Fig. 2.40).

I f t h e a i r c r a f t i s now t o f l y w i t h a n o r t h o d r o m i c c o u r s e y , t h e a i r s p e e d must b e d i v i d e d i n t o two c o m p o n e n t s : /207

V, = V cos (7- Jy); Vz = V sin (1

-+).

I t i s clear t h a t i f t h e r e i s no wind a t t h e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e , t h e s e c o m p o n e n t s of t h e a i r s p e e d m u s t b e m u l t i p l i e d b y t h e f l i g h t t i m e t o g i v e us t h e change i n t h e a i r c r a f t c o o r d i n a t e s d u r i n g t h i s time: A$ = V&. A2 = V&.

Fig. Fig. Fig. 2.40. 2.41.

2.40.

Fig.

2.41.

D i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e Airspeed Vector a l o n g t h e Coordi n a t e Axes. Sine-Cosine Distributor.

T h e d i v i s i o n of t h e c o u r s e s i g n a l s b y t h e a x e s o f t h e c o o r d i n a t e s i n t h e a u t o m a t i c c o u r s e c o n t r o l i s a c c o m p l i s h e d by m e a n s o f a sine-cosine potentiometer (Fig. 2.41). T h e s i n e - c o s i n e p o t e n t i o m e t e r c o n s i s t s of a c i r c u l a r w i n d i n g w i t h power s u p p l i e d t o it a t two d i a m e t r i c a l l y o p p o s i t e p o i n t s .

212

Two p a i r s o f p i c k u p s s l i d e a l o n g t h e c o i l s ; t h e y a r e l o c a t e d a t r i g h t a n g l e s t o one a n o t h e r . Obviously, i f w e say t h a t t h e zero p o s i t i o n of t h e pickups is t h e one i n which one p a i r ( c o s i n e ) c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e s u p p l y l e a d s a n d t h e s e c o n d ( s i n e ) w i l l b e l o c a t e d a t a n a n g l e of 90 t o t h e m , t h e n t h e maximum c u r r e n t w i l l f l o w t h r o u g h t h e f i r s t p a i r o f p i c k u p s while t h a t through t h e second p a i r w i l l be zero. By t u r n i n g t h e pickups from z e r o t o 90, t h e c u r r e n t i n t h e c o s i n e p i c k u p s w i l l d r o p f r o m maximum t o z e r o a n d t h a t i n t h e s i n e p i c k u p s w i l l i n c r e a s e f r o m z e r o t o t h e maximum. However, t h e c h a n g e i n t h e c u r r e n t i n t h e pickups w i l l n o t t a k e p l a c e according t o t h e s i n e and cosine l a w s , b u t p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y t o t h e a n g l e of r o t a t i o n of t h e p i c k u p s . I n o r d e r f o r t h e l a w of change of c u r r e n t s t o approach t h e s i n e c o s i n e , t h e w i n d i n g o f t h e p o t e n t i o m e t e r i s g i v e n a p r o f i l e or i s /208 f i t t e d with special regulating shunt r e s i s t o r s . Rotation of t h e pick-up shoes of t h e potentiometer i s involved i n f i g u r i n g t h e c o u r s e of t h e a i r c r a f t which i s a r r i v i n g from a c o u r s e s y s t e m or o t h e r c o u r s e i n s t r u m e n t . I n o r d e r t o a p p l y t h e components of t h e a i r s p e e d t o t h e r e c e i v i n g system f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e a i r c r a f t coordinates, t h e c i r c u l a r w i n d i n g o f t h e p o t e n t i o m e t e r i s made m o v a b l e a n d c a n b e m o u n t e d i n any p o s i t i o n by means o f a r a c k a n d p i n i o n , l o c a t e d i n t h e a u t o m a t i c c o u r s e c o n t r o l , and a s p e c i a l scale f o r c a l c u l a t i n g i t s p o s i t i o n . T h e a n g l e for s t u d y i n g t h e s y s t e m o f c o o r d i n a t e s f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e p a t h r e l a t i v e t o t h e m e r i d i a n from which t h e a i r c r a f t c o u r s e is measured i s c a l l e d t h e chart angle. I n t h e majority of cases, t h e c h a r t a n g l e i s made e q u a l t o t h e o r t h o d r o m i c p a t h a n g l e o f t h e path segment. Hence, by a p p l y i n g t o t h e w i n d i n g of t h e s i n e - c o s i n e p o t e n t i o m e t e r a v o l t a g e which i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e a i r s p e e d , w e o b t a i n s i g n a l s a t t h e o u t p u t s of t h e p o t e n t i o m e t e r w h i c h a r e p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e component o f t h e a i r s p e e d a l o n g t h e a x e s of t h e c o o r d i n a t e s Vx a n d

vz *
For a p r e c i s e r e g u l a t i o n o f t h e n a v i g a t i o n a l i n d i c a t o r a s a w h o l e , t h e s e s i g n a l s a r e c a l i b r a t e d m a n u a l l y by means o f a p o t e n t i o m e t e r ( s e e Fig. 2.39, P o s i t i o n 81, l o c a t e d i n t h e c o n t r o l u n i t .
The w i n d sensor h a s a s c h e m a t i c s i m i l a r t o t h a t f o u n d i n t h e a u t o m a t i c c o u r s e c o n t r o l , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n t h a t t h e v o l t a g e which i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e windspeed i s analyzed d i r e c t l y a t t h e s e n s o r by means o f a p o t e n t i o m e t e r ( s e e F i g . 2 . 3 9 , P o s i t i o n 9 ) and i s s e t by m a n u a l l y t u r n i n g knob "u" s o t h a t t h e s e t t i n g of t h e p i c k - u p s h o e s on t h e s i n e - c o s i n e p o t e n t i o m e t e r a g r e e s w i t h t h e wind d i r e c t i o n . T h u s , w e h a v e t h r e e s e t p a r a m e t e r s on t h e w i n d s e n s o r : the

213

wind s p e e d (u), t h e wind ' d i r e c t i o n

(61,

and t h e c h a r t angle (+).

It i s c l e a r t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e between a n g l e s 6 and gives A s a result, we obtain signals at the t h e p a t h a n g l e of t h e wind. o u t p u t of t h e s i n e - c o s i n e p o t e n t i o m e t e r which a r e p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e component o f t h e wind s p e e d a l o n g t h e a x e s o f t h e c o o r d i n a t e s f o r calculating the path.
The o u t p u t s of t h e s i n e - c o s i n e p o t e n t i o m e t e r s o f t h e a u t o m a t i c c o u r s e c o n t r o l and t h e wind s e n s o r a r e c o n n e c t e d i n s e r i e s , s o t h a t w e o b t a i n s i g n a l s a t t h e i r common o u t p u t s w h i c h a r e p r o p o r t i o n a l as f o l l l o w s V , + U ~ =V C o s ( ~ - + ) + u j o s A W V z + u z = V s i n ( y - + ) + u s i n AW

i . e . , s i g n a l s which m a k e i t p o s s i b l e t o c a l c u l a t e t h e p a t h of t h e a i r c r a f t w i t h t i m e , c o n s i d e r i n g t h e manual s e t t i n g o f t h e wind v a l u e for the flight altitude. The c o o r d i n a t e caZcuZator c o n s i s t s o f t w o i n t e g r a t i n g m o t o r s /209 t h a t w o r k on d i r e c t c u r r e n t ( s e e F i g . 2 . 3 9 , P o s i t i o n lo), w h o s e s p e e d of r o t a t i o n s t r i c t l y c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e s i g n a l s coming f r o m t h e a u t o m a t i c c o u r s e c o n t r o l a n d t h e wind s e n s o r . The revolutions of t h e m o t o r s a r e summed b y t w o c o u n t e r s , w h o s e r e a d i n g s a r e shown on a s c a l e which i s g r a d u a t e d i n k i l o m e t e r s o f p a t h cov e r e d by t h e a i r c r a f t a l o n g t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g a x e s . A p o i n t e r m a r k e d "N" s h o w s t h e p a t h o f t h e a i r c r a f t a l o n g t h e X - a x i s , ; . e . , a l o n g t h e o r t h o d r o m e , w h i l e a p o i n t e r m a r k e d "E" s h o w s t h e t r a v e l a l o n g t h e Z - a x i s , or t h e l a t e r a l d e v i a t i o n f r o m t h e d e s i r e d l i n e of f l i g h t . T h e n a m e s o f t h e p o i n t e r s ("N" a n d " E " ) w e r e g i v e n b e c a u s e a t a c h a r t a n g l e e q u a l t o z e r o , t h e p o i n t e r "N" w i l l s h o w t h e p a t h t r a v e l e d b y t h e a i r c r a f t i n a n o r t h e r l y d i r e c t i o n from t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t w h i l e t h e p o i n t e r "E" shows t r a v e l i n a n e a s t e r l y d i r e c tion. To s e t t h e p o i n t e r s o f t h e c o u n t e r t o z e r o ( a t t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t o f a r o u t e ) or t o t h e a c t u a l c o o r d i n a t e s o f t h e a i r c r a f t w h e n c o r r e c t i n g i t s c o o r d i n a t e s , t h e r e i s a s p e c i a l r a c k and p i n i o n which i s u s e d t o t u r n t h e "N" p o i n t e r w h e n i t i s p u s h e d i n w a r d a n d t o t u r n t h e ''E" p o i n t e r w h e n i t i s p u l l e d o u t .

9 . P r a c t i c a l Methods o f A i r c r a f t N a v i g a t i o n Using Geotechni c a l Devices

F l i g h t e x p e r i e n c e shows t h a t i n a d d i t i o n t o a knowledge o f t h e devices f o r determining each of t h e elements of aircraft navigation, s u c c e s s f u l c o m p l e t i o n o f a f l i g h t , means t h a t i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o

214

o b t a i n and use t h e measured v a l u e s , ? . e . , t o master t h e d e v i c e s used f o r aircraft navigation p r i o r t o automation. T h e s e d e v i c e s d o n o t d e p e n d on s y s t e m s o f m e a s u r i n g f l i g h t a n g l e s and a i r c r a f t c o u r s e s , s i n c e t h e y have l i m i t e d f i e l d s of a p p l i c a t i o n . I n a d d i t i o n , i n d e s c r i b i n g them, i t i s necessary t o r e c a l l t h a t t h e readings of navigational devices contain a l l necessary corrections. T h e r e f o r e , i n t h e formulas which have been found t o b e n e c e s s a r y , w e h a v e u s e d t h e common d e s i g n a t i o n s f o r n a v i g a t i o n a l p a r a m e t e r s . U n d e r p r a c t i c a l c o n d i t i o n s of a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n , a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e i s p l a y e d by t h e p i l o t s ' c a l c u l a t i n g a n d m e a s u r i n g i n s t r u ments. H o w e v e r , i n many c a s e s , i n s t e a d o f u s i n g t h e s e i n s t r u m e n t s , approximate c a l c u l a t i o n s are performed m e n t a l l y . Approximate m e n t a l e x t i m a t e s c a n b e u s e d t o a d v a n t a g e i n a l l c a s e s when t h e p r o b l e m c a n b e s o l v e d more p r e c i s e l y b y means o f c a l c u l a t i n g i n s t r u m e n t s i n o r d e r t o a v o i d any chance g r o s s e r r o r s . Methods of a p p r o x i m a t e ( y e t s u f f i c i e n t l y a c c u r a t e f o r p r a c t i c a l p u r p o s e s ) e s t i m a t i o n of n a v i g a t i o n a l e l e m e n t s i n f l i g h t w i t h o u t t h e use of c a l c u l a t i n g and measuring i n s t r u m e n t s a r e c a l l e d p i l o t s ' vis ual estimates. The r u l e s f o r p i l o t s ' v i s u a l e s t i m a t e s w i l l b e g i v e n l a t e r on i n t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e s u i t a b l e m e t h o d s o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a tion. Takeoff of

t h e A i r c r a f t a t t h e S t a r t i n g Point of

t h e Route

/210

T h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t of t h e r o u t e ( S P R ) i s t h e f i r s t c o n t r o l l a n d mark a l o n g t h e f l i g h t p a t h f r o m w h i c h t h e a i r c r a f t w i l l t r a v e l a l o n g t h e r o u t e a t a given path angle $. T h e f i n a l p o i n t on t h e r o u t e ( F P R ) i s t h e l a s t c o n t r o l l a n d m a r k a l o n g t h e r o u t e , from which t h e maneuver t o l a n d t h e a i r c r a f t begins. Regardless of t h e f a c t t h a t t h e p a t h a n g l e of t h e f l i g h t i s u s u a l l y r e c k o n e d from t h e a i r p o r t from which t h e a i r c r a f t t o o k o f f u p t o t h e S P R Y a s w e l l a s f r o m t h e FPR t o t h e a i r p o r t w h e r e i t i s t o l a n d , t h e s e values have s i g n i f i c a n c e only f o r g e n e r a l o r i e n t a t i o n i n t h e v i c i n i t y of t h e a i r p o r t s . I n connection with t h e fact t h a t t h e f i r s t t u r n of t h e aircraft a f t e r t a k e o f f i s made a f t e r t h e a i r c r a f t r e a c h e s a c e r t a i n a l t i t u d e ( 2 0 0 m y e . g . 1 a n d t h a t many f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c e t a k e o f f c o n d i t i o n s ( s u c h as a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e , w i n d s p e e d a n d d i r e c t i o n , f l y i n g w e i g h t o f t h e a i r c r a f t , e t c . ) , a n e x a c t d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e b e g i n n i n g and end of a t u r n i s u s u a l l y d i f f i c u l t . Therefore, t h e p a t h a n g l e and t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e f i r s t t u r n t o t h e SPR h a s a v a r i a b l e n a t u r e and cannot be determined e x a c t l y . Methods o f b r i n g i n g t h e a i r c r a f t t o t h e i n i t i a l p o i n t on t h e r o u t e d i f f e r somewhat f r o m t h e g e n e r a l methods o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n along t h e f l i g h t route.

215

.I

The b a s i c d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e m e t h o d s o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n i n v o l v e d i n b r i n g i n g an a i r c r a f t t o t h e SPRY and t h e a i r c r a f t navi g a t i o n a l o n g t h e r o u t e , i s t h a t i n t h e f i r s t case w e do n o t h a v e a s t r i c t l y determined p a t h a n g l e f o r t h e f l i g h t and can r e a c h t h e g i v e n p o i n t from a n y d i r e c t i o n , i . e . , i n t h e g i v e n case t h e n a v i g a t i o n i s made i n a p o l a r s y s t e m o f c o o r d i n a t e s . I n t h e second case, w e h a v e a g i v e n l i n e of f l i g h t , a n d t h e a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n t a k e s p l a c e along a s t r a i g h t - l i n e orthodromic system of c o o r d i n a t e s . I n Figure 2.42, a , w e see t h a t t h e f l i g h t p a t h a n g l e from t h e c e n t e r o f a n a i r p o r t i n t h e d i r e c t i o n a l o n g t h e SPR a n d t h e s h o r t e s t l i n e f o r t h e a i r c r a f t ' s p a t h t o t h e SPR a f t e r t a k e o f f a n d g a i n i n g a l t i t u d e u n t i l t h e first t u r n are a t r i g h t angles. S i n c e t h e l i n e o f f l i g h t i s n o t c o n s t a n t when t h e a i r c r a f t r e a c h e s t h e SPR, t h e problem i n v o l v e s b r i n g i n g t h e a i r c r a f t t o a g i v e n p o i n t w i t h t h e minimum n u m b e r o f c h a n g e s i n t h e c o u r s e , o r ( i n o t h e r w o r d s ) along the shortest path. P r a c t i c a l l y speaking, v i s u a l c o n t r o l of an a i r c r a f t t o b r i n g i t t o t h e SPR i s d o n e a s f o l l o w s . If t h e c o u r s e l e a d i n g f r o m t h e a i r p o r t t o t h e SPR d i f f e r s f r o m t h e t a k e o f f c o u r s e by l e s s t h a n 90, a f t e r t a k e o f f a n d g a i n i n g t h e d e s i r e d a l t i t u d e , t h e a i r c r a f t makes a r i g h t a n g l e t u r n t o t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t o f t h e r o u t e , s o t h a t when t h e w i n d i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f t h e a i r p o r t c a u s e s d r i f t i n g of t h e a i r c r a f t t o t h e r i g h t , t h e l a n d mark w h i c h i s d e s i g n a t e d a s t h e SPR m u s t r e m a i n t o t h e r i g h t o f t h e a i r c r a f t c o u r s e b y 5 - 1 0 , d e p e n d i n g on t h e d i r e c t i o n a n d s p e e d o f /211 t h e wind. I n t h e case of a l e f t - h a n d d r i f t , t h e S P R m u s t r e m a i n a t t h e same a n g l e t o t h e l e f t o f t h e a i r c r a f t c o u r s e . W i t h t h e p r o p e r s e l e c t i o n o f t h e c o u r s e t o t h e S P R Y ; . e . , when t h e l e a d angle (LA) i s e q u a l i n v a l u e t o t h e d r i f t angle of t h e a i r c r a f t , t h e landmark w i l l be observed a t a c o n s t a n t a n g l e t o t h e axis o f t h e a i r c r a f t , CAL = c o n s t ( F i g . 2.42, b ) . I n t h i s case, it i s necessary t o c o n t i n u e t h e f l i g h t along t h e p r e v i o u s c o u r s e u n t i l t h e SPR i s p a s s e d or ( i n h i g h - s p e e d a i r c r a f t ) u n t i l t h e r e i s a l i n e a r l e a d on t h e t u r n . If t h e d r i f t a n g l e t u r n s o u t t o b e l e s s t h a n t h e l e a d w h i c h has been t a k e n ( F i g . 2.42, c ) , a s l i p p i n g o f t h e landmark w i l l be observed from t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l a x i s of t h e a i r c r a f t . I n t h i s case, t h e a i r c r a f t must b e s h i f t e d i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e landmark s o t h a t . i t s c o u r s e a n g l e t u r n s o u t t o b e l e s s t h a n t h e i n i t i a l one. The s l i p p i n g of t h e l a n d m a r k i n t h e i n a l a x i s o f t h e a i r c r a f t (Fig'. 2 . 4 3 , d ) which has been t a k e n is l e s s t h a n t h e d r m u s t b e t u r n e d away f r o m t h e l a n d m a r k s o g r e a t e r than t h e i n i t i a l one. 216 d i r e c t i o n of t h e l o n g i t u d indicates that the lead i f t a n g l e , and t h e a i r c r a f t t h a t its course angle is

T h u s , t h e c o u r s e t o b e f o l l o w e d by t h e a i r c r a f t i s s e t v i s u a l l y This problem i s when t h e S P R i s l o c a t e d a l o n g a s t r a i g h t l i n e .

Fig. 2.42. L i n i n g Up a n A i r c r a f t w i t h t h e SPR: ( a ) P a t h Angle ( $ 1 and S h o r t e s t D i s t a n c e ( S I ; ( b ) Aircraft Course Chosen C o r r e c t l y ; ( c ) A i r c r a f t Course must b e I n c r e a s e d ; (d) A i r c r a f t C o u r s e Must b e D e c r e a s e d . b e s t s o l v e d when t h e r e i s a n a v i g a t i o n l e v e l on b o a r d , b y u s i n g t h e .- 1 2 /2 s o - c a l l e d method of h a l f c o r r e c t i o n s . T h i s method i n v o l v e s t h e f o l i f t h e l e a d which h a s b e e n t a k e n t u r n s o u t t o b e g r e a t e r lowing: or l e s s t h a n t h e r e q u i r e d o n e , i t t h e n c h a n g e s i n t h e r e q u i r e d d i r e c If t h i s t u r n s t i o n by h a l f of t h e i n i t i a l l e a d which w a s t a k e n . o u t t o b e i n s u f f i c i e n t , i t i s c h a n g e d a g a i n by h a l f of t h e i n i t i a l v a l u e u n t i l t h e c o u r s e a n g l e b e c o m e s s t a b l e or t h e s i g n o f t h e c o r r e c t i o n must be changed t o t h e o p p o s i t e . R e v e r s e c o r r e c t i o n i s made b y o n e - f o u r t h o f t h e i n i t i a l l e a d , a n d i f t h i s i s i n s u f f i c i e n t or t o o m u c h , a c o r r e c t i o n i s made w h i c h i s e q u a l t o o n e - e i g h t h of t h e i n i t i a l l e a d . I t is not usually neces s a r y t o b r e a k down t h e c o r r e c t i o n s m o r e t h a n e i g h t t i m e s , s i n c e t h e v a l u e o f t h e c o r r e c t i o n w i l l t h e n b e n o more t h a n 1-1.5O , w h i c h i s no l o n g e r of p r a c t i c a l i m p o r t a n c e f o r v i s u a l a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n . I n t h e absence of a s i g h t aboard t h e a i r c r a f t , t h e c o u r s e a n g l e s for t h e SPR a r e d e t e r m i n e d b y v i s u a l o b s e r v a t i o n ; t o s o l v e t h i s p r o b lem, t h e p i l o t r e q u i r e s a c e r t a i n d e g r e e of e x p e r i e n c e which i s gained i n t h e course of t h e t r a i n i n g of f l i g h t c r u i s e i n a c t u a l f l i g h t or i n s p e c i a l t r a i n i n g d e v i c e s , a s w e l l a s i n p r a c t i c e f l i g h t s .

217

l i-

S e l e c t i n g the C o u r s e to be F o l l o w e d f o r the F l i g h t Route

The c o u r s e t o b e f o l l o w e d b y t h e a i r c r a f t a l o n g t h e f l i g h t r o u t e n o t o n l y must b e s e t s o t h e air'craft p a s s e s o v e r c e r t a i n c o n t r o l landmarks i n t h e p r o p e r o r d e r , b u t must a l s o e n s u r e t h a t t h e f l i g h t t a k e s p l a c e e x a c t l y a c c o r d i n g t o t h e g i v e n l i n e of f l i g h t . There are t h r e e p r i n c i p a l methods o f s e l e c t i n g t h e c o u r s e t o be followed: (a) When d e v i a t i o n s o c c u r f r o m t h e l i n e o f a g i v e n p a t h during the f l i g h t , (b) A t a landmark a l o n g t h e l i n e , I n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e landmark p o i n t s , (LGP)

(c)

The m o s t u n i v e r s a l a n d w i d e l y u s e d m e t h o d i s t h e f i r s t o n e . a f t e r f l y i n g over a c e r t a i n T h i s method i n v o l v e s t h e f o l l o w i n g : control point, the calculated course t o be followed along the given l i n e of f l i g h t i s d e t e r m i n e d as f o l l o w s
y = $ a

calc'

which t h e a i r c r a f t f o l l o w s u n t i l t h e f i r s t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p o i n t along the f l i g h t path. I f , a t t h e moment t h a t i t i s f l y i n g o v e r t h i s p o i n t , t h e a i r c r a f t t u r n s o u t t o b e on t h e g i v e n l i n e o f f l i g h t , t h e c o u r s e i s then considered t o be sufficiently correct.

I f t h e a i r c r a f t h a s u n d e r g o n e some s h i f t t o t h e r i g h t w h e n it p a s s e s o v e r t h i s p o i n t , t h e l i n e a r l a t e r a l d e v i a t i o n from t h e d e s i r e d l i n e of f l i g h t i s determined and t h e r e q u i r e d c o r r e c t i o n i s f o u n d for t h e c o u r s e o f t h e a i r c r a f t :

t g Ay =

LLD

sc

,
/213

where LLD i s t h e l i n e a r l a t e r a l d e v i a t i o n and Sc i s t h e d i s t a n c e covered.

E x a m p l e : An a i r c r a f t h a s f l o w n f r o m a c o n t r o l l a n d m a r k f o r a d i s t a n c e o f 36 km a n d h a s d e v i a t e d 3 km t o t h e r i g h t o f t h e d e s i r e d path. Determine t h e r e q u i r e d c o r r e c t i o n i n t h e c o u r s e ( F i g . 2 . 4 3 ) :

S o l u t i on.

218

To r e a c h t h e d e s i r e d l i n e of f l i g h t , i t i s u s u a l l y p e c e s s a r y f i r s t o f a l l t o make a d o u b l e c o u r s e c o r r e c t i o n ( i n o u r c a s e , loo), a n d t h e n (when t h e a i r c r a f t h a s c o v e r e d a d i s t a n c e e q u a l t o t h e b a s e o f t h e m e a s u r e m e n t , or i s t r a v e l i n g a l o n g t h e l i n e o f t h e d e s i r e d p a t h ) t h e l e a d i n t h e c o u r s e i s r e d u c e d by a f a c t o r o f two, l e a v i n g a c o r r e c t i o n i n t h e course which i s e q u a l t o t h e s e t a n g l e of drift.

If t h e c l o s e s t t u r n i n g p o i n t i n t h e r o u t e ( C T R ) i s l o c a t e d a t a d i s t a n c e which i s s m a l l e r t h a n t h e b a s e of m e a s u r e m e n t , t h e n i n o r d e r t o a t t a i n i t , c o r r e c t i o n m u s t b e made i n t h e c o u r s e for t h e d i s t a n c e covered f o r t h e t r a v e l p a r a l l e l t o t h e l i n e of t h e d e s i r e d p a t h and o v e r t h e d i s t a n c e covered, i n o r d e r t o r e a c h t h e d e s i r e d p a t h a t t h e moment w h e n t h e n e x t c o n t r o l l a n d m a r k i s b e i n g passed.

L e t us s a y t h a t i n o u r example t h e d i s t a n c e t o t h e n e x t land m a r k i s s t i l l 3 0 km; t h e c o r r e c t i o n f o r t h e r e m a i n i n g d i s t a n c e w i l l be equal t o :

l Ayremtg
AI ==

3 30

==

1 10

- 6".

S i n c e t h e c o r r e c t i o n for t h e distance covered w a s equal t o So, the t o t a l correction for the course i n order t o get the air c r a f t t o t h e CTR must b e e q u a l t o -110. The p r o b l e m i s s o l v e d s i m i l a r l y when t h e a i r c r a f t h a s w a n d e r e d t o t h e l e f t of t h e desired path, but with the difference that the correction i n the course t o be followed i s p o s i t i v e i n t h i s case.

Fig. 2.43. Determination of C o r r e c t i o n s i n C o u r s e to b e Followed.

I n s o l v i n g problems i n determining t h e d e s i r e d c o r r e c t i o n s i n t h e c o u r s e t o b e f o l l o w e d , we p r e f e r a b l y u s e m e t h o d s i n v o l v i n g v i s u a l o b s e r v a t i o n by t h e p i l o t w i t h o u t t h e u s e of a n y c a l c u l a t i n g i n s t r u m e n t s or t a b l e s . In the opposite case, while the p i l o t i s solving t h e problems, t h e a i r c r a f t w i l l cover a considerable d i s t a n c e , t h u s c o m p l i c a t i n g t h e r e a l i z a t i o n of t h e d e s i r e d s o l u tions. The f i r s t m e t h o d o f p i l o t ' s v i s u a l e s t i m a t i o n i n t h i s c a s e w i l l be t h e v i s u a l e s t i m a t i o n of t h e l a t e r a l d r i f t from t h e l i n e of f l i g h t .

/214

2 19

If a n a r r c r a f t i s t r a v e l i n g t o t h e s i d e o f t h e a b o v e m e n t i o n e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p o i n t , t h e d i s t a n c e from it by f l i g h t along t h e tra v e r s e i s determined by t h e v e r t i c a l a n g l e . When t h e v e r t i c a l a n g l e o f t h e p o i n t i s c l o s e t o 26.5O, t h e a i r c r a f t i s l o c a t e d a t a d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e p o i n t which i s e q u a l t o h a l f t h e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e ; w i t h a v e r t i c a l a l t i t u d e o f 45O, t h e d i s t a n c e i s e q u a l t o t h e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e , w h i l e a t a,n a n g l e o f 63.5O i t i s t w i c e t h e f l i g h t a l t i tude. These a n g l e s are u s u a l l y determined by v i s u a l observation. Intermediate values of v e r t i c a l angles and distances are determined For e x a m p l e , i f t h e v e r t by v i s u a l o b s e r v a t i o n a n d i n t e r p o l a t i o n . i c a l a n g l e i s r o u g h l y e q u a l t o 55O, t h e n t h e d i s t a n c e t o t h e p o i n t is approximately equal t o 1 . 5 f l i g h t a l t i t u d e s .

This method, with s u f f i c i e n t t r a i n i n g , g i v e s a very high accuracy f o r determining t h e l o c a t i o n of t h e aircraft r e l a t i v e t o a given p o i n t along t h e r o u t e , and consequently, with r e s p e c t t o t h e l i n e of f l i g h t (on t h e o r d e r of 0 . 1 H ) a t v e r t i c a l angles u p t o 65O. A t v e r y l a r g e a n g l e s ( g r a t e r t h a n 65O) f r o m t h e v e r t i c a l of t h e a i r c r a f t , t h e e r r o r s i n d i s t a n c e w i l l b e g r e a t e r a n d t h i s method c a n n o t b e u s e d . The s e c o n d method o f v i s u a l e s t i m a t i o n by t h e p i l o t w h i c h i s used i n s o l v i n g t h i s problem i s t h e mental c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e required course corrections following l i n e a r l a t e r a l deviation

(LLD).
For c o n v e n i e n c e i n m e t a l c a l c u l a t i o n , o n e r a d i a n i s a s s u m e d t o b e 60' r a t h e r t h a n 5 7 . 3 , b u t t h i s d o e s n o t i n t r o d u c e a n y c o n s i d e r a b l e e r r o r s ( t h e maximum e r r o r i n a n g l e s u p t o 20 d o e s n o t e x c e e d 10 )

T h i s a l l o w s t h e r e q u i r e d c o r r e c t i o n t o b e made i n t h e c o u r s e i n terms of t h e approximate r a t i o of t h e l a t e r a l d e v i a t i o n t o t h e d i s t a n c e covered:

1/60 1/40 1/30 1 1/15

1 1.5
2

/a

3 4

1/12. 1/10 118 1/7

6 7 8

1I6 1/5 114 113

10 12 15

20

T h e s e r a t i o s a r e e a s y t o r e m e m b e r i f w e know t h a t i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n t h e i r r e q u i r e d c o r r e c t i o n it i s adequate t o divide t h e number 60 i n t o t h e d i s t a n c e c o v e r e d , when t h e l a t e r a l d e v i a t i o n i s t a k e n p e r u n i t of measurement. O b v i o u s l y , i f t h i s method f o r c o u r s e c o r r e c t i o n i s employed and t h e a i r c r a f t does n o t reach t h e d e s i r e d p o i n t along t h e l i n e 220

o f f l i g h t , s o t h a t t h e r e i s s t i l l some l a t e r a l d e v i a t i o n , t h e l a t e r a l /215 d e vi a t i o n a n d t h e d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e p o i n t a t w h i c h t h e c o u r s e w a s l a st changed can b e used t o c o r r e c t t h e c o u r s e . Selection of t h e course t o be followed according t o a land mark a l o n g t h e r o u t e c a n b e u s e d i n t h e c a s e when t h e f l i g h t t a k e s p l a c e a l o n g a s t r a i g h t - l i n e p o r t i o n o f a r a i l w a y or h i g h w a y a n d means t h a t t h e c r e w m u s t c h a n g e t h e c o u r s e of t h e a i r c r a f t s o t h a t it follows t h i s l i n e a r landmark. A f t e r c h a n g i n g t h e c o u r s e by a n a d d i t i o n a l t u r n i n g of t h e a i r c r a f t , t h e crew r e t u r n s t o t h e d e s i r e d c o u r s e and t r a v e l s i n t h e d e s i r e d d i r e c t i o n once a g a i n . T h e s e l e c t i o n o f t h e c o u r s e t o b e f o l l o w e d on t h e b a s i s o f o r i e n t a t i o n landmarks i s a v a r i e t y o f t h e l a t t e r method. I n t h i s case, t h e course i s s e l e c t e d s o t h a t t h e c l o s e r of two s e l e c t e d l a n d m a r k s a l o n g t h e l i n e o f f l i g h t c o n s t a n t l y ( u p t o t h e moment t h a t t h e a i r c r a f t f l i e s o v e r i t ) r e m a i n s i n a l i n e with t h e f u r t h e r landmark. A f t e r p a s s i n g by t h e c l o s e r l a n d m a r k , t h e a i r c r a f t f o l l o w s t h e d e s i r e d c o u r s e or c h o s e s t h e n e x t l a n d m a r k , l o c a t e d beyond t h e second one, and c o n t i n u e s i t s f l i g h t a l o n g this line. Change

i n Navigational

Elements During F l i g h t

The m a j o r i t y o f n a v i g a t i o n a l e l e m e n t s ( c o u r s e , a l t i t u d e , s p e e d ) a r e d e t e r m i n e d i n f l i g h t on t h e b a s i s of i n d i c a t i o n s o f t h e c o r r e sponding instruments, with i n t r o d u c t i o n of c o r r e c t i o n s f o r i n s t r u mental and methodological e r r o r s . A u t o m a t i c r a d i o d e v i c e s , b a s e d o n t h e D o p p l e r p r i n c i p l e , make it p o s s i b l e t o make measurements d i r e c t l y ( d u r i n g f l i g h t ) of s u c h e l e m e n t s as t h e d r i f t a n g l e and t h e ground s p e e d . O t h e r methods o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n do n o t p e r m i t d i r e c t measurement o f t h e l a t t e r two e l e m e n t s , s o t h a t i n o r d e r t o de t e r m i n e them i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o u s e v a r i o u s p i l o t a g e t e c h n i q u e s . In t h e absence of s i g h t s , t h e d r i f t angle of t h e aircraft can b e d e t e r m i n e d as f o l l o w s .
L e t us suppose t h a t w e are t r a v e l i n g along a given r o u t e and t h a t a c o n t r o l landmark on t h i s r o u t e h a s b e e n p a s s e d . A f t e r 15 20 min o f f l y i n g t i m e , w e s e l e c t a n o t h e r l a n d m a r k by w h i c h w e t e s t t h e c o r r e c t n e s s o f t h e c o u r s e which h a s b e e n s e l e c t e d . If no l a t e r a l d e v i a t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t o c c u r s on t h i s s e g m e n t , i t means t h a t t h e aircraft course has been properly s e t , i . e . , t h e d r i f t a n g l e i s e q u a l i n v a l u e t o t h e p r e v i o u s c o u r s e , b u t h a s t h e oppo site sign

221

w h e r e a i s t h e d r i f t a n g l e of t h e a i r c r a f t , and $ i s t h e g i v e n f l i g h t p a t h angle.

y is the aircraft

course,

It i s n o t always p o s s i b l e , t o be followed.

however, t o c o r r e c t l y set t h e course

If a l a t e r a l d e v i a t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t f r o m t p e l i n e o f t h e d e s i r e d path arises i n our f l i g h t segment, t h e course t o be f o l lowed w i l l b e i n c o r r e c t and t h e a c t u a l f l i g h t a n g l e w i l l b e

+Q = q3 -Iarctg

/216

AZ S

w h e r e A Z e q u a l s t h e d e v i a t i o n of t h e a i r c r a f t f r o m t h e L G F , a n d S i s t h e l e n g t h o f t h e s e g m e n t o v e r w h i c h t h e d r i f t a n g l e w a s meas ured. T h e a n g l e o f d e v i a t i o n of t h e a i r c r a f t f r o m t h e l i n e o f t h e d e s i r e d f l i g h t p a t h a r c t g AZ/S i s c o n s i d e r e d t o b e n e g a t i v e i f t h e a i r c r a f t d e v i a t e s from it t o t h e l e f t , and p o s i t i v e i f it devi ates t o t h e r i g h t . A s i n t h e method o f s e l e c t i n g t h e c o u r s e , t h i s a n g l e i s d e t e r m i n e d by methods o f v i s u a l e s t i m a t i o n by t h e p i l o t . I n t h e c a s e of i m p r o p e r s e l e c t i o n o f t h e c o u r s e t o b e f o l lowed, t h e . l a t t e r c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d as t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e a c t u a l f l i g h t angle and t h e course being followed:

I t i s much e a s i e r i n f l i g h t t o d e t e r m i n e t h e g r o u n d s p e e d of an aircraft: t h e same l a n d m a r k s a r e u s e d f o r t h i s p u r p o s e as those used f o r determining t h e d r i f t angle of t h e aircraft. To d o t h i s , i t i s s u f f i c i e n t t o d e t e r m i n e t h e t i m e s when t h e a i r c r a f t f l i e s o v e r t h e f i r s t and second landmarks, a f t e r which t h e ground speed i s determined by t h e formula

where S i s t h e d i s t a n c e between t h e landmarks and t i s t h e f l y i n g t i m e between t h e landmarks, T h e d i v i s i o n S/t i s d o n e a s a r u l e o n s c a l e s 1 a n d 2 o f a n a v i g a t i o n a l s l i d e r u l e ( F i g . 2.44), w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n of t h o s e For example, 6 , c a s e s when t h e f l y i n g t i m e i s l e s s t h a n 6 0 m i n . 1 0 , 1 2 , 1 5 , 2 0 a n d 3 0 , or e v e n 4 0 a n d 4 8 m i n a r e p o s s i b l e . In t h e s e c a s e s , t h e g r o u n d s p e e d w i l l b e e q u a l t o l O S , 6 S , 5 5 , 4 5 , 3S, 2 5 , 1 . 5 5 a n d 1 . 2 5 S , r e s p e c t i v e l y , a n d i s e a s i l y d e t e r m i n e d men t a l l y by m u l t i p l y i n g t h e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n t h e l a n d m a r k s by one o f t h e numbers g i v e n a b o v e .

222

Fig.

2.44.

S c a l e s on N a v i g a t i o n a l S l i d e Rule N L - 1 O M .

h )

h )

To m e a s u r e t h e g r o u n d s p e e d a s w e l l a s t h e d r i f t a n g l e , i t i s d e s i r a b l e t o s e l e c t d i s t a n c e s between landmarks which are no l e s s t h a n 5 0 - 7 0 km a p a r t . Over s h o r t d i s t a n c e s , i n o r d e r t o a v o i d g r o s s e r r o r s , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o d e t e r m i n e a n d m a r k down v e r y e x a c t l y t h e t i m e t h a t t h e aircraft passes over t h e c o n t r o l landmarks.

Measuring the Wind at Flight Altitude and Calculating Navigational Elements a t Successive Stages
The p r i n c i p a l f a c t o r w h i c h c o m p l i c a t e s t h e p r o c e s s e s o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n a t f l i g h t a l t i t u d e i s t h e wind. With a v a i l a b i l i t y of exact d a t a r e g a r d i n g i t s d i r e c t i o n and s p e e d , a l l problems o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n c a n b e s o l v e d by a c o m b i n a t i o n of g e n e r a l m e t h o d s o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n i n d e p e n d e n t l y of t h e v i s i b i l i t y of t e r r e s t r i a l landmarks. When t h e a i r c r a f t h a s o n b o a r d o n l y t h e m o s t g e n e r a l d e v i c e s f o r a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n , t h e problem of d e t e r m i n i n g t h e wind a t t h e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e a s w e l l as t h e d r i f t a n g l e and t h e ground s p e e d can b e s o l v e d i f t e r r e s t r i a l landmarks a r e v i s i b l e . The w i n d a t f l i g h t a l t i t u d e d o e s n o t r e m a i n c o n s t a n t b u t i s c o n s t a n t l y changing w i t h t i m e and e s p e c i a l l y w i t h d i s t a n c e . In order t o be able t o prepare t h e navigational data f o r t h e next s t a g e of f l i g h t , it i s n e c e s s a r y t o d e t e r m i n e t h e wind a t t h e v e r y e n d o f t h e p r e c e d i n g s t a g e a n d e v e n i n t h i s c a s e , t h e d a t a on t h e wind which a r e o b t a i n e d a r e o b s o l e t e t o a c e r t a i n degree and a r e not completely s a t i s f a c t o r y f o r t h e needs of calculating. U n d e r t h e c o n d i t i o n s when a n a i r c r a f t i s f l y i n g a l o n g a n a i r r o u t e , t h e r e are t h r e e n a v i g a t i o n a l p a r a m e t e r s which b a s i c a l l y determine t h e s p e e d and d i r e c t i o n of t h e wind a t f l i g h t a l t i t u d e : t h e a i r s p e e d ( V ) , ground speed ( W ) , and t h e d r i f t a n g l e f o r a given course. T h e w i n d c a l c u l a t e d on t h e b a s i s o f t h e s e p a r a m e t e r s w i l l n o t b e r e c k o n e d f r o m t h e m e r i d i a n o f t h e l o c u s of t h e a i r c r a f t ( L A ) b u t from t h e l i n e of f l i g h t of t h e a i r c r a f t . T h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e p a t h a n g l e o f t h e w i n d (AW) i s c a r r i e d o u t on t h e n a v i g a t i o n a l s l i d e r u l e b y means o f a k e y ( F i g . 2.45, a ) .

/218

Example: W = 360 k m / h r ; Determine t h e wind a n g l e .

V = 320 k m / h r ;

d r i f t a n g l e = +8O.

Solution:

(Fig.

2.45,

b).

Answer:

AW = 48O.

I f w e know t h e w i n d , i t i s e a s y t o d e t e r m i n e i t s s p e e d b y For our means o f a k e y w h i c h i s m a r k e d on t h e r u l e ( F i g . 2 . 4 6 , a ) .

224

e x a m p l e , see F i g u r e 2 . 4 6 ,

b.

Answer:

u = 60 k m / h r .

The d i r e c t i o n o f t h e w i n d r e l a t i v e t o t h e m e r i d i a n o f t h e l o c u s o f t h e a i r c r a f t ( L A ) i s d e t e r m i n e d by t h e f o r m u l a
6

= AW t I ) .

I f t h e f l i g h t i s made w i t h m a g n e t i c f l i g h t a n g l e s , t h e w i n d d i r e c t i o n i s o b t a i n e d r e l a t i v e t o t h e magnetic meridian of t h e LA. This d i r e c t i o n is a l s o used t o c a l c u l a t e t h e navigational elements i n t h e next s t a g e of t h e f l i g h t .

I n f o r m a t i o n on t h e s p e e d o f t h e w i n d a n d i t s d i r e c t i o n i s t r a n s m i t t e d from t h e a i r c r a f t t o ground s t a t i o n s , a l s o r e l a t i v e t o t h e magnetic m e r i d i a n of t h e L A , and i s used f o r c o n t r o l l i n g t h e f l i g h t of t h e aircraft. T h e a n g l e o f t h e w i n d or t h e n e x t s t a g e o f

AW = 6

the flight is

/219

+,

w h e r e 6 i s t h e w i n d d i r e c t i o n a n d J, i s t h e f l i g h t p a t h a n g l e o f t h e n e x t s t a g e of t h e f l i g h t .

a)

b)

0 s1n us
@ w-"
Y

0
@

8' 40

48'

20

Fig. 2.45. C a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e P a t h A n g l e o f t h e Wind o n t h e ( a ) Key for D e t e r m i n i n g t h e Wind Navigational S l i d e Rule: Angle; (b) D e t e r m i n i n g t h e Wind A n g l e . T h e v a l u e s for t h e g r o u n d s p e e d a n d d r i f t a n g l e o f t h e a i r c r a f t for t h e n e x t s t a g e o f t h e f l i g h t a r e c a l c u l a t e d o n t h e n a v i g a t i o n a l s l i d e r u l e by m e a n s o f a k e y ( F i g . 2 . 4 7 , a ) . L e t u s a s s u m e t h a t t h e f l i g h t i n t h e p r e c e d i n g s t a g e w a s made w i t h a MFA = 38O, i n t h e n e x t s t a g e w i t h a n M F A = 5 6 O , a n d w i t h a n a i r s p e e d o f 320 k m / h r . The d a t a o b t a i n e d on t h e w i n d a t t h e p r e c e d i n g s t a g e a r e AW = 48O, u = 6 0 k m / h r .

Fig. .46. C a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e Wind S p e e d o n t h e N a v i g a t - o n a l (b) D e t e r S l i d e Rule: ( a ) Key f o r D e t e r m i n i n g t h e S p e e d ; mination of t h e Speed.

225

II I I I

11111

The d i r e c t i o n o f t h e wind r e l a t i v e t o t h e m e r i d i a n o f t h e
LA i s

6 = 48

+
-

38 = 86O,

w h i l e t h e a n g l e o f t h e w i n d f o r t h e n e x t s t a g e o f t,he f l i g h t i s AW = 8 6 5 6 = 30'.

a)

b)

0us:
0"

-A$
V

'US+AW
W

@
@

$' 5
60

30' 320

3JS'
370.

Fig. 2.47. C a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e D r i f t Angle a n d Ground Speed on t h e N a v i g a t i o n a l A l i d e R u l e : ( a ) Key for D e t e r m i n i n g t h e D r i f t Angle a n d Ground S p e e d ; (b) Determination of t h e D r i f t Angle a n d Ground S p e e d .

The v a l u e o f t h e g r o u n d s p e e d a n d t h e d r i f t a n g l e f o r t h e n e x t s t a g e o f t h e f l i g h t a r e a l s o d e t e r m i n e d by means o f t h e n a v i g a t i o n a l s l i d e r u l e (Fig. 2.47, b ) , ?.e.,

W = 370 k m / h r ;

US = + 5 . 5 O .

The v a l u e s o f t h e d r i f t a n g l e c a n b e u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e c a l c u l a t e d c o u r s e t o b e f o l l o w e d i n t h e n e x t s t a g e of t h e f l i g h t . I n our case,

y

/220

= 58

5 . 5 = 52.5O.

I f t h e f l i g h t i s made w i t h o r t h o d r o m i c f l i g h t a n g l e s , t h e n i n order t o c a l c u l a t e t h e navigational elements f o r t h e next stage o f t h e f l i g h t it i s u n n e c e s s a r y t o c o n v e r t t h e wind a n g l e t o i t s d i r e c t i o n r e l a t i v e t o t h e m e r i d i a n of t h e LA. In t h i s case, the wind a n g l e f o r t h e n e x t s t a g e of t h e f l i g h t i s d e t e r m i n e d as t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e w i n d a n g l e o f t h e p r e c e d i n g s t a g e of t h e f l i g h t and t h e angle of t u r n i n t h e r o u t e ( F i g . 2.48):
AW2

= AW1 - TA.

I n o u r e x a m p l e , AW1 1 8 = 30.

= 48O, T A = 5 6 - 3 8 = 1 8 O , a n d A W 2 = 4 8

However, i n o r d e r t o t r a n s m i t i n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g t h e wind t o ground s t a t i o n s , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o d e t e r m i n e t h e wind d i r e c t i o n r e l a t i v e t o t h e m e r i d i a n of t h e LA. O b v i o u s l y , t h e t r u e w i n d d i r e c t i o n a t t h e p o i n t LA i s

226

.. ..

... .. .

___

w h e r e ct i s t h e a z i m u t h o f t h e o r t h o d r o m e a t t h e p o i n t L A ; n e t i c d i r e c t i o n of t h e wind i s

t h e mag

Consequently,

i f t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of

t h e orthodromic path angles

i s made f r o m t h e r e f e r e n c e m e r i d i a n , t h e n
6 M - AW + ( A L A - X r e f ) s i n $ a v - A M .

ExampZs:

A ~ = - ~ ~1=3ao o

Aor=700

ALA=850 , @ a v = 5 2 0 ,

A W = ~ ~ O .

SOlutiOn:

The t r u e wind d i r e c t i o n i s

true

= 48

38

15-0.8

= 980,

and t h e m a g n e t i c wind d i r e c t i o n i s
8~

= 48 + 3 8

15.0.8

5 = 1030.

Fig. 2.48. Determination o f t h e Wind A n g l e i n a Successive Flight Stage.

C a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e P a t h o f t h e A i r c r a f t and M o n i t o r i n g A i r c r a f t N a v i g a t i o n i n Terms o f D i s t a n c e and D i r e c t i o n

I n t h e p r e c e d i n g p a r a g r a p h s , we h a v e d i s c u s s e d t h e m e t h o d s o f p l a c i n g t h e a i r c r a f t on c o u r s e , d e t e r m i n i n g t h e n a v i g a t i o n a l e l e m e n t s d u r i n g f l i g h t , and c a l c u l a t i n g them f o r t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a g e s of t h e f l i g h t . Under c o n d i t i o n s o f c o n t i n u o u s v i s u a l o r i e n t a t i o n , t h e s e s methods c o m p l e t e l y e n s u r e r e l i a b l e a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o d i s - /221 t a n c e and d i r e c t i o n , and no a d d i t i o n a l c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e r e q u i r e d . H o w e v e r , v e r y o f t e n i t may n o t b e p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e t h e l o c a t i o n of t h e a i r c r a f t c o n t i n u o u s l y r e l a t i v e t o a g i v e n p a t h . For example, i n l o c a t i o n s where t h e r e a r e no d i s t i n g u i s h i n g f e a t u r e s (steppe, d e s e r t , t a i g a , bodies of w a t e r , e t c ) , v i s u a l o r i e n t a t i o n i s o n l y p o s s i b l e o v e r i n d i v i d u a l s e c t i o n s of t h e r o u t e . T h e c o n d i t i o n s o f m e t e o r o l o g i c a l v i s i b i l i t y may n o t allow u s e of landmarks which h a v e b e e n s e l e c t e d a l o n g t h e r o u t e . T h e r e f o r e , i t becomes n e c e s s a r y t o u s e c o n t i n u o u s c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e a i r c r a f t path i n t e r m s of t i m e a t c e r t a i n p e r i o d s , when i t b e c o m e s n e c e s s a r y t o c h e c k t h e a i r c r a f t p a t h w i t h r e s p e c t t o d i s t a n c e and d i r e c t i o n . C a l c u l a t i o n of t h e a i r c r a f t p a t h i s a l w a y s done w i t h p r e v i o u s l y c a l c u l a t e d p a r a m e t e r s ( t h e c a l c u l a t e d c o u r s e and g r o u n d s p e e d , 227

calculated t i m e ) . A t t h e same t i m e , a l l t h e v a l u e s a n d m o m e n t s o f c h a n g e i n t h e a i r c r a f t c o u r s e a r e d e t e r m i n e d , w h i c h make i t p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e t h e c a l c u l a t e d p o s i t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t by p l o t t i n g and t h u s t o determine t h e a d d i t i o n a l e r r o r s i n a i r c r a f t navigation. C a l c u l a t i o n of t h e p a t h o f t h e a i r c r a f t means t h a t a f t e r t h e l a s t i d e n t i f i e d l a n d m a r k h a s b e e n l e f t b e h i n d , t h e crew aims t h e a i r c r a f t toward t h e n e x t landmark d u r i n g a c e r t a i n p e r i o d o f t i m e which i s used t o f i x a l l t h e v a l u e s of t h e a c t u a l c o u r s e of t h e aircraft.
I f t h e p r o p e r l a n d m a r k h a s n o t b e e n s i g h t e d when t h e s c h e d u l e d t i m e h a s e l a p s e d , due t o m e t e o r o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s , t h e c a l c u l a t e d t i m e f o r f l y i n g o v e r t h i s landmark i s determined, and t h e a i r c r a f t i s s e t t o t h e n e x t p h a s e o f c a l c u l a t e d f l i g h t on t h e b a s i s of t h e p r e v i o u s v a l u e s f o r d i r e c t i o n and v e l o c i t y of t h e wind.

T h u s , c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e p a t h ( f l i g h t on t h e b a s i s o f p r e v i o u s l y determined d a t a ) can continue u n t i l t h e conditions f o r v i s u a l o r i e n t a t i o n improve. However, i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o k e e p i n mind t h a t the accuracy of aircraft navigation then decreases contin u o u s l y due t o t h e accummulation o f e r r o r s w i t h t i m e , a s w e l l as i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e o b s o l e s c e n c e o f t h e d a t a o n t h e w i n d , meas ured p r i o r t o t h e l a s t r e l i a b l y s i g h t e d landmark. When t h e c o n d i t i o n s f o r v i s u a l o r i e n t a t i o n i m p r o v e , t h e c r e w t a k e s measures t o check t h e p a t h of t h e a i r c r a f t i n t e r m s o f d i s t a n c e and d i r e c t i o n .
T o check t h e p a t h i n terms of d i s t a n c e , l i n e a r landmarks a r e u s u a l l y employed, which i n t e r s e c t t h e r o u t e of t h e f l i g h t a t an angle c l o s e t o 90.

Five t o t e n minutes before t h e c a l c u l a t e d time f o r f l y i n g o v e r t h e s e l a n d m a r k s , d e p e n d i n g on t h e f l y i n g t i m e a c c o r d i n g t o t h e p r e v i o u s l y c a l c u l a t e d d a t a and t h e s p e e d of t h e a i r c r a f t , t h e p i l o t c a r e f u l l y b e g i n s t o examine t h e l a n d s c a p e , l o o k i n g f o r t h e l a n d m a r k ; a t t h e moment t h a t h e f l i e s o v e r i t , t h e a p p r o x i m a t e p o s i t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t i s determined r e l a t i v e t o d i s t a n c e and time

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When f l y i n g o v e r a c o n t r o l l a n d m a r k , t h e p i l o t a l s o t r i e s t o determine t h e l a t e r a l d e v i a t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t from t h e d e s i r e d p a t h on t h e b a s i s o f a d d i t i o n a l f e a t u r e s of t h e landmark ( c u r v e s i n r i v e r s , t r i b u t a r i e s , r o a d j u n c t i o n s , populated areas , f o r e s t outlines, etc.). Having determined t h e p o i n t of i n t e r s e c t i o n of t h e landmark, the p i l o t projects it along t h e l i n e of the desired path, fixing t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t ( i n t e r m s o f d i s t a n c e a t t h e moment t h a t it f l i e s o v e r t h e 1andmark)and t h e d i r e c t i o n .

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A t t h e present t i m e , aircraft used f o r long distance f l i g h t s when t h e g r o u n d i s n o t v i s i b l e a r e f i t t e d w i t h s p e c i a l r a d i o n a v i g a t i o n a l equipment. L i g h t p l a n e s ( w h i c h f l y a t low a l t i t u d e s ) a r e o c c a s i o n a l l y r e q u i r e d t o make l o n g d i s t a n c e f l i g h t s when the conditions f o r visual o r i e n t a t i o n are poor. Never t h e l e s s , when s u c h c a s e s d o o c c u r , t h e f l i g h t c a n b e made on t h e b a s i s o f a s l i g h t l e a d i n t h e course and t h e d i r e c t i o n of an acute angle of intersection with the route Fig. 2.49. Lead Toward t h e A c u t e by a l i n e a r landmark ( F i g . 2.49). In t h i s case, t h e Angle of t h e T r a v e r s e o f a Landlandmark must a p p e a r i n t h e mark. f i e l d o f view somewhat e a r l i e r After t h i s , t h e air than t h e calculated time f o r f l y i n g p a s t it. c r a f t c a n b e aimed a t a c o n t r o l l a n d m a r k w h i c h l i n e s up w i t h t h e l i n e a r landmark.

I n i n d i v i d u a l c a s e s , when t h e p i l o t d o e s n o t r e c o g n i z e t h e t e r r a i n o v e r which t h e a i r c r a f t must f l y , a f t e r t h e c o n d i t i o n s f o r v i s u a l o b s e r v a t i o n have i m p r o v e d , t h e crew s e t s t h e a i r c r a f t on c o u r s e t o f l y t o w a r d t h e n e x t c o n t r o l l a n d m a r k , a n d t h e p i l o t m a k e s a n e s t i m a t e on t h e c h a r t o f t h e a i r c r a f t f l i g h t i n t e r m s of a i r s p e e d , f i x e d c o u r s e , and f l y i n g t i m e w i t h t h e s e c o u r s e s from t h e l a s t recognized landmark. The p o i n t o b t a i n e d h a s a c a l c u l a t e d wi n d v e c t o r d u r i n g t h e f l i g h t t i m e , a f t e r which t h e p i l o t compares t h e c h a r t w i t h t h e l o c a t i o n i n t h e f o l l o w i n g manner: (a) I n t h e r e g i o n o f t h e e n d o f t h e wind v e c t o r ( t h e most probable p o s i t i o n of t h e a i r c r a f t ) ; (b) I n t h e v i c i n i t y of a calm p o i n t ;

(c) I n terms o f t h e wind v e c t o r d i r e c t i o n from i t s b e g i n n i n g t o e n d , w i t h a c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h e wind v e c t o r 1 . 5 t o 2 t i m e s and t u r n i n g i t t o t h e l e f t and r i g h t a t a n g l e s up t o 90 f r o m t h e calculated direction; (d) T u r n i n g t h e wind v e c t o r ( e x t e n d e d 1 . 5 t o 2 t i m e s ) i n t h e remaining semicircle. N a t u r a l l y , t h e s e o p e r a t i o n s must b e c a r r i e d o u t w i t h c o n s t a n t c h a n g e o f t h e c a l m p o i n t , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e move ment o f t h e a i r c r a f t .
If t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t c a n n o t b e d e t e r m i n e d i n t h i s m a n n e r , o t h e r m e a s u r e s m u s t b e t a k e n t o f i n d l a n d m a r k s , s u c h as

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t h e l o c a t i o n o f a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c l i n e a r or l a r g e - a r e a l a n d m a r k ( l a k e ; s e a ) , and a l s o by making i n q u i r i e s from t h e g r o u n d , e t c .

Use o f A u t o m a t i c N a v i g a t i o n a l D e v i c e s f o r C a l c u l a t i n g t h e A i r c r a f t P a t h and M e a s u r i n g t h e Wind P a r a m e t e r s

To a c o n s i d e r a b l e d e g r e e , a u t o m a t i c n a v i g a t 5 o n a l d e v i c e s s i m p l i f y t h e work o f t h e p i l o t i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e p a t h o f t h e a i r c r a f t and i n m e a s u r i n g t h e wind p a r a m e t e r s a t f l i g h t a l t i t u d e . T h e s e d e v i c e s a r e mounted on h i g h - s p e e d p a s s e n g e r a i r c r a f t which have complete r a d i o n a v i g a t i o n a l equipment, t h u s c o n s i d e r a b l y i n c r e a s i n g t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of t h e i r use. Such d e v i c e s , w h i c h a r e b a s e d on t h e g e n e r a l m e t h o d s o f a i r craft n a v i g a t i o n , can b e used i n s t r a i g h t - l i n e systems of coord i n a t e s a t any o r i e n t a t i o n of t h e i r a x e s . The d i r e c t i o n o f t h e a x e s of t h e c o o r d i n a t e s i s s e l e c t e d by t h e p i l o t d e p e n d i n g o n t h e c o n d i t i o n s for w h i c h t h e s y s t e m i s b e i n g used. For e x a m p l e , f o r f l y i n g a l o n g a r o u t e , i t i s m o s t a d v a n t a g e o u s t o c o m b i n e t h e a x i s o f t h e s y s t e m OX w i t h t h e d i r e c t i o n s o f t h e s t r a i g h t - l i n e s e g m e n t s of t h e f l i g h t , i . e . , t o c a l c u l a t e t h e p a t h i n an orthodromic system of c o o r d i n a t e s i n s t a g e s . To c a r r y o u t s p e c i a l o p e r a t i o n s i n t h i s r e g i o n , e . g . , a t t e s t s i t e s f o r r a d i o n a v i g a t i o n a l s y s t e m s for s h o r t - r a n g e o p e r a t i o n , t h e a x i s OX i s combined w i t h t h e a v e r a g e m e r i d i a n o f t h e f l i g h t a r e a ( m a g n e t i c or t r u e ) , d e p e n d i n g o n w h i c h s y s t e m for c a l c u l a t i n g t h e f l i g h t a n g l e s i s b e i n g u s e d t o make t h e f l i g h t . I n p r e p a r i n g t o l a n d and maneuvering i n t h e v i c i n i t y of t h e a i r p o r t , t h e a x i s OX c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e a x i s o f t h e l a n d i n g s t r i p at the airport, etc. I n a l l c a s e s when a n a u t o m a t i c n a v i g a t i o n a l d e v i c e i s b e i n g u s e d , a r e c t a n g u l a r system of c o o r d i n a t e s s h o u l d b e a p p l i e d t o t h e f l i g h t c h a r t i n t h e given r e g i o n , p a r a l l e l t o t h e axes of t h e s y s t e m OX a n d O Z .

P a r a l l e l l i n e s a r e d r a w n a t 2 0 mm i n t e r v a l s , s o t h a t on c h a r t s w i t h a s c a l e o f 1:1,000,000 t h i s c o r r e s p o n d s t o 2 0 k m , w h i l e o n t h o s e w i t h a s c a l e of 1 : 2 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 i t i s 40 km, e t c . For t h i s p u r p o s e , a s p e c i a l s t e n c i l is included i n t h e set of navigational instru m e n t s f o r t h e NI-50B i n d i c a t o r .

In using an automatic navigational device with orthodromic c o o r d i n a t e s i n s t a g e s , no a d d i t i o n a l d e v i c e s a r e needed o t h e r t h a n t h e general navigational d i v i s i o n s of t h e c h a r t . During f l i g h t , t h e apparatus i s connected t o a source o f d i r e c t c u r r e n t , a n d t h e c h a r t a n g l e on t h e a u t o m a t i c c o u r s e c o n t r o l i s s e t

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i n accordance with t h e s e l e c t e d system f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e air

craft t o coordinates. T h e w i n d s p e e d a n d d i r e c t i o n a r e s e t on t h e wind s e n s o r on t h e b a s i s o f t h e r e s u l t s o f m e a s u r e m e n t s d u r i n g

t h e preceding f l i g h t segment.

If t h e n a v i g a t i o n a l i n d i c a t o r i s u s e d w i t h an o r t h o d r o m i c s y s t e m of c o o r d i n a t e s i n s e c t i o n s , t h e s e t t i n g o f t h e c h a r t a n g l e a n d w i n d i s made a t t h e e n d o f t h e p r e c e d i n g s t a g e o f t h e f l i g h t b e f o r e f l y i n g o v e r a t u r n i n g p o i n t i n t h e r o u t e (TPR). On t h e c o o r d i n a t e c a l c u l a t o r i n t h i s c a s e , t h e p o i n t e r IIN" i s s e t t o a v a l u e e q u a l t o t h e l i n e a r l e a d f o r t h e t u r n (LLT) a n d p o i n t e r r f E T f is set t o zero. A t t h e moment when t h e a i r c r a f t e m e r g e s f r o m t h e t u r n o n ' t h e new course (Fig. 2.50), t h e a l t e r n a t i n g current i s connected t o t h e i n s t r u ment and t h e i n d i c a t o r b e g i n s t o calculate the f l i g h t path.
A t s m a l l turn angles i n the l i n e of f l i g h t (up t o 3 0 ) , t h e t u r n t r a j e c t o r y of t h e a i r c r a f t i s very c l o s e t o TPR. In this Fig. 2.50. Transition t o an c a s e , t h e t w o p o i n t e r s on t h e O r t h o d r o m i c System o f Coorindicator should be s e t t o zero, dinates i n a Successive a n d t h e mechanism s w i t c h e d on Flight Stage. when t h e T P R i s p a s s e d a s t h e a i r craft is turning. A t t h e beginning o f t h e s t r a i g h t - l i n e s e g m e n t o f f l i g h t , if p o s s i b l e , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o m a r k t h e e s t a b l i s h e d c o o r d i n a t e s o f t h e a i r c r a f t on t h e computer as t h e a i r c r a f t p a s s e s o v e r a g i v e n landmark.

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During f l i g h t along t h e s t r a i g h t - l i n e segment, t h e p o i n t e r s o f i n d i c a t o r s "N" a n d " E " w i l l a l w a y s s h o w t h e d i s t a n c e c o v e r e d by t h e a i r c r a f t from t h e l a s t landmark a l o n g t h e l i n e o f t h e g i v e n p a t h and t h e l a t e r a l d e v i a t i o n from t h e l a t t e r i f i t t a k e s p l a c e , e . g . , due t o i n a c c u r a t e m a i n t e n a n c e of t h e c o u r s e , i m p r o p e r s t u d y i n g o f t h e d a t a r e g a r d i n g t h e w i n d , or i n c a s e o f d a n g e r o u s m e t e o r o l o g i c a l phenomena. C o n s t a n t knowledge of t h e a i r c r a f t c o o r d i n a t e s f a c i l i t a t e s b o t h v i s u a l and r a d i a l o r i e n t a t i o n . However, a i r c r a f t c o o r d i n a t e s o b t a i n e d on t h e b a s i s of a c o m p u t e r w i l l n o t a l w a y s c o r r e s p o n d p r e c i s e l y with t h e a c t u a l c o o r d i n a t e s , s i n c e t h e speed and d i r e c t i o n o f t h e wind d u r i n g f l i g h t change o v e r t h e d i s t a n c e c o v e r e d . The n a v i g a t i o n a l i n d i c a t o r a l s o makes i t e a s i e r t o d e t e r m i n e t h e wind p a r a m e t e r s a t f l i g h t a l t i t u d e . T h i s i s done as f o l l o w s :
A t t h e end of a s t a g e i n t h e f l i g h t , t h e a i r c r a f t c o o r d i n a t e s are recorded with t h e computer ( P o i n t B i n Figure 2.51, a ) and t h e

231

a c t u a l l o c a t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t i s d e t e r m i n e d v i s u a l l y or b y m e a n s of r a d i o n a v i g a t i o n a l d e v i c e s ( P o i n t B1). These P o i n t s BB1 d e t e r mine t h e v e c t o r o f t h e c h a n g e i n t h e w i n d a t f l i g h t a l t i t u d e f o r t h e f l i g h t t i m e of a given s t a g e of f l i g h t . The p r o b l e m o f d e t e r m i n i n g t h e w i n d v e c t o r i n t h i s case c a n /225 b e s o l v e d e a s i l y on a f l i g h t c h a r t . To d o t h i s , a r e v e r s e l i n e must b e drawn from P o i n t B and t h e l e n g t h o f t h e wind v e c t o r i s s e t on t h e s e n s o r ( u p a t ) d u r i n g t h e f l y i n g t i m e f r o m P o i n t A t o P o i n t B ( P o i n t 0). T h e n t h e v e c t o r o f O B w i l l c o n s t i t u t e t h e v e c t o r of t h e c a l c u l a t e d wind (and O B I , t h e a c t u a l wind) a t f l i g h t a l t i tude.

M e a s u r e m e n t o f t h e Wind b y Means o f a N a v i Fig. 2.51. gational Indicator: ( a ) W i n d - C h a n g e V e c t o r ; ( b ) Wind V e c t o r . I n o r d e r t o o b t a i n t h e v a l u e of t h e wind i n km/hr, i t i s s u f f i c i e n t t o d i v i d e t h e l e n g t h o f t h e v e c t o r O B 1 by t h e f l y i n g t ' i m e between P o i n t s A and B y e x p r e s s e d i n h o u r s . The p r o b l e m o f m e a s u r i n g t h e w i n d c a n b e s i m p l i f i e d i f w e c o n s i d e r t h a t t h e w i n d a t t h e s e n s o r i s z e r o for t h e f l i g h t s t a g e , i . e . , w e i n t r o d u c e t h e v a l u e o f AW = 0 , u = 0 i n t o t h e w i n d s e n s o r . Then P o i n t B w i l l b e t h e i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e c o o r d i n a t e s o f t h e a i r c r a f t a t t h e end o f t h e f l i g h t s t a g e , w h i l e P o i n t B 1 w i l l r e p r e Consequently, vector sent the actual coordinates (Fig. 2.51, b ) . B B 1 w i l l be t h e wind v e c t o r f o r t h e f l y i n g t i m e i n t h i s s t a g e . The u s e o f t h e n a v i g a t i o n a l i n d i c a t o r i n r e c t i l i n e a r c o o r d inates f o r f l i g h t s i n a given region is not different i n principle However, from u s i n g i t i n orthodromic c o o r d i n a t e s and s t a g e s . t h e i m p o r t a n t a d v a n t a g e of t h e o r t h o d r o m i c s y s t e m o f c o o r d i n a t e s is then l o s t , ;.e., t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p of t h e coordinates t o t h e Therefore, the c h e c k i n g o f t h e p a t h for d i s t a n c e a n d d i r e c t i o n . p o s i t i o n of t h e a i r c r a f t i n t h i s c a s e c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d o n l y i n t e r m s o f t h e c o o r d i n a t e s of t h e n e t w o r k s u p e r i m p o s e d o n t h e c h a r t . The r e c t a n g u l a r s y s t e m o f c o o r d i n a t e s c a n b e e x t e n d e d o v e r a r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l a r e a (on t h e o r d e r o f 400 x 400 k m ) , s i n c e t h e e f f e c t o f t h e s p h e r i c i t y of t h e E a r t h b e g i n s t o show up i n l a r g e areas. I n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h i s , i n t h e case o f f l i g h t s by a c o o r d i n a t e s y s t e m , i t i s n o t n e c e s s a r y t o s e t a new c h a r t a n g l e f o r e a c h

232

c h a n g e i n t h e l i n e o f f l i g h t a n d -to d e s c r i b e t h e c o o r d i n a t e s o f t h e a i r c r a f t i n a new s y s t e m f o r c a l c u l a t i o n , w h i c h t o a c o n s i d e r a b l e degree compensates f o r t h e l o s s o f t h o s e advantages which w e have i n t h e orthodromic system of coordinates i n s t a g e s .
Details o f A i r c r a f t Navigation Using Geotechnical i n Various F l i g h t Conditions Methods
/226

The c o n d i t i o n s f o r a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n u s i n g g e o t e c h n i c a l d e v i c e s are d e t e r m i n e d p r i m a r i l y by t h e p r e s e n c e and n a t u r e o f l a n d m a r k s , as w e l l as b y t h e i r c o n t r a s t r e l a t i v e t o t h e s u r r o u n d ing terrain. The b e s t l a n d m a r k s f o r v i s u a l a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n a r e l i n ear ones ( l a r g e r i v e r s , r a i l w a y s and highways, t h e shores of l a r g e bodies of water). L a k e s , l a r g e and s m a l l populated areas, char a c t e r i s t i c m o u n t a i n p e a k s , e t c . , a r e a l s o good l a n d m a r k s , w h i l e grain elevators, water tanks, churches, i n d u s t r i a l enterprises, e t c . , c a n b e u s e d f o r f l i g h t s a t low a l t i t u d e s .

For a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n i n a n a r e a w h i c h i s p o o r i n l a n d m a r k s , w e c a n u s e s e p a r a t e s i g h t i n g p o i n t s on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e i n t h e form of s p o t s , i n d i v i d u a l t r e e s , foam on t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e w a t e r , etc. Such p o i n t s a r e n o t l a n d m a r k s , s i n c e i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e t h e i r l o c a t i o n on a f l i g h t c h a r t , b u t t h e y c a n b e u s e d t o m e a s u r e t h e d r i f t a n g l e a n d t h e g r o u n d s p e e d when t h e r e i s a s i g h t o n b o a r d a n d a l s o make i t p o s s i b l e t o i n c r e a s e t h e a c c u r a c y of a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n d u r i n g f l i g h t b e t w e e n c o n t r o l l a n d m a r k s .

The c o n t r a s t o f l a n d m a r k s i s d e t e r m i n e d by w e a t h e r c o n d i t i o n s , i n which t h e v i s u a l f l i g h t s m u s t b e made. With good c o n t r a s t , e . g . , i n t h e presence of l a r g e populated a r e a s , r i v e r v a l l e y s , l o c a t e d i n f o r e s t e d t e r r a i n , a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n b o t h summer a n d w i n t e r c a n b e c a r r i e d o u t w i t h a h o r i z o n t a l v i s i b i l i t y on t h e o r d e r of 1 . 5 km. A t p l a c e s where t h e r e i s l i t t l e v e g e t a t i o n , a v i s i b i l i t y o n t h e o r d e r o f 1 0 km i s r e q u i r e d f o r a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n i n winter. The v i s i b i l i t y o f a l l l a n d m a r k s , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f il luminated populated areas , i s c o n s i d e r a b l y decreased a t n i g h t , e s p e c i a l l y when t h e Moon i s n o t o u t . Therefore, populated areas are t h e p r i n c i p a l landmarks a t n i g h t ; t h e i r appearance a t n i g h t can d i f f e r from t h e i r appearance i n t h e day.

An i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r w h i c h d e t e r m i n e s t h e c o n d i t i o n s for a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n i s t h e s t a b i l i t y o f o p e r a t i o n o f m a g n e t i c com passes. C o n d i t i o n s of a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n w i t h o u t t h e u s e of gyro s c o p i c compasses are u n f a v o r a b l e i n t h e p o l a r r e g i o n s , as w e l l as low a l t i t u d e s i n t h e v i c i n i t y of t h e m a g n e t i c a n o m a l i e s .

The f l i g h t a l t i t u d e a l s o h a s a s i g n i f i c a n t i n f l u e n c e on t h e aircraft navigation conditions. I n c l e a r w e a t h e r , optimum c o n d i t i o n s

233

I-

for v i s u a l o r i e n t a t i o n e x i s t a t h e i g h t s o n t h e o r d e r o f 1000-1500 m , s i n c e a t t h i s a l t i t u d e t h e a n g u l a r v e l o c i t y a t which t h e land marks g o by i s s m a l l , a l l of t h e i r d e t a i l s c a n b e s e e n c l e a r l y , a n d t h e f i e l d o f v i e w of t h e crew c o v e r s a v e r y l a r g e a r e a , w h i c h is important i n comparing t h e c h a r t s with t h e landscape.
H o w e v e r , t h e s e a l t i t u d e s c a n o n l y b e u s e d whGen t h e r e i s a s m a l l amount o f c l o u d s a l o n g t h e f l i g h t r o u t e . I n cloudy weather, f l i g h t s a r e made a t l o w e r a l t i t u d e s , a s l o w a s t h e r e l i e f o f t h e t e r r a i n w i l l allow. A t l o w a l t i t u d e s , t h e c o n d i t i o n s for v i s u a l o r i e n t a t i o n a r e w o r s e , s i n c e t h e a n g u l a r v e l o c i t y w i t h which t h e landmarks go by i n c r e a s e s a n d t h e a r e a w h i c h t h e c r e w of t h e a i r c r a f t c a n s c a n i s reduced. An i n c r e a s e i n t h e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e ( a b o v e 1 . 5 km) i n c l e a r w e a t h e r h a v e a s m a l l i n f l u e n c e on t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f v i s u a l o r i e n t a t i o n , b u t a t g r e a t h e i g h t s t h e v i s u a l v i s i b i l i t y of landmarks ( d e p e n d i n g on w e a t h e r c o n d i t i o n s ) i s much w o r s e t h a n a t l o w a n d medium a l t i t u d e s . The s e l e c t i o n o f s c a l e s a n d c h a r t p r o j e c t i o n s f o r mak i n g a f l i g h t d e p e n d p r i m a r i l y on t h e a l t i t u d e a n d s p e e d of t h e f l i g h t . A t low a l t i t u d e s , i t i s b e s t t o u s e c h a r t s w i t h a l a r g e s c a l e o f 1:500,000 or 1:1,000,000. A t h i g h a l t i t u d e s a n d h i g h s p e e d s , i t i s b e s t t o u s e c h a r t s w i t h scales of 1:2,000,000 a n d 1:4,000,000.

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For f l i g h t s a l o n g r o u t e s w h i c h a r e v e r y l o n g , c h a r t s a r e u s e d w h i c h a r e made u p o f p r o j e c t i o n s s h o w i n g t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f o r t h o d r o m i c i t y ( t h e o r t h o d r o m e on t h e c h a r t h a s a s h a p e c l o s e t o a s t r a i g h t l i n e ) , i . e . , c h a r t s i n t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l or t r a n s v e r s e c y l i n d r i c a l projection. For t h e p o l a r r e g i o n s , c h a r t s w i t h t a n g e n t s t e r e o graphic projection a r e used.

10.

C a l c u l a t i n g and Measuring P i l o t a g e Instruments

C a l c u l a t i n g and M e a s u r i n g P i l o t a g e Instruments

Purpose of

P i l o t a g e c a l c u l a t i n g and measuring instruments are intended f o r t h e following: (a) Measuring d i s t a n c e s a n d d i r e c t i o n s on f l i g h t c h a r t s .

(b) Calculating navigational elements both i n preparing f o r f l i g h t a n d when c o m p l e t i n g i t . (c) Calculating methodological e r r o r s i n t h e readings of navigational instruments ( t h e readings of t h e airspeed, a l t i m e t e r , and o u t s i d e a i r thermometer). (d) C a l c u l a t i n g t h e elements of a i r c r a f t maneuvering.

234

M e a s u r e m e n t o f d i s t a n c e s o n f l i g h t c h a r t s i s made b y m e a n s of a s p e c i a l navigational s l i d e r u l e . A f e a t u r e which d i s t i n g u i s h e s t h i s s l i d e r u l e from conventional s l i d e r u l e s i s t h e presence of s e v e r a l s c a l e s f o r m e a s u r i n g d i s t a n c e s on c h a r t s w i t h d i f f e r e n t /228 scales. M e a s u r e m e n t o f d i r e c t i o n s o n f l i g h t c h a r t s i s made b y m e a n s o f n a v i g a t i o n a l p r o t r a c t o r s , made o f t r a n s p a r e n t m a t e r i a l . The p r o t r a c t o r s a r e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y u s e d as t r i a n g l e s , w h i c h make i t p o s s i b l e t o m a k e c e r t a i n c o n s t r u c t i o n s o n f l i g h t c h a r t s and diagrams ( l a y i n g o u t t h e t r a v e r s e s of landmarks, p a r a l l e l s h i f t of l i n e s , e t c . ) . C a l c u l a t i o n s o f n a v i g a t i o n a l e l e m e n t s , c o r r e c t i o n s t o nav i g a t i o n a l d e v i c e s , and e l e m e n t s o f maneuvering are p r e s e n t l y car r i e d o u t w i t h t h e a i d of n a v i g a t i o n a l l o g a r i t h m i c s l i d e r u l e s , t h e b e s t m o d i f i c a t i o n of which i s t h e n a v i g a t i o n a l c a l c u l a t i n g s l i d e r u l e NL-1OM. In addition, t o calculate c e r t a i n navigational elements, w e c a n u s e s p e c i a l d e v i c e s f o r s e t t i n g up t h e s p e e d t r i a n g l e (windspeed i n d i c a t o r s ) . However, due t o t h e improvements i n n a v i g a t i o n a l c a l c u l a t i n g s l i d e r u l e s , they have a very l i m i t e d a p p l i c a t i o n .

Navigational

Slide Rule NL-1OM

T h e p r i n c i p l e of t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f n a v i g a t i o n a l s l i d e r u l e s i s t h e p r o p e r t y o f l o g a r i t h m s t o make i t p o s s i b l e . t o r e p l a c e t h e p r o c e s s e s of m u l t i p l i c a t i o n , d i v i s i o n , r a i s i n g t o a p o w e r , e x t r a c t i n g t h e s q u a r e r o o t , as w e l l as m u l t i p l i c a t i o n and d i v i s i o n o f t r i g o n o m e t r i c f u n c t i o n s , by o p e r a t i o n s i n v o l v i n g t h e a d d i t i o n and subtraction of t h e logarithms of these values. Thus, t h e o p e r a t i o n s d e s c r i b e d above i n v o l v i n g numbers c a n b e a p p l i e d t o t h e summing o f t h e s e g m e n t s o f a s c a l e on t h e r u l e r , which s i m p l i f i e s c a l c u l a t i o n t o a c o n s i d e r a b l e d e g r e e . The s c a l e s o f t h e n a v i g a t i o n a l s l i d e r u l e N L - 1 O M ( s e e F i g . 2.44) are grouped s o t h a t one s i d e i s used f o r s o l v i n g problems i n d e t e r m i n i n g n a v i g a t i o n a l e l e m e n t s o f f l i g h t a s w e l l a s maneu vering elements, while t h e o t h e r s i d e i s used f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e c o r r e c t i o n s for t h e r e a d i n g s o f n a v i g a t i o n a l i n s t r u m e n t s . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e upper beveled edge of t h e r u l e r ( P o s i t i o n 1 7 ) c a r r i e s a scale d i v i d e d i n t o m i l l i m e t e r s , which can b e used t o m e a s u r e d i s t a n c e s on t h e map. The s c a l e s on t h e r u l e r 1 a n d 2 a r e i n t e n d e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e g r o u n d s p e e d f r o m a known d i s t a n c e c o v e r e d i n a g i v e n t i m e , or f r o m a g i v e n d i s t a n c e a t a known g r o u n d s p e e d a n d t i m e .

235

Therefore

w = so t h a t

and

S = Wt,

1gW = 1 g S - l g t

and

1gS = 1gW t

lgt.

S c a l e 1 i s t h e s.cale o f l o g a r i t h m s o f d i s t a n c e s i n k i l o m e t e r s /229 s c a l e 2 i s a s c a l e o f l o g a r i t h m s of f l y i n g t i m e i n m i n or s e c u p t o t h e r e c t a n g u l a r i n d e x m a r k e d 1 0 0 a n d b e y o n d , i n h r s or m i n .

or f l i g h t s p e e d s i n k m / h r ;

The p r i n c i p l e o f s o l v i n g p r o b l e m s by d e t e r m i n i n g t h e a i r s p e e d o v e r a g i v e n d i s t a n c e a t a g i v e n t i m e i s as f o l l o w s :

L e t u s s a y t h a t a n a i r c r a f t h a s c o v e r e d a d i s t a n c e of 1 6 5 km i n 1 2 m i n a n d t h a t w e m u s t d e t e r m i n e t h e g r o u n d s p e e d i n k m / h r .
W s e t t h e m a r k i n g on t h e s l i d e r t o t h e 1 6 5 p o s i t i o n on t h e e d i s t a n c e s c a l e ; by moving t h e a d j u s t a b l e s c a l e 2 , w e s e t d i v i s i o n W can then read e 1 2 on i t o p p o s i t e t h e m a r k i n g on t h e s l i d e r . o f f t h e d i s t a n c e c o v e r e d b y t h e a i r c r a f t i n m i n u t e s o f f l i g h t oppo s i t e t h e number 1 a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e s c a l e :

1gW k m / m i n = l g 1 6 5 - l g 1 2 = l g 1 3 . 8 . However, equal t o s i n c e 1 h r i s 60 m i n , t h e s p e e d i n km/hr would b e

1gW km/h or

= l g 1 3 . 8 t l g 60 = l g 825

W = 825 km/h.
By c o m b i n i n g t h e f i r s t a n d s e c o n d e f f e c t s , w e o b t a i n 1gW = l g 1 6 5

lg 12

l g 60,

i . e . , i n order t o s o l v e t h e problem, it i s s u f f i c i e n t t o set t h e n u m b e r 1 2 o n s c a l e 2 o p p o s i t e t h e n u m b e r 1 6 5 on s c a l e 1 a n d o p p o s i t e n u m b e r 60 o n s c a l e 2 , w h i c h i s m a r k e d w i t h a t r i a n g u l a r m a r k i n g , and t h e n t o c a l c u l a t e t h e ground speed from scale 1 ( F i g . 2.52, a ) .

T h e p r o b l e m i s s o l v e d a n a l o g o u s l y i f t h e f l i g h t t i m e i s meas u r e d i n sec. I n o u r e x a m p l e , i t w i l l b e 720 s e e : 1gW = l g 1 6 5 - l g 7 2 0 t l g 3 6 0 0 = l g 8 2 5 ;

W = 825 km/h.
236

T h e g r o u n d s p e e d i n t h i s c a s e is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m s c a l e 1 o p p o s i t e t h e number 3600 on s c a l e 2 ( t h e number o f s e c o n d s i n 1 h r ) , marked w i t h a c i r c u l a r i n d e x . To d e t e r m i n e t h e d i s t a n c e a t a g i v e n g r o u n d s p e e d a n d f l y i n g t i m e ( S = Wt), t h e l o g a r i t h m s o f t h e s e numbers a r e a d d e d : 1 g S = 1gW

lgt.

On t h e r u l e , t h e t r i a n g u l a r or c i r c u l a r i n d e x on t h e m o v a b l e s c a l e 2 i s s e t o p p o s i t e t h e known g r o u n d s p e e d o n s c a l e 1. T h e i n d e x m a r k i n g on t h e s l i d e r i s s e t o p p o s i t e t h e g i v e n f l y i n g t i m e on s c a l e 2 , a f t e r which t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e i n d i c a t o r on s c a l e 1 shows t h e d i s t a n c e c o v e r e d i n t h i s t i m e .

/230

Example.
tance covered.
SOlUtiOn.

W = 750 k m / h r ,

t = 1 h r a n d 36 m i n .

Find t h e dis

Answer.

See Figure 2.52, b . I s = Ig 750 + Ig 1h 36 m i l l = 1200; g S = 1 2 0 0 km.

a)
iss
I2

825

b?

0-36
1 h

750

IZUU

min

Fig. 2.52. C a l c u l a t i o n on t h e N L - 1 O M : ( a ) o f t h e Ground S p e e d ; (b) o f t h e D i s t a n c e C o v e r e d o n t h e B a s i s o f G r o u n d Speed and Time. L e t u s a p p l y t h e k e y s t o N L - 1 0 for s o l v i n g p r o b l e m s i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e g r o u n d s p e e d a n d d i s t a n c e c o v e r e d on s c a l e s 1 a n d 2 : (a) To d e t e r m i n e t h e g r o u n d s p e e d f o r a d i s t a n c e c o v e r e d i n a known t i m e ( f i g . 2 . 5 3 , a or 2 . 5 4 , a ) .

(b)
and t i m e

To d e t e r m i n e t h e d i s t a n c e c o v e r e d f r o m t h e g r o u n d s p e e d ( F i g . 2 . 5 3 , b or 2 . 5 4 , b).

Fig. 2.53. t h e NL-lOM,

Keys f o r D e t e r m i n i n g t h e Ground S p e e d o n on t h e Basis of t h e D i s t a n c e Covered and the Time.

237

Movable s c a l e 3 w i t h t h e s i g n s o f t h e l o g a r i t h m s , w h i c h i s t h e same ( u p t o 5O) a s s c a l e 4 f o r t h e l o g a r i t h m s o f t h e t a n g e n t s and i s a l s o d i v i d e d i n t o scales 3 and 4, a l o n g w i t h t h e f i x e d scale o f d i s t a n c e s or a l t i t u d e s 5 , w h i c h e s s e n t i a l l y r e p e a t s s c a l e 1, are a l l i n t e n d e d f o r working w i t h t r i g o n o m e t r i c f u n c t i o n s . The m a j o r i t y o f p r o b l e m s w h i c h a r e s o l v e d on t h e s e s c a l e s a r e b a s e d on t h e p r o p e r t i e s of a r i g h t t r i a n g l e , s o t h a t t h e v a l u e o f t h e s i n e o f 9 0 a n d t a n g e n t 45O ( s c a l e s 3 a n d 4 ) , w h o s e l o g a r i t h m s a r e e q u a l t o z e r o , a r e marked on t h e r u l e by a t r i a n g u l a r index.
I f t h e p r o b l e m i s s o l v e d f r o m a known l e g , e . g . , d e t e r m i n i n g t h e e r r o r i n t h e c o u r s e on t h e b a s i s o f t h e d i s t a n c e c o v e r e d and t h e l i n e a r l a t e r a l d e v i a t i o n ( F i g . 2 . 5 5 1 , w e u s e s c a l e s 4 and 5 on t h e r u l e . Z tg A7 = - or Ig tg A7 9 lg 2 -.lg X.

The key t o s o l v i n g t h i s p r o b l e m i s shown i n F i g u r e 2 . 5 6 . I n t h e c a s e when t h e h y p o t e n u s e of t h e t r i a n g l e i s k n o w n , F o r example, sup t h e problems are s o l v e d by u s i n g scales 3 and 5 . pose w e wish t o determine t h e l o c a t i o n of t h e a i r c r a f t i n orthod r o m i c c o o r d i n a t e s ( X a , Z a > o n t h e b a s i s o f known c o o r d i n a t e s o f a l a n d m a r k ( X l y Z,), t h e d i s t a n c e and d i r e c t i o n o f which have been d e t e r m i n e d by means o f a r a d a r l o c a t e d on b o a r d t h e a i r c r a f t ( F i g . 2.57).
I t i s clear from t h e f i g u r e t h a t t h e orthodromic c o o r d i n a t e s of t h e a i r c r a f t w i l l be equal t o

/231

Xa

= Xi - R
=

COS

8 ;

Za

Z1 - R s i n

8,

where R i s t h e d i s t a n c e t o t h e landmark and 8 i s t h e p a t h b e a r i n g of t h e landmark ( t h e a n g l e between t h e g i v e n l i n e of f l i g h t and t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e landmark).

Fig. 2.54. Keys f o r D e t e r m i n i n g t h e D i s t a n c e C o v e r e d on t h e B a s i s of t h e Ground S p e e d a n d T i m e , U s i n g t h e N L - 1 O M . The d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e c o o r d i n a t e s of are r e p r e s e n t e d by X and 2 , r e s p e c t i v e l y , l o g a r i t h m i c r u l e (Fj-g. 2 . 5 8 , a , b ) . 238 t h e landmark i n a i r c r a f t a n d a r e f o u n d on t h e

I n a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n , a number of p r o b l e m s are s o l v e d which are connected w i t h t h e d i s t a n c e s and d i r e c t i o n s ( e . g . ) , t h e check i n g of a course i n t e r m s of t h e d i s t a n c e covered, determination of t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t by u s i n g methods o f v i s u a l a n d r a d a r m e a s u r e m e n t s , a n d many o t h e r s . The e s s e n c e o f t h e s o l u t i o n of t h e s e problems is obvious from t h e examples given.

Fig. Fig. Fig.

2.55.

Fig.

2.56.

2 . 5 5 . D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e C o u r s e Error f r o m t h e C h a n g e i n the Lateral Coordinate. 2.56. Key o n t h e N L - 1 O M Error.

for D e t e r m i n i n g t h e A i r c r a f t C o u r s e

For c a s e s w h e n t h e a n g l e s m e a s u r e d a r e g r e a t e r t h a n r i g h t a n g l e s , t h e s i n e s c a l e 3 i s numbered b a c k w a r d s , s o t h a t s i n 180-a = s i n a , f o r example:

l g s i n 135O = l g s i n 45O. S c a l e s 3 , 4 a n d 5 c a n b e use.d t o s o l v e s p e c i a l p r o b l e m s o f oblique-angled t r i a n g l e s , e.g., t h e solving of speed t r i a n g l e s . T h e k e y f o r s o l v i n g t h i s k i n d o f p r o b l e m i s g i v e n on t h e r i g h t h a n d s i d e of t h e s c a l e 3 . T h e t h e o r e m o f s i g n s , w e l l known f r o m t r i g o n o m e t r y , d e t e r mines t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e a n g l e s a n d l e n g t h s o f t h e s i d e s I n t h e c a s e where t h e speed t r i a n g l e of oblique-angled t r i a n g l e s . i s used ( F i g . 2.59), t h i s theorem has t h e form: s i n US - s i n AW - s i n ( A W + U S ) U V W (2.58)

/232

It is obvious t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p of E q u a t i o n ( 2 . 5 8 ) i s e q u i v a l e n t t o the following:

1gsinUS - l g u = IgsinAW-lgV l g s i n ( A W + U S ) - IgW, F i g . 2.57. Determination o f t h e O r t h o d r o m i c Coord i n a t e s of t h e Aircraft.

which i s e x p r e s s e d by t h e key on t h e navigational r u l e (see Fig. 2.60, , a).

239

Fig. 2.58. Keys f o r D e t e r m i n i n g t h e A i r c r a f t C o o r d i n a t e s on t h e N L - 1 O M ; ( a ) X-coordinates; ( b ) Z-coordinates.

Exampbe. MFA = 35O, V t s u e = 4 0 0 k m / h r , 6 = 85O, u = 6 0 k m / h r . F i n d t h e d r i f t a n g f e of t h e a i r c r a f t a n d t h e g r o u n d s p e e d .

SOlUtiOn.

I n o u r example, t h e wind a n g l e i s AW =

- MFAg = 8 5 - 3 5 = 5 0 .

Having s e t t h e s l i d e r i n d i c a t o r t o t h e d i v i s i o n r e p r e s e n t i n g 4 0 0 k m / h r on s c a l e 5 , a n d a l s o h a v i n g l i n e d u p t h e 50 d i v i s i o n o n t h e l o g a r i t h m s i n e s c a l e 3 w i t h t h e same s l i d e r i n d i c a t o r , w e o b t a i n t h e d r i f t a n g l e e q u a l t o 6.5O , a n d a g r o u n d s p e e d o f 440 km/hr ( F i g . 2 . 6 0 , b ) . T h i s k e y for s o l v i n g s p e e d t r i a n g l e s i s s u i t a b l e for d e t e r m i n i n g s p e e d a n d d r i f t a n g l e o f a n a i r c r a f t a t known w i n d p a r a m eters. However, i t i s n o t s u i t a b l e f o r d e t e r m i n i n g wind param e t e r s i n m e a s u r i n g t h e d r i f t a n g l e .and t h e g r o u n d s p e e d . T h i s p r o b l e m c a n b e s o l v e d as f o l l o w s .

L e t u s s a y t h a t o n t h e b a s i s o f m e a s u r e m e n t s , w e know t h e a i r s p e e d of an a i r c r a f t , t h e ground speed and t h e d r i f t a n g l e , ./.2 3 3 and w e want t o f i n d t h e s p e e d and d i r e c t i o n o f t h e wind ( u ) a t f l i g h t a l t i t u d e (see Fig. 2.59).
I t i s c l e a r from t h e diagram t h a t t h e r u n n i n g component o f t h e wind a t f l i g h t a l t i t u d e i s

ux

w - v

cos

us,

(2.59)

w h i l e t h e l a t e r a l component i s
u z = V s i n US = ( W - V

cos US)

t g AW.

(2.60)

If w e c o n s i d e r t h a t t h e d r i f t a n g l e of t h e a i r c r a f t r a r e l y e x c e e d s 15O, a n d t h e c o s i n e of t h e a n g l e o f d r i f t i s p r a c t i c a l l y always c l o s e t o u n i t y , Formula ( 2 . 6 0 ) can b e w r i t t e n a s f o l l o w s :

t g AN = However, since

V s i n US

w - v

240

V s i n U S = ( W - V ) t g AW,
then w e have t h e r a t i o s i n US - t g AW

w - v -

which c a n be u s e d as a k e y on t h e s l i d e r u l e ( F i g .

2.61,

a).

In practice, within the l i m i t s o f th.e d r i f t a n g l e s which a r e encoun t e r e d i n f l i g h t , t h e scales 3 and 4 on t h e r u l e c o i n c i d e ( t h e s i n e e q u a l s t h e t a n g e n t ) , a n d s o t h a t we w i l l n o t have t o d e a l with t h r e e b u t with two s c a l e s , w e o f t e n u s e a key which i s shown i n F i g u r e 2 . 6 1 , b .

Fig. 2.59. Navigational Speed T r i a n g l e .

E x a m p l e . V = 450 k m / h r ; W = 5 2 0 k m / h r - ; US = + l o o . F i n d t h e w i n d angle.
SOlUtiOtl.

tween t h e ground speed and a i r s p e e d ( W - V )

If w e s e t t h i s 2.61, c ) , w e w i l l f i speed i s found with theorem (Fig. 2.61,

The d i f f e r e n c e b e i s e q u a l t o 70 km/hr.

v a l u e on s c a l e 5 o p p o s i t e l o o on s c a l e 4 ( F i g . n d t h e wind angle t o be e q u a l t o 48O. The w i n d t h e a i d of a k ey wh i ch i s d e s c r i b e d i n t h e s i n e d).

Answer. u = 105 km/hr.

The f i x e d s c a l e on t h e r u l e r 6 , l i k e s c a l e 5 , i s a s c a l e o f l o g a r i t h m s o f l i n e a r v a l u e s , b u t t h e s c a l e i s t w i c e t h a t u s e d on T h e r e f o r e , when c o m p a r i n g a n y o f t h e f i r s t t h e first f i v e scales. f i v e s c a l e s t o t h e f i x e d s c a l e , a n u m b e r i s o b t a i n e d on t h e l a t t e r whose l o g a r i t h m i s e q u a l t o h a l f t h e l o g a r i t h m of t h e numbers o f t h e first five scales.

Example. I n s e t t i n g t h e m a r k e r o f t h e s l i d e r t o t h e number 4 0 0 o n s c a l e 5 or 1, t h i s m a r k e r s h o w s h a l f t h e l o g o f 4 0 0 on t h e s i x t h s c a l e , w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e s q u a r e r o o t o f 4 0 0 or 2 0 .
I f t h e d e s i r e d n u m b e r i s s e t o n s c a l e 6 , w e w i l l o b t a i n num b e r s on s c a l e s 5 and 1 whose l o g a r i t h m s a r e e q u a l t o t w i c e t h e l o g a r i t h m o f t h e g i v e n number, t h u s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h a t number r a i s e d t o a power o f t w o .

(p),

The t u r n r a d i u s of t h e a i r c r a f t w i t h a g i v e n b a n k i n g a n g l e a s w e know, i s d e t e r m i n e d f r o m F o r m u l a ( 1 . 6 ) .

/234

R = -

V g tgB

241

T h e r e f o r e , t h e problem of d e t e r m i n i n g t h e t u r n r a d i u s i s s o l v e d by means o f s c a l e s 4 , 5 a n d 6 : 1 g R = 21gV

lgg - l g tg8.

Therefore, i n s o l v i n g t h i s problem, it i s necessary t o have t h e l o g a r i t h m of t h e s q u a r e o f t h e s p e e d a n d t o s e t i t o n s c a l e 6. The l o g a r i t h m of t h e t a n g e n t o f t h e b a n k i n g a n g l e i s c a l c u l a t e d with t h e a i d of scale 4.

Fig. 2.60. C a l c u l a t i o n on t h e N L - 1 O M : ( a ) Key f o r S o l v i n g t h e N a v i g a t i o n a l Speed T r i a n g l e ; ( b ) S o l u t i o n of N a v i g a t i o n a l Speed T r i a n g l e . If w e c o n s i d e r t h a t i n o r d e r t o d e t e r m i n e t h e t u r n i n g r a d i u s , t h e a i r s p e e d o f t h e a i r c r a f t must b e e x p r e s s e d i n m/sec and n o t i n k m / h r , as w e d i d on s c a l e 6 , a n d a l s o t h a t i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n due t o g r a v i t y g , w e have a marking R on s c a l e 4 w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e l o g a r i t h m o f t h e number
1

3,@. 9,81

= 0,00787,

i.e.,

Formula ( 1 . 6 )

assumes t h e form: 0,00787 V2 R=

tg P

w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e k e y for t h e n a v i g a t i o n a l s l i d e r u l e w h i c h w a s shown i n F i g u r e 2 . 6 2 , a n d wh i ch i s f o u n d a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e t h i r d scale of s i n e s . The l a s t s c a l e on t h e s l i d e r u l e N L - 1 O M i s t h e s c a l e l a , wh i ch i s i n t e n d e d t o determine t h e t u r n i n g t i m e (t of t h e a i r c r a f t a t P a g i v e n a n g l e ( U T ) a t a known t u r n i n g r a d i u s ( R ) a n d f l i g h t s p e e d ( V ) . T h i s s c a l e i s a s c a l e o f l o g a r i t h m s for t h e a r c o f t h e c i r c u m f e r e n c e , r e l a t i v e t o t h e r a d i u s of t u r n of t h e a i r c r a f t . Obviously, t h e t u r n i n g t i m e o f t h e a i r c r a f t a t t h e g i v e n a n g l e /235 w i l l be 2xR t -_ -* - UT
p-

360

(2.61)
242

I n t h i s formula, t h e value 21~/360 is a c o n s t a n t m u l t i p l i e r . I n order not t o have t o c a l c u l a t e it each t i m e , scale l a i s set t o t h e value of t h e logarithm of t h i s m u l t i p l i e r at t h e left-hand side. After dropping t h i s m u l t i p l i e r , form : Formula

(2.61) a s s u m e s t h e

c)

I O '

44'

IO'

48'

Fig. 2.61. C a l c u l a t i o n on t h e N L - 1 O M : ( a , b ) : Keys f o r D e t e r m i n i n g t h e Wind A n g l e ; ( c , d ) : Determining t h e A n g l e a n d S p e e d o f t h e Wind. w h i c h c a n b e e x p r e s s e d on t h e r u l e s c a l e s b y a k e y shown i n F i g . 2.62, b .

Example. R = 4.5 km, ing time of t h e aircraft.

Solution.
See F i g .

V = 400 km/hr,

UT = 90.

Find t h e turn

2.62,

c.

Answer.

tp = 64 sec.

On t h e b a c k o f t h e r u l e a r e s c a l e s for m a k i n g m e t h o d o l o g i c a l corrections i n t h e readings of navigational instruments ( a l t i m e t e r s , airspeed indicators, outside-air thermometers). A d j u s t a b l e s c a l e 7 , w i t h a movable diamond-shaped i n d e x a n d t h e a d j a c e n t s c a l e s ( f i x e d s c a l e 8 a n d movable s c a l e 9 ) a r e i n t e n d e d f o r making c o r r e c t i o n s i n t h e r e a d i n g s of b a r o m e t r i c a l t i m e t e r s i n c a s e t h e a c t u a l mean a i r t e m p e r a t u r e d o e s n o t a g r e e w i t h t h e c a l c u l a t e d t e m p e r a t u r e o b a t i n e d when a d j u s t i n g t h e a p p a r a t u s . These c o r r e c t i o n s c a n b e made w i t h t h e f o r m u l a = l

'gH c orr

TO+TH g 2

lg

Hinst r. av.c.

243

According t o t h i s formula, t h e a d j u s t a b l e scale 7 i s a scale of l o g a r i t h m s To+TH/2. For convenience i n use, t h e logarithms The a r i t h m e t i c e f f e c t s o f T o + T H / ~ n t h e r u l e are marked t o + t . o c o n v e r t i n g t e m p e r a t u r e s from t h e c e n t i g r a d e scale t o t h e a b s o l u t e scale and t h e i r d i v i s i o n i n h a l f are t a k e n i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n t h e d e s i g n o f t h e s c a l e s i n s u c h a way t h a t i t i s n o t n e c e s s a r y t o make t h e m e a c h t i m e d u r i n g t h e f l i g h t .

/236

a)

b)
..

@ @
c),

B
- #

v 4 a @-

0. 3

ViIp

UT @
(P

R'

@
@

40
4.5

90

. .@

64

Fig. 2.62. C a l c u l a t i o n on N L - 1 O M : ( a ) Key for D e t e r m i n (c) i n g Turn Radius. ( b ) Key f o r D e t e r m i n i n g T u r n T i m e . Determination of Turn T i m e . Fixed s c a l e 8 ( c o r r e c t e d a l t i t u d e ) i s simply a scale of log a r i t h m s o f a l t i t u d e , w h i l e t h e movable s c a l e 9 ( i n s t r u m e n t a l a l t i t u d e ) i s a s c a l e of l o g a r i t h m s o f a l t i t u d e , d i v i d e d b y t h e a v e r age c a l c u l a t e d temperature o b t a i n e d f o r each a l t i t u d e , i . e . ,

The key f o r s o l v i n g p r o b l e m s by i n t r o d u c i n g m e t h o d o l o g i c a l c o r r e c t i o n s t o t h e r e a d i n g s o f t h e a l t i m e t e r a r e shown i n F i g u r e 2 . 6 3 ,

a.

ExampZe. The f l i g h t a l t i t u d e a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i n s t r u m e n t i s H i n s t = 6000 m ; t H = -35O. Find t h e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e corrected f o r t h e methodological e r r o r .

Solution. T h e a c t u a l t e m p e r a t u r e for a z e r o a l t i t u t d e t e r m i n e d f r o m t h e t e m p e r a t u r e g r a d i e n t e q u a l t o 6 . 5 deg/km:
i s de

t o = tH +
S O

6.Skm = - 3 5

6.5.6

= +4O,

t h a t t o + t H = -31O.

b),

I f w e s e t t h i s t e m p e r a t u r e v a l u e on t h e s l i d e r u l e ( F i g . w e w i l l o b t a i n H C O r r = 5 . 7 4 km.

2.63,

To i n t r o d u c e c o r r e c t i o n s i n f l i g h t a l t i t u d e s a b o v e 1 2 km, w e c e n t f i x e d diamond-shaped i n d e x , f i x e d scale 14 f o r t h e corrected

t h e r e a d i n g s of t h e altimeter a t u s e movable s c a l e 1 0 w i t h t h e a d j a as w e l l as t h e a d j a c e n t s c a l e s : a l t i t u d e and s p e e d , and f i x e d

244

s c a l e 1 5 for t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l a l t i t u d e a n d s p e e d .
C o r r e c t i o n s t o t h e r e a d i n g s of t h e a l t i m e t e r a t f l i g h t a l t i t u d e s a b o v e 12 km a r e made b y F o r m u l a (2.36). E x p r e s s i n g t h e a l t i t u d e i n km, t h i s f o r m u l a c a n b e w r i t t e n as f o l l o w s :

/237

lg(Hcorr

-11) = l g T H - l g 216.5 t l g ( H i n s t -11). av

(2.62)

Adjustable scale 1 0 i s a scale of logarithms (lgTHav-lg216.5). S c a l e s 14 a n d 1 5 a r e s c a l e s o f l o g a r i t h m s ( H - 1 1 k m ) , s o t h a t t h e y a r e s i m p l e , u n i q u e l o g a r i t h m i c s c a l e s -on w h i c h w e c a n c a r r y o u t m u l t i p l i c a t i o n and d i v i s i o n o f numbers, b u t w i t h a d d i t i o n a l numbers 1 w h i c h a r e s h i f t e d b y 1 km t o c a l c u l a t e a l t i t u d e .

F i g . 2.63. C a l c u l a t i o n o n NL-1OM: ( a ) Key f o r I n t r o d u c i n g Methodological Correction i n A l t i m e t e r Reading. ( b ) Determ i n a t i o n o f C o r r e c t i o n f o r Measured F l i g h t A l t i t u d e .

I n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h F o r m u l a (2.62), t h e k e y f o r i n t r o d u c i n g corrections i n t h e readings of t h e altimeter a t f l i g h t a l t i t u d e s a b o v e 12 km i s s h o w n i n F i g u r e 2.64 a .

ExampZe. H i n s t

= 1 4 km;

tH = -5OO.

Find Hcorr.

Solution.

S e e F i g u r e 2.64, b .

Answer:

Hcorr

= 14,400 m .

Note. Since t h e a l t i t u d e of t h e tropopause a t middle l a t i t u d e s i s n o t e x a c t l y a t a n a l t i t u d e o f 1 km, b u t c a n change w i t h i n l i m i t s 1 o f 9-13 k m , a f t e r s o l v i n g t h e p r o b l e m b y m e a n s o f t h e k e y s h o w n i n F i g u r e 2.63, b , t h e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e m u s t b e c o r r e c t e d f o r t h e a d d i t i o n a l c o r r e c t i o n AH = 9 O O t 2 0 ( t O + t H ) w h i c h i s s h o w n o n t h e r u l e a t t h e r i g h t - h a n d s i d e b e l o w s c a l e 14.

F i g . 2.64. C a l c u l a t i o n on N L - 1 O M : ( a ) Key f o r I n t r o d u c i n g C o r r e c t i o n i n F l i g h t A l t i t u d e s a b o v e 12,000 m ; ( b ) Determination of Correction f o r F l i g h t A l t i t u d e above 12,000 m.

245

The m e t h o d o l o g i c a l c o r r e c t i o n s d u e t o t h e f a i l u r e o f a g r e e m e n t o f t h e a c t u a l a i r t e m p e r a t u r e w i t h a c a l c u l a t e d v a l u e a r e made ) t o c a l i b r a t e t h e s p e e d i n d i c a t o r ( t y p e l l U S 1 lw i t h t h e a i d o f F o r m u l a (2.53). I n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h i s f o r m u l a , t h e s c a l e 1 4 on t h e r u l e r f o r logVtrue a n d s c a l e 1 5 f o r l o g V i n s t a r e p u r e l y l o g a r i t h m i c s c a l e s of l i n e a r v a l u e s . Adjustable scale 1 (temperature f o r speed) i s 1 a scale of logarithms 1 Ig (273" t ~ ) s 2

while a d j a c e n t t o it i s f i x e d scale 1 2 (instrument a l t i t u d e a l t i t u d e i n km) w i t h a s c a l e o f l o g a r i t h m s

-lg288+ 2
1

/238

2,6281g(1 + 0 , 0 2 2 6 H ) .

The k e y f o r i n t r o d u c i n g c o r r e c t i o n s i n t h e r e a d i n g s o f t h e s p e e d i n d i c a t o r "US" i s s h o w n i n F i g u r e 2 . 6 5 , a .

Example.
the airspeed.

t H = -30,

Hinst

= 7 km;
b.

vinst

= 450 k m / h r .
638 km/hr.

Find

Solution:

See F i g u r e 2 . 6 5 ,

Answer:

( a ) Key f o r I n t r o d u c i n g Fig. 2.65. C a l c u l a t i o n on N L - 1 O M : (b) C o r r e c t i o n i n R e a d i n g s o f T y p e "LIS" S p e e d I n d i c a t o r ; D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f C o r r e c t i o n f o r R e a d i n g o f T y p e "US" S p e e d Indicator.

For speed i n d i c a t o r s of t y p e llCSI1l, t h e c o r r e c t i o n s g i v e n above a r e found by Formula ( 2 . 5 4 a ) .

I t i s c l e a r from t h i s formula t h a t f i x e d s c a l e 1 and movable 1 s c a l e 1 5 (for V i n s t ) a n d 1 4 (for V c o r r ) w i l l b e t h e s a m e f o r t h e speed i n d i c a t o r s o f t y p e s rlUSfl and "CSI".
I n s t e a d o f f i x e d s c a l e 1 2 , w e c a n s c a l e 1 3 on s p e e d i n d i c a t o r s o f t y p e rlCSI1l,which i s a s c a l e o f l o g a r i t h m s

1
- lg(288 - 0 . 0 0 6 5 H i n s t 2

1.

The k e y f o r i n t r o d u c i n g c o r r e c t i o n s i n t h e r e a d i n g s of t h e s e i n d i c a t o r s i s shown i n F i g u r e 2 . 6 6 , a .

246

ExampZe. H = 1 0 km, corrected airspeed.

tH =

-45O,

VCSI

= 800 k m / h r .
808 km/hr.

Find t h e

Solution:

See Figure 2.66,

b.

Answer:

R u l e s c a l e 1 6 i s s e t up a c c o r d i n g t o t h e f o r m u l a

At=K-

112.

26 000

and is used f o r i n t r o d u c i n g c o r r e c t i o n s i n t o t h e readings of t h e t h e r m o m e t e r f o r t h e o u t s i d e a i r , t y p e "TUE". T h i s same s c a l e c a n be used a t subsonic a i r s p e e d s , and t h e e r r o r w i l l n o t be g r e a t e r t h a n 1 - 2 O f o r t h e t y p e I'TNV". I n p r a c t i c e , t h e f r o n t s i d e of t h e navigational s l i d e r u l e NL-1OM c a n b e u s e d t o s o l v e a number of o t h e r p r o b l e m s , t h e k e y s f o r w h o s e s o l u t i o n a r e d i r e c t l y d e p e n d e n t on t h e n a t u r e o f t h e p r o b lem. One e x a m p l e o f s u c h a p r o b l e m i s t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e d e v i a t i o n a n g l e of t h e m e r i d i a n s b e t w e e n t w o p o i n t s o n t h e E a r t h ' s surface. The a n g l e of Formula ( 1 . 8 2 ) . d e v i a t i o n of t h e m e r i d i a n s c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d by /239

O b v i o u s l y , t h i s p r o b l e m c a n b e s o l v e d on a r u l e r by means o f a key shown i n F i g u r e 2 . 6 7 , a .

Fig. 2.66. C a l c u l a t i o n on N L - 1 O M : ( a ) Key for I n t r o d u c i n g (b) C o r r e c t i o n i n R e a d i n g o f Type "CSI" Speed I n d i c a t o r ; D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f C o r r e c t i o n f o r R e a d i n g of Type "CSI" Speed Indicator. The s c a l e s o n t h e b a c k o f t h e r u l e r c a n b e u s e d t o s o l v e some o t h e r problems. For e x a m p l e , m o v a b l e s c a l e s 1 4 a n d 1 5 a r e t h e o n e s m o s t s u i t a b l e for m u l t i p l i c a t i o n a n d d i v i s i o n o f n u m b e r s . S c a l e 1 4 i s marked o f f w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g v a l u e s : AM ( A m e r i c a n s t a t u t e m i l e , e q u a l t o 1 . 6 3 k m ) ; NM ( n a u t i c a l m i l e , e q u a l t o 1 . 8 5 2 km), a n d f o o t ( e q u a l s 3 2 . 8 cm). T h e s e m a r k i n g s a r e u s e d for r a p i d c o n v e r s i o n o f measurements from one s y s t e m t o a n o t h e r .

247

Fig. 2.67. C a l c u l a t i o n on N 1 - 1 O M : ( a ) Key f o r D e t e r m i n i n g Angle of D e v i a t i o n o f M e r i d i a n s ; ( b ) Conver s i o n o f t h e Len.gth of t h e A r c o f t h e O r t h o d r o m e i n t o Kilometers.

Example.
t o kilometers.

C o n v e r t t h e l e n g t h o f t h e a r c o f t h e o r t h o d r o m e 5O16'

Solution.

5O16'

= 3 1 6 NM ( n a u t i c a l m i l e s ) .

Having s e t d i v i s i o n 1 0 0 on s c a l e 1 4 on t h e n a v i g a t i o n a l s l i d e r u l e o p p o s i t e 316 on s c a l e 1 5 ( F i g . 2 . 6 7 , b ) , w e o b t a i n t h e a n s w e r ( 5 8 5 km). On s c a l e s 1 4 a n d 1 5 , b y 1 2 , w e can s o l v e problems i n a i r s p e e d and a i r temperature t h e a i r s p e e d a t a g i v e n Mach Therefore, u s i n g t h e s e t t i n g s of s c a l e s 1 and 1 d e t e r m i n i n g t h e Mach n u m b e r a t a known a t a f l i g h t a l t i t u d e , or d e t e r m i n e number a n d a i r t e m p e r a t u r e .

t h e s p e e d o f s o u n d i n a i r i s f o u n d by t h e f o r m u l a
M=-- V,t r u e

Vtrue
20,3 1/273"

+ tH

or

Scales 1 4 and 15 a r e s c a l e s of l o g V , f i x e d scale 1 i s t h e 1 s c a l e o f 1 / 2 l o g ( 2 7 3 O + t ~ ) ,a n d f i x e d s c a l e 1 2 i s a s c a l e o f 2 . 6 2 8 1 l o g (1-0.0226H), which i s movable r e l a t i v e t o s c a l e 1 t o t h e v a l u e 1/21og288.

Fig.

2.68.

D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f Mach Number o n N L - 1 O M .

248

I n o r d e r t o g e t log20.3 from t h e v a l u e 2.628 l o g (1-0.0226H), i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o r e p l a c e H b y a v a l u e o f 3 . 2 5 km. Therefore, i f w e f i n d a n a l t i t u d e o f 3 . 2 5 km a n d s e t i t o n f i x e d s c a l e 1 2 , w e w i l l o b t a i n t h e key f o r s o l v i n g t h e problem with a c e r t a i n M number ( F i g . 2 . 6 8 ) . Obviously, t h e value M = 1 corresponds t o t h e airspeed ( i n km/hr) which is e q u a l t o t h e s p e e d o f s o u n d . To d e t e r m i n e t h e s p e e d o f s o u n d i n m / s e c , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o s e t t h e v a l u e o f 0 . 2 7 7 5 (1/36) on s c a l e 1 5 . If w e u s e t h e r e c t a n g u l a r i n d e x w i t h t h e m a r k i n g o f 1 0 0 0 f o r ' M = 1, t h e n d i v i s i o n 0 . 2 7 7 5 w i l l c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e number 277.5.

Note. I n general, f o r converting zero a l t i t u d e , correspond i n g t o 1 / 2 log288, t o t h e value of log20.3, it i s necessary t o s h i f t it t o t h e r i g h t t o t h e v a l u e 2.51 km, and t h e f u n c t i o n s of s c a l e s 1 4 a n d 1 5 i n t h e key shown i n F i g u r e 2.100 w i l l change p l a c e s . Then Formula ( 2 . 6 3 ) w i l l b e v a l i d .
However, t h i s w i l l c a l l f o r u s i n g f i x e d s c a l e 1 ( t e m p e r a t u r e 1 for s p e e d ) i n r e v e r s e o r d e r . T h e r e f o r e , i t w a s f o u n d t o b e more c o n v e n i e n t f o r s o l v i n g t h e s e p r o b l e m s r e l a t e d t o t h a t Mach n u m b e r t o i n t e r c h a n g e t h e l o c a t i o n s o f t h e v a l u e s on s c a l e s 1 4 a n d 1 5 , and t o s h i f t t h e a l t i t u d e t o t h e l e f t , t o t h e d i v i s i o n e q u i v a l e n t t o 3 . 2 5 km, a l t h o u g h t h e o r e t i c a l l y F o r m u l a ( 2 . 6 3 ) i s n o t t h e n v a l i d , The f a c t t h a t t h e numbers 2 . 5 1 ( w i t h a s h i f t t o t h e r i g h t ) a n d 3.25 ( w i t h a s h i f t t o t h e l e f t ) are n o t e q u a l is e x p l a i n e d by t h e f a c t t h a t z e r o a l t i t u d e under s t a n d a r d c o n d i t i o n s does not corre s p o n d t o z e r o t e m p e r a t u r e b u t t o +15O. T h e r e f o r e , t o make z e r o t e m p e r a t u r e m a t c h d i v i s i o n H = 3 . 2 5 , t h e s c a l e m u s t b e moved b y a n a m o u n t s u c h t h a t i t l i n e s u p w i t h t h e m a r k i n g H = - 2 . 5 1 km.

249

IIIIII I I l l 1 I

I I

CHAPTER THREE
AIRCRAFT NAVIGATION USING RADIO-ENGINEERING DEVICES

1. Pri nci p l e s o f t h e T h e o r y of Radi onavi g a t i o n a l Instruments

G e o t e c h n i c a l methods o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n , a l t h o u g h t h e y f o r m t h e b a s i s o f t h e c o m p l e x o f n a v i g a t i o n a l e q u i p m e n t on a n a i r c r a f t , do n o t p e r m i t a c o m p l e t e s o l u t i o n o f t h e problems o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n w h e n t h e r e a r e n o t e r r e s t r i a l l a n d m a r k s or w h e n the latter are invisible. The p r i n c i p a l r e a s o n f o r t h i s i s t h e v a r i a t i o n o f t h e w i n d a t f l i g h t a l t i t u d e , which means t h a t t h e f l i g h t c a n n o t b e maint.ained f o r a s i g n i f i c a n t p e r i o d of t i m e w i t h o u t checking t h e d i s t a n c e and d i r e c t i o n of t h e path being followed. Astronomical means, however, a r e n o t always h e l p f u l i n d e t e r mining t h e l o c a t i o n of t h e a i r c r a f t , s i n c e t h e heavenly bodies are j u s t as i n v i s i b l e as t e r r e s t r i a l l a n d m a r k s when f l y i n g i n c l o u d s or b e t w e e n c l o u d l a y e r s . I n a d d i t i o n , i n order t o determine t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o s e e a t l e a s t two l u m i n a r i e s i n t h e sky s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , which i s n o t always p o s s i b l e under normal f l i g h t c o n d i t i o n s . T h i s h a s made i t n e c e s s a r y t o s e e k new m e t h o d s o f r e l i a b l y c a r r y i n g o u t a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n under any p h y s i c a l and geograph i c a l c o n d i t i o n s e i t h e r d a y or n i g h t , w i t h o u t d e p e n d e n c e u p o n m e t e o r o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s , and has l e d t o t h e development of radio-engin eering devices f o r aircraft navigation.

/241

All r a d i o - e n g i n e e r i n g d e v i c e s f o r a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n u s e t h e p r o p e r t i e s of t h e p r o p a g a t i o n o f e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c waves i n t h e E a r t h I s atmosphere t o v a r y i n g degree,s

W know t h a t t h e p h a s e v e l o c i t y o f t h e p r o p a g a t i o n o f w a v e e energy i n d i e l e c t r i c media i s

c1 =

VF'

'

250

w h e r e c1 i s t h e r a t e o f p r o p a g a t i o n o f e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c w a v e s i n t h e m e d i u m , c i s t h e r a t e of p r o p a g a t i o n o f e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c w a v e s i n a v a c u u m , 1.1 i s t h e m a g n e t i c p e r m e a b i l i t y , a n d E i s t h e d i e l e c t r i c constant. F o r a v a c u u m , U = E = 1. I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e p h a s e p r o p a g a t i o n r a t e of e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c w a v e s , t h e r e i s a l s o a g r o u p p r o p a g a t i o n r a t e of e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c energy. I n a vacuum, t h e p h a s e a n d g r o u p p r o p a g a t i o n r a t e s f o r e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c waves a r e t h e same i n a l l c a s e s . 'In d i e l e c t r i c m e d i a , e s p e c i a l l y i n s o l i d s , l i q u i d s , a n d ( t o a much s m a l l e r d e g r e e ) g a s e s , t h e p h a s e p r o p a g a t i o n r a t e d e p e n d s on t h e f r e q u e n c y o f t h e o s c i l l a t o r y p r o c e s s . This is explained by t h e i n e r t i a o f t h e d i e l e c t r i c medium, ? . e . , t h e d i e l e c t r i c perme a b i l i t y o f t h e medium d e p e n d s o n t h e o s c i l l a t i o n f r e q u e n c y . The d e p e n d e n c e o f t h e p h a s e p r o p a g a t i o n r a t e upon t h e o s c i l If t h e waves p r o p a g a t e i n l a t i o n frequency i s c a l l e d dispersion. a n e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c medium w i t h d i f f e r e n t f r e q u e n c i e s , t h e i r p h a s e r a t e may n o t b e t h e s a m e . I n t h i s case, t h e t o t a l energy of t h e w a v e s w i l l b e maximum a t t h o s e p o i n t s i n s p a c e w h e r e t h e p h a s e s of t h e waves a r e c l o s e s t t o c o i n c i d e n c e . In addition, there w i l l b e p o i n t s where t h e t o t a l e n e r g y of a l l t h e waves w i l l b e e q u a l t o z e r o , i . e . , where t h e p o s i t i v e p h a s e s o f t h e waves w i l l b e b a l a n c e d by t h e n e g a t i v e o n e s . T h e p o i n t s w i t h maximum t o t a l e n e r g y a r e c a l l e d c e n t e r s o f wave e n e r g y . T h e r a t e a t w h i c h t h e c e n t e r s o f w a v e e n e r g y move i n space i s t h e group r a t e of t h e waves. The g r o u p r a t e o f p r o p a g a t i o n is
c :

/242

o f e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c waves i n s p a c e

' r g '

c*-w--J-

dc do

'

where e and el

!E ?

i s t h e group r a t e , w i s t h e average s p e c t r a l frequency, t h e average phase rate of t h e spectrum.

I t i s c l e a r from t h e f o r m u l a t h a t w i t h p o s i t i v e d i s p e r s i o n , t h e g r o u p r a t e of t h e waves e x c e e d s t h e p h a s e r a t e o f t h e i r p r o p agation.

Wave P o l a r i z a t i o n Figure 3.1 is a graphic representation of a propagating elec t r o m a g n e t i c wave i n t h e h o r i z o n t a l p l a n e as a f u n c t i o n o f t h e v e r t i c a l open c i r c u i t .

251

I n t h i s case, t h e v e c t o r o f t h e e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d , and t h e r e f o r e t h e displacement currents , w i l l coincide with t h e direction of t h e d i p o l e of t h e c i r c u i t ( d i p o l e open a n t e n n a ) . The p l a n e o f t h e vector of t h e magnetic f i e l d coincides with t h e h o r i z o n t a l plane, O b v i o u s l y , t h e e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c wave i s a t r a n s v e r s e wave , i . e . , / 2 4 3 t h e a m p l i t u d e s of t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s o f t h e e l e c t r i c and magnetic f i e l d s a r e l o c a t e d a t r i g h t a n g l e s t o t h e d i r e c t i o n o f wave p r o p a gation. The d i r e c t i o n o f t h e p l a n e o f o s c i l l a t i o n o f t h e e l e c t r i c f i e l d i s c a l l e d t h e v e c t o r o f wave p o l a r i z a t i o n . I n o u r s k e t c h , w e have e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c waves w i t h a v e r t i c a l p o l a r i z a t i o n v e c t o r . I n r e c e i v i n g electromagnetic waves, it i s important t o b e s u r e t h a t t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e dipole of t h e receiving c i r c u i t coincides w i t h t h e v e c t o r o f wave p o l a r i z a t i o n . I n t h i s case, t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s o f t h e e l e c t r i c f i e l d a n d t h e a x i s of r o t a t i o n o f t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d coincide with t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e d i p o l e , and both of t h e s e f a c t o r s w i l l b r i n g t h e e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c f o r c e ( a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y t h e conduc t i v i t y currents) t o the receiving antenna.

i s o p h a s a l circles

If t h e waves a r e v e r t i c a l l y p o l a r i z e d and t h e r e c e i v i n g antenna is located i n a horizontal position, no e m f w i l l be produced i n t h e dipole.

With t h e d i p o l e i n a h o r i z o n t a l p o s i t i o n , t h e e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c waves reaching t h e antenna w i l l have a h o r i z o n t a l v e c t o r of polarization. I n t h i s case, t h e r e c e i v Propagation of an Fig. 3.1. i n g a n t e n n a must be h o r i z o n t a l ; E l e c t r o m a g n e t i c Wave f r o m a i n a d d i t i o n , t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e Verticle Dipole. antenna i n the horizontal plane must b e p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e l i n e t o t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g a n t e n n a , i . e . , i t must c o i n c i d e w i t h t h e p o l a r i z a t i o n v e c t o r of t h e waves. The c i r c l e s i n F i g u r e 3 . 1 j o i n p o i n t s i n t h e h o r i z o n t a l p l a n e which have i d e n t i c a l phases f o r t h e e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c waves. These circles are c a l l e d isophasal. From t h e v i e w p o i n t o f t h e r e c e i v i n g a n t e n n a , t h e i s o p h a s a l c i r c l e s (and t h e isophasal spheres i n t h e propagation area) are t h e d i r e c t i o n s o f t h e wave f r o n t .

252

Propagation o f lectromagnetic Oscillations E Homogeneous Media

in

I n o r d e r t o make u s e o f t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f d e s i g n o f v a r i o u s t r a n s m i t t i n g and r e c e i v i n g r a d i o n a v i g a t i o n a l i n s t r u m e n t s , it i s n e c e s s a r y t o become a c q u a i n t e d w i t h t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e p r o p a g a t i o n o f e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c o s c i l l a t i o n s i n inhomogeneous c o n d u c t i n g and nonconducting media.

/24& E l e c t r o m a g n e t i c wave p r o c e s s e s i n d i e l e c t r i c s c o n s t i t u t e t h e c o n v e r s i o n of t h e p o t e n t i a l energy o f ' t h e e l e c t r i c a l l y deformed medium t o t h e k i n e t i c e n e r g y o f d i s p l a c e m e n t c u r r e n t s a n d v i c e v e r s a ( t h e k i n e t i c energy of t h e f i e l d i n t o t h e p o t e n t i a l deformation o f t h e medium).

For t h e m a j o r i t y o f d i e l e c t r i c m a t e r i a l s , p o l a r i z a t i o n i s n o t r e l a t e d t o a b s o r p t i o n o f wave e n e r g y , b e c a u s e wave e n e r g y i s p r o p agated practically without losses i n a l l directions. A decrease i n t h e o s c i l l a t i o n power w i t h d i s t a n c e t a k e s p l a c e due t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e wave e n e r g y f i l l s a n i n c r e a s i n g l y l a r g e v o l u m e , w h i c h ( a s we k n o w ) i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e c u b e o f t h e r a d i u s o f t h e s p h e r e which i t f i l l s .
S i g n i f i c a n t l o s s e s i n wave e n e r g y c a n o c c u r i n s o l i d d i e l e c trics with polar molecules. I n t h i s case, t h e p o l a r i z a t i o n i s n o t r e l a t e d t o e l a s t i c d e f o r m a t i o n b u t t o t h e motion o f m o l e c u l e s , which c a u s e s a c o n v e r s i o n o f wave e n e r g y i n t o h e a t . I n c o n d u c t i n g m e d i a , t h e e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c waves c a r r y a l t e r nating conductivity currents. T h i s means t h a t c o n d u c t o r s a l w a y s u n d e r g o a b s o r p t i o n o f wave e n e r g y a n d i t s c o n v e r s i o n t o h e a t . T h u s , t h e p r o p a g a t i o n o f wave e n e r g y i n m e d i a , e x h i b i t i n g b o t h e l e c t r o n i c and i o n i c c o n d u c t i v i t y , i s p r a c t i c a l l y p o s s i b l e t o a s l i g h t d e p t h w h i c h d e p e n d s o n t h e c o n d u c t i v i t y o f t h e medium a n d t h e frequency of t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s . The h i g h e r t h e c o n d u c t i v i t y

o f t h e medium and t h e g r e a t e r t h e f r e q u e n c y of o s c i l l a t i o n , t h e shallower t h e depths t o which t h e o s c i l Z a t i o n s w i Z Z propagate.

S i n c e t h e p r o p a g a t i o n r a t e of e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c waves d e p e n d s on t h e d i e l e c t r i c a n d m a g n e t i c p e r m e a b i l i t y of t h e medium, a n d t h e e l e c t r o n i c or i o n i c c o n d u c t i v i t y o f m e d i a c a n b e a s s u m e d t o b e a very high (approaching i n f i n i t y ) d i e l e c t r i c permeability, t h e concept of o p t i c a l d e n s i t y of media has been introduced. The m i n i m a l o p t i c a l d e n s i t y ( e q u a l t o o n e ) i s p o s s e s s e d b y a vacuum ( w h e r e t h e p r o p a g a t i o n r a t e of t h e waves i s e q u a l t o e ) . The o p t i c a l d e n s i t y o f a l l o t h e r d i e l e c t r i c s i s g r e a t e r t h a n u n i t y . In i d e a l conductors, t h e o p t i c a l density is equal t o i n f i n i t y ( t h e p r o p a g a t i o n r a t e of e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c waves i s e q u a l t o z e r o ) . I n p o r t i o n s o f a medium w i t h v a r y i n g o p t i c a l d e n s i t y , e l e c t r o

253
5

m a g n e t i c o s c i l l a t i o n s change t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e i r p r o p a g a t i o n . T h e c h a n g e i n d i r e c t i o n of p r o p a g a t i o n o f e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c w a v e s o n t h e s u r f a c e s o f p a r t i c l e s o f t h e medium w i t h d i f f e r e n t o p t i c a l d e n s i t y i s c a l l e d r e f r a c t i o n of r a y s . I n a d d i t i o n , under c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s , t h e r e i s r e f l e c t i o n o f waves f r o m t h e s u r f a c e s o f t h e sections. The c o e f f i c i e n t of r e f l e c t i o n d e p e n d s on t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e o p t i c a l d e n s i t i e s of t h e m e d i a , t h e f r e q u e n c y o f t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s , a n d t h e a n g l e of i n c i d e n c e o f t h e wave.

/245 When t h e p a t h o f a w a v e ( p r o p a g a t i o n d i r e c t i o n ) r u n s f r o m a l e s s d e n s e medium t o a m o r e d e n s e o n e , w i t h a c e r t a i n a n g l e o f i n c i d e n c e t o t h e s u r f a c e , t h e r e may b e n o s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e r e f l e c t e d ,' wave. Such a n a n g l e i s c a l l e d t h e a n g l e o f t o t a l i n t e r n a l r e f l e c t i o n o f t h e d e n s e r medium. I f t h e medium w i t h t h e g r e a t e r o p t i c a l d e n s i t y i s a c o n d u c t o r , i r r e v e r s i b l e a b s o r p t i o n o f w a v e e n e r g y may t a k e p l a c e i n i t ( c o n v e r s i o n o f wave e n e r g y i n t o h e a t ) .

With t h e g r a d u a l c h a n g e i n t h e o p t i c a l d e n s i t y o f t h e medium, t h e r e i s a c o n t i n u o u s r e f r a c t i o n ( b e n d i n g ) of t h e l i n e o f p r o p a g a t i o n , c a l l e d radiorefraction. The o p t i c a l i n h o m o g e n e i t y o f a medium c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e p r o p a g a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of waves o f d i f f e r e n t f r e q u e n c i e s i n t h e Earth's atmosphere.

A l l h a r m o n i c o s c i l l a t i o n s i n a medium a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y an o s c i l l a t i o n frequency ( w ) and an amplitude o s c i l l a t i o n ( E ) .

I f w e s a y t h a t t h e a m p l i t u d e o s c i l l a t i o n i s t h e maximum v a l u e o f t h e i n t e n s i t y of t h e e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d , t h e n a t a n y f i x e d p o i n t t h e o s c i l l a t i o n process w i l l s a t i s f y the expression:

E = E,
where

sin(wtt$),

i s t h e i n i t i a l phase of o s c i l l a t i o n .

The d e r i v a t i v e o f t h e f i e l d i n t e n s i t y w i t h t i m e w i l l c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e m a g n i t u d e of t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t c u r r e n t
E-

Idis

dt

dE =

while t h e second d e r i v a t i v e w i l l express t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n of t h e displacement current

The d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n t h e t w o c l o s e s t p o i n t s i n s p a c e w h i c h l i e a l o n g t h e l i n e of p r o p a g a t i o n of t h e wave f r o n t , i n w h i c h t h e wave p h a s e i s i d e n t i c a l , a r e c a l l e d t h e w a v e l e n g t h ( A ) , w h i c h i s e q u a l t o cl/w

254

E l e c t r o m a g n e t i c w a v e s c a n b e s u b d i v i d e d i n t o f o u r g r o u p s on t h e b a s i s o f t h e i r p r o p a g a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n t h e E a r t h ' s atmo sphere.

1. L o n g w a v e s , f r o m 3 0 , 0 0 0 t o 3 0 0 0 m ( 1 0 - 1 0 0 k H z ) . These waves h a v e a s u r f a c e t y p e o f p r o p a g a t i o n . Conducting media such as t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e a n d t h e u p p e r i o n i z e d l a y e r s o f t h e atmo s p h e r e h a v e a d e f l e c t i n g e f f e c t upon them. 2. Medium Waves, f r o m 3 0 0 0 t o 2 0 0 m ( 1 0 0 - 1 5 0 0 k H z ) h a v e a complex t y p e of p r o p a g a t i o n . I n t h e d a y , when t h e i o n i z e d l a y e r s of t h e a t m o s p h e r e a r e l o w e r , t h e t y p e o f p r o p a g a t i o n i s s u p e r f i c i a l a s i n t h e c a s e o f l o n g w a v e s ; a t n i g h t , t h e medium w a v e s h a v e b o t h a s u r f a c e and s p a t i a l t y p e of propagation.

3. S h o r t waves, from 2 0 0 t o 1 0 m (1500-30,000 s p a t i a l type of propagation.

kHz) h a v e a

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4. UZtra-short waves, l e s s t h a n 1 0 m , h a v e a r a d i a l t y p e o f propagation. They c a n b e r e f l e c t e d f r o m c o n d u c t i n g l a y e r s on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e , but only under c e r t a i n conditions can they be re f l e c t e d from t h e i o n i z e d l a y e r s of t h e atmosphere. Therefore, it i s t h e s e waves which a r e u s e d w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s o f g e o m e t r i c v i s i b i l i t y of o b j e c t s . T h e r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e s e w a v e s on t h e E a r t h ' s surface is insignificant. From t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y a n d r e l i e f , t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e h a s a c o m p l e x n a t u r e w h i c h d e p e n d s on t h e t i m e of y e a r and weather conditions. The i o n i z e d l a y e r s o f t h e a t m o s p h e r e also h a v e a v a r y i n g n a t u r e . The i o n i z e d D l a y e r , which i s c l o s e s t t o t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e , i s o n l y o b s e r v e d i n t h e d a y t i m e a n d d e p e n d s on t h e t i m e o f y e a r , t i m e o f d a y , a n d g e o g r a p h i c a l l a t i t u d e ; i t may a p p e a r a t h e i g h t s from 60-90 km. T h i s l a y e r h a s a n e f f e c t on t h e p r o p a g a t i o n o f l o n g a n d medium w a v e s . T h e c r i t i c a l f r e q u e n c y o f t h e l a y e r i s 0 . 4 MHz ( 7 5 0 m). Waves w i t h f r e q u e n c i e s h i g h e r t h a n t h e c r i t i c a l a r e n o t r e f l e c t e d from t h e l a y e r . Above t h i s i s t h e E l a y e r , w h o s e i o n i z a t i o n maximum i s r e a c h e d a t a h e i g h t o f 120-130 km. T h i s l a y e r i s t h e most s t a b l e one and r e t a i n s i t s e f f e c t b o t h day and n i g h t . The c r i t i c a l f r e q u e n c y o f t h i s l a y e r w i t h m a x i m u m i l l u m i n a t i o n i s 4 . 5 MHz; a t n i g h t i t d r o p s t h i s l a y e r h a s a maximum e f f e c t o n t h e p r o p a g a t i o n t o 0 . 9 MHz. o f medium a n d i n t e r m e d i a t e w a v e s ( t h e s h o r t w a v e s a t t h e s p e c t r a l b o u n d a r y w i t h t h e medium w a v e s ) . During t h e e v e n i n g and morning h o u r s , t h e l a y e r c h a n g e s i t s p a r a m e t e r s s o t h a t t h e s u r f a c e of maxi mum i o n i z a t i o n d e c r e a s e s . This leads t o e r r o r s i n radionavigation m e a s u r e m e n t s , s i n c e i t r e v e r s e s t h e v e c t o r o f t h e wave p o l a r i z a t i o n a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y t h e d i r e c t i o n o f p r o p a g a t i o n o f t h e wave f r o n t i n the horizontal plane.

255

The t h i r d i o n i z e d l a y e r ( F ) i s t h e m o s t u n s t a b l e o n e b o t h i n t e r m s o f t i m e o f d a y as w e l l as s e a s o n of t h e y e a r . Its average D u r i n g t h e d a y t i m e i n summer, t h i s l a y e r h e i g h t i s 2 7 0 - 3 0 0 km. I n a d d i t i o n , t h e F l a y e r shows d i v i d e s i n t o two p a r t s ( F I a n d F2). some s h i f t i n g i n h o m o g e n e i t i e s , w h i c h m a k e i t d i f f i c u l t t o p r e d i c t t h e propagation c o n d i t i o n s f o r e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c waves. The F l a y e r h a s a n i n f l u e n c e on t h e p r o p a g a t i o n o f s h o r t w a v e s .
I t s h o u l d b e m e n t i o n e d t h a t t h e medium a n d s h o r t w a v e s a r e r e f l e c t e d b o t h from t h e i o n i z e d l a y e r s o f t h e a t m o s p h e r e as w e l l a s f r o m t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e , s o t h a t t h e y may u n d e r g o m u l t i p l e r e f l e c tion. A l l of t h i s combines t o g i v e u s t h e complex p i c t u r e of t h e p r o p a g a t i o n o f e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c w a v e s i n t h e E a r t h Is a t m o s p h e r e , which must be t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t i n r a d i o n a v i g a t i o n a l measurements.

The p e c u l i a r i t i e s o f p r o p a g a t i o n o f e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c o s c i l l a t i o n s i n a conducting f e e d e r channel i n r e c e i v e r s and t r a n s m i t t e r s include/247 the following. Unlike c o n s t a n t and low-frequency a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t s , high frequency c u r r e n t s propagate mainly along t h e s u r f a c e of a conductor, s i n c e t h e r e a c t i o n of t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d w i t h i n t h e c o n d u c t o r i s g r e a t e r t h a n on i t s s u r f a c e ( t h e s k i n e f f e c t ) . This causes a l l high frequency conductors t o b e c o n s t r u c t e d w i t h an eye toward i n c r e a s i n g t h e s u r f a c e , e . g . , t u b u l a r and multiple-filament (stranded w i r e ) . However, t h e s e m e a s u r e s a r e i n s u f f i c i e n t f o r waves i n t h e cen I t i s much b e t t e r t o u s e h o l l o w c o n d u c t o r s f o r t h e s e timeter range. w a v e s , c a l l e d wave g u i d e s ( F i g . 3 . 2 ) . I n a homogeneous medium, t h e propagation r a t e of t h e f i e l d along t h e v e c t o r of t h e wave p o l a r i z a t i o n , 4% i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e perpendicular vector of p o l a r i z a t i o n , i n t h e plane o f t h e wave f r o n t , a n d i n t h e p r o p a Fig. 3.2. Propagation of E l e c t r o m a g n e t i c Waves g a t i o n d i r e c t i o n o f t h e wave f r o n t a r e t h e same. T h e r e f o r e , i n a boxA l o n g a Wave G u i d e . t y p e wave g u i d e , t h e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n t h e s u r f a c e s o f which i s measured i n whole numbers o f h a l f waves, t h e v e r t i c a l l y p o l a r i z e d wave ( s t r i k i n g t h e t o p a n d b o t t o m i n t e r n a l w a l l s of t h e box a n d b e i n g r e f l e c t e d f r o m t h e m ) w i l l s t r i k e t h e o p p o s i t e w a l l a l s o w i t h a whole number o f h a l f w a v e s . Consequently, r e f l e c t i o n of t h e waves w i l l t a k e p l a c e i n r e s o n a n c e w i t h i t s o s c i l lations. I n t h i s c a s e , t h e b o x - t y p e wave g u i d e w i l l a c t as a c h a n n e l a l o n g which t h e waves w i l l p r o p a g a t e t h e m s e l v e s p r a c t i c a l l y w i t h o u t any r e s i s t a n c e .
If t h e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n t h e w a l l s i s e q u a l t o a w h o l e , odd number w h i c h i s o n e - q u a r t e r of t h e w a v e l e n g t h , t h e n ( a s i s e a s i l y

pma

256

s e e n ) t h e r e f l e c t i o n s f r o m t h e w a l l s o f t h e wave g u i d e w i l l t a k e In this place each t i m e i n opposite phase with t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s . c a s e t h e w a v e g u i d e w i l l h a v e i n f i n i t e r e s i s t a n c e , a n d t h e wave energy w i l l not be propagated i n it. In Figure 3.2, the vector o f w a v e p o l a r i z a t i o n m u s t b e t u r n e d 90 t o a c c o m p l i s h t h i s .

P r i n c i p l e s o f S u p e r p o s i t i o n and

I n t e r f e r e n c e o f R a d i o Waves

The p r i n c i p l e of s u p e r p o s i t i o n i s a p p l i e d t o wave p r o c e s s e s , i . e . , e a c h o f t h e wave p r o c e s s e s a c t s i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f o t h e r p r o c e s s e s w h i c h a r e t a k i n g p l a c e i n t h e medium or c i r c u i t s .

A t t h e same t i m e , t h e r e s u l t s of d i f f e r e n t p r o c e s s e s c a n b e summed b y m e a n s o f a s i m p l e s u p e r p o s i t i o n o f o s c i l l a t i o n v e c t o r s . If t h e v e c t o r s o f two c o h e r e n t ( c o i n c i d i n g i n f r e q u e n c y ) p r o c e s s e s s u c h a s t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s i n t h e i n t e n s i t y o f a f i e l d or d i s p l a c e ment c u r r e n t s , a r e e q u a l i n a m p l i t u d e a n d c o i n c i d e i n p h a s e , t h e Under t h e s e t o t a l amplitude of t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s w i l l be doubled. conditions, i f the oscillations are i n opposite phase, the t o t a l a m p l i t u d e o f t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s w i l l b e e q u a l t o z e r o and no method w i l l s u f f i c e t o d e t e c t t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e wave p r o c e s s e s i n v o l v e d .

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Summing o f t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e p r o c e s s e s i n o p p o s i t e p h a s e i s c a l l e d wave i n t e r f e r e n c e . The c a s e i n w h i c h t h e r e s u l t o f summing of t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s is e q u a l t o zero i s c a l l e d t o t a l interference. The p r o p e r t i e s o f i n t e r f e r e n c e o f r a d i o w a v e s a r e w i d e l y em ployed and r a d i o n a v i g a t i o n a l d e v i c e s b o t h i n r e c e i v e r s and t r a n s m i t t e r s , e s p e c i a l l y i n measuring t h e d i r e c t i o n of an o b j e c t .

P r i n c i p l e C h a r a c t e r i s t i cs o f

Rad i o n a v i g a t i o n a 1

I n s t rumen t s

The p r i n c i p l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f instruments are the following:

transmitting radionavigational

(1) The r a d i a t e d p o w e r , of t h e system.

characterizing t h e operating range

(2) A c c u r a c y a n d s t a b i l i t y of t h e f r e q u e n c y s t r u c t u r e , a s w e l l as s y n c h r o n i z a t i o n o f s p e c i a l n a v i g a t i o n a l s i g n a l s .

A s f a r as t h e a n t e n n a a r r a y s a r e c o n c e r n e d , w h i c h i n c o r p o r a t e c e r t a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s for r a d i a t i o n o f s i g n a l s , w e w i l l d i s c u s s them u n d e r t h e h e a d i n g o f " P r i n c i p l e s o f O p e r a t i o n o f C o n c r e t e Naviga t i o n a l Instruments".

Receiving navigational instruments are a l s o combinations of t u n i n g c i r c u i t s a n d a m p l i f i e r s w h i c h u s e v a c u u m t u b e s or s e m i c o n ductors. In the majority of receivers, special generators (hetero d y n e s ) a r e u s e d , whose c o n s t r u c t i o n d i f f e r s f o r t h e p a r t i c u l a r d i f ference i n frequency with respect t o t h e received s i g n a l . In special mixing t u b e s , t h e f r e q u e n c i e s of t h e t r a n s m i t t e r and heterodyne

257

s i g n a l s are combined and an i n t e r m e d i a t e f r e q u e n c y i s produced which is e q u a l t o t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e f r e q u e n c i e s g i v e n a b o v e . I n such devices, f u r t h e r amplification of t h e s i g n a l is c a r r i e d out w i t h a c o n s t a n t , l o w e r f r e q u e n c y , w h i c h makes i t p o s s i b l e t o u s e amplifier devices with very high c o e f f i c i e n t s of amplification, as w e l l a s t o e n s u r e a h i g h s e l e c t i v i t y o f t h e r e c e i v e r . U s u a l l y , r e c e i v i n g r a d i o n a v i g a t i o n a l i n s t r u m e n t s f u l f i l l two functions: (a) r e c e p t i o n and a m p l i f i c a t i o n o f t h e s i g n a l s from a t r a n s m i t t e r ( b ) s e p a r a t i o n and i n d i c a t i o n o f measured n a v i g a t i o n a l parameters. The b a s i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f r e c e i v e r n a v i g a t i o n a l i n s t r u m e n t s are t h e following: (1) S e n s i t i v i t y o f t h e r e c e i v e r w h i c h c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e p o s s i b l e r e c e i v i n g r a n g e f o r s i g n a l s from a t r a n s m i t t e r . (2) S e l e c t i v i t y of t h e r e c e p t i o n ; t h i s p a r a m e t e r i s u s u a l l y o b t a i n e d by n a r r o w i n g t h e f r e q u e n c y b a n d w h i c h t h e r e c e i v e r w i l l p a s s , which u s u a l l y c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e freedom from n o i s e of t h e receiver.
(3) The a c c u r a c y w i t h w h i c h t h e n a v i g a t i o n a l p a r a m e t e r s s e l e c t e d and r e c o r d e d .
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are

Operating

P r i n c i p l e s of

Radionavigational

Instruments

I n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e l a w s of p r o p a g a t i o n o f e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c waves i n s p a c e , i t i s p o s s i b l e i n p r i n c i p l e t o measure t h e f o l l o w i n g parameters o f e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c waves: amplitude, phase , fre q u e n c y , a n d t r a n s m i s s i o n t i m e of t h e s i g n a l . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e p r i n c i p l e of t e c h n i c a l o p e r a t i o n , r a d i o n a v i g a t i o n a l d e v i c e s a r e d i v i d e d i n t o a m p l i t u d e , p h a s e , frequency and t i m e devices. I n a d d i t i o n , w i t h a mutual exchange of r a d i o s i g n a l s between o b j e c t s which have r e l a t i v e motion t o one a n o t h e r , changes i n t h e f r e q u e n c y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e s i g n a l s o c c u r w h i c h a r e known a s t h e Doppler e f f e c t , which i s used t o b u i l d a u t o m a t i c a i r s p e e d i n d i c a t o r s and d e v i c e s f o r measuring t h e d r i f t a n g l e of an a i r c r a f t . Measurements of t h e parameters l i s t e d above f o r electromag n e t i c waves f r o m t h e n a v i g a t i o n a l s t a n d p o i n t m a k e i t p o s s i b l e t o determine t h e following navigational elements:

(a) tems;
(b) tems ;

The d i r e c t i o n of

t h e o b j e c t , by means o f g o n i o m e t r i c s y s

The d i s t a n c e t o a n o b j e c t , b y m e a n s o f r a n g e f i n d i n g s y s

258

(c) The d i f f e r e n c e o r sum o f t h e d i s t a n c e s t o t h e o b j e c t : h y p e r b o l i c or e l i p t i c a l s y s t e m s ; (d) S p e e d a n d d i r e c t i o n o f movement o f t h e a i r c r a f t : a u t o m a t i c Doppler meters f o r ground speed and d r i f t a n g l e .

For c o n v e n i e n c e o f a p p l i c a t i o n , i n many c a s e s t h e n a v i g a t i o n a l s y s t e m s a r e c o m p e n s a t e d for m e a s u r i n g t w o n a v i g a t i o n a l p a r a m e t e r s simultaneously. For e x a m p l e , t h e r e a r e t h e g o n i o m e t r i c - r a n g e f i n d i n g systems, difference-rangefinding instruments, etc.

T h e p a n o r a m i c r a d a r l o c a t e d o n t h e g r o u n d a n d on t h e a i r c r a f t are goniometric-range f i n d i n g devices with a s i n g l e u n i t of navi g a t i o n a l equipment. I n s t u d y i n g methods o f a p p l y i n g r a d i o n a v i g a t i o n a l s y s t e m s , i t i s a good i d e a t o c l a s s i f y them a c c o r d i n g t o t h e p r i n c i p l e s by Therefore, the which t h e n a v i g a t i o n a l p a r a m e t e r s a r e measured. f u r t h e r s u b d i v i s i o n o f t h e m a t e r i a l w i l l b e made on t h e b a s i s o f these principles. Radionavigational devices can a l s o be subdivided i n t o auto matic and non-automatic. N o n - a u t o m a t i c d e v i c e s , when t h e y c o n s i s t of systems of ground c o n t r o l and apparatus aboard t h e a i r c r a f t , a r e c a l l e d navigational systems. A u t o m a t i c d e v i c e s a r e c a l l e d auto m a t i c n a v i g a t i o n a z s y s t e m s when t h e o p e r a t i o n o f s e v e r a l t y p e s o f n a v i g a t i o n a l d e v i c e s i s combined o r g a n i c a l l y on b o a r d t h e a i r c r a f t . For example, t h e automatic Doppler system f o r aircraft navigation, /250 which c o n s i s t s o f a Doppler meter f o r t h e d r i f t a n g l e and t h e ground speed, course d e v i c e s , and t h e automatic n a v i g a t i o n a l i n s t r u ments.

2.

GONIOMETRIC A N D GONIOMETRIC-RANGEFINDING SYSTEMS

The g o n i o m e t r i c r a d i o n a v i g a t i o n a l s y s t e m s a r e t h e s i m p l e s t o n e s f r o m t h e s t a n d p o i n t of t e c h n i c a l r e q u i r e m e n t s , a n d a r e t h e r e f o r e t h o s e which a r e most w i d e l y employed a t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e . I n t h e m a j o r i t y of t h e s e s y s t e m s , t h e a m p l i t u d e method o f measurement i s e m p l o y e d , b a s e d on t h e i n t e r f e r e n c e o f e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c waves. This principle s e r v e s as t h e b a s i s o f t h e o p e r a t i o n o f ground and aircraft-mounted r a d i o d i r e c t i o n f i n d e r s , which a r e a l s o c a l l e d r a d i o compasses. Fig. 3.3. Reception of Electromagnetic Waves b y a F r a m e Antenna.
L e t us imagine a frame-type r e c e i v i n g antenna, l o c a t e d i n a f i e l d of outwardly d i r e c t e d r a d i o waves ( F i g . 3 . 3 ) . If t h e frame a n t e n n a i s l o c a t e d r e l a t i v e t o t h e t r a n s m i t t e r s o t h a t t h e directiqn,--;of t h e
,

+',-"' .%' , ." . .

2 .

2::

259

p r o p a g a t i n g waves w i l l b e p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e p l a n e o f t h e frame, t h e l e f t a n d r i g h t v e r t i c a l s i d e s o f t h e f r a m e w i l l b e o n t h e same isophasal circle. I n t h i s case, t h e high-fi-equency c u r r e n t s which a r e c o n d u c t e d i n t h e s i d e s of t h e frame w i l l a g r e e i n p h a s e a n d w i l l c o n s e q u e n t l y b e d i r e c t e d t o w a r d one a n o t h e r . This gives complete i n t e r f e r e n c e of t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s of t h e c u r r e n t s i n t h e frame, and t h e r e w i l l no r e c e p t i o n of s i g n a l s from t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g s t a t i o n . If t h e frame i s t u r n e d a r o u n d t h e v e r t i c a l a x i s t h r o u g h 90, s o t h a t t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e p l a n e o f t h e frame c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g s t a t i o n , t h e s i d e s o f t h e frame w i l l b e a t d i f f e r e n t i s o p h a s a l c i r c l e s , m a x i m a l l y d i s t a n t for t h e g i v e n device. Thus, t h e c u r r e n t s i n t h e v e r t i c a l s i d e s of t h e frame w i l l u n d e r g o a c e r t a i n p h a s e s h i f t w h i c h w i l l g i v e maximum r e c e p t i o n of t h e s i g n a l s from t h e s t a t i o n . T h e maximum e f f e c t o f t h e f r a m e w i l l b e o b s e r v e d i n t h e c a s e when t h e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n i t s s i d e s i s equal t o h a l f t h e wavelength. Then t h e c u r r e n t s i n t h e v e r t i c a l s i d e s o f t h e frame w i l l b e i n o p p o s i t e p h a s e a n d t h e i r a m p l i However, t h i s r e q u i r e m e n t ( i n t h e m a j o r i t y tudes w i l l be added. o f c a s e s ) c a n n o t b e f u l f i l l e d , s i n c e t h e a n t e n n a d e v i c e becomes t o o u n w i e l d y ; t h e r e f o r e , w e u s e t h a t p a r t of t h e e f f e c t which i s obtained with a phase shi-ft through a s m a l l (frequently very small) /251 angle. I n t h e s e c a s e s , t h e r e c e i v i n g f r a m e i s s u p p l i e d w i t h many t u r n s and a r a d i o r e c e i v e r w i t h v e r y h i g h s e n s i t i v i t y i s employed. The v e c t o r d i a g r a m o f t h e r e c e p t i o n d i r e c t i o n a l i t y o f t h e frame w i l l h a v e t h e f o r m of a f i g u r e e i g h t ( F i g . 3 . 4 ) . The g r e a t e s t a c c u r a c y i n r a n g e f i n d i n g i s o b t a i n e d w i t h min imum r e c e p t i o n , w h i l e a t t h e maximum t h e c h a n g e i n a m p l i t u d e o f t h e r e c e i v e d s i g n a l i s o b t a i n e d b y t u r n i n g t h e frame a t a s l i g h t angle. T h e r e f o r e , r a n g e f i n d i n g b y means o f a frame i s a l w a y s d o n e w i t h minimum r e c e p t i o n or a u d i b i l i t y o f t h e s i g n a l .

Fig. Fig. Fig. 3.4. 3.5.

3.4.

Fig.

3.5.

Diagram o f R e c e p t i o n o f a Frame Antenna. Edcock-Type Antenna.

260

The r e c e i v i n g frame a n t e n n a h a s t h e s h o r t c o m i n g t h a t when e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c waves a r e b e i n g p r o p a g a t e d t h r o u g h s p a c e , i t p i c k s up n o t o n l y t h e v e r t i c a l l y p o l a r i z e d w a v e b u t a l s o t h e h o r i z o n t a l compo n e n t of t h e p o l a r i z a t i o n v e c t o r i n t h e t o p a n d b o t t o m s i d e s of t h e frame. I n a d d i t i o n , t h e frame a n t e n n a w i t h i t s l a r g e d i m e n s i o n s and mechanical r o t a t i o n i s inconvenient t o use. T h e r e f o r e , groundb a s e d r a d i o r a n g e f i n d i n g i n s t a l l a t i o n s u s e s p e c i a l a n t e n n a s which a r e e q u i v a l e n t t o a frame t y p e i n t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f r e c e p t i o n f o r v e r t i c a l l y p o l a r i z e d waves, b u t are f r e e of t h e shortcomings m e n t i o n e d a b o v e ; t h e y a r e c a l l e d Edcock a n t e n n a s ( F i g . 3 . 5 ) . The p i c t u r e s h o w s o n e p a i r o f E d c o c k d i p o l e s w i t h t h e c o i l O b v i o u s l y , i n open d i p o l e s , no i n t e r of a g o n i o m e t e r b e t w e e n t h e m . f e r e n c e w i l l b e o b s e r v e d when t h e y a r e l o c a t e d on o n e i s o p h a s a l circle. However, t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n p o t e n t i a l a t t h e e n d s o f t h e goniometric c o i l w i l l b e equal t o zero, since they are connected t o s y m m e t r i c a l p o i n t s on t h e d i p o l e . If t h e d i p o l e s a r e l o c a t e d on d i f f e r e n t i s o p h a s a l c i r c l e s , t h e n t h e p h a s e s h i f t w i l l d i s t u r b t h e p o t e n t i a l e q u i l i b r i u m a t t h e ends of t h e c o i l and a high-fre quency c u r r e n t w i l l p a s s through i t .
A s i m i l a r p a i r o f d i p o l e s i s mounted i n t h e p l a n e p e r p e n d i c ular t o the first pair.

The h i g h - f r e q u e n c y c u r r e n t i n t h e g o n i o m e t e r c o i l s w i l l d e p e n d / 2 5 2 on t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g s t a t i o n r e l a t i v e t o t h e c r o s s e d dipoles. I n a g o n i o m e t r i c i n s t r u m e n t , i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e two f i x e d d i p o l e c o i l s mounted a t a n a n g l e of 90, t h e r e i s a movable s e a r c h i n g c o i l , c o n n e c t e d t o t h e i n p u t c i r c u i t of t h e r e c e i v e r .

If t h e s e a r c h i n g c o i l i s p l a c e d i n t h e r e s u l t a n t f i e l d o f t h e f i x e d c o i l s , t h e r e c e p t i o n w i l l b e maximum; w h e n a c o i l i s p l a c e d a t a n a n g l e o f 9 0 t o t h e r e s u l t a n t f i e l d , r e c e p t i o n w i l l b e min imal.

Fig. 3.6. Inclusion of an Open A n t e n n a f o r S o l v i n g Ambiguity of Reception.

The h o r i z o n t a l w i r e s c o n n e c t i n g t h e a n t e n n a d i p o l e s a r e l o c a t e d as c l o s e as p o s s i b l e t o one a n o t h e r , s o t h a t t h e e l e c t r o m o t i v e f o r c e con d u c t e d i n them f r o m t h e h o r i z o n t a l component v e c t o r o f p o l a r i z a t i o n w i l l be i n t h e s a m e phase, and t h e i r t o t a l interference w i l l appear a t t h e inputs i n t h e goniometer c o i l s . Therefore, t h e antenna does not pick up component waves w i t h h o r i z o n t a l polarization , thus considerably reducing t h e r a n g e f i n d i n g e r r o r f o r waves i n space.

261

The r e c e p t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e frame a n t e n n a ( i n c l u d i n g t h e E d c o c k t y p e ) h a v e t w o s i g n s , i . e . , w e h a v e t w o maxima a n d two minima of a u d i b i l i t y , s o t h a t i t c a n b e u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e d i r e c t i o n l i n e on which t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g a n d r e c e i v i n g o b j e c t s a r e l o c a t e d , b u t does n o t s o l v e t h e problem of t h e s i d e s of t h e mutual p o s i t i o n of t h e o b j e c t s (see Fig. 3.4). To s o l v e t h e a m b i g u i t y o f r e c e p t i o n w i t h r a d i o r a n g e f i n d i n g i n s t r u m e n t s , an open antenna with an e x t e r n a l l y d i r e c t e d ( c i r c u l a r ) r e c e p t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i s u s e d i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e frame a n t e n n a (Fig. 3.6). The p h a s e o f t h e h i g h - f r e q u e n c y c u r r e n t i n t h e o p e n a n t e n n a , d e p e n d i n g on t h e r e c e p t i o n d i r e c t i o n , w i l l c o i n c i d e w i t h t h e p h a s e o f o n e of t h e s i d e s of t h e frame r e c e i v e r a n d w i l l b e i n o p p o s i t e As phase with t h e c u r r e n t s i n t h e second s i d e of t h e receiver. a r e s u l t , t h e c u r r e n t amplitudes of an open antenna w i l l be added t o o n e - h a l f o f t h e f i g u r e e i g h t of t h e frame a n t e n n a a n d w i l l i n t e r f e r e with t h e o t h e r h a l f of t h e f i g u r e e i g h t (Fig. 3.7, a ) . I n combining t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e frame and open a n t e n n a s , w e o b t a i n a t o t a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c which h a s t h e form o f a c a r d i o i d . If w e c o n n e c t t h e open a n t e n n a a n d t u r n t h e f r a m e a n t e n n a t h r o u g h 9 0 c l o c k w i s e , t h e maximum r e c e p t i o n s h o w n i n F i g u r e 3 . 7 , b w i l l s h i f t t o t h e u p p e r p a r t of t h e p i c t u r e w h i l e t h e minimum w i l l s t i i f t t o t h e lower p a r t (Fig. 3.7, c ) . T h i s c o r r e s p o n d s t o one s i d e o f t h e minimum o f t h e f r a m e r e c e i v e r b e i n g t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e maximum, / 2 5 3 a n d t h e s e c o n d r e m a i n i n g minimum.

Fig.

3 . 7 . D i a g r a m o f D i r e c t i o n a l i t y o f a Frame A n t e n n a C o m b i n e d w i t h a n Open A n t e n n a .

L e t u s s u p p o s e t h a t w e h a v e d e f i n e d a l i n e ( b e a r i n g ) on which t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g a n d r e c e i v i n g p o i n t s a r e l o c a t e d a t minimum a u d ibility. A f t e r c o n n e c t i n g t h e open a n t e n n a and t u r n i n g t h e g o n i ometer c o i l through 90, w e can determine t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e t r a n s mitter. If t h e a u d i b i l i t y o f t h e s i g n a l s i n c r e a s e s s h a r p l y , t h e If i t t r a n s m i t t e r is located i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e upper p a r t . r e m a i n s a s b e f o r e or c h a n g e s s l i g h t l y , t h e t r a n s m i t t e r i s l o c a t e d at the opposite side.

26 2

The p r i n c i p l e s d e s c r i b e d a b o v e f o r f i n d i n g t h e d i r e c t i o n o f a t r a n s m i t t e r are used i n ground r a d i o d i r e c t i o n - f i n d i n g i n s t a l l a t i o n s . I n t h i s c a s e , t h e t r a n s m i t t e r i s t h e r a d i o on b o a r d t h e a i r c r a f t . Ground r a d i o d i r e c t i o n - f i n d e r s i n p r i n c i p l e c a n o p e r a t e a t a l l wavelengths. The most w i d e l y u s e d r a d i o r a n g e f i n d e r s o p e r a t e on s h o r t a n d u l t r a - s h o r t w a v e s . T h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d b y m e a n s of t h e g r o u n d r a d i o r a n g e f i n d e r i n t e r m s o f t h e minimum a u d i b i l i t y o f t h e s i g n a l f r o m t h e t r a n s m i t t e r l o c a t e d on b o a r d . In addition, v i s u a l i n d i c a t o r s a r e m o u n t e d o n t h e u l t r a s h o r t w a v e (USW) r a n g e f i n d e r s , s u c h as c a t h o d e - r a y t u b e s . I n t h i s c a s e , t h e f r a m e o f t h e d i r e c t i o n - f i n d e r or t h e g o n i o m e t e r c o i l i s s e t t o r o t a t i n g r a p i d l y , and t h e s c a n o f t h e cathoderay tube is synchronized with it. The a m p l i t u d e o f t h e s c a n i s r e l a t e d i n magnitude t o t h e amplitude of t h e r e c e i v e d s i g n a l s i n s u c h a way t h a t a t minimum r e c e p t i o n t h e maximum a m p l i t u d e o f t h e scan is observed. Then, on a s c a l e which i s marked a l o n g t h e p e r i p h e r y o f t h e t u b e f a c e , we c a n d e t e r m i n e t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t i n t e r m s o f t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e maximum d e f l e c t i o n o f t h e s c a n . With a r e l a t i v e l y low d e n s i t y o f a i r m o t i o n , t h e g r o u n d r a d i o r a n g e f i n d e r s a r e a s u f f i c i e n t l y e f f e c t i v e and p r e c i s e method o f aircraft navigation. An a d v a n t a g e o f g r o u n d r a d i o r a n g e f i n d e r s i s t h e l a c k o f a n e e d t o m o u n t s p e c i a l r a d i o e q u i p m e n t on t h e a i r craft. The r a d i o r a n g e f i n d e r s a n d r e c e i v e r s w h i c h a r e u s e d f o r /254 r e c e i v i n g s i g n a l s from ground d i r e c t i o n - f i n d i n g p o i n t s mainly have o t h e r purposes, and t h e i r use f o r n a v i g a t i o n a l purposes i s n o t r e l a t e d t o t h e i n c r e a s e d c o m p l e x i t y a n d w e i g h t o f t h e e q u i p m e n t on b o a r d .
A t t h e same t i m e , h o w e v e r , t h e u s e o f g r o u n d r a d i o d i r e c t i o n f i n d e r s h a s a number o f s e r i o u s s h o r t c o m i n g s , which h a v e l e d t o a s e a r c h t o f i n d new w a y s o f r a d i o n a v i g a t i o n a l c o n t r o l o f f l i g h t .

The most i m p o r t a n t o f t h e s e s h o r t c o m i n g s a r e :
L a c k o f a v i s u a l i n d i c a t o r on b o a r d t h e a i r c r a f t t o show (a) i t s p o s i t i o n , thus reducing t h e ease of a i r c r a f t navigation.

(b) A small capacity f o r t h e ground i n s t a l l a t i o n s ; a t t h e same t i m e , t h e r a d i o d i r e c t i o n - f i n d e r c a n o n l y o p e r a t e w i t h o n e a i r c r a f t , w h i c h i s c l e a r l y i n a d e q u a t e w h e n t h e r e a r e a g r e a t many flights. A i r c r a f t N a v i g a t i o n U s i n g Ground-Based Radio D i r e c t i o n - F i n d e r s can be used

The u s e o f g r o u n d - b a s e d r a d i o d i r e c t i o n - f i n d e r s t o solve t h e following n a v i g a t i o n a l problems: (a>

S e l e c t i o n of t h e course t o be followed and f l i g h t along

26 3

t h e s r r a i g h t - l i n e s e g m e n t s of which r a d i o d i r e c t i o n - f i n d e r s (b) C o n t r o l of

a r o u t e , a t t h e b e g i n n i n g or e n d o f are l o c a t e d .

t h e a i r c r a f t p a t h i n terms o f d i s t a n c e .

(c) D e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e a i r c r a f t l o c a t i o n on t h e b a s i s o f b e a r i n g s o b t a i n e d from two ground-based r a d i o d i r e c t i o n - f i n d e r s . (d) D e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e g r o u n d s p e e d o f t h e a i r c r a f t , as w e l l as t h e d r i f t a n g l e , d i r e c t i o n a n d s p e e d o f t h e wind a t f l i g h t altitude. Usually, t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l ltShchll-code i s used f o The crew i n g t h e b e a r i n g s f r o m on b o a r d t h e a i r c r a f t . c r a f t r e p o r t s i t s p o s i t i o n , g i v e s t h e r e q u i r e d code f o t i o n , and p r e s s e s t h e t e l e g r a p h key o f t h e t r a n s m i t t e r of 20 sec. r determin of t h e air r i t s posi for a p e r i o d

I n r e c e n t y e a r s , both s t a t e and l o c a l c i v i l a i r l i n e s have adopted UW d i r e c t i o n f i n d e r s , w i t h v i s u a l i n d i c a t o r s . S They a r e o r i e n t e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e m a g n e t i c m e r i d i a n o f t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e UW d i r e c S t i o n - f i n d e r , a n d ( d e p e n d i n g on t h e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e ) a r e u s e d i n a r a d i u s o f 1 0 0 - 2 0 0 km a s a f o r m o f t r a c e d i r e c t i o n - f i n d e r , r e p o r t i n g on b o a r d t h e a i r c r a f t t h e " f o r w a r d " ( a w a y ) a n d " b a c k " ( r e t u r n ) m a g n e t i c b e a r i n g s of t h e a i r c r a f t . I f t h e crew o f t h e a i r c r a f t r e q u e s t s t h e f o r w a r d t r u e b e a r i n g , t h e o p e r a t o r o f t h e UW d i r e c S tion-finder (supervisor) c a l c u l a t e s t h e magnetic declination of t h e l o c a t i o n of t h e d i s t a n c e f i n d e r and r e p o r t s t h e forward t r u e bearing t o the aircraft. D i s t a n c e f i n d i n g by means o f UW d i s t a n c e f i n d e r s w i t h a v i s S i b l e i n d i c a t o r i s used i n t h e c o u r s e of communication w i t h an a i r c r a f t , i . e . , w i t h a d e p r e s s e d t a n g e n t o f t h e c o n n e c t e d UW t r a n s S m i t t e r on b o a r d t h e a i r c r a f t . The o p e r a t o r o f t h e g r o u n d r a d i o d i r e c t i o n - f i n d e r , a f t e r t h e required measurements, gives t h e c a l l l e t t e r s of t h e a i r c r a f t , t h e c o d e e x p r e s s i o n f o r t h e b e a r i n g a s r e q u e s t e d b y t h e a i r c r a f t or u s e d f o r UW c o m m u n i c a t i o n , a n d g i v e s t h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e b e a r i n g S i n degrees. The c o d e e x p r e s s i o n s f o r t h e b e a r i n g s i n t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l Shch code h a v e t h e f o l l o w i n g meanings ( F i g . 3 . 8 ) : ShchDR: magnetic b e a r i n g from d i s t a n c e - f i n d e r t o the aircraft,
/255

or f o r w a r d b e a r i n g .
ShchDM: magnetic b e a r i n g from t h e a i r c r a f t t o t h e d i s t a n c e f i n d e r (measured r e l a t i v e t o t h e l o c a l meridian of t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e d i s t a n c e - f i n d e r ) , or r e v e r s e b e a r i n g . ShchTE: t r u e b e a r i n g from t h e d i s t a n c e - f i n d e r t o t h e a i r c r a f t ,

or t h e f o r w a r d t r u e b e a r i n g .
264

ShchGE: a z i m u t h o f t h e a i r c r a f t a t a d i s t a n c e from t h e con t r o l distance-finding station. ShchTF: location of t h e a i r c r a f t ( c o o r d i n a t e s or l i n k ) . Due t o t h e s m a l l effective r a d i u s o f t h e USW r a n g e f i n d e r s , they are n o t grouped i n c o d i s tance-finding n e t s l i k e long O D medium-wave s t a t i o n s , b u t o p e r a t e i n d e p e n d e n t l y , and do not give t h e location of t h e aircraft.

Fig. 3.8. Code E x p r e s s i o n s f o r Bearings i n t h e Shch-code.

S e Z e c t i o n o f t h e Course t o b e FoZZowed and ControZ o f F Z i g h t D i r e e t i on

The s e l e c t i o n o f t h e c o u r s e t o b e f o l l o w e d and f l i g h t a l o n g a s t r a i g h t - l i n e p a t h segment are a c c o m p l i s h e d by means o f p e r i o d i c i n q u i r i e s a n d d e t e r m i n a t i o n s o f t h e f o r w a r d or r e v e r s e b e a r i n g s o f t h e a i r c r a f t (ShchDR or S h c h D M ) .

If t h e r a d i o d i s t a n c e - f i n d e r i s l o c a t e d a t t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t of a f l i g h t segment ( f l i g h t from t h e d i s t a n c e - f i n d e r ) , t h e n t h e When t h e a i r c r a f t i s p a s s i n g p r e ShchDR b e a r i n g s a r e r e q u e s t e d . c i s e l y over t h e ground r a d i o d i s t a n c e d e t e c t o r and follows a c o n s t a n t c o u r s e f o r a c e r t a i n p e r i o d of t i m e , t h e f i r s t b e a r i n g o f t h e a i r c r a f t a f t e r passing over t h e distance-finder can be used t o deter U s u a l l y i n t h i s c a s e t h e ShchDR mine t h e d r i f t a n g l e ( F i g . 3 . 9 ) . so that b e a r i n g w i l l b e e q u a l t o MFA,,
US = ShchDR - M C .

I f t h e ShchDR d o e s n o t c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e g i v e n f l i g h t p a t h /256 a n g l e f o r t h e p a t h s e g m e n t , t h e n t h e a i r c r a f t i s p u t on t h e d e s i r e d l i n e of f l i g h t a f t e r determining t h e d r i f t angle and t h e course t o be followed i s s e t s o t h a t t h e t o t a l of t h e course and t h e d r i f t angle of t h e aircraft w i l l equal t h e given path angle.

I t s h o u l d b e k e p t i n m i n d t h a t i n t h e g e n e r a l c a s e ShchDR i s n o t e q u a l t o MFA , s i n c e t h e f o r m e r i s t h e o r t h o d r o m i c b e a r i n g meas u r e d a t t h e s t a r f i n g p o i n t o f t h e s e g m e n t a n d t h e MFA i s t h e l o x o d r o m i c p a t h a n g l e m e a s u r e d r e l a t i v e t o t h e mean m a g n e t i c m e r i d i a n :

ShchDR

MFA = A

av

- A ~ l 6avy

where AMav i s t h e m a g n e t i c d e c l i n a t i o n a t t h e m i d p o i n t o f t h e s e g is t h e magnetic declination a t t h e location of t h e r a d i o ment, d i s t a n c e - f i n d e r , and i s t h e d e v i a t i o n of t h e meridians between

265

t h e i n i t i a l a n d m i d d l e p o i n t s on t h e p a t h s e g m e n t .

Fig. Fig. Fig.

3.9.

Fig.

3.10.

3 . 9 . D e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e D r i f t A n g l e A f t e r F l y i n g O v er a Radio Distance-Finding S t a t i o n . 3.10. P a t h S e g m e n t B e t w e e n Two R a d i o D i s t a n c e - F i n d i n g Stations.

I n p r i n c i p l e , orthodromic c o n t r o l of t h e path f o r a loxodromic f l i g h t is i n c o n s i s t e n t , because i n p r a c t i c e t h e course t o be f o l lowed i n a l o x o d r o m i c s y s t e m of p a t h a n g l e s i s s e l e c t e d s o t h a t f l i g h t t a k e s place along t h e orthodrome. In order t o maintain t h e given f l i g h t d i r e c t i o n over t h e path segment with s u f f i c i e n t accuracy, i t i s necessary t o n o t e t h a t a t e a c h b e a r i n g (ShchDR or ShchDM) t h e a i r c r a f t w i l l b e l o c a t e d o n an orthodromic l i n e of t h e given p a t h and w i l l t h e r e f o r e maintain t h i s bearing.
L e t u s e x p l a i n t h i s by a c o n c r e t e e x a m p l e .

W w i l l a s s u m e t h a t we m u s t make a f l i g h t f r o m a p o i n t A(A = e 1 0 5 O , A M = -1") t o a p o i n t B(A = 1 1 5 O , A M = - 7 O ) a n d r e t u r n ( F i g . 3.10). T h e m a g n e t i c f l i g h t a n g l e o f t h e s e g m e n t i s 9 5 or 2 7 5 O , w h i l e t h e a v e r a g e l a t i t u d e o f t h e s e g m e n t i s 52O. Obviously, f o r f l i g h t i n an e a s t e r l y d i r e c t i o n from t h e d i s tance-finder, located a t point A ShchDR = M F A + A M av F o r f l i g h t i n a w e s t e r l y d i r e c t i o n , t h e ShchDM f r o m t h i s d i s t a n c e - f i n d e r m u s t b e e q u a l t o 268O. For a f l i g h t i n an e a s t e r l y d i r e c t i o n , t h e i n i t i a l course of t h e a i r c r a f t m u s t b e s e t n o t o n t h e b a s i s o f MFA = 9 5 O , b u t f r o m I n t h e o p p o s i t e case, t h e a i r c r a f t slowly begins ShchDR = 8 8 O . t o d e v i a t e f r o m t h e l i n e o f t h e d e s i r e d b e a r i n g a t a n a n g l e o f 7O. /257 -AM1-6av

= 95-4+1-4

= 88O.

266

A n a l o g o u s l y , f o r t h e p o i n t B ( S h c h D R = 2 8 2 O , ShchDM = 1 0 2 O ) , t h e i n i t i a l c o u r s e must b e s e t 7 O g r e a t e r t h a n one would c o n c l u d e on t h e b a s i s o f t h e MEA.

O f c o u r s e , i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o make f l i g h t s w i t h a c o n s t a n t MFA a t d i s t a n c e s a t w h i c h t h e m a g n e t i c d i r e c t i o n o f t h e f l i g h t c h a n g e s b y 14O. T h i s example i s g i v e n o n l y t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e g e o m e t r y of the process. I t would b e more a c c u r a t e t o d i v i d e t h i s segment i n t o f o u r p a r t s 1 5 0 km l o n g w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g f l i g h t a n g l e s : MFAl = 90, MFA2 = 9 3 O , MFA3 = 9 7 O , a n d MFA4 = l o o o . I n t h e f i r s t two s e g m e n t s , w e must u s e a d i s t a n c e f i n d e r which i s l o c a t e d a t P o i n t A (ShchDR = 8 8 O ) , w h i l e f o r t h e l a t t e r w e m u s t u s e t h e d i s t a n c e f i n d e r ' a t P o i n t B (ShchDM = 102O).

T h i s d i v i s i o n of t h e f l i g h t segment i n t o p a r t s f o r t h e case of a f l i g h t a c c o r d i n g t o a g r o u n d d i s t a n c e f i n d e r i s an approxima t i o n o f t h e i n i t i a l MFA t o t h e ShchDR o f t h e i n i t i a l d i s t a n c e f i n d e r , w h i l e t h e l a t t e r i s a p p r o a c h i n g t h e ShchDM o f t h e r a n g e f i n d e r l o c a t e d a t t h e terminus of t h e f l i g h t . In t h e orthodromic system of c a l c u l a t i n g f l i g h t angles, t h e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n t h e O F A a n d b e a r i n g s ShchDR a n d ShchDM f r o m o n e of t h e d i s t a n c e f i n d e r s w i l l b e c o n s t a n t i n v a l u e a n d w i l l depend o n i y on t h e m e r i d i a n s e l e c t e d f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e p a t h a n g l e s . In t h e s p e c i a l c a s e when t h e r e f e r e n c e m e r i d i a n c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e m e r i d i a n where t h e r a n g e f i n d e r i s l o c a t e d , OFA w i l l d i f f e r from ShchDR o n l y i n t h e m a g n i t u d e o f m a g n e t i c d e c l i n a t i o n f o r t h e l o c a t i o n of t h e distance f i n d e r :
O F A = ShchDR

AM.

T h e r e f o r e , i n an o r t h o d r o m i c s y s t e m o f c a l c u l a t i n g f l i g h t a n g l e s , t h e c o u r s e t o b e f o l l o w e d by t h e a i r c r a f t c h a n g e s more r a r e l y a n d t o a much l e s s e r d e g r e e t h a n i n a l o x o d r o m i c s y s t e m , b u t a l l e l e m e n t s o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n , i n c l u d i n g t h e s p e e d and wind d i r e c t i o n , a r e d e t e r m i n e d more a c c u r a t e l y . For s e l e c t i n g a course and maintaining t h e f l i g h t d i r e c t i o n o f a n a i r c r a f t i n t e r m s o f g r o u n d r a d i o d i s t a n c e - f i n d e r s , t h e method of h a l f c o r r e c t i o n s i s u s e d , which c o n s i s t s of t h e f o l l o w i n g :
L e t u s s a y t h a t a t a p o i n t p o s i t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t on t h e l i n e o f a g i v e n p a t h , t h e l a t t e r i s on c o u r s e w i t h a c e r t a i n a n t i c i p a t i o n of d r i f t .

A f t e r a c e r t a i n p e r i o d o f t i m e , on t h e b a s i s o f t h e b e a r i n g o b t a i n e d from t h e d i s t a n c e f i n d e r , it i s found t h a t t h e a i r c r a f t i s s h i f t i n g from t h e l i n e of f l i g h t toward t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e wind v e c t o r . T h i s i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e c o r r e c t i o n i n t h e c o u r s e which has been taken is i n s u f f i c i e n t . Therefore, it is necessary t o r e t u r n t h e a i r c r a f t a t a n a n g l e o f 10-15O t o t h e g i v e n l i n e o f f l i g h t , and t h e p r e v i o u s l y employed l e a d i n t h e c o u r s e t o b e f o l l o w e d i s doubled.
267

If i n t h i s c a s e t h e a i r c r a f t b e g i n s t o s h i f t f r o m t h e l i n e of f l i g h t toward t h e s i d e opposite t h e wind v e c t o r , t h e n a f t e r t h e second aiming of t h e aircraft along t h e given l i n e of f l i g h t , it i s n e c e s s a r y t o make a c o r r e c t i o n i n t h e c o u r s e w h i c h i s h a l f w a y If t h e d e v i a t i o n t a k e s p l a c e between t h e l a t t e r and t h e former. a l o n g t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e wind v e c t o r , t h e c o r r e c t i o n i n t h e c o u r s e must be i n c r e a s e d .
I n a d d i t i o n , i f t h e d e v i a t i o n of t h e a i r c r a f t from t h e l i n e of d e s i r e d f l i g h t t a k e s p l a c e , t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e l a t t e r and t h e former c o r r e c t i o n s i s d i v i d e d and added t o t h e course with a p o s i t i v e or n e g a t i v e s i g n , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e a i r craft deviation. T h e p l a c i n g o f t h e a i r c r a f t on t h e d e s i r e d l i n e o f f l i g h t b y s e l e c t i n g t h e course with a l l t h e d e v i a t i o n s mentioned is oblig a t o r y o n l y i n a f l i g h t from t h e d i s t a n c e - f i n d e r a l o n g a f o r w a r d b e a r i n g (ShchDR). I n a f l i g h t toward a r a d i o distance-finder along a r e v e r s e b e a r i n g (ShchDM), t h e a i r c r a f t m u s t f o l l o w t h e l i n e o f t h e d e s i r e d p a t h o n l y i n t h e c a s e when i t i s g o i n g b e y o n d t h e l i m i t s of t h e e s t a b l i s h e d t r a c e . With s m a l l d e v i a t i o n s ( b y d i s t a n c e s f r o m t h e r a d i o d i s t a n c e - f i n d e r o f u p t o 2 0 0 km w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s o f 1 2 O ) , i t i s s u f f i c i e n t t o s e l e c t t h e c o u r s e t o b e f o l l o w e d by t h e same m e t h o d o f h a l f c o r r e c t i o n s r e l a t i v e t o t h e l a s t ShchDM ( r e v e r s e b e a r i n g ) , w i t h o u t g o i n g t o t h e d e s i r e d l i n e of f l i g h t e a c h t i m e . The m e t h o d o f h a l f c o r r e c t i o n s i s t h e g e n e r a l o n e u s e d f o r However, f l i g h t t o w a r d t h e r a d i o d i s t a n c e - f i n d e r a n d away f r o m i t . i n p r a c t i c a l use, t h e r e are c o n s i d e r a b l e d i f f e r e n c e s between f l i g h t t o w a r d t h e d i s t a n c e - f i n d e r a n d away f r o m i t : (1) I n a f l i g h t f r o m t h e r a d i o d i s t a n c e - f i n d e r , t h e d r i f t angle can be measured a t t h e beginning of t h e segment, while i n a f l i g h t toward t h e distance-finder it can be determined only a f t e r s e l e c t i n g t h e c o u r s e t o b e f o l l o w e d w i t h a s t a b l e ShchDM.
(2) I n a f l i g h t from a r a d i o d i s t a n c e - f i n d e r , t h e c o u r s e t o b e f o l l o w e d by t h e a i r c r a f t must change i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o p p o s i t e t h e change of t h e b e a r i n g : ShchDR i n c r e a s e s , a n d t h e c o u r s e m u s t a l s o decrease, and vice versa. I n a f l i g h t toward a r a d i o distancef i n d e r , t h e change i n t h e c o u r s e must t a k e p l a c e i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e change i n b e a r i n g : ShchDM i n c r e a s e s , t h e c o u r s e m u s t b e i n c r e a s e d , and v i c e v e r s a .

/258

(3) A s we distance-finder bearing, while i certain limits) lowed a c c o r d i n g

have already pointed o u t , a i n a l l c a s e s m u s t b e made s t n t h e f l i g h t toward a r a d i o it is permissible t o select t o the last stable bearing.

f l i g h t away f r o m a r a d i o r i c t l y along the given distance-finder (within t h e f l i g h t t o be f o l

268

P a t h C o n t r o Z i n Terms o f D i s t a n c e and D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e A i r c r a f t ' s Location

For t h e purposes o f c o n t r o l l i n g t h e p a t h i n terms of d i s t a n c e , as w e l l as d e t e r m i n i n g t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t , w e c a n u s e t h e t r u e b e a r i n g s from t h e ground r a d i o d i s t a n c e - f i n d e r t o t h e a i r c r a f t ( SchTE ) . F o r c h e c k i n g a f l i g h t i n t e r m s of d i s t a n c e , w e u s u a l l y s e l e c t t h e c o n t r o l landmarks along t h e f l i g h t r o u t e and determine t h e i r p r e c a l c u l a t e d b e a r i n g s from t h e r a d i o d i s t a n c e - f i n d e r l o c a t e d t o t h e s i d e of t h e aircraft route (Fig. 3.11). Three t o f i v e minutes before t h e aircraft reaches t h e c o n t r o l l a n d m a r k , a s e r i e s of " f o r w a r d t r u e " b e a r i n g s a r e r e q u e s t e d ( S h c h T E ) . When t h e b e a r i n g o f t h e a i r c r a f t b e c o m e s e q u a l t o t h e c a l c u l a t e d /259 one, t h e passage of t h e c o n t r o l landmark i s n o t e d . By u s i n g l o n g - a n d m e d i u m - w a v e r a d i o d i r e c t i o n - f i n d e r s , t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t i s d e t e r m i n e d f r o m b e a r i n g s o f t w o or t h r e e m u t u a l l y r e l a t e d g r o u n d r a d i o d i r e c t i o n - f i n d e r s , one o f which i s t h e command s t a t i o n . Upon r e q u e s t f r o m t h e c r e w of an a i r c r a f t , with regard t o t h e azimuth and d i s t a n c e from t h e command d i s t a n c e - f i n d i n g s t a t i o n ( ShchGE) , t h e a i r c r a f t m e a s u r e s i t s d i s t a n c e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y from two ( t h r e e ) d i s t a n c e measuring s t a t i o n s , while auxiliary distance f i n d e r s r e p o r t t h e measured b e a r i n g t o t h e command d i s t a n c e s t a t i o n . T h e o p e r a t o r o f t h e command radio distance-finding station uses a s p e c i a l p l o t t i n g board t o determine t h e t r u e bearings o f t h e a i r c r a f t w i t h t h e a i d o f movable r u l e r s w i t h t h e i r c e n t e r s of r o t a t i o n a t t h e p o i n t s where t h e r a d i o d i s t a n c e - f i n d i n g s t a t i o n s a r e l o c a t e d ; having measured t h e d i s t a n c e t o t h e a i r c r a f t ( t h e p o i n t s o f i n t e r s e c t i o n of t h e b e a r i n g s ) , t h e o p e r a t o r t r a n s m i t s t o t h e crew o f t h e a i r c r a f t i t s p o s i t i o n ( t h e t r u e d i r e c t i o n and d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e command r a d i o d i s t a n c e - f i n d i n g s t a t i o n ) .
1

Fig. 3.11. Previously Calcu l a t e d B e a r i n g of a Landmark.

If t h e c r e w of t h e a i r c r a f t d e s i r e s t o o b t a i n d a t a r e g a r d i n g t h e l o c a t i o n of t h e a i r c r a f t i n d i f f e r e n t forms ( e . g . , geograph i c a l c o o r d i n a t e s or r e l a t i o n s h i p t o s o m e l a n d m a r k ) , t h e y m u s t a s k f o r t h e S h c h T F b e a r i n g f r o m t h e command r a d i o d i s t a n c e - f i n d i n g s t a tion.

269

D e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e Ground S p e e d , D r i f t A n g l e , and Wind

The g r o u n d s p e e d of a n r a d i o d i s t a n c e - f i n d e r s as w t i o n a l devices during f l i g h by t h e a i r c r a f t b e t w e e n two (LA):

a i r c r a f t c a n b e f o u n d by u s i n g g r o u n d e l l as o t h e r n o n - a u t o m a t i c r a d i o n a v i g a t on t h e b a s i s o f t h e d i s t a n c e c o v e r e d s u c c e s s i v e i n d i c a t i o n s of i t s p o s i t i o n

The s u c c e s s i v e l a n d m a r k s f o r t h e LA a r e t h e p o i n t s a t w h i c h t h e aircraft passes over previously calculated bearings along the route or l o c a t i o n s f o r t h e a i r c r a f t m a r k e d o n a map w h i c h w e r e o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e command d i s t a n c e - f i n d e r s u p o n r e q u e s t o f b e a r i n g s ShchGE or S h c h T F . The d r i f t a n g l e c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d i n t h r e e ways w i t h t h e a i d of ground r a d i o distance-finders: (1) The d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e " f o r w a r d " b e a r i n g (ShchDR) and t h e course of t h e a i r c r a f t a f t e r passing over t h e r a d i o d i s tance-finding station:
US = ShchDR
/260

- MC;

(2) By t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e p a t h a n g l e o f t h e f l i g h t and t h e c o u r s e o f t h e a i r c r a f t a f t e r s e l e c t i n g a s t a b l e "forward1' b e a r i n g ( S h c h D R ) o r " r e v e r s e " ShchDM:

where a i s t h e d r i f t a n g l e of t h e a i r c r a f t , is the path angle of t h e f l i g h t , and y i s t h e course of t h e a i r c r a f t .

(3) On t h e b a s i s o f t h e p a t h a n g l e a n d t h e mean c o u r s e o f t h e a i r c r a f t b e t w e e n s u c c e s s i v e i n d i c a t i o n s o f t h e PA ( A a n d B ) :

av

I n t h e magnetic loxodromic system, of e s t i m a t i n g path a n g l e s , The t h e b e s t way for d e t e r m i n i n g t h e d r i f t a n g l e i s t h e f i r s t . second and t h i r d methods g i v e e x a c t r e s u l t s o n l y i n t h e middle p a r t o f t h e p a t h s e g m e n t , i . e . , when c r o s s i n g t h e m e r i d i a n , r e l a t i v e A t t h e begin t o which t h e p a t h a n g l e o f t h e segment i s measured. n i n g a n d e n d o f t h e s e g m e n t , t h e e r r o r s a r e maximum. I n t h e o r t h o d r o m i c system of c a l c u l a t i n g p a t h a n g l e s and c o u r s e s , t h e accuracy of determining t h e d r i f t angle is approximately t h e same f o r a l l t h r e e m e t h o d s . The s p e e d a n d d i r e c t i o n o f t h e w i n d a t f l i g h t a l t i t u d e i s
\

270

determined with t h e a i d of ground r a d i o distance-finders ways:

i n two

(1) According t o t h e ground speea of t h e a i r c r a f t , t h e a i r s p e e d , and t h e d r i f t a n g l e . T o solve t h i s problem, w e can use a key c t h e n a v i g a t i o n a l s l i d e r u l e f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e wind a n g l e n ( F i g . 3.12, a ) and f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e wind s p e e d ( F i g . 3 . 1 2 , b ) .

(2) By t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e a c t u a l a n d c a l m c o o r d i n a t e s o f t h e a i r c r a f t on t h e f l i g h t c h a r t . T h i s method means t h a t t h e f i r s t l q c a t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e ShchGE or S h c h T F b e a r i n g i s marked on t h e f l i g h t c h a r t . During t h e t i m e t h a t t h e a i r c r a f t is f l y i n g from t h e f i r s t l o c a t i o n , t h e c a l m p a t h calcu l a t i o n i s made ( a c c o r d i n g t o t h e a v e r a g e c o u r s e , a i r s p e e d a n d t i m e ) , t h e calm p o s i t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t i s d e t e r m i n e d , a n d a l s o e n t e r e d on t h e c h a r t w i t h s i m u l t a n e o u s r e q u e s t o f t h e s e c o n d p o s i t i o n o f The v e c t o r b e t w e e n t h e a i r c r a f t i n t e r m s o f t h e ShchGE or S h c h T F . t h e calm p o i n t a n d t h e s e c o n d p o s i t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t , d e t e r m i n e d o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e ShchGE b e a r i n g , i s t h e w i n d v e c t o r f o r t h e f l i g h t time over a given path segment. L e t u s c o n s i d e r t h e f o l l o w i n g ex ample:
A f t e r 24 min o f f l i g h t b e t w e e n t w o s u c c e s s i v e l o c a t i o n s , t h e w i n d v e c t o r i s e q u a l t o 140 i n d i r e c t i o n a n d 30 km i n m a g n i t u d e .
If w e d i v i d e t h e modulus o f t h e wind v e c t o r by t h e f l i g h t t i m e / 2 6 1 i n h o u r s ( 0 . 4 ) , w e w i l l g e t t h e wind s p e e d
u = 30:0.4

= 75 k m / h .

The f i r s t m e t h o d o f d e t e r m i n i n g t h e w i n d i s t h e o n e m o s t w i d e l y employed. However , on l a r g e p a s s e n g e r a i r c r a f t w i t h a u t o m a t i c n a v i g a t i o n a l i n d i c a t o r s on b o a r d ( e . g . , N I - S O ) , by means of wh i ch a u t o matic q u i e t c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e a i r c r a f t path can be c a r r i e d o u t , When t h i s i s t h e s e c o n d method i s t h e most s u i t a b l e a n d p r e c i s e . d o n e , i t i s n o l o n g e r n e c e s s a r y t o p l o t t h e w i n d v e c t o r on t h e f l i g h t chart.

Fig. Fig.

3.12.

Fig.

3.13.

3 . 1 2 . K e y s f o r D e t e r m i n i n g t h e ( a ) Wind A n g l e a n d ( b ) Wind Speed on t h e N L - 1 O M .

Fig. 3.13. D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e Wind b y t h e D i f f e r e n c e i n t h e C o o r d i n a t e s of t h e C a l m Point and t h e Location of t h e Aircraft. 271

I t i s clear from Figure 3.13,

tgAW = where AZ -' AX

that

ut =

AZ -' sinAW

A Z = Z A X = X

LA

- Z - X
'P

P'

LA

I f w e know t h e d i s t a n c e o f t h e o r t h o d r o m i c c o o r d i n a t e s o f t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t a n d t h e calm p o i n t , t h i s problem i s e a s i l y s o l v e d on t h e n a v i g a t i o n a l s l i d e r u l e u s i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g k e y :

F o r d e t e r m i n g AW 3.14, (Fig. 3.14, a ) , a n d for d e t e r m i n i n g ut ( F i g .

b)

Fig.

3.14. D e t e r m i n a t i o n of on t h e N L - 1 O M .

( a ) Wind A n g l e a n d ( b ) Wind S p e e d

ExampZe:
1 5 min.

MFA = 110O; A M = - 7 O ; AX = 4 0 k m ; A Z = 2 0 km; t = Find t h e d i r e c t i o n and wind s p e e d a t f l i g h t a l t i t u d e .

Solution:

AW = 2 6 O

(Fig.

3.15,

a)

ut = 45 km ( F i g . 3 . 1 5 , b ) .

T o d e t e r m i n e t h e wind d i r e c t i o n r e l a t i v e t o t h e m e r i d i a n of t h e a i r c r a f t ' s l o c a t i o n , t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e g i v e n p a t h a n g l e o f f l i g h t s h o u l d b e a p p l i e d t o t h a t m e r i d i a n , and t h e n t h e wind angle should be added.

/262

Fig.

3 . 1 5 . D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f ( a ) Wind A n g l e a n d ( b ) Wind S p e e d o n t h e N L - 1 O M .

I n a f l i g h t with magnetic p a t h a n g l e s , w e w i l l have approx i m a t e ly

272

fiM = MEA

AW

or i n o u r c a s e
6M = 110
6

26 = 1 3 6 O ; = 129O

= 6 +A = 136-7 M M

.
(Radiocompasses)

Automatic A i r c r a f t Radio D i s t a n c e - F i n d e r s

Automatic a i r c r a f t r a d i o d i r e c t i o n - f i n d e r s (radiocompasses) are v e r y widely employed. A i r c r a f t w i t h p i s t o n e n g i n e s u s e them as a r e l i a b l e , o p e r a t i v e , a n d h i g h l y p r e c i s e method o f a i r c r a f t navigation. L a r g e p a s s e n g e r a i r c r a f t w i t h j e t e n g i n e s , f o r a number o f r e a s o n s , c a n n o t make s u c h e f f e c t i v e u s e o f r a d i o c o m p a s s e s , b u t t h e y c o n t i n u e t o u s e t h e m s u c c e s s f u l l y a l o n g w i t h o t h e r more p r e c i s e means o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n . T h e o p e r a t i n g p r i n c i p l e o f r a d i o c o m p a s s e s i s i n n o way d i f f e r e n t from t h e p r i n c i p l e of o p e r a t i o n of ground r a d i o d i s t a n c e finders. However, r a d i o c o m p a s s e s a r e more o p e r a t i v e a n d s u i t a b l e f o r t h e p u r p o s e s o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n , s i n c e t h e y a l l o w t h e crew of t h e a i r c r a f t t o have a c o n s t a n t v i s u a l i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e aircraft. The a c c u r a c y o f d i s t a n c e - f i n d i n g f o r g r o u n d w i t h t h e a i d o f r a d i o c o m p a s s e s i s somewhat l o w e r acy of d i s t a n c e f i n d i n g f o r a i r c r a f t with ground f i n d e r s , which c a n b e e x p l a i n e d by t h e f o l l o w i n g radio stations than t h e accur radio distancethree reasons:

(1) S t a t i o n a r y r a d i o d i s t a n c e - f i n d e r s c a n h a v e s p e c i a l a n t e n n a s which a r e e q u i v a l e n t t o f r a m e - t y p e a n t e n n a s b u t a r e f r e e o f t h e e f f e c t r e l a t e d t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l s i d e s o f t h e f r a m e ; on a i r c r a f t , i t i s n o t p o s s i b l e t o i n s t a l l s u c h a n t e n n a s due t o t h e i r unwieldiness.

(2) The b e a r i n g o f a n a i r c r a f t i s measured w i t h t h e a i d o f ground r a d i o d i s t a n c e - f i n d e r s d i r e c t l y from t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e m a g n e t i c or t r u e m e r i d i a n , p a s s i n g t h r o u g h t h e r a d i o d i s t a n c e - f i n d e r a t a f i x e d s e t t i n g of t h e antenna system r e l a t i v e t o t h e v e r t i c a l ; /263 i n d i s t a n c e - f i n d i n g w i t h g r o u n d r a d i o s t a t i o n s by r a d i o c o m p a s s e s l o c a t e d on b o a r d a i r c r a f t , t h e e r r o r i n t h e b e a r i n g i n c l u d e s t h e e r r o r s i n measuring t h e a i r c r a f t course; i n a d d i t i o n , t h e accur a c y o f d i s t a n c e measurement i s r e d u c e d due t o t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l and transverse banking of t h e aircraft.

(3) Errors i n d i s t a n c e - f i n d i n g d u e t o t h e e f f e c t on t h e p r o p a g a t i o n of e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c waves o v e r t h e r e l i e f o f t h e s u r r o u n d i n g medium t o a c e r t a i n d e g r e e i s t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t i n m e a s u r i n g t h e d i s t a n c e o f a i r c r a f t w i t h t h e a i d of g r o u n d r a d i o d i s t a n c e - f i n d e r s ( b y means o f p r e l i m i n a r y t e s t f l i g h t s a n d t h e r e c o r d i n g o f a c u r v e of radio deviation). 273

The c o n s i d e r a b l e d i f f e r e n c e

i n f l i g h t conditions does not permit

u s t o s o l v e t h i s p r o b l e m f o r r a d i o c o m p a s s e s l o c a t e d on b o a r d a n aircraft. On t h e a v e r a g e ( w i t h a p r o b a b i l i t y o f 95%), t h e e r r o r s i n l o c a t i n g aircraft w i t h ground r a d i o d i s t a n c e - f i n d e r s i n f l a t c o u n t r y i s 1 - 2 O , a n d 3-5O i n t h e m o u n t a i n s . T h e e r r o r s i n meas u r i n g t h e d i s t a n c e s w i t h t h e a i d o f radiocompasses i n f l a t areas i s 3-5O, a n d c a n r e a c h 10-15O i n m o u n t a i n o u s a r e a s , e s p e c i a l l y a t low flight altitudes.
Accordingly, t h e p r a c t i c a l o p e r a t i n g r a n g e of a ground r a d i o d i s t a n c e - f i n d e r w i t h s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s u l t s o f t r a c k i n g i s 300-400 km ( e x c e p t f o r t h o s e w h i c h w o r k o n U S W , w h e r e t h e o p e r a t i n g r a n g e i s d e t e r m i n e d by t h e s t r a i g h t - l i n e g e o m e t r i c v i s i b i l i t y ) .
A s a t i s f a c t o r y accuracy i n determining t h e bearings of r a d i o s t a t i o n s w i t h t h e a i d of on-board radiocompasses i s o b t a i n e d a t d i s t a n c e s up t o 1 8 0 - 2 0 0 km. N e v e r t h e l e s s , radiocompasses have found increasingly broad a p p l i c a t i o n f o r purposes of aircraft navigation, a n d a r e more p o p u l a r t h a n t h e g r o u n d r a d i o d i s t a n c e - f i n d e r s d u e t o t h e i r c o n s i d e r a b l e autonomousness and t h e ease w i t h which t h e y can be employed.

For p u r p o s e s o f i n c r e a s i n g o p e r a t i v e n e s s , a s w e l l a s f o r m i n g a r e s e r v e and e n s u r i n g r e l i a b l e o p e r a t i o n o f r a d i o c o m p a s s e s , two s e t s o f them a r e u s e d i n m o s t a i r c r a f t .

The b a s i c c o n t r o l s y s t e m f o r a n o n - b o a r d sists of the following: r a d i o compass con

( a ) Frame a n t e n n a w i t h mechanical d e v i c e f o r r o t a t i n g i t and a mechanism f o r c o m p e n s a t i n g r a d i o d e v i a t i o n .

(b) Open a n t e n n a .

(c) S u p e r h e t e r o d y n e r e c e i v e r w i t h a d e v i c e for c o m m u t a t i o n o f t h e p h a s e o f t h e frame a n t e n n a a n d a n e l e c t r i c a l d e v i c e f o r t u r n i n g t h e frame a n t e n n a ( t r a c k i n g s y s t e m ) . (d) (e> I n d i c a t o r of c o u r s e a n g l e s o f r a d i o s t a t i o n s . A s h i e l d for t h e r e m o t e c o n t r o l o f t h e r a d i o c o m p a s s .

T h e s i z e o f t h e a n t e n n a f o r t h e r a d i o c o m p a s s l o c a t e d on b o a r d a n a i r c r a f t i s many t i m e s s m a l l e r t h a n h a l f t h e l e n g t h o f t h e r e c e i v e d w a v e , a n d t h e r e f o r e many t u r n s a r e made i n t h e f r a m e t o i n c r e a s e the effectiveness. I n a d d i t i o n , t h e i n t e r n a l s p a c e between t h e c o i l s i s f i l l e d w i t h a m a t e r i a l w i t h a v e r y h i g h magnetic and d i e l e c tric permeability (ferro-dielectric). T h i s p r o d u c e s a s h a r p de/264 c r e a s e i n t h e p r o p a g a t i o n r a t e of e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c o s c i l l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e s i d e s o f t h e frame, s o t h a t
c1 =

c VF

274

w h i c h i s e q u i v a l e n t t o a d r o p i n t h e w a v e l e n g t h of t h e r e c e i v e d s i g n a l and t h e r e f o r e an i n c r e a s e i n t h e phase s h i f t between t h e s i d e s o f t h e frame. To increase t h e magnetic and d i e l e c t r i c per m e a b i l i t y o f t h e medium, t h e e f f e c t of t h e frame w i l l i n c r e a s e .

f r e q u e n c yg e n e r a t o r

Diagram o f A m p l i t u d e M o d u l a t o r a t t h e O u t p u t o f Fig. 3.16. t h e Radiocompass R e c e i v e r . I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e amplitude ground r a d i o d i r e c t i o n - f i n d e r s which w e h a v e d i s c u s s e d t h u s f a r and which b e l o n g t o t h e llE1t t y p e ( c a r r i e r - w a v e a m p l i t u d e ) , r a d i o c o m p a s s e s p r e s e n t l y u s e t h e method of amplitude modulation of t h e received s i g n a l s (direction-finder t y p e "M" )

The e s s e n c e o f t h e m e t h o d i s t h a t - r e c e p t i o n o f t h e s i g n a l s t a k e s p l a c e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h an open and a frame a n t e n n a , w i t h t h e phase o f t h e frame a n t e n n a b e i n g c o n s t a n t l y s w i t c h e d by t h e low-frequency g e n e r a t o r . T h i s means t h a t a n a m p l i t u d e - m o d u l a t e d s i g n a l i s obtained a t t h e input of t h e r e c e i v e r .
A s i m p l i f i e d d i a g r a m of t h e a m p l i t u d e m o d u l a t o r a t t h e i n p u t o f t h e r e c e i v e r i s shown i n F i g u r e 3 . 1 6 .

The c o n t r o l g r i d s o f L 1 a n d L 2 r e c e i v e a n e g a t i v e v o l t a g e u g 0 , s o t h a t when t h e l o w - f r e q u e n c y g e n e r a t o r i s t u r n e d o f f , t h e s e t u b e s w i l l be c l o s e d and t h e s i g n a l s from t h e frame a n t e n n a w i l l n o t b e passed. When t h e l o w - f r e q u e n c y g e n e r a t o r i s t u r n e d o n , t u b e s L 1 a n d L 2 open a l t e r n a t e l y , a n d t h e s i g n a l from t h e frame a n t e n n a r e a c h e s t h e i n p u t o f t h e r e c e i v e r i n p h a s e s w h i c h a r e s e p a r a t e d b y 180, a n d when t h e s e a r e c o m b i n e d w i t h t h e s i g n a l s f r o m t h e o p e n a n t e n n a , they undergo amplitude modulation.

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275

O b v i o u s l y , d e p e n d i n g on t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n ( F i g . 3 . 1 7 ) , w i t h a f i x e d r a d i o c o m p a s s f r a m e , t h e a m p l i t u d e modu l a t i o n c a n b e p o s i t i v e ( P o s i t i o n l), z e r o ( P o s i t i o n 2 1 , a n d n e g a tive (Position 3). T h e t r a c k i n g s y s t e m a t t h e o u t p u t of t h e r e c e i v e r i s d e s i g n e d s o t h a t t h e frame of t h e r a d i o c o m p a s s r o t a t e s i n t h e d i r e c t i o n w h i c h w i l l produce a zero modulation of t h e s i g n a l .

A diagram of t h e output s e c t i o n o f t h e r e c e i v e r i s shown i n F i g u r e 3.18.

A r e f e r e n c e v o l t a g e on t h e a n o d e s o f t u b e s L 1 a n d L2, f o r m e d p r e v i o u s l y i n t h e p o s i t i v e half-periods of the rectangular pulse, is supplied t o t h e switching c i r c u i t of t h e frame a n t e n n a a t t h e i n p u t o f t h e If t h e i n p u t s i g n a l i s receiver. m o d u l a t e d by t h e frame s i g n a l , t h e a v e r a g e anode c u r r e n t o f one o f t h e tubes w i l l be g r e a t e r than t h a t F i g . 3.17. Zero, P o s i t i v e , of t h e o t h e r . This produces a disturband Negative Modulation. ance of t h e b a l a n c e of t h e b r i d g e c i r c u i t i n t h e magnetic a m p l i f i e r , made o f p e r m a l l o y c o r e s , a n d a c u r r e n t p a s s e s t h r o u g h t h e r o t o r The s t a t o r w i n d i n g o f t h e m o t o r i s con winding of a s m a l l motor. s t a n t l y s u p p l i e d w i t h a v o l t a g e which i s s h i f t e d 90 i n p h a s e by c a p a c i i t o r C , f r o m a l o w - f r e q u e n c y g e n e r a t o r wh'ich s u p p l i e s t h e bridge circuit. The m o t o r w i l l c o n t i n u e t o r o t a t e u n t i l t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n i s no l o n g e r p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e frame of t h e r a d i o compass, and t h e m o d u l a t i o n o f t h e s i g n a l o f t h e open a n t e n n a by t h e frame becomes z e r o . I n t h e case when t h e frame a n t e n n a i s t u r n e d t o w a r d t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n i n t h e o p p o s i t e p l a n e , t h e p h a s e of t h e frame c h a n g e s by 180O. I n t h i s case, i n t h e presence of modulation, t h e r o t a t i o n o f t h e frame w i l l t a k e p l a c e n o t i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f r e d u c t i o n , but i n i t i a l l y i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of increase of modulation, thus causing t h e f r a m e t o t u r n t h r o u g h 180. I n t h i s manner, t h e readings from t h e r a d i o c o m p a s s a r e a l l g i v e n t h e same s i g n .

A b l o c k d i a g r a m o f t h e r a d i o c o m p a s s i s shown i n F i g u r e 3 . 1 9 .
The c o n t r o l s f o r t h e r a d i o c o m p a s s a r e mo u n t ed on a s p e c i a l control panel. Usually, t h e radiocompass has t h r e e operating regimes ( b e s i d e s t h e " o f f " p o s i t i o n ) , s o t h a t a s e l e c t o r s w i t c h i s mounted on t h e p a n e l .

276

I . Tuning. I n t h i s r e g i m e , o n l y t h e open a n t e n n a o f t h e r a d i o / 2 6 6 compass i s c o n n e c t e d . A s p e c i a l v e r n i e r on t h e c o n t r o l p a n e l i s used t o tune t h e device t o t h e frequency of t h e ground r a d i o sta t i o n , e i t h e r b y e a r or b y a v i s u a l t u n i n g i n d i c a t o r . When t u n i n g by e a r , r e c e p t i o n t a k e s p l a c e i n t h e " t e l e g r a p h " r e g i m e , i . e . , t h e s e c o n d h e t e r o d y n e o f t h e r e c e i v e r i s t u r n e d on t o c o n v e r t t h e i n t e r mediate frequency of t h e r e c e i v e r t o sound. In t h e telegraph regime, -~ t h e c a l l l e t t e r s o f t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n are a l s o h e a r d , i f t h e s t a t i o n i s t r a n s m i t t i n g on a n o n - m o d u l a t e d f r e q u e n c y .

Fig.

3.18.

D i a g r a m o f O u t p u t S e c t i o n o f R a d i ocompas s Receiver.

I I . Compass r e g i m e . I n t h i s r e g i m e , b o t h t h e open and frame antennas of t h e radiocompass are connected. I n t h i s case, t h e track i n g s y s t e m o f t h e r e c e i v e r t u r n s t h e f r a m e a n t e n n a d e p e n d i n g on t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n a n d t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n i s s h o w n o n a n i n d i c a t o r ( c o u r s e a n g l e or b e a r i n g ) .
I l l . Frame r e g i m e . I n t h i s r e g i m e , o n l y t h e frame a n t e n n a o f t h e radiocompass i s connected, and t h e b e a r i n g of t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d w i t h minimum a u d i b i l i t y o f i t s s i g n a l s i n t h e telegraph regime. The r o t a t i o n o f t h e frame i s c a r r i e d o u t b y means o f a s p e c i a l p u s h b u t t o n s w i t c h on t h e c o n t r o l p a n e l w i t h the label "left-right". The r e a d i n g of t h e b e a r i n g i n t h i s c a s e h a s two s i g n s .

R e c e n t models o f t h e A R K - 1 1 a u t o m a t i c r a d i o c o m p a s s d o n o t differ--i n t h e i r p r i n c i p l e of o p e r a t i o n from t h e o p e r a t i n g p r i n c i p l e d e s c r i b e d a b o v e f o r t h e ARK-5 r a d i o c o m p a s s , b u t t h e y h a v e s e v e r a l d e s i g n f e a t u r e s and advantages :

/267

27 7

(a)

Complete e l e c t r i c a l remote c o n t r o l .

(b) Possibility of setting the apparatus t o nine previously s e l e c t e d c h a n n e l s ( f r e q u e n c i e s ) i n t h e r a n g e f r o m 1 2 0 t o 1 3 4 0 kHz a n d s w i t c h i n g f r o m one r e c e i v e r c h a n n e l t o a n o t h e r by means o f a n a u t o m a t i c p u s h b u t t o n s w i t c h , l o c a t e d on t h e c o n t r o l l p a n e l . There i s a l s o a p r o v i s i o n f o r . s m o o t h manual s e t t i n g o v e r t h e e n t i r e oper a t i n g range of t h e radiocompass (with t h e t e n t h button depressed). (c) I n c r e a s e d n o i s e s t a b i l i t y of t h e r e c e i v e r .

(d) P o s s i b i l i t y of o p e r a t i o n i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h a n o n -co n t r o l l e d a n t e n n a o f o p e n t y p e w i t h a low a e r o d y n a m i c r e s i s t a n c e and a low c p e r a t i n g a l t i t u d e ( o n t h e o r d e r o f 2 0 cm).

Fig. 3.19. F u n c t i o n a l Diagram o f Radiocompass. The c o n t r o l p a n e l o f t h e ARK-11 d i f f e r s i n d e s i g n f r o m t h a t of t h e ARK-5. I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e Itoff" p o s i t i o n , t h e r e a r e f o u r operating regimes. T h e f i r s t t h r e e r e g i m e s a r e t h e same a s d e s c r i b e d above. T h e f o u r t h r e g i m e " C o m p a s s 11" i s a s p a r e a n d i s u s e d i n t h e c a s e o f i n t e n s e e l e c t r o s t a t i c n o i s e s when t h e u s u a l d i s t a n c e f i n d i n g m e t h o d s b e come u n s t a b l e . I n t h e " C o m p a s s 11" r e g i m e , i n s t e a d o f t h e o p e n a n t e n n a , a s e c o n d f r a m e a n t e n n a i s u s e d , m o u n t e d o n a common f r a m e - a n t e n n a b l o c k , p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e b a s i c frame a n d f o r m i n g a u n i t w i t h t h e b a s i c frame. The r e f e r e n c e s i g n a l i n t h i s c a s e r e a c h e s t h e i n p u t o f t h e r e c e i v e r n o t from t h e open b u t from t h e a d d i t i o n a l frame a n t e n n a , w h i c h i s less s e n s i t i v e t o n o i s e . However, t h e a d d i t i o n a l frame a n t e n n a which h a s t h e same p r o p e r t i e s as t h e main a n t e n n a , c h a n g e s t h e p h a s e o f t h e r e f e r e n c e s i g n a l b y a f u r t h e r 180 when i t i s t u r n e d t h r o u g h 180, s o t h a t b o t h p o s i t i o n s o f zero r e c e p t i o n o f t h e main frame a n t e n n a w i l l b e p o s i t i o n s o f s t a b l e e q u i l i b r i u m , and consequently it i s p o s s i b l e t o have an e r r o r i n determining t h e c o u r s e a n g l e o f t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n o f 180O.

The c o n t r o l p a n e l o f t h e A R K - 1 1 h a s a t o g g l e s w i t c h f o r n a r row a n d w i d e f r e q u e n c y b a n d p a s s : " w i d e - n a r r o w " . I n t h e "narrow" p o s i t i o n , t h e extraneous noises i n t h e earphones are reduced and t h e d e s i r e d r a d i o s t a t i o n c a n b e h e a r d more c l e a r l y . O t h e r c o n t r o l u n i t s on t h e A R K - 1 1 p a n e l ( s u b r a n g e s w i t c h , k n o b s f o r coarse and f i n e s e t t i n g , toggle switches and b u t t o n s ) have t h e same m a r k i n g s a s i n t h e ARK-5.

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Radiocompass Deviation

C o n d i t i o n s f o r d i r e c t i o n a l r e c e p t i o n of e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c waves on a n a i r c r a f t a r e n o t f a v o r a b l e a n d d e p e n d on t h e d i r e c t i o n o f p r o p a g a t i o n o f t h e wave f r o n t i n b o t h t h e h o r i z o n t a l a n d v e r t i c a l planes.

If t h e r e c e p t i o n o f s i g n a l s from a ground r a d i o s t a t i o n i s b e i n g made a t c o n s i d e r a b l e d i s t a n c e s w h i c h e x c e e d 5-6 t i m e s t h e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e , t h e v e r t i c a l component of t h e v e c t o r o f p r o p a g a t i o n o f t h e w a v e f r o n t h a s l e s s o f a n e f f e c t on t h e r e c e p t i o n c o n d i t i o n s . I n t h i s c a s e , we c a n u s e a c o m p e n s a t e d c u r v e o f r a d i o d e v i a t i o n , whi'ch i s a f u n c t i o n o n l y o f t h e c o u r s e a n g l e s o f t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n .

The r e a s o n f o r t h e r a d i o d e v i a t i o n i s a r e f l e c t i o n o f e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c w a v e s f r o m t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e a i r c r a f t or t h e i r r e Since the r a d i o r e f l e c t i o n from i n d i v i d u a l p a r t s of t h e a i r c r a f t . compass frame i s mounted i n t h e p l a n e o f symmetry o f t h e a i r c r a f t X - Z , t h e d e v i a t i o n a t c o u r s e a n g l e s z e r o a n d 180 i s c l o s e t o z e r o . The t r a n s v e r s e p l a n e o f t h e a i r c r a f t Y-Z i s a l s o c l o s e t o t h e p l a n e of symmetry, s o t h a t t h e d e v i a t i o n a t c o u r s e a n g l e s 90 and 270 i s n o t g r e a t and p a s s e s t h r o u g h z e r o a t c o u r s e a n g l e s c l o s e t o it. T h e maximum a s y m m e t r y o f t h e a i r c r a f t t a k e s p l a c e r e l a t i v e t o t h e d i r e c t i o n s 4 5 , 1 3 5 , 2 2 5 a n d 315O. Therefore, t h e r a d i o devi a t i o n a t t h e s e c o u r s e a n g l e s r e a c h e s a maximum. Hence, t h e c u r v e of r a d i o d e v i a t i o n h a s a q u a r t e r n a r y a p p e a r + a n c e ( F i g . 3 . 2 0 ) w i t h e x t r e m e v a l u e s AP = - 1 2 t o 25O d e p e n d i n g on t h e t y p e o f a i r c r a f t . R a d i o d e v i a t i o n i s c o m p e n s a t e d by a m e c h a n i c a l c o m p e n s a t o r The compen l o c a t e d on t h e a x i s o f r o t a t i o n o f t h e frame a n t e n n a . s a t o r h a s a c o n t r o l s t r i p which produces a n a d d i t i o n a l r e v o l u t i o n o f t h e a x i s o f t h e m a s t e r s e l s y n by means of a s p e c i a l t r a n s m i s sion. The r e q u i r e d s h a p e i s g i v e n t o t h e c o n t r o l s t r i p b y means of 2 4 c o m p e n s a t i n g s c r e w s t o s e t t h e r e a d i n g s f o r t h e r a d i o c o m p a s s a t 15O i n t e r v a l s on t h e s c a l e f r o m z e r o t o 360O. B e f o r e t h e f i r s t d e t e r m i n a t i o n of pensator is usually neutralized, <.e., r a d i o d e v i a t i o n , t h e com each of t h e screws i s unscrewed

279

t o such a p o s i t i o n t h a t t h e c o n t r o l s t r i p has a shape with t h e c o r r e c t c u r v a t u r e and t h e a d d i t i o n a l r - + a t i o n o f t h e a x i s o f t h e m a s t e r s e l s y n i s e q u a l t o z e r o a t a l l cou;-se a n g l e s .

T o d e t e r m i n e r a d i o d e v i a t i o n , a g r o u n d r a d i o s t a t i o n i s se l e c t e d ( p r e f e r a b l y a t a d i s t a n c e o f 5 0 - 1 0 0 km f r o m t h e a i r p o r t ) a n d t h e t r u e b e a r i n g i s m e a s u r e d as a c c u r a t e l y as p o s s i b l e on a l a r g e - s c a l e c h a r t ( u s u a l l y 1:500,000), and t h e n t h e magnetic b e a r i n g o f t h i s r a d i o s t a t i o n (MBR) i s d e t e r m i n e d .

/269

Fig.

3.20.

Graph o f R a d i o D e v i a t i o n .

By m e a n s o f a d e v i a t i o n d i s t a n c e f i n d e r , m a g n e t i c b e a r i n g s o f o n e or t w o s e p a r a t e l a n d m a r k s (MBL) a r e m e a s u r e d f r o m t h e c e n t e r o f t h e a r e a w h e r e t h e r a d i o d e v i a t i o n w i l l b e p l o t t e d , i n t h e way w h i c h w a s d e s c r i b e d i n C h a p t e r 11, w i t h a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e i r d e v i I f t h e a r e a or t h e d e v i a t i o n a t i o n of t h e m a g n e t i c c o m p a s s e s . o p e r a t i o n s a t t h e a e r o d r o m e i s c o n s t a n t , t h e MBL w i l l b e known e a r l i e r . The a i r c r a f t i s t h e n r o l l e d o u t o n t h e r u n w a y . The d e v i a t i o n d i s t a n c e f i n d e r i s i n s t a l l e d i n t h e a i r c r a f t i n a l i n e 0-180 e x a c t l y a l o n g i t s l o n g i t u d i n a l a x i s , and t h e c o u r s e a n g l e o f t h e landmark (CAL) i s c a l c u l a t e d t o g e t r i d o f i n s t a l l a t i o n e r r o r s i n t h e r a d i o compass. The c o r r e s p o n d i n g C A R = 0 :
C A L = MBL

MBR.

I n t h e d e v i a t i o n d i s t a n c e - f i n d e r , t h e l e v e l l i n e is s e t t o t h e cal c u l a t e d CAL, and t h e a i r c r a f t i s t u r n e d u n t i l t h e s i g h t l i n e of t h e d i s t a n c e - f i n d e r c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e s e l e c t e d landmark. I n t h i s case, t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l a x i s of t h e a i r c r a f t w i l l b e l i n e d up e x a c t l y w i t h t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n (CAR = O ) , a n d t h e mag n e t i c course of t h e a i r c r a f t w i l l be e q u a l t o t h e magnetic b e a r i n g o f t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n a s m e a s u r e d o n t h e c h a r t (MBR). T u r n i n g on t h e r a d i o compass a n d s e t t i n g i t t o t h e d e s i r e d r a d i o s t a t i o n , t h e reading of t h e radiocompass i s taken (RRC). If RRC i s n o t e q u a l t o z e r o , w e w i l l h a v e t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n e r r o r o f t h e frame:

280

I I II I

1111111IIII

11 I 1 1 1 1 1 I I II II 11 1 11 1 11 1 1

'est

= CAR - RRC.

/210

Then, w i t h o u t t u r n i n g o f t h e r a d i o c o m p a s s , it i s n e c e s s a r y t o l o o s e n t h e f a s t e n i n g screws which h o l d t h e frame t o t h e f u s e l a g e and t h e n (by t u r n i n g t h e b a s e of t h e frame) a d j u s t it u n t i l the indicator points t o
RRC = CAR = 0 ,

a f t e r w h i c h t h e frame i s r e - f a s t e n e d

to the fuselage.

The r e m a i n i n g i n s t a l l a t i o n e r r o r , i f R R C i s n o t e q u a l t o z e r o a f t e r t h e f r a m e h a s b e e n f a s t e n e d d o w n , c a n b e c o m p e n s a t e d or i m m e d i a t e l y e i t h e r b y t h e n a v i g a t o r or t h e p i l o t b y t u r n i n g t h e b o d y of t h e s e l s y n r e l a t i v e t o t h e i n d i c a t o r scale.
A f t e r c o m p e n s a t i n g f o r t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n e r r o r , t h e r a d i o de v i a t i o n is determined successively a t 24 RRC's a t 15O i n t e r v a l s . To d o t h i s , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o s e t t h e s i g h t l i n e o f t h e d e v i a t i o n distance-finder along t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l a x i s of t h e a i r c r a f t t o 0 180, l o o s e n t h e d i a l o f t h e d e v i a t i o n d i s t a n c e - f i n d e r a n d move i t s o t h a t t h e l i n e o f s i g h t 0-180 p a s s e s t h r o u g h t h e s e l e c t e d landmark, and t h e n f a s t e n t h e s c a l e of t h e d i s t a n c e - f i n d e r once again. I n t h i s case
C A R = 0 a n d MBR = 0 .

The d e v i a t i o n d i s t a n c e - f i n d e r m o u n t e d i n t h i s m a n n e r makes it p o s s i b l e t o c a l c u l a t e t h e c o u r s e a n g l e s of t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n (CAR) o n t h e s c a l e d i a l b y t u r n i n g t h e a i r c r a f t t o a n y a n g l e . Consequently, i f w e t u r n t h e aircraft according t o t h e indi c a t i o n s of t h e r a d i o c o m p a s s t o a RRC = 1 5 O , a n d t h e n t o 3 0 , 4 5 , 60, e t c . , successively ( s e t t i n g t h e s i g h t system of t h e deviation d i s t a n c e - f i n d e r each t i m e t o a s e l e c t e d landmark) , w e can calcu l a t e t h e C A R i m m e d i a t e l y f r o m t h e s c a l e on t h e d i a l . T h u s , i n e a c h r e a d i n g o f t h e r a d i o c o m p a s s , we d e t e r m i n e t h e a c t u a l c o u r s e a n g l e of t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n a n d c a n w r i t e t h e r a d i o d e v i a t i o n as f o l l o w s :

'r

= CAR - R R C .

Compensation of r a d i o d e v i a t i o n i s p e r f o r m e d a f t e r i t h a s b e e n determined. To d o t h i s , t h e g r a p h o f r a d i o d e v i a t i o n i s p l o t t e d and t h e extreme values of t h e graph a r e d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e e q u a l p a r t s t o a v o i d s h a r p b e n d s i n t h e s t r i p , a f t e r which two i n t e r m e d iate graphs of radio deviation are plotted. The c o m p e n s a t o r i s t h e n r e m o v e d f r o m t h e a x i s o f t h e f r a m e ; by t u r n i n g t h e p r o p e r s c r e w s , c o m p e n s a t i o n i s made f o r t h e r a d i o

281

d e v i a t i o n i n terms of t h e f i r s t i n t e r m e d i a t e graph, c a l c u l a t i n g t h e c o r r e c t i o n made i n t h e s e l e c t e d p o r t i o n o f t h e r a d i o c o m p a s s Then t h e d e v i b y m e a n s of a s p e c i a l p o i n t e r o n t h e c o m p e n s a t o r . a t i o n i s compensated by t h e second i n t e r m e d i a t e g r a p h , and f i n a l l y b y t h e c u r v e of r a d i o d e v i a t i o n . Compensation f o r r a d i o d e v i a t i o n by a l l t h r e e g r a p h s i s p e r formed i n an o r d e r such t h a t a f t e r each i n t r o d u c t i o n of a p o s i t i v e c o r r e c t i o n t h e r e i s a c o r r e c t i o n of e q u a l magnitude b u t n e g a t i v e , i . e . , w i t h a m i r r o r image of t h e c o u r s e a n g l e s . Usually, the order 0 , 1 5 , 345, 30, 330, 45, o f c o m p e n s a t i o n i s s e l e c t e d as f o l l o w s : 315, 6 0 , 300, 75, 285, 90, 270, 105, 255, 120, 240, 135, 225, 150, /271 2 1 0 , 1 6 5 , 1 9 5 a n d 180O. A f t e r compensation f o r r a d i o d e v i a t i o n , t h e compensator is m o u n t e d on t h e m e c h a n i s m o f t h e frame; t h e a i r c r a f t i s t u r n e d a n d t h e d e v i a t i o n d i s t a n c e - f i n d e r i s used t o check t h e c o r r e c t n e s s of t h e o p e r a t i o n s which have been c a r r i e d o u t . If a n y e r r o r s i n compen s a t i o n a r e d i s c o v e r e d , t h e r a d i o d e v i a t i o n i s compensated once a g a i n by a n a d d i t i o n a l t u r n i n g of t h e screws c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e r e a d i n g s of t h e radiocompass. I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e m e t h o d d e s c r i b e d a b o v e for c o r r e c t i n g r a d i o d e v i a t i o n s on t h e g r o u n d , t h e r e a r e o t h e r s . For e x a m p l e : (a) D e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e m a g n e t i c c o u r s e o f a n a i r c r a f t b y d i s t a n c e - f i n d i n g a t t h e t a i l ( n o s e ) , a s d e s c r i b e d i n C h a p t e r 11, a n d t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f c o u r s e a n g l e s o f t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n on t h e b a s i s of it. (b) R a n g e f i n d i n g of a r a d i o s t a t i o n w h i c h i s v i s i b l e f r o m t h e a i r p o r t ( e . g . , a d i s t a n t power r a d i o s t a t i o n ) . I n a i r c r a f t w h e r e t h e frame a n t e n n a o f t h e r a d i o compass i s m o u n t e d b e l o w t h e f u s e l a g e , d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f r a d i o d e v i a t i o n on t h e ground i s i m p r a c t i c a l , s i n c e t h e r e f l e c t i o n of e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c waves from t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e ground c a u s e s a d i s t o r t i o n of t h e electromagnetic f i e l d . In these aircraft, the radio deviation is determined i n f l i g h t . To d e t e r m i n e r a d i o d e v i a t i o n i n f l i g h t , a r a d i o s t a t i o n l o c a t e d 2 0 0 - 3 0 0 km a w a y f r o m t h e f l i g h t a r e a i s s e l e c t e d . The f l i g h t i s c a r r i e d o u t i n s u c h a way t h a t t h e a i r c r a f t c r o s s e s t h e l i n e o f t h e g i v e n b e a r i n g a t e a c h s e g m e n t of t h e f l i g h t a n g l e o f t h e radio station. Usually, t h e order of t h e course angles i s then s e l e c t e d s o t h a t t h e f o l l o w i n g c o m p e n s a t i o n mechanism i s employed 0 , 1 5 , 345, 30, e t c . , approach i n compensating f o r r a d i o d e v i a t i o n : i n g t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n , a n d 1 0 5 , 2 5 5 , 1 2 0 , 2 4 0 , e t c . , up t o 1 8 0 , g o i n g away f r o m i t . To s a v e t i m e , t h e f l i g h t c a n b e c a r r i e d o u t o v e r a 2 4 - a n g l e r o u t e , i . e . , p r a c t i c a l l y a l o n g a c o u r s e which c r o s s e s t h e s t r a i g h t

2 82

l i n e f l i g h t f o r 20-30 s e c f o r e a c h r e c o r d i n g of t h e r e a d i n g s o f t h e r a d i o compass a n d c o u r s e . However, i n t h i s c a s e , it i s neces s a r y t o determine t h e l o c a t i o n of t h e aircraft a t each p o i n t being m e a s u r e d a n d t o e n t e r i t on a c h a r t s o t h a t when t h e d a t a i s a n a l y z e d i t w i l l b e p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e t h e b e a r i n g of t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n from t h e p o i n t a t which t h e r e a d i n g w a s t a k e n . I n f a c t , t h e c o u r s e a n g l e o f t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n (CAR) a t t h e moment w h e n t h e r e c o r d i n g s a r e made i s d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e f o r m u l a
CAR = TBR

TK,

a n d t h e ' r a d i o d e v i a t i o n o f t h e r a d i o compass i s d e t e r m i n e d as t h e difference:

Ar

= CAR - RRC.

C o m p e n s a t i o n f o r r a d i o d e v i a t i o n i s made a f t e r t h e a i r c r a f t l a n d s i n t h e same way a s a f t e r d e t e r m i n i n g i t o n t h e g r o u n d , b u t w i t h o u t c h e c k i n g t h e a c c u r a c y of t h e work which h a s b e e n c a r r i e d o u t , s i n c e t h i s would r e q u i r e r e p e t i t i o n of t h e f l i g h t .

A?:rcraft N a v i g a t i o n Using R a d i o c o m p a s s e s on B o a r d t h e Aircraft

R a d i o c o m p a s s e s on b o a r d t h e a i r c r a f t m a k e i t p o s s i b l e t o s o l v e t h e same n a v i g a t i o n a l p r o b l e m s as g r o u n d r a d i o d i s t a n c e - f i n d e r s . (a) Path c o n t r o l i n t e r m s of d i r e c t i o n and s e l e c t i o n of t h e course t o be followed during f l i g h t toward t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n and away f r o m i t . (b) s t a tion. Measurement o f t h e d r i f t a n g l e a f t e r f l y i n g o v e r t h e r a d i o

/272

(c) Checking t h e p a t h f o r d i s t a n c e by measuring t h e d i s t a n c e t o a radio station located t o the side. (d) D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t by o b t a i n i n g b e a r i n g s from two r a d i o s t a t i o n s . (e) Determining t h e d r i f t angle and t h e groundspeed from suc c e s s i v e p o s i t i o n s o f t h e a i r c r a f t , as w e l l a s t h e w i n d p a r a m e t e r s at flight altitude. The s o l u t i o n o f t h e s e p r o b l e m s by means o f a r a d i o c o m p a s s mounted on b o a r d t h e a i r c r a f t i s v e r y s i m i l a r i n p r i n c i p l e o f s o l u t i o n t o t h e ground r a d i o d i s t a n c e - f i n d e r s , e s p e c i a l l y if t h e i n d i c a t o r f o r t h e c o u r s e a n g l e s o f t h e r a d i o compass i s combined w i t h t h e c o u r s e i n d i c a t o r o f t h e a i r c r a f t a n d t h u s shows t h e r e a d i n g f o r t h e b e a r ing (Fig. 3.21). The f i g u r e s h o w s t h e c o u r s e i n d i c a t o r f o r t h e n a v i g a t o r ,

283

li

c o m b i n e d w i t h t h e b e a r i n g i n d i c a t o r s o f t w o r a d i o c o m p a s s e s (UShM). The c o u r s e o f t h e a i r c r a f t i s m e a s u r e d o n t h e i n n e r , m o v a b l e s c a l e o f t h i s i n d i c a t o r ( r e l a t i v e t o a t r i a n g u l a r m a r k on t h e o u t e r s c a l e ) , w h i l e t h e c o u r s e a n g l e s of t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n s a r e i n d i c a t e d on t h e o u t e r f i x e d s c a l e a c c o r d i n g t o t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e p o i n t ers of t h e radiocompasses. On t h e i n n e r , m o v a b l e s c a l e , o p p o s i t e t h e arrows, it is possible t o c a l c u l a t e t h e bearings of t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n s , w h i l e t h e o t h e r e n d s o f t h e p o i n t e r s c a n b e u s e d t o show t h e bearings of t h e aircraft. However, t h i s method i s p r a c t i c a l o n l y f o r u s e w i t h one r a d i o c o m p a s s , s i n c e t h e t o t a l c o r r e c t i o n i s t h e n shown on t h e s c a l e o f d e v i a t i o n s , and i s e f f e c t i v e o n l y f o r one r a d i o s t a t i o n
A = A

+ 6 ,

w h e r e 6 i s t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e m e r i d i a n of t h e a i r c r a f t l o c a t i o n and t h e m e r i d i a n of t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n , a n d AM i s t h e m a g n e t i c d e c l i n a t i o n of t h e l o c a t i o n of t h e aircraft. Obviously, i n t h e g e n e r a l case t h i s c o r r e c t i o n w i l l be d i f ferent for different radio stations. When i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o o b t a i n t h e t r u e b e a r i n g s o f a n a i r c r a f t s i m u l t a n e o u s l y from two r a d i o s t a t i o n s , o n l y t h e m a g n e t i c d e c l i n a t i o n o f t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t i s s e t on t h e d e c l i n a t i o n scale, and a f t e r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e approximate b e a r i n g s of t h e a i r c r a f t by t h e o p p o s i t e e n d s of t h e p o i n t e r s o f t h e r a d i o c o m p a s s e s , c o r r e c t i o n s f o r d e v i a t i o n o f t h e m e r i d i a n s a r e made i n t h e s e r e a d ings. T h e n e c e s s i t y t o make c o r r e c t i o n s for t h e d e v i a t i o n o f t h e m e r i d i a n s i s one o f t h e p r i n c i p a l s h o r t c o m i n g s o f r a d i o c o m p a s s e s . T h i s s h o r t c o m i n g t o a c e r t a i n d e g r e e c a n b e r e d u c e d by u s i n g an orthodromic system for, e s t i m a t i n g t h e p a t h a n g l e s and courses of the aircraft. I n t h i s case, t h e need t o introduce c o r r e c t i o n s i s n o l o n g e r a p p l i c a b l e , i f t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n i s l o c a t e d on t h e r e f e r e n c e m e r i d i a n for c o m p u t i n g t h e p a t h a n g l e s , a n d i n a n y c a s e t h e c o r r e c t i o n r e m a i n s c o n s t a n t if t h i s c o n d i t i o n i s n o t o b s e r v e d . The u s e o f combined i n d i c a t o r s c o n s i d e r a b l y s i m p l i f i e s t h e o p e r a t i o n s r e l a t e d t o t h e u s e o f r a d i o c o m p a s s e s mounted on b o a r d aircraft. T h e r e f o r e , t h e methods of u s i n g them f o r n a v i g a t i o n a l purposes must b e viewed as non-recorded i n d i c a t o r s of c o u r s e a n g l e s of r a d i o s t a t i o n s , a s s u v i n g t h a t i n t h e combined i n d i c a t o r s , t h e a d d i t i o n a n d s u b t r a c t i o n o f t h e a n g l e s a c c o r d i n g t o t h o s e same r u l e s is carried out automatically.
I t i s c l e a r from F i g u r e 3.22 t h a t t h e magnetic b e a r i n g of t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n (MBR) a n d t h e t r u e b e a r i n g o f t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n (TBR) a r e added from t h e c o u r s e of t h e a i r c r a f t i n c o r r e s p o n d i n g s y s t e m s o f c a l c u l a t i o n a n d t h e c o u r s e a n g l e of t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n :

/273

2 84

1111

I .I11

Ill 111

Fig.

3 . 2 1 . Combined I n d i c a t o r f o r C o u r s e a n d C o u r s e Angles of a Radio S t a t i o n .

TBR = TC

+
+

CAR;

/274

MBR = MC

CAR.

Similarly,

i n t h e o r t h o d r o m i c s y s t e m of
OBR = OC

calculating courses

CAR.

where OBR i s t h e o r t h o d r o m i c b e a r i n g o f t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n and OC i s t h e orthodromic course.

I n determi- i n g t h e l o c a t i o n of t h e a i r c r a f t , t h e t r u e b e a r i n g s of t h e a i r c r a f t ( T B A ) a r e p l o t t e d on t h e f l i g h t c h a r t f r o m grBound r a d i o s t a t i o n s .
TBA = TBR

- l8Oo, +

where 6 is t h e a n g l e of

convergence of t h e meridians.

I n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e t r u e b e a r i n g of t h e a i r c r a f t , i S O o a r e d d d e d if t h e TBA h a s a n u m e r i c a l v a l u e l e s s t h a n 1 8 0 a n d s u b t r a c t e d when t h e v a l u e of t h e b e a r i n g exceeds 180. Consequently, i n c a l c u l a t i n g c o u r s e s from t h e t r u e m e r i d i a n t h e a i r c r a f t ' s l o c a t i o n , where 285

of

TBA = TC

CAR

+ -

180,

and i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e course from t h e magnetic meridian

T B A = MC

AM

CAR

18'0O.

I t i s a s s u m e d t h a t t h e L A i s d e t e r m i n e d w i t h t h e a i d o f mag n e t i c compass d e v i a t i o n .
I n t h e orthodromic system of c a l c u l a t i n g courses,
TBA = OC

CAR

r.m.r.s.

180,

w h e r e 6,.,.,,,. i s t h e a n g l e of c o n v e r g e n c e of t h e m e r i d i a n s ( r e f e r e n c e a n d r a d i o s t a t i o n ) w h i c h i s e q u a l t o (Xr,s.-X,,m.)sin~av.
L e t u s c o n s i d e r t h e means of s o l v i n g p r o b l e m s by means o f r a d i o c o m p a s s e s l o c a t e d on b o a r d a i r c r a f t , t a k i n g t h e r u l e s m e n t i o n e d above i n t o account.

6 ,

sv

/$a+* 2c $
CAR

must t a k e p l a c e w i t h a c o n s t a n t t r u e b e a r i n g of t h e a i r c r a f t . In a f l i g h t from a r a d i o s t a t i o n , t h i s bearing is equal t o the azi muth o f t h e o r t h o d r o m e r e l a t i v e t o t h e m e r i d i a n of t h e r a d i o sta-

For e x a m p l e , i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e c o u r s e f r o m t h e m a g n e t i c m e r i d i a n of t h e a i r c r a f t ' s l o c a t i o n , w e must s a t i s f y t h e e q u a t i o n :

286

c1

init = MC

= MC

AM t 6 t CAR;

c1

ref

AM t 6

CAR

- 180, +
is the true

where c 1 i n i t i s t h e t r u e b e a r i n g of t h e a i r c r a f t and ref bearing of t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n .

I n u s i n g a c o m b i n e d i n d i c a t o r for t h e b e a r i n g , t h e t o t a l c o r r e c t i o n A = A M t 6 c a n b e e n t e r e d on t h e s c a l e of d e c l i n a t i o n . Then i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o s a t i s f y t h e c o n d i t i o n t h a t i n i t = TBA and t h a t r e f = T B A - 180. t The t r u e b e a r i n g o f t h e a i r c r a f t i s c a l c u l a t e d f r o m t h e o t h e r e n d of t h e i n d i c a t o r p o i n t e r , i . e . , i n f l i g h t t o w a r d a r a d i o s t a t i o n , t h e d i r e c t r e a d i n g o f t h e p o i n t e r on t h e r a d i o c o m p a s s must b e e q u a l t o t h e f i n a l a z i m u t h o f t h e o r t h o d r o m e , w h i l e i n f l i g h t away f r o m a r a d i o s t a t i o n t h e o t h e r e n d o f t h e p o i n t e r m u s t show a r e a d i n g equal t o t h e i n i t i a l azimuth of t h e orthodrome. Inasmuch as t h e t o t a l c o r r e c t i o n ( A > o v e r t h e l e n g t h o f t h e p a t h segment w i l l change c o n s t a n t l y , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o d e t e r m i n e t h i s c o r r e c t i o n i n each measurement i n o r d e r t o t a k e i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n o t h e r i n d i c a t o r s or e n t e r i n g t h e d e c l i n a t i o n s o f t h e c o m b i n e d This poses considerable d i f f i c u l t y i n using i n d i c a t o r on t h e s c a l e . t h e radiocompass i n f l i g h t . The p r o b l e m i s s i m p l i f i e d c o n s i d e r a b l y i n a n o r t h o d r o m i c s y s t e m of calculations f o r t h e aircraft course. I n t h i s case
TBA = O B A

6r,m.r,s

where O B A i s t h e o r t h o d r o m i c b e a r i n g of

the aircraft.

The c o r r e c t i o n 6r.m.r.s. i s c o n s t a n t f o r a l l s t r a i g h t - l i n e p a t h s e g m e n t s ; a f t e r s e t t i n g i t on t h e s c a l e o f d e v i a t i o n s , t h e T B A c a n b e r e a d o f f i m m e d i a t e l y on t h e i n d i c a t o r o v e r t h e e n t i r e s t r a i g h t - l i n e path segment.

Note. If a r a d i o s t a t i o n i s l o c a t e d a t t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t of t h e r o u t e (SPR) with a r e f e r e n c e meridian, t h e f l i g h t can be made d i r e c t l y a l o n g t h e o r t h o d r o m i c b e a r i n g o f t h e a i r c r a f t w i t h a z e r o c o r r e c t i o n on t h e d e c l i n a t i o n s c a l e . Correction f o r devi a t i o n o f m e r i d i a n s i s o n l y v a l u a b l e when t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n i s l o c a t e d t o t h e s i d e o f t h e f l i g h t r o u t e or t h e m e r i d i a n o f t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n does not coincide with t h e r e f e r e n c e meridian.
A s i n t h e case o f u s i n g a ground r a d i o d i r e c t i o n - f i n d e r i n s e l e c t i n g t h e course t o be followed along s t r a i g h t - l i n e segments of a p a t h b y means o f a r a d i o c o m p a s s , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o b e g u i d e d by t h e f o l l o w i n g r u l e s :

/276

287

(a) I n a f l i g h t from t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n , w i t h a d r i f t of t h e a i r c r a f t t o t h e r i g h t , t h e b e a r i n g i s i n c r e a s e d and t h e c o u r s e t o be followed must b e reduced; with a d e c r e a s e i n t h e b e a r i n g , t h e c o u r s e must be i n c r e a s e d . (b) I n t h e case o f a f l i g h t t o w a r d t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n , t h e c o u r s e m u s t b e i n c r e a s e d when t h e b e a r i n g i n c r e a s e s a n d d e c r e a s e d i f t h e aircraft bearing decreases. I n a f l i g h t along a course determined by a r a d i o d i r e c t i o n f i n d e r , i f t h e c o u r s e t o b e f o l l o w e d i s s e l e c t e d on t h e b a s i s o f s t a b l e b e a r i n g s ShchDR or ShchDM, t h e c o u r s e i s c o n s i d e r e d t o h a v e b e e n s e l e c t e d b y u s i n g t h e r a d i o c o m p a s s on b o a r d i f t h e c o u r s e a n g l e of t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n remains c o n s t a n t .

For e x a m p l e , i n a f l i g h t t o w a r d a r a d i o s t a t i o n a t a c o n s t a n t course of t h e a i r c r a f t , an i n c r e a s e i n t h e course angle of t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n corresponds t o a d r i f t of t h e aircraft t o t h e l e f t ( t h e TBA i n c r e a s e s ) . In order f o r the a i r c r a f t t o follow a constant When t h e b e a r i n g , t h e c o u r s e o f t h e a i r c r a f t must b e i n c r e a s e d . lead i n t h e course is equal i n value t o t h e d r i f t angle of t h e air c r a f t , t h e c o u r s e a n g l e of t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n w i l l r e m a i n c o n s t a n t and e q u a l t o t h e d r i f t a n g l e b o t h i n v a l u e and i n s i g n .
I n s e l e c t i n g a c o u r s e , t h e same m e t h o d o f h a l f used. correc tion is

Example. I t i s n e c e s s a r y t o make a f l i g h t t o w a r d a r a d i o s t a t i o n w i t h a o r t h o d r o m i c p a t h a n g l e o f 82O. L e t us assume t h a t t h e d r i f t of t h e aircraft w i l l b e t o t h e l e f t w i t h i n l i m i t s of approx i m a t e l y loo. S e l e c t a c o u r s e t o b e f o l l o w e d b y u s i n g t h e m e t h o d of h a l f c o r r e c t i o n .

In t h i s case, after f l y i n g over t h e turning point i n t h e r o u t e , it i s n e c e s s a r y t o assume an orthodromic c o u r s e o f 9 2 O . The c o u r s e a n g l e t h e of r a d i o s t a t i o n w i l l t h e n b e e q u a l t o 350, which i s e q u i v a l e n t t o a n u m e r i c a l v a l u e of - l o o . I n a f l i g h t w i t h a c o u r s e of 9 2 " , i f t h e c o u r s e a n g l e o f t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n i s i n c r e a s e d ( ? . e . , if w e a c q u i r e t h e v a l u e s o f 351, 3 5 2 , 353O i n s u c c e s s i o n ) , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o p l a c e t h e a i r c r a f t o n t h e l i n e o f f l i g h t a n d t o t a k e a l e a d o f 15O ( c o u r s e e q u a l s 9 7 O , C A R e q u a l s 345O).
L e t us assume t h a t t h i s l e a d t u r n s o u t t o be t o o g r e a t ; t h e n t h e C A R b e g i n s t o d e c r e a s e , t a k i n g o n v a l u e s o f 3 4 4 , 3 4 3 , a n d 342O T h e n , a f t e r a s e c o n d p l a c i n g of t h e a i r c r a f t on t h e p a t h , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o t a k e a n i n t e r m e d i a t e l e a d i n t h e c o u r s e o f 12-13O (CAR If t h e CAR i s t o b e s t a b l e , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o e q u a l s 348-347O). ensure t h a t t h e orthodromic bearing of t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n is equal t o t h e orthodromic p a t h a n g l e and t o c o n t i n u e t h e f l i g h t w i t h t h e selected course.

288

The c o u r s e t o f o l l o w e d i n a f l i g h t away f r o m a r a d i o s t a t i o n i s s e l e c t e d i n t h e same m a n n e r , t h e o n l y d i f f e r e n c e b e i n g t h a t when t h e CAR i n c r e a s e s , i t s h o u l d n o t b e r e d u c e d b u t i n c r e a s e d f u r t h e r . I n using o t h e r i n d i c a t o r s , t h e s e l e c t i o n of t h e course is a l s o a c c o m p l i s h e d by means o f s t a b l e p a t h a n g l e s o f r a d i o s t a t i o n s . How-: ever, i n order t o c o n t r o l t h e path of t h e aircraft i n t e r m s of direc t i o n , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o d e t e r m i n e on e a c h o c c a s i o n t h e b e a r i n g o f t h e a i r c r a f t or t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n b y s u m m i n g t h e c o u r s e a n d c o u r s e angles of t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n , taking i n t o account t h e deviation of t h e m e r i d i a n s o f t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n and a i r c r a f t and t h e magnetic d e c l i n a t i o n a t t h e p o i n t where t h e a i r c r a f t i s l o c a t e d .
I t should be mentioned once again t h a t i n a f l i g h t toward a r a d i o s t a t i o n , t h e s e l e c t e d s t a b l e course angle of t h e r a d i o sta t i o n i s always e q u a l t o t h e d r i f t angle of t h e a i r c r a f t , regard

/277

less of whether t h e aircraft i s f l i g h t or a s a s l i g h t d e v i a t i o n TAR = 350 c o r r e s p o n d s t o a d r i from t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n , t h e d r i C A R m i n u s 180.

l o c a t e d on t h e l i n e o f t h e d e s i r e d from i t . For e x a m p l e , a s t a b l e f t a n g l e o f -loo. I n f l i g h t away f t angle i s always e q u a l t o a s t a b l e

The d r i f t a n g l e o f t h e a i r c r a f t c a n b e m e a s u r e d d i r e c t l y a f t e r f l y i n g over t h e radio s t a t i o n . A t t h e same t i m e , a f t e r f l y i n g o v e r t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n w i t h any c o n s t a n t c o u r s e , t h e c o u r s e a n g l e s of t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n w i l l be s t a b l e , s o t h a t

US = C A R

- 180'.

However, i n t h e m a j o r i t y o f c a s e s t h e d r i f t a n g l e i s d e t e r m i n e d d u r i n g f l i g h t away f r o m a r a d i o s t a t i o n a s a d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e m a g n e t i c ( t r u e or o r t h o d r o m i c ) b e a r i n g o f t h e a i r c r a f t a n d t h e m a g n e t i c ( t r u e or o r t h o d r o m i c ) c o u r s e o f t h e a i r c r a f t :
U S = MBA

MC,

or

or
U S = OBA

OC,

where OBA i s t h e o r t h o d r o m i c b e a r i n g o f t h e a i r c r a f t and t h e OC is t h e orthodromic course of t h e aircraft. I n t h i s case, w e can s i m u l t a n e o u s l y d e t e r m i n e t h e s i d e t o which t h e a i r c r a f t d e v i a t e s ( l e f t or r i g h t ) b y c o m p a r i n g t h e g i v e n p a t h a n g l e a n d t h e d e t e r m i n e d r a n g e of t h e a i r c r a f t i n t h e s y s t e m o f 2 89

coordinates being used;'the aircraft acquires t h e given l i n e of f l i g h t according t o t h e c a l c u l a t e d course angle of t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n , w h i l e on t h e l i n e o f f l i g h t c o r r e c t i o n s a r e made t o t h e c o u r s e w h i c h a r e & q u a l t o t h e a v e r a g e . a n g l e of d r i f t . The m o n i t o r i n g of t h e a i r c r a f t p a t h i n t e r m s o f d i s t a n c e b y means o f t h e r a d i o c o m p a s s i s a c c o m p l i s h e d w i t h p r ' e v i o u s l y c a l c u lated bearings of the lateral radio station. To d o t h i s , c o n t r o l l a n d m a r k s a r e m a r k e d o n a map a n d t h e b e a r For i n g s of r a d i o s t a t i o n s a r e d e t e r m i n e d f r o m t h e s e l a n d m a r k s . t h e s a k e of convenience i n c a l c u l a t i o n , t h e bearings of t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n s a r e d e t e r m i n e d i n t h e same s y s t e m i n w h i c h t h e c o u r s e o f For e x a m p l e , f o r f l i g h t w i t h m a g n e t i c t h e a i r c r a f t i s measured. p a t h a n g l e s i t i s MBR a n d w i t h t r u e f l i g h t a n g l e s i t i s T B R , w h i l e w i t h orthodromic a n g l e s i t i s OBR. Then t h e b e a r i n g o f t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n w i l l c o n s i s t of o n l y two c o m p o n e n t s , t h e a i r c r a f t c o u r s e a n d t h e c o u r s e a n g l e o f t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n ; on t h e o t h e r i n d i c a t o r s , it can be e s t i m a t e d d i r e c t l y w i t h o u t any c o r r e c t i o n s from t h e scale of t h e instrument. In approaching a c o n t r o l landmark, t h e readings f o r t h e course A t the a n d t h e c o u r s e a n g l e of t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n a r e o b s e r v e d . moment when t h e sum o f t h e a i r c r a f t c o u r s e a n d t h e c o u r s e a n g l e o f t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n become e q u a l t o t h e p r e v i o u s l y c a l c u l a t e d b e a r i n g ( i n c o m b i n e d i n d i c a t o r s , t h e b e a r i n g s o f r a d i o s t a t i o n s become e q u a l t o t h e p r e v i o u s l y c a l c u l a t e d v a l u e ) , t h e moment f o r f l y i n g /278 o v e r t h e landmark i s determined. With t h e a i d o f a r a d i o c o m p a s s l o c a t e d on b o a r d , i t i s a l s o p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t on t h e b a s i s o f t r u e b e a r i n g s from two r a d i o s t a t i o n s . However, t h e a c c u r a c y o f d e t e r m i n i n g t h e a i r c r a f t l o c a t i o n by t h i s method, i n v o l v i n g c o n s i d erable difficulty i n the process, is insufficiently higt. There f o r e , t h e method i s n o t w i d e l y employed i n a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n , being used only f o r determining approximate a i r c r a f t coordinates i n f i n d i n g l o s t landmarks. when t w o r a d i o The e s s e n c e o f t h e m e t h o d i s t h e f o l l o w i n g : c o m p a s s e s a r e on b o a r d , one i s s e t t o t h e f r e q u e n c i e s o f two g r o u n d r a d i o s t a t i o n s , l o c a t e d n o m o r e t h a n 1 8 0 - 2 0 0 km f r o m t h e a i r c r a f t . I t i s d e s i r a b l e when d o i n g t h i s t o e n s u r e t h a t t h e b e a r i n g s o f t h e s e r a d i o s t a t i o n s cross a t an angle close t o 90.
If t h e i n d i c a t o r s o f t h e r a d i o c o m p a s s e s d o n o t a g r e e , t h e c o u r s e , o f t h e a i r c r a f t , t h e c o u r s e a n g l e s o f t h e two r a d i o s t a t i o n s , and t h e d i s t a n c e - f i n d i n g t i m e must a l l b e d e s c r i b e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y f o r a g i v e n moment o f t i m e . Then t h e a p p r o x i m a t e t r u e b e a r i n g s o f t h e aircraft are determined: TBAl

= MC

AM
AM

T B A 2 = MC

+ +

CAR1 CAR2

+ t

180;

180O.

29 0

1 1 1 1

I 11111111111.

Ill

I1

T h e b e a r i n g s w h i c h h a v e b e e n o b t a i n e d a r e p l o t t e d on t h e f l i g h t c h a r t from t h e m e r i d i a n s o f s e l e c t e d r a d i o s t a t i o n s by means of a p r o t r a c t o r and scale r u l e . Having t h u s d e t e r m i n e d t h e a p p r o x i m a t e p o s i t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t , w e c a n f i n d i t s t r u e b e a r i n g by i n t r o d u c i n g t h e p r e c i s e v a l u e of t h e m a g n e t i c d e c l i n a t i o n a n d m a k i n g c o r r e c t i o n s t o t h e d e v i a t i o n a n g l e s of t h e meridians o f t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n and t h e aircraft loca tion. T h e s e c o r r e c t e d b e a r i n g s a r e a g a i n p l o t t e d on t h e c h a r t t o g i v e a p r e c i s e p o s i t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t a t t h e moment o f d i r e c t i o n finding.
If o n l y o n e r a d i o c o m p a s s i s m o u n t e d on b o a r d t h e a i r c r a f t , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o c o n s i d e r i t s p a t h when d e t e r m i n i n g t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t f o r t h e t i m e b e t w e e n t h e moments o f d i r e c t i o n f i n d i n g , and t h i s i s done as f o l l o w s ( F i g . 3 . 2 3 ) .

A f t e r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e a v e r a g e b e a r i n g s of t h e a i r c r a f t , t h e l a t t e r a r e p l o t t e d on a c h a r t , a n d t h e n t h e f l i g h t p a t h o f t h e a i r c r a f t i s o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e p o i n t o f l o c a t i o n of t h e f i r s t r a d i o s t a t i o n f o r t h e time between t h e measurements of t h e c o u r s e a n g l e s of t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n i n a d i r e c t i o n which c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e c o u r s e of t h e a i r c r a f t . A l i n e i s drawn t h r o u g h t h e p o i n t which i s o b t a i n e d , p a r a l l e l t o t h e f i r s t b e a r i n g up t o t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n w i t h t h e l i n e of t h e second bearing, defining t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e aircraft a t t h e moment o f d i r e c t i o n f i n d i n g f o r t h e s e c o n d r a d i o s t a t i o n . In a d d i t i o n , t h e t r u e b e a r i n g s o f t h e a i r c r a f t a r e f o u n d i n t h e same way a s i n t h e c a s e o f t w o r a d i o c o m p a s s e s .

The l a b o r i o u s n e s s o f t h e p r o c e s s o f d e t e r m i n i n g t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t i s c o n s i d e r a b l y r e l i e v e d i f t h e f l i g h t i s made w i t h o r t h o d r o m i c c o u r s e s , b u t t h e i n d i c a t o r s of t h e r a d i o compasses must /279 match. I n t h i s c a s e , t h e a n g l e s of convergence of t h e meridians o f t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n s w i t h t h e r e f e r e n c e m e r i d i a n for c a l c u l a t i n g t h e course a r e determined beforehand.
A t t h e t i m e of measurement, t h e a n g l e of d e v i a t i o n o f t h e merid i a n s f o r t h e f i r s t and t h e n t h e second r a d i o s t a t i o n a r e e n t e r e d on t h e s c a l e o f d e v i a t i o n s of t h e i n d i c a t o r i n s u c c e s s i o n . They a r e c a l c u l a t e d f r o m t h e r e a d i n g s of t h e o p p o s i t e e n d s of t h e p o i n t e r s o f t h e r a d i o compasses and are d e s i g n a t e d as T B S l and TBS2. The b e a r i n g s o b t a i n e d are f i n a l and no c o r r e c t i o n s a r e r e q u i r e d .

F i g . 3.23. Diagram f o r L o c a t i n g t h e P o s i t i o n of an Aircraft from t h e B e a r i n g s o f Two R a d i o S t a stions.

A s we have already mentioned, when u s i n g r a d i o c o m p a s s e s m o u n t e d on b o a r d a i r c r a f t , t h e d r i f t angle of t h e a i r c r a f t is

291

d e t e r m i n e d f r o m t h e s t a b l e c o u r s e a n g l e s o f t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n s or measured a f t e r f l y i n g o v e r a r a d i o s t a t i o n . The g r o u n d s p e e d o f t h e a i r c r a f t i s d e t e r m i n e d b y c h e c k i n g t h e f l i g h t i n t e r m s o f d i s t a n c e b y means o f r a d i o s t a t i o n s l o c a t e d t o t h e s i d e o f , t h e c o u r s e or f r o m t h e m o m e n t s when t h e a i r c r a f t p a s s e s over radio stations. The l a t t e r m e t h o d i s n o t a c c u r a t e , e s p e c i a l l y when f l y i n g a t h i g h a l t i t u d e s , d u e t o t h e e r r o r i n t h e r e a d i n g s o f r a d i o c o m p a s s e s when f l y i n g o v e r r a d i o s t a t i o n s . The d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e w i n d a t f l i g h t a l t i t u d e i s accomp l i s h e d on t h e b a s i s o f t h e g r o u n d s p e e d of t h e a i r c r a f t , t h e a i r s p e e d , a n d t h e d r i f t a n g l e b y t h e same m e t h o d s a s f o r g r o u n d r a d i o distance-finders. The method o f d e t e r m i n i n g t h e wi n d b y u s i n g t h e s u c c e s s i v e p o s i t i o n s o f t h e a i r c r a f t , o b t a i n e d by d i s t a n c e m e a s u r e - ' ment f r o m two r a d i o s t a t i o n s , u s u a l l y i s n o t u s e d d u e t o t h e i n a d equate precision of t h e determination of t h e aircraft location.

S p e c i a l F e a t u r e s o f U s i n g R a d i o c o m p a s s e s on Board A i r c r a f t a t High A l t i t u d e s and F l i g h t S p e e d s

High a l t i t u d e s a n d f l i g h t s p e e d s c a u s e d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f t h e c o n d i t i o n s for u s i n g r a d i o c o m p a s s e s a b o a r d a i r c r a f t f o r p u r p o s e s of aircraft navigation. The u s e o f radiocompasses and t h e o b s e r v a t i o n of a l l r u l e s

for r e t a i n i n g a c c u r a c y o f d i s t a n c e f i n d i n g i s a l a b o r i o u s p r o c e s s ,
s o t h a t t h e i n c r e a s e i n f l i g h t s p e e d , c a l l i n g f'or o p e r a t i v e n e s s of navigational c a l c u l a t i o n s , creates d i f f i c u l t i e s i n using radioc o m p a s s e s on b o a r d t h e a i r c r a f t . This shortcoming can b e l a r g e l y overcome by u s i n g combinations /280 of b e a r i n g i n d i c a t o r s , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e orthodromic system of calcu lating aircraft courses. I n a d d i t i o n , another shortcoming of aircraft radiocompasses w h i c h o p e r a t e o n medium a n d s h o r t w a v e s , d u e t o t h e i n c r e a s e d s p e e d o f f l i g h t , i s t h e e f f e c t o f e l e c t r o s t a t i c n o i s e on t h e i r o p e r a t i o n .
A t high a i r s p e e d s , e s p e c i a l l y i n clouds and i n p r e c i p i t a t i o n , a c o n s i d e r a b l e e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n of t h e a i r c r a f t s u r f a c e s o c c u r s . Static e l e c t r i c i t y , emitted a t pointed portions of the aircraft ( i n c l u d i n g open a n t e n n a s ) creates n o i s e and r a d i o i n t e r f e r e n c e i n t h e frequency r a n g e a t which radiocompasses o p e r a t e . Despite the m e a s u r e s w h i c h a r e t a k e n t o p r e v e n t t h e c h a r g e s f r o m f l o w i n g by u s i n g s p e c i a l d i s c h a r g e d e v i c e s , as w e l l as s h i e l d i n g t h e open a n t e n n a s o f t h e r a d i o c o m p a s s e s , t h i s s h o r t c o m i n g c a n b e overcome o n l y p a r t i a l l y and m a n i f e s t s i t s e l f i n very d i f f i c u l t f l i g h t c o n d i t i o n s .

High f l i g h t a l t i t u d e s h a v e a n e f f e c t m a i n l y on t h e a c c u r a c y o f o p e r a t i o n of r a d i o c o m p a s s e s a n d e s p e c i a l l y on t h e a c c u r a c y of
29 2

d e t e r m i n i n g t h e moment when t h e a i r craft f l i e s over a r a d i o s t a t i o n .

i I I I I

yb( 3-_ ' 1 q\ !

b

ca,

b r

1 \

I \ \

\
'.-A'

/"\

1 ;
I
, . \

The d e c r e a s e i n t h e a c c u r a c y o f o p e r a t i o n t a k e s p l a c e due t o t h e change i n t h e n a t u r e of r a d i o d e v i a t i o n a t d i f f e r e n t a n g l e s o f d e v i a t i o n of t h e p r o p a g a t i o n v e c t o r o f r a d i o waves. The l a t t e r c h a n g e s w i t h i n w i d e l i m i t s when t h e a i r c r a f t a p p r o a c h e s t h e l o c a t i o n of a r a d i o s t a t i o n .

A d i a g r a m of t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f e r r o r s i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e moment w h e n t h e a i r c r a f t f l i e s over a ground r a d i o s t a t i o n i s shown i n F i g u r e 3 . 2 4 w h e r e there is a picture of the electrical f i e l d r a d i a t e d by a n open v e r t i c a l a n t e n n a on a g r o u n d r a d i o s t a t i o n .

Fig. 3.24. O p e r a t i o n of a n Open A n t e n n a When F l y i n g P a s t a Radio S t a t i o n .

A t l a r g e d i s t a n c e s from t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n , t h e e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c wave i s v e r t i c a l l y p o l a r i z e d . However, t h e r e i s a s p a c e n e a r t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n and above it w h e r e t h e p o l a r i z a t i o n s h i f t s t o t h e h o r i z o n t a 1 , t h e n back t o t h e v e r t i c a l b u t i n opposite phase.

L e t us assume t h a t a n open a n t e n n a o f t h e r a d i o c o m p a s s i s t i l t e d backward ( p o s i t i o n a , F i g . 3.24) and t h e a i r c r a f t i s approaching t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n a t a high f l i g h t a l t i t u d e i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of v e c t o r iT.

Obviously, a t p o s i t i o n a t h e antenna w i l l have zero r e c e p t i o n . The r e c e p t i o n o f t h e a n t e n n a w i l l t h e n i n c r e a s e , b u t i n a p h a s e This leads /281 which i s o p p o s i t e t o t h e r e c e p t i o n up t o t h e p o i n t a . t o a r o t a t i o n o f t h e r a d i o c o m p a s s f r a m e b y 180 u n t i l t h e a i r c r a f t passes a radio st a t i o n . Then, a f t e r p a s s i n g t h e s t a t i o n , t h e phases of b o t h t h e frame a n d open a n t e n n a s c h a n g e a l m o s t s i m u l t a n e o u s l y ( a t t h e p o i n t all. T h u s , t h e c h a n g e i n t h e r e a d i n g s o f t h e r a d i o c o m p a s s b y 180 t a k e s p l a c e u n t i l t h e moment w h e n t h e a i r c r a f t p a s s e s o v e r t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n ( a t point a ) and only t h e o s c i l l a t i o n of t h e needle w i l l b e o b s e r v e d from t h e n on.

Fig. 3.25. Equivalent of an Open A n t e n n a o n B o a r d a n A i r craft.

2 9.3

When t h e a n t e n n a i s ' t i l t e d f o r w a r d ( p o s i t i o n c ) , t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s of t h e radiocompass n e e d l e w i l l b e g i n a t p o i n t c , w h i l e t h e passage by t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n with r o t a t i o n of t h e needle through 180 w i l l b e n o t e d a t p o i n t c l , i . e . , t h e r e w i l l b e a d e l a y i n m a r k i n g t h e passage. F o r a s t r i c t l y v e r t i c a l a n t e n n a ( p o s i t i o n b ) , ' t h e movement Then t h e o f t h e n e e d l e t h r o u g h 180 c a n t a k e p l a c e p r e m a t u r e l y . p o i n t e r c a n make a r e v e r s e t u r n a n d a g a i n s h o w t h e p a s s a g e b y t h e radio station at point bl.

I t s h o u l d be m e n t i o n e d t h a t an e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e open a n t e n n a o f t h e r a d i o c o m p a s s i n terms of i t s i n c l i n a t i o n i n t h e v e r t i c a l p l a n e i s t h e r e s u l t a n t c o m b i n i n g t h e u p p e r or l o w e r p o i n t s o f t h e antenna with t h e e l e c t r i c a l center of t h e aircraft, constituting i t s g r o u n d i n g or c o u n t e r w e i g h t ( F i g . 3 . 2 5 ) .

I n t h i s f i g u r e , p o i n t 1 i s t h e t o p of t h e open a n t e n n a , p o i n t 2 i s t h e r e c e i v e r and p o i n t 3 i s t h e e l e c t r i c a l c e n t e r of t h e a i r craft. Obviously, s t r a i g h t l i n e 1-3 is t h e equivalent a t i o n o f t h e open a n t e n n a , which i s f o r w a r d i n t h i s t h e s e t t i n g o f t h e open a n t e n n a above t h e f u s e l a g e i s e c t i o n c a u s e s a d e l a y i n t h e r e a d i n g o f t h e moment s t a t i o n is passed. of t h e i n c l i n case. Thus, n i t s forward when t h e r a d i o

M o u n t i n g o f t h e a n t e n n a i n t h e same p o s i t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e c e n t e r b u t below t h e f u s e l a g e l e a d s t o a p r e l i m i n a r y r e a d i n g o f t h e moment w h e n t h e a i r c r a f t p a s s e s t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n . The oppo s i t e p i c t u r e i s o b s e r v e d when t h e a n t e n n a i s mo u n t ed b e h i n d t h e e l e c t r i c a l c e n t e r of t h e a i r c r a f t . The b e s t p l a c e t o m o u n t t h e a n t e n n a i s a b o v e or b e l o w t h e e l e c t r i c a l c e n t e r o f t h e a i r c r a f t , b u t i n t h i s c a s e a n a d v a n c e or d e l a y i n t h e r e a d i n g s i s o b s e r v e d ; i n some c a s e s , t h e s e d e v i a t i o n s d e p e n d on t h e h e i g h t a n d s p e e d of f l i g h t , b u t t h e r e c a n a l s o b e a d o u b l e r e a d i n g involving both an advance and delayed i n d i c a t i o n . This system f o r t h e c r e a t i o n of e r r o r s i n measuring a f l i g h t only approximately r e f l e c t s t h e reasons f o r these e r r o r s . In prac t i c e , t h e y w i l l d e p e n d b o t h on t h e a n g l e of p i t c h on t h e a i r c r a f t a n d on t h e a c c u r a c y w i t h w h i c h t h e p a s s a g e of t h e a i r c r a f t o v e r t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n is determined.

For e x a m p l e , i f t h e a i r c r a f t i s p a s s i n g a r a d i o s t a t i o n t o t h e s i d e , t h e n o b v i o u s l y t h e r e will n o t b e a n i n d i c a t i o n o f p a s s a g e w i t h movement o f t h e n e e d l e t h r o u g h 1 8 0 , b u t a d e t e r i o r a t i o n i n t h e passage over t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n , i . e . , e r r o r s i n determini n g t h e passage of t h e t r a v e r s e of t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n w i l l be prac t i c a l l y non-existent.

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Usually, t h e exact passage of an aircraft over a r a d i o sta t i o n occurs only i n s p e c i a l and e x c e p t i o n a l c o n d i t i o n s . Therefore, i n p r a c t i c e t h e r e i s always a c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e effect of passage w i t h t h e e f f e c t o f e r r o r , w h i c h d o e s n o t make i t p o s s i b l e t o c o n s i d e r t h e m a g n i t u d e of t h e d e l a y a d v a n c e i n m a r k i n g t h e p a s s a g e . D e p e n d i n g on t h e t y p e o f a i r c r a f t a n d t h e f l i g h t c o n d i t i o n s , these e r r o r s can occur w i t h i n l i m i t s e q u a l t o 1-3 f l i g h t a l t i t u d e s , e x c l u d i n g t h e case o f e x a c t d e t e r m i n a t i o n . However, e x a c t d e t e r m i n a t i o n c a n o c c u r a t d i s t a n c e s which e x c e e d t h e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e of t h e a ' i r c r a f t , beyond t h e l i m i t s of a zone w i t h h o r i z o n t a l p o l a r i z a t i o n , i . e . , a t v e r y c o n s i d e r a b l e d e v i a t i o n s of t h e a i r c r a f t f r o m t h e g i v e n l i n e of f l i g h t .

D e t a i Z s o f U s i n g R a d i o c o m p a s s e s i n Making Maneuvers i n t h e V i c i n i t y o f t h e A i r p o r t a t Which a L a n d i n g is t o b e Made

The m a n e u v e r o f a p p r o a c h i n g f o r a l a n d i n g u s u a l l y b e g i n s a t a r e l a t i v e l y l o w f l i g h t a l t i t u d e ( 1 2 0 0 - 4 0 0 0 m) w i t h a g r a d u a l r e d u c t i o n of t h e a i r s p e e d . Therefore, the e f f e c t s related t o height and f l i g h t speed i n t h i s c a s e are c o n s i d e r a b l y reduced. U n l i k e a f l i g h t a l o n g t h e r o u t e , where t h e main o p e r a t i o n i n a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n i n v o l v i n g t h e u s e o f r a d i o c o m p a s s e s i s meas u r i n g o f b e a r i n g s , t h e work i s s h i f t e d when m a n e u v e r i n g t h e a i r craft mainly t o measuring course angles of t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n s a t i n d i v i d u a l p o i n t s a l o n g t h e maneuver. This i s p r o f i t a b l e i n t h i s respect: r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e o r i e n t a t i o n of t h e l a n d i n g s t r i p , and consequently of t h e course of t h e aircraft a t d i f f e r e n t s t a g e s of t h e m a n e u v e r , t h e s y s t e m f o r u s i n g r a d i o c o m p a s s e s i s b a s e d on two or t h r e e s t a n d a r d s w h i c h a r e u s e d a t a l l a i r p o r t s .
O f course, i f t h e r e i s a tendency t o d r i f t i n t h e a i r c r a f t c o u r s e , t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g c o r r e c t i o n s m u s t b e made i n t h e r e a d i n g s of t h e c o u r s e a n g l e o f t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n wh i ch a r e e q u a l i n magni t u d e and s i g n t o t h e l e a d which h a s b e e n t a k e n .

The e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f u s i n g r a d i o c o m p a s s e s i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f a i r p o r t s w h e r e l a n d i n g s a r e t o made i s i n c r e a s e d a l s o b y t h e f a c t t h a t t h e f l i g h t i s made a t s h o r t d i s t a n c e s f r o m g r o u n d r a d i o s t a t i o n s , which g i v e s r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l l i n e a r e r r o r s i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e a i r c r a f t i n view o f t h e e r r o r s a l r e a d y committed i n measuring t h e course angles of t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n . In addition, it i s no l o n g e r n e c e s s a r y t o c a l c u l a t e t h e magnetic d e c l i n a t i o n a n d t h e d e v i a t i o n a n g l e s of t h e m e r i d i a n s . The a c c u r a c y o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f t h e aerodrome, u s i n g radiocom passes, i s considered t o be q u i t e s a t i s f a c t o r y i n a l l s t a g e s of t h e maneuver w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g e x c e p t i o n s : (a> D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t o f t h e maneuver by
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29 5

f l y i n g p a s t t h e power r a d i o s t a t i o n , if t h e maneuver i s b e g i n n i n g a t a high a l t i t u d e . (b) On a l a n d i n g s t r i p , w h e r e i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o h a v e v e r y h i g h a c c u r a c y of f l i g h t a l o n g a g i v e n t r a j e c t o r y f o r b r i n g i n g t h e aircraft i n f o r a landing.

U 1 t r a - S h o r t w a v e Gon i ome t r i c a n d Gon i ome t r i c - R a n g e F i n d i n g Systems

A s w e have mentioned, radiocompasses have s i g n i f i c a n t advan t a g e s o v e r ground r a d i o d i s t a n c e - f i n d e r s with r e s p e c t t o u n i n t e r r u p t e d v i s u a l i n f o r m a t i o n on b o a r d t h e a i r c r a f t r e g a r d i n g i t s p o s i tion. T h i s means t h a t t h e y h a v e b e e n v e r y w i d e l y e m p l o y e d a n d a r e i n s t a l l e d i n p r a c t i c a l l y a l l t y p e s o f a i r c r a f t as a r u l e i n a d o u b l e set. I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e a r e a number o f i m p o r t a n t s h o r t c o m i n g s f o r r a d i o c o m p a s s e s m o u n t e d on b o a r d a i r c r a f t , w h i c h r e d u c e t h e a c c u r acy and f e a s i b i l i t y of a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n .
I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e e r r o r s c a u s e d by t h e e f f e c t o f t h e l o c a l r e l i e f , which a f f e c t a l l systems f o r s h o r t - r a n g e n a v i g a t i o n , r a d i o compasses have t h e f o l l o w i n g shortcomings: (a) Unfavorable c o n d i t i o n s f o r d i r e c t i o n a l r e c e p t i o n of elec t r o m a g n e t i c waves on b o a r d t h e a i r c r a f t ( r a d i o d e v i a t i o n o f a n u n s t a b l e nature) ; (b) An i n c r e a s e i n t h e e r r o r s i n d i s t a n c e f i n d i n g d u e t o i n a c c u r a t e measurements of t h e a i r c r a f t c o u r s e ; (c) The n e c e s s i t y t o c o n s i d e r t h e d e v i a t i o n o f t h e m e r i d i a n s a n d m a g n e t i c d e c l i n a t i o n s when u s i n g m a g n e t i c c o m p a s s e s t o d e t e r mine b e a r i n g s ; (d) The e f f e c t o f s t a t i c n o i s e i n t h e r a n g e o f r e c e i v e d r a d i o frequencies a t high airspeeds ;

( e ) T h e e f f e c t o f f l i g h t a l t i t u d e o n t h e a c c u r a c y o f meas u r i n g t h e r a n g e a n d d e t e r m i n i n g t h e moment o f f l y i n g o v e r t h e r a d i o stations.

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e s e shortcomings, radiocompasses are s u b j e c t t h e need t o p l o t t o a g e n e r a l d i s a d v a n t a g e of g o n i o m e t r i c s y s t e m s : b e a r i n g s on t h e c h a r t f r o m t w o g r o u n d p o i n t s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e l o c a t i o n of t h e aircraft. T h e r e f o r e i t seems n a t u r a l t o t r y t o b u i l d d e v i c e s f o r s h o r t r a n g e r a d i o n a v i g a t i o n which would have t h e advantages of t h e r a d i o c o m p a s s e s m o u n t e d on a i r c r a f t b u t w o u l d n o t h a v e t h e s h o r t c o m i n g s from which t h e y s u f f e r . Such d e v i c e s a r e t h e g o n i o m e t r i c a n d g o n i o m e t r i c - r a n g e f i n d i n g s y s t e m s w h i c h o p e r a t e on u l t r a - s h o r t w a v e s . 296

A common f e a t u r e o f t h e s e s y s t e m s i s t h e d i r e c t i o n a l r a d i a t i o n o f e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c waves by g r o u n d i n s t r u m e n t s and t h e i r d i r e c t i o n a l This f e a t u r e , together with t h e r e c e p t i o n on b o a r d t h e a i r c r a f t . r a n g e o f waves employed, g i v e s t h r e e v e r y i m p o r t a n t a d v a n t a g e s f o r navigational systems:
(1)

I t f r e e s t h e s y s t e m f r o m r a d i o d e v i a t i o n s on b o a r d ;
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(2) The b e a r i n g o f t h e a i r c r a f t becomes i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e aircraft course, magnetic d e c l i n a t i o n , and d e v i a t i o n of meridians; (3) I t sharply i n c r e a s e s t h e freedom of t h e system and atmospheric i n t e r f e r e n c e .

from s t a t i c

There are s e v e r a l t y p e s of goniometric d i r e c t i o n a l r a d i o bea cons and r e c e i v i n g d e v i c e s t o c a r r y aboard a i r c r a f t , which o p e r a t e on u l t r a - s h o r t w a v e s . The u s u a l p r i n c i p l e o f o p e r a t i o n f o r t h e s e s y s t e m s i s t h e r o t a t i o n of the d i r e c t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e r a d i a t i o n of t h e trans m i t t i n g a n t e n n a of a g r o u n d i n s t a l l a t i o n w i t h i t s r e c e p t i o n a b o a r d t h e a i r c r a f t by a n open ( o m n i d i r e c t i o n a l ) a n t e n n a f o r a t r a n s m i t t e r of r e f e r e n c e s i g n a l s , r e l a t e d t o t h e p a s s a g e of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e a n t e n n a t h r o u g h t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r m e a s u r i n g b e a r i n g s , e . g . , t h r o u g h t h e n o r t h e r n d i r e c t i o n o f t h e m a g n e t i c or t r u e m e r i d i a n of t h e b e a c o n . F i g u r e 3 . 2 6 shows t h e s c h e m a t i c d i a g r a m of a r a d i o b e a c o n w i t h a r o t a t i n g d i r e c t i o n a l antenna. The g e n e r a t o r of low f r e q u e n c i e s p r o d u c e s a f r e q u e n c y which i s s y n c h r o n i z e d w i t h t h e r o t a t i o n o f t h e d i r e c t i o n a l antenna. On t h e a x i s o f r o t a t i o n o f t h e a n t e n n a i s a s p e c i a l d i s k , which g e n e r a t e s t h e r e f e r e n c e s i g n a l r e l a t e d t o t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e r o t a t i n g antenna. The r e f e r e n c e s i g n a l p a s s e s t h r o u g h t h e m o d u l a t o r and t r a n s m i t t e r t o r e a c h t h e open a n t e n n a of t h e r a d i o b e a c o n .

trans mitter
1

modu call -Eiato+ signal

Fig. 3.26. S c h e m a t i c Diagram o f a R a d i o Beacon With R o t a t i n g D i r e c t i o n a l A n t e n n a . 29 7

From t h e t r a n s m i t t e r , t h e s i g n a l r e a c h e s t h e r o t a t i n g a n t e n n a t h r o u g h a m o d u l a t i o n s u p p r e s s o r , s o t h a t t h e a m p l i t u d e of t h e s i g n a l r a d i a t e d b y t h e a n t e n n a i n a n y g i v e n d i r e c t i o n d e p e n d s o n l y on t h e position of the antenna r e l a t i v e t o this. direction. Consequently, t h e s i g n a l from a d i r e c t i o n a l a n t e n n a is modulated by a l o w fre q u e n c y w h o s e p h a s e r e l a t i v e t o t h e r e l a t i v e s i g n a l is s h i f t e d t h r o u g h a n a n g l e e q u a l t o t h e a z i m u t h of t h e a i r c r a f t . T h u s , two s i g n a l s r e a c h t h e a i r c r a f t on t h e c a r r i e r f r e q u e n c y i n addition t o the call-letter signals:

(1)

Reference s i g n a l f o r beginning t h e reading.

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(2) The s i g n a l f r o m t h e d i r e c t i o n a l a n t e n n a , whose a m p l i t u d e maximum c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e moment when t h i s a n t e n n a c r o s s e s t h e l i n e t o the aircraft.

The r e c e i v e r o n t h e a i r c r a f t h a s t h r e e c h a n n e l s ( F i g . 3.27):

(1)
(earphones
(2)

C h a n n e l f o r p i c k i n g up t h e c a l l l e t t e r s f r o m t h e b e a c o n ; Reference-channel; Azimuthal v o l t a g e channel.

(3)

I
receiver

earphone channel

r f r. eevo 1 g e ta channel
azimuthal I azimuthal- I voltage

channel
I

phase di sc r i m anator

Fig. 3.27. Apparatus f o r Goniometric System Aboard a n A i r c r a f t . The i n d i c a t o r m e c h a n i s m i s u s u a l l y b a s e d o n m e a s u r e m e n t o f t h e p h a s e r a t i o o f t h e r e f e r e n c e a n d a z i m u t h a l s i g n a l s w i t h low f r e q u e n c y by t h e c o m p e n s a t i o n m e t h o d , i . e . , t h e p h a s e o f t h e r e f e r e n c e s i g n a l i s changed by a n a u t o m a t i c p h a s e s h i f t e r s o t h a t i t

298

c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e p h a s e of t h e a z i m u t h a l s i g n a l . I n t h i s case, t h e s i g n a l on t h e p h a s e d i s c r i m i n a t o r w i l l b e e q u a l t o z e r o w h i l e t h e b e a r i n g i n d i c a t o r on t h e a i r c r a f t w i l l a c t as t h e p o i n t e r o f t h e phase s h i f t e r .

to a (and only line

For f l i g h t a l o n g a g i v e n b e a r i n g , t h e p h a s e s h i f t e r i s s e t g i v e n p o s i t i o n , s o t h a t t h e s i g n a l on t h e p h a s e d i s c r i m i n a t o r t h e r e f o r e on t h e z e r o i n d i c a t o r d e v i c e ) w i l l b e e q u a l t o z e r o i n t h e case when t h e a i r c r a f t i s l o c a t e d e x a c t l y a l o n g t h e

of the desired bearing.

The g o n i o m e t r i c s y s t e m f o r s h o r t - r a n g e n a v i g a t i o n , o p e r a t i n g o n u l t r a s o n i c w a v e s , i n t h e c a s e when t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e r o t a t i n g d i r e c t i o n a l a n t e n n a h a s a s h a r p l y p r o n o u n c e d maximum ( w h i c h u s u a l l y i s a c h i e v e d b y u s i n g r e f l e x r e f l e c t o r s ) , c a n b e b u i l t on t h e p r i n c i p l e of t i m e r a t i o s r a t h e r than phase r a t i o s . I n t h i s c a s e , t h e r e f e r e n c e s i g n a l , when t h e r o t a t i n g d i r e c t i o n a l antenna passes through zero reading, has a pulsed character, a n d t h e e q u i p m e n t on b o a r d must i n c l u d e a g e n e r a t o r o f a r e f e r e n c e f r e q u e n c y as w e l l as s p e c i a l d e l a y d e v i c e s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e b e a r i n g o f t h e a i r c r a f t i n t i m e b e t w e e n t h e m o m e n t s when t h e r e f e r e n c e a n d azimu'thal s i g n a l s are r e c e i v e d . The g e o m e t r y o f n a v i g a t i o n a l a p p l i c a t i o n s o f U S W b e a c o n s w i t h d i r e c t i o n a l r a d i a t i o n i s e x a c t l y t h e same a s t h e u s e o f g r o u n d r a d i o All t h e problems of a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n such as distancefinders. s e l e c t i o n of t h e course t o be followed, monitoring of t h e path f o r d i s t a n c e and d i r e c t i o n , determination of t h e l o c a t i o n of t h e a i r c r a f t f r o m two b e a c o n s , measurement o f t h e d r i f t a n g l e and g r o u n d s p e e d , measurement o f t h e wind a t f l i g h t a l t i t u d e , e t c . , a r e s o l v e d In i n e x a c t l y t h e same way a s f o r g r o u n d r a d i o d i s t a n c e - f i n d e r s . f l i g h t away f r o m a r a d i o b e a c o n , t h e r u l e s for f l i g h t a l o n g t h e ShchDR b e a r i n g a r e o b s e r v e d , w h i l e i n f l i g h t t o w a r d a r a d i o b e a c o n i t i s t h e r u l e s f o r b e a r i n g ShchDM w h i c h a r e f o l l o w e d .
I f t h e f l i g h t i s made u s i n g a z e r o - i n d i c a t o r i n s t r u m e n t , t h e method o f s e l e c t i n g t h e c o u r s e i n f l i g h t from t h e b e a c o n and t o w a r d t h e b e a c o n w i t h a c o r r e s p o n d i n g s w i t c h i n t h e mode o f o p e r a t i o n o f t h e r e c e i v e r l e a d s us t o o n l y one t y p e : t h e p o i n t e r of t h e z e r o i n d i c a t o r shows t h e d i r e c t i o n of d e v i a t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t from t h e LGF.

/286

The m a i n d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n u s i n g U S W b e a c o n s a n d g r o u n d r a d i o distance-finders i s only t h a t i n order t o determine t h e location o f t h e a i r c r a f t from two b e a r i n g s u s i n g a r a d i o d i r e c t i o n - f i n d e r , t h e p l o t t i n g o f t h e b e a r i n g s i s d o n e b y t h e o p e r a t o r o f t h e com mand d i s t a n c e f i n d i n g s t a t i o n , w h i l e i n t h e c a s e o f U S W b e a c o n s i t i s d o n e b y t h e crew o f t h e a i r c r a f t . N e v e r t h e l e s s , g o n i o m e t r i c U S W b e a c o n s h a v e a much w i d e r r a n g e of a p p l i c a t i o n than ground r a d i o - d i s t a n c e - f i n d e r s and a i r c r a f t radio

29 9

c o m p a s s e s , t h a n k s t o t h e c o n s t a n t i n d i c a t i o n o f b e a r i n g s on b o a r d the aircraft. The i n s t r u m e n t a l a c c u r a c y o f g o n i o m e t r i c UW n a v i g a t i o n a l s y s S t e m s i s higher than for ground r a d i o d i s t a n c e - f i n d e r s . The p r a c t i c a l a c c u r a c y u n d e r a v e r a g e c o n d i t i o n s o f a p p l i c a t i o n i s a l s o somewhat h i g h e r or e q u a l t o t h e a c c u r a c y o f d i s t a n c e - f i n d e r s . However, i n using r a d i o d i s t a n c e - f i n d e r s , it i s p o s s i b l e t o consider t o a c e r t a i n e x t e n t t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e l o c a l r e l i e f on t h e r a d i u s of a p p l i c a t i o n , w h i c h c a n n o t b e done f o r UW b e a c o n s . S In this respect, t h e UW b e a c o n s h a v e l e s s f a v o r a b l e o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s t h a n g r o u n d S r a d i o distance-measuring s t a t i o n s . T h e o p e r a t i n g r a n g e o f a UW s y s t e m S i s l i m i t e d by t h e l i m i t s o f d i r e c t g e o m e t r i c v i s i b i l i t y f r o m t h e g r o u n d b e a c o n t o t h e air c r a f t w i t h an i n s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e c a u s e d by r a d i o r e f r a c t i o n .
I t i s d e t e r m i n e d by t h e a p p r o x i m a t e f o r m u l a

s =

122

JK.

H o w e v e r , i f t h e r e a r e some o b s t a c l e s a l o n g t h e p a t h o f t h e p r o p a g a t i o n o f t h e r a d i o waves ( e . g . , m o u n t a i n p e a k s ) , t h e y w i l l a p p e a r i n s u r m o u n t a b l e f o r USW. From t h e s t a n d p o i n t o f n a v i g a t i o n a l a p p l i c a t i o n s , i t i s v e r y a d v a n t a g e o u s t o combine t h e o p e r a t i o n o f a g o n i o m e t r i c UW s y s t e m S with range f i n d e r s . R a n g e f i n d i n g UW n a v i g a t i o n a l s y s t e m s a r e u s u a l l y o f i m p u l s e S (Fig. 3.28). /287 -

type

The a i i a c r a f t t r a n s m i t t e r s e n d s o u t i m p u l s e s o f u l t r a s h o r t waves w h i c h r e a c h t h e r e c e i v e r a b o a r d t h e a i r c r a f t a t t h e same t i m e a s a reference signal.

Fig. 3.28. System.

Diagram o f Long-Range

Navigational

300

The g r o u n d r e c e i v e r r e c e i v e s p u l s e s o f wave e n e r g y e m i t t e d by t h e a i r c r a f t , a m p l i f i e s them a n d s e n d s them o u t a g a i n t h r o u g h a t r a n s m i t t e r i n t o t h e e t h e r , t o b e r e c e i v e d by t h e a i r c r a f t . The r a n g e i n d i c a t o r a b o a r d t h e a i r c r a f t h a s a g e n e r a t o r o f s t a n d a r d f r e q u e n c i e s , a f r e q u e n c y - d i v i d e r c i r c u i t , and a d e l a y l i n e f o r t h e r e f e r e n c e p u l s e t o measure t h e t i m e r e q u i r e d f o r t h e s i g n a l t o p a s s from t h e a i r c r a f t t o t h e ground beacon and back t o t h e a i r craft. While t h e s i g n a l i s t r a v e l i n g , t h e d u r a t i o n o f t h e d e l a y i n t h e reference p u i s e p r i o r t o i t s combination with t h e received s i g n a l determines t h e d i s t a n c e t o t h e ground beacon, which i s u s u a l l y used as a v i s u a l i n d i c a t o r o f t h e a z i m u t h o f t h e a i r c r a f t ( t h e d i r e c t r e a d i n g i n s t r u m e n t f o r d i s t a n c e and azimuth, D R I D A ) . The c o m b i n a t i o n o f a z i m u t h a n d d i s t a n c e r e a d i n g s m a k e s i t v e r y easy t o s o l v e t h e problems of a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y i f t h e b e a c o n i s m o u n t e d a t t h e s t a r t i n g or e n d p o i n t o f a s t r a i g h t l i n e f l i g h t segment. I n t h e l a t t e r c a s e , t h e crew o f t h e a i r c r a f t has a constant supply of d i r e c t data regarding t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e a i r c r a f t r e l a t i v e t o t h e l i n e o f f l i g h t i n t e r m s o f d i r e c t i o n and distance. When t h e g r o u n d b e a c o n i s l o c a t e d t o t h e s i d e o f t h e p a t h t o b e c o v e r e d by t h e a i r c r a f t , t h e problem o f d e t e r m i n i n g t h e a i r c r a f t c o o r d i n a t e s i s s o l v e d a n a l y t i c a l l y , or v e r y s i m p l e c a l c u l a t i n g d e v i c e s are used t o convert t h e p o l a r system of c o o r d i n a t e s f o r t h e posi t i o n of t h e a i r c r a f t i n t o t h e o r t h o d r o m i c s y s t e m . One t y p e o f s u c h d e v i c e i s t h e c o m p u t e r w h i c h i s i n s t a l l e d f o r z e r o i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e a i r c r a f t on t h e l i n e of t h e p a t h t o b e t r a v e l e d d u r i n g f l i g h t i n a g i v e n d i r e c t i o n . L e t u s assume t h a t w e have a s t r a i g h t - l i n e point A t o point B (Fig. 3.29). p a t h segment from
/288

I f we a r e g i v e n t h e p a t h a n g l e o f t h e s e g m e n t ( $ 1 , m e a s u r e d r e l a t i v e t o t h e meridian f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e bearings (magnetic or t r u e m e r i d i a n o f t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e g r o u n d b e a c o n ) , a n d w e know t h e a z i m u t h o f t h e e n d p o i n t o f t h e s e g m e n t ( A f i n ) a s w e l l as t h e d i f f e r e n c e from i t t o t h e beacon ( R f i n ) , t h e s h o r t e s t d i s t a n c e from t h e beacon a l o n g t h e l i n e of f l i g h t (Rs) ( d i s r e g a r d i n g t h e spher i c i t y o f t h e E a r t h ) , c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d by t h e f o r m u l a

or f o r a n y p o i n t l y i n g o n t h e l i n e o f f l i g h t
Rs
I n o t h e r words,

- Ri

s i n ( 9 - Ai).

t h e g i v e n l i n e of f l i g h t i s t h e g e o m e t r i c l o c u s

30 1

o f p o i n t s f o r which R.sin($-Ai)
2

= const =

Rfin

sin.( $-Afin).

F i g . 3.29. Diagram Showing O p e r a t i o n o f Computer f o r Zero Indication of Path Line.

on t h e Thus, having s e t t h e p a t h angle of t h e segment ($1 c a l c u l a t o r , t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e beacon t o t h e end p o i n t of t h e segment ( R f i n ) a n d t h e a z i m u t h o f t h e e n d p o i n t ( A f i n ) , w e can f.ind t h e n a v i g a t i o n a l p a r a m e t e r Rs which c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t e x a c t l y on t h e l i n e o f f l i g h t .
If i t t u r n s o u t i n t h e c o u r s e o f t h e f l i g h t t h a t Rs i s g r e a t e r t h a n t h e g i v e n v a l u e , t h e n i n t h e example shown i n F i g u r e 3.29 t h e a i r c r a f t d e v i a t e s f r o m t h e LGF t o t h e l e f t , a n d t h e p o i n t e r o f t h e With a d e v i a t i o n f r o m t h e z e r o i n d i c a t o r a l s o moves t o t h e l e f t . L G F t o t h e r i g h t , t h e a r r o w o f t h e z e r o i n d i c a t o r w i l l move t o t h e right.

When a f l i g h t i s made i n a d i r e c t i o n w h i c h i s o p p o s i t e t o t h a t shown i n F i g u r e 3 . 4 0 , t h e v a l u e s i n ( $ A i ) a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y R s , w i l l h a v e a n e g a t i v e s i g n , s o t h a t when t h e a i r c r a f t m o v e s t o t h e l e f t o f t h e l i n e of f l i g h t t h e p o i n t e r of t h e z e r o i n d i c a t o r w i l l a l s o move t o t h e l e f t r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h e a b s o l u t e d i s t a n c e Rs i n t h i s c a s e d e c r e a s e s , a n d v i c e v e r s a . The c a l c u l a t i n g d e v i c e f o r z e r o i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e g i v e n l i n e o f f l i g h t i s v e r y s i m p l e a n d makes i t p o s s i b l e t o s o l v e o n l y o n e p r o b l e m , :.e. , t o s e l e c t t h e c o u r s e t o b e f o l l o w e d by t h e a i r c r a f t f o r a f l i g h t a l o n g a g i v e n l i n e o f f l i g h t , i n a manner s i m i l a r t o t h a t f o r a f l i g h t f r o m a r a d i o b e a c o n or a l o n g t h e ShchDR b e a r i n g s , u s i n g t h e method of h a l f c o r r e c t i o n .
/28'

I t i s b e t t e r t o s o l v e t h e p r o b l e m or t o u s e c o m p u t o r s t o s o l v e it using t h e computation of numerical v a l u e s of orthodromic coord i n a t e s o f t h e a i r c r a f t , w o r k i n g on t h e b a s i s o f t h e i n d i c a t i o n s from t h e D R I D A :

302

I n t h i s case, t h e angle of s h i f t of t h e a i r c r a f t r e l a t i v e t o t h e l i n e of f l i g h t i s d e t e r m i n e d v e r y s i m p l y as t h e r a t i o o f t h e change i n t h e c o o r d i n a t e Z t o t h e d i s t a n c e covered between t h e p o i n t s of two m e a s u r e m e n t s (Xcov):

tg A+ -.I

AZ

XC&

Example. The d i s t a n c e c o v e r e d b e t w e e n meas u remen t p o i n t s i s e q u a l t o 6 0 km. T h e c o o r d i n a t e Z v a r i e s f r o m z e r o t o + 4 km. Find t h e required correction i n t h e course f o r traveling p a r a l l e l t o t h e l i n e of f l i g h t .

S o l u t i on
A+ = arctg

-= 4". 60

&.

of'fl must (and w i l l

W w i l l e ight fo be -E0, if this have t o

assume t h a t i t i s r a n o t h e r 6 0 km s o b u t a t t h e moment t a k e s p l a c e a s we i n c r e a s e d by 4 O .

necessary t o t r a v e l along t h i s l i n e t h a t t h e correction i n t h e course when t h e c o o r d i n a t e Z b e c o m e s z e r o h a v e c a l c u l a t e d a t 6 0 km) t h e c o u r s e

I f t h e j u n c t u r e w i t h t h i s c o u r s e t a k e s p l a c e e a r l i e r or l a t e r , t h e n i t i s n e c e s s a r y once a g a i n t o determine t h e a n g l e of s h i f t o f t h e a i r c r a f t (A$) a n d t o move t h e a i r c r a f t t o t h e r i g h t b y t h i s angle. F o r e x a m p l e , i f we h a v e a n i n i t i a l s h i f t f r o m t h e d e s i r e d p a t h o f 4 k m , t h e a i r c r a f t w i l l r e a c h t h e l i n e o f f l i g h t i n 80 k m , so that 4 A+ = arctg -= 3".

80

I n t h e orthodromic system, t h e problem of checking t h e path for d i s t a n c e a n d d e t e r m i n i n g t h e g r o u n d s p e e d i s s o l v e d s i m p l y

For l a c k o f a c a l c u l a t o r , t h e p r o b l e m s i n f i n d i n g t h e a n g l e of s h i f t of t h e a i r c r a f t and checking t h e p a t h f o r d i s t a n c e and /290 d i r e c t i o n , c a n b e s o l v e d a n a l y t i c a l l y by means o f a n a v i g a t i o n a l slide rule. I n a d d i t i o n , t h e s e same p r o b l e m s c a n b e s o l v e d by p l o t t i n g on t h e c h a r t t h e i n d i c a t i o n s of t h e a z i m u t h a n d d i s t a n c e o f t h e a i r c r a f t as o b t a i n e d from t h e b e a c o n .
On a f l i g h t c h a r t w h i c h h a s a n i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e g i v e n l i n e o f f l i g h t , t w o p o i n t s b a s e d on t h e b e a r i n g s a n d d i s t a n c e s f r o m a ground beacon are p l o t t e d every 15-20 min. On t h e b a s i s o f t h e

30 3

p o s i t i o n s of t h e s e p o i n t s r e l a t i v e t o t h e l i n e o f f l i g h t , w e can It is then easy determine t h e i r orthodromic c o o r d i n a t e s X and Z . t o s o l v e t h e p r o b l e m s i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e a n g l e o f s h i f t of t h e a i r craft (A$), and a l s o t h e d r i f t angle and t h e r e q u i r e d angle f o r t u r n i n g t h e a i r c r a f t , t h e g r o u n d s p e e d as w e l l as t h e w i n d param eters a t f l i g h t a l t i t u d e .

D e t a i l s of U s i n g G o n i o m e t r i c - R a n g e F i n d i n g S y s t e m s a t D i f f e r ent Flight AZtitudes

A s p e c i a l f e a t u r e o f u l t r a s h o r t waves i s t h e i r a b i l i t y t o b e r e f l e c t e d from t h e i n t e r f a c e s of media with d i f f e r e n t o p t i c a l densi t i e s , a n d e s p e c i a l l y f r o m c o n d u c t i n g m e d i a i n a more s h a r p l y p r o n o u n c e d f o r m t h a n i s t h e c a s e for w a v e s o f s h o r t e r f r e q u e n c i e s . I n a d d i t i o n , a t s h o r t w a v e l e n g t h s , t h e i n t e r f e r e n c e which a r i s e s w i t h c o m b i n a t i o n o f o s c i l l a t i o n s shows up more r a r e l y t h a n i n t h e case o f l o n g waves, s i n c e t h e s m a l l d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e p a t h o f t h e c o h e r e n t waves i n t h e case o f s h o r t w a v e l e n g t h s g i v e s a c o n s i d e r a b l e s h i f t i n t h e i r phase. Let us say t h a t the antenna o f a g r o u n d t r a n s m i t t e r o f a gon i o m e t r i c or r a n g e - f i n d i n g s y s t e m i s mounted a i a c e r t a i n a l t i t u d e above t h e s u r f a c e of t h e ground ( p o i n t A i n Fig. 3.30). The e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c wave a t t h e r e c e i v e r p o i n t B w i l l be prop a g a t e d a l o n g two p a t h s : Fig. 3.30. D i a g r a m Forma t i o n o f L o b e s o f Maximum Radiation. (a) Along t h e s t r a i g h t l i n e

AB

(b) Along t h e b r o k e n l i n e ACB w i t h r e f l e c t i o n a t p o i n t C o f f the Earth's surface.

I t i s clear i n t h e diagram t h a t s t r a i g h t l i n e A1B i s equal t o t h e b r o k e n l i n e A C B , s i n c e t h e a n g l e of i n c i d e n c e o f t h e wave i s e q u a l t o t h e a n g l e of r e f l e c t i o n .

L e t u s d r a w l i n e A A 7 i n s u c h a way t h a t t r i a n g l e A B A 2 i s a n isosceles triangle. Obviously, l i n e A1A2 w i l l r e p r e s e n t t h e path d i f f e r e n c e of the rays i n t h e s t r a i g h t and r e f l e c t e d waves. The r e f l e c t i o n of r a d i o waves i n v o l v e s a p h a s e s h i f t i n t h e w a v e w h i c h d e p e n d s o n t h e o p t i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e r e f l e c t i n g med ium. A p u r e l y m i r r o r r e f l e c t i o n c h a n g e s t h e p h a s e o f a wave by 180O. With a s m a l l d i f f e r e n e i n o p t i c a l d e n s i t i e s o f t h e m e d i a ,
30 4

/291

when t h e p r o p a g a t i o n o f t h e r e f l e c t e d w a v e t a k e s p l a c e a l o n g a c u r v e w i t h a d i p i n t h e r e f l e c t i n g medium, t h e p h a s e s h i f t c a n t a k e p l a c e differently. L e t u s s a y t h a t u p o n r e f l e c t i o n , t h e p h a s e o f a wave remains fixed. Then t h e r e s u l t a n t o f t h e d i r e c t and r e f l e c t e d s i g n a l s a t t h e r e c e i v i n g p o i n t B w i l l h a v e a maximum w h e n t h e p a t h d i f f e r e n c e of t h e beams h a s a v a l u e w h i c h i s a n e v e n w h o l e m u l t i p l e o f t h e h a l f wave: A AS=2%-~ = 0 , 2 , 4 , . .2n
2 '

a n d a minimum i f

i s a n odd m u l t i p l e o f t h e h a l f - w a v e :
x=

1,3,5.

. .(2n-

1).

Thus, t h e r e w i l l b e an i n t e r f e r e n c e p a t t e r n f o r t h e propaga t i o n o f r a d i o w a v e s i n t h e v e r t i c a l p l a n e w i t h maxima a n d m i n i m a of d i r e c t i o n a l i t y of t h e r a d i a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c (Fig. 3.31).

A change i n t h e phase of t h e wave w i t h r e f l e c t i o n f r o m t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e causes corresponding changes i n t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e maxima a n d minima o f t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of directionality, but the t o t a l s t r u c t u r e of t h e i n t e r f e r e n c e p a t t e r n w i l l b e s i m i l a r t o t h a t shown i n t h e diagram.

Fig. 3.31. Multilobe Radia t i o n C h a r a c t e r i s t i c of E l e c t r o m a g n e t i c Waves.

The i n t e r f e r e n c e p a t t e r n o f shading i n t h e d i r e c t i o n s of radi of r a d i o waves b y o b j e c t s on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e , as w e l l as t h e a l t i t u d e a t which t h ? a n t e n n a i s mounted above t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e , introduce considerable corrections i n t h e possible range of recep t i o n of u l t r a s h o r t waves. T h e o p e r a t i n g r a n g e of a s y s t e m , e x p r e s s e d b y t h e a p p r o x i m a t e f o r m u l a S = 122&, i s maximum a t a s u f f i c i e n t p o w e r o f t h e t r a n s m i t t e r a n d s e n s i t i v i t y o f t h e r e c e i v e r , if t h e a i r c r a f t i s l o c a t e d i n t h e l o b e o f t h e maximum o f d i r e c t i o n a l i t y . However, a t c e r t a i n h e i g h t s a n d d i s t a n c e s , t h e r e c a n b e r ' d i p s r ' i n a u d i b l i t y , when t h e a i r c r a f t p a s s e s t h r o u g h r e g i o n s o f r a d i o s h a d o w or i n t e r f e r e n c e minima. I n a d d i t i o n , s p e c i a l f e a t u r e s u s i n g UW g o n i o m e t r i c - r a n g e S f i n d i n g d e v i c e s a t h i g h f l i g h t a l t i t u d e s art: r e l a t e d t o t h e i r r a n g e finding sections. Rangefinding instruments can b e used t o measure n o t only t h e horizontal but a l s o t h e sloping distance from t h e aircraft t o i t s r a d i o beacon (Fig. 3.32). Therefore,
/292

sh= cos e SH
or

30 5

I n t h e s p e c i a l case when t h e a i r c r a f t i s p a s s i n g a b o v e t h e r a d i o beacon

L e t us suppose t h a t an a i r c r a f t
i s f l y i n g a l o n g a g i v e n r o u t e w i t h Rs = 1 0 km, a t a n a l t i t u d e which i s a l s o e q u a l t o 1 0 km w i t h t h e u s e o f a t y p e

Fig. 3.32. Sloping and Horizontal Distance t o Radio Beacon.

Risin($-Ai) = const calculating device. W i t h $-A = 9 0 , d i s t a n c e R m u s t b e e q u a l t o 1 0 km, i . e . , t h e a i r c r a f t m u s t d e v i a t e from t h e given course and pass over t h e r a d i o beacon. The h e i g h t e r r o r s i n goniometric-rangefinding devices h a v e some i m p o r t a n t s h o r t c o m i n g s i n t h e i r use i n the shortrange applications and e s p e c i a l l y i n maneuverings i n t h e v i c i n i t y of an a i r p o r t .

C o n s i d e r a t i o n o f a l t i t u d e e r r o r s i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t due t o t h e r a p i d i t y w i t h w h i c h t h e a i r c r a f t p a s s e s o v e r t h e b e a c o n , when t h e e r r o r s i n m e a s u r i q g t h e d i s t a n c e c h a n g e s o r a p i d l y t h a t i t becomes impossible t o e n t e r corrections without using s p e c i a l calculating devices. Therefore, t h e use of goniometric-range finding instruments f o r n a v i g a t i o n a l measurements u s u a l l y l i m i t s t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e b e a c o n t o 3-4 f l i g h t a l t i t u d e s , i . e . , i t d e f i n e s a n e f f e c t i v e zone around t h e beacon with t h i s r a d i u s .

For e x a m p l e , a t a f l i g h t a l t i t u d e o f 1 2 km, t h e r a d i u s o f t h e i n o p e r a t i v e zone t h u s d e f i n e d must b e e q u a l t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y 50 km.

Fan-Shaped G o n i o m e t r i c R a d i o Beacons

The p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f a i r c r a f t r a d i o compasses a r e i n c r e a s e d c o n s i d e r a b l y by u s i n g f a n - s h a p e d g o n i o m e t r i c b e a c o n s ( F i g . 3 . 3 3 ) . The p i c t u r e shows t h e s c h e m a t i c d i a g r a m o f a r a d i o b e a c o n . The t w o o u t e r m o s t a n t e n n a s a r e s e t t o some w a v e l e n g t h a n d t h e power f o r them i s i n o p p o s i t e p h a s e . The t o t a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e t h r e e a n t e n n a s g i v e s t h e m u l t i l o b e p i c t u r e of r a d i a t i o n as s e e n i n Figure 3.34. The number o f l o b e s d e p e n d s on t h e r a t i o of t h e /293 l e n g t h of t h e b a s e l i n e between t h e end antennas t o t h e wavelength, a n d t h e i r d i r e c t i o n d e p e n d s on t h e . r a t i o of t h e p h a s e s i n t h e o u t e r and i n n e r antennas of t h e r a d i o beacon.

306

With a c h a n g e i n t h e p h a s e o f t h e m i d d l e a n t e n n a by 1 8 0 , t h e p o s i t i o n s o f t h e l o b e s s h i f t t o t h e i r m i r r o r images ( t h e s o l i d and d o t t e d l o b e s i n F i g . 3.34), w h i l e t h e p o i n t s w h e r e t h e d o t t e d a n d s o l i d l o b e s i n t e r s e c t become axes o f e q u a l s i g n a l s .

ain phas
~- h i f t e r s

Fig. Fig: Fig. 3.33. 3.34.

3.33. Fan-Shaped Radio Beacon.

Fig.

3.34.

R a d i a t i o n C h a r a c t e r i s t i c of a Fan-Shaped

Radio Beacon.

D u r i n g t h e p e r i o d s b e t w e e n c o m m u t a t i o n s , if w e t r a n s m i t s h o r t and long s i g n a l s i n t h e forms of d o t s and dashes i n an overlapping p a t t e r n , s i g n a l s of o n l y one t y p e w i l l b e h e a r d w i t h i n t h e e d g e s of t h e s o l i d l o b e s ( e . g . , l o n g s i g n a l s ) , w h i l e w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s of t h e dotted lobes, only s h o r t s i g n a l s w i l l be heard. I n zones o f e q u a l s i g n a l s ( n e a r t h e a x e s of i n t e r s e c t i o n o f t h e l o b e s ) , one w i l l hear a continuous tone. I f we t h e n s m o o t h l y c h a n g e t h e p h a s e r a t i o i n t h e end antennas, t h e l o b e s w i l l begin t o r o t a t e , e . g . , t o t h e r i g h t , and t h e phase r a t i o s w i l l change i n t h e r e v e r s e d i r e c tion: each of t h e s o l i d l o b e s w i l l change p l a c e s with t h e d o t t e d l o b e t o t h e r i g h t of i t , a n d e a c h d o t t e d l o b e w i l l change p l a c e with t h e s o l i d lobe t o t h e r i g h t of i t .
L e t u s assume t h a t 3.341, ;.e., within the hand l i m i t of t h e s o l i d beginning after a pause

an a i r c r a f t i s l o c a t e d a t P o i n t B ( s e e Fig. l i m i t s of a d o t t e d l o b e , n e a r t h e r i g h t l o b e , with each o p e r a t i n g cycle of t h e beacon i n radiation.

I n t h i s case, a t t h e b e g i n n i n g of a c y c l e and a f t e r t h e p a u s e , s e v e r a l f a d i n g d o t s w i l l b e h e a r d , t h e n a continuous s i g n a l , and f i n a l l y a long series of dashes.

If t h e a i r c r a f t i s l o c a t e d i n t h e of d o t s w i l l be e q u a l i n l e n g t h t o t h e which i s c l o s e t o t h e r i g h t - h a n d l i m i t of d o t s w i l l b e l o n g e r t h a n t h e s e r i e s

middle of t h e l o b e , t h e series s e r i e s of dashes. A t a point/294 of t h e d o t t e d l o b e , t h e s e r i e s of dashes.

30 7

A similar picture f o r t h e the aircraft is located within t h e sole difference being t h a t d a s h e s would b e h e a r d , a n d t h e continuous tone.

a u d i b i l i t y w o u l d b e o b t a i n e d when t h e l i m i t s of t h e s o l i d lobe with a t t h e beginning of the cycle t h e d o t s would b e h e a r d o n l y a f t e r t h e

Thus, t o o b t a i n t h e b e a r i n g o f an a i r c r a f t , it i s s u f f i c i e n t t o p l o t t h e orthodromic l i n e s on a c h a r t a c c o r d i n g t o t h e l o c a t i o n of t h e axes of equal signals i n order t o obtain the b e a r i n g of t h e a i r c r a f t , a n d a l s o t o d i v i d e t h e angles between them by o r t h o d r o m e s as w e l l as t h i n l i n e s i n a r a t i o w h i c h . i s a m u l t i p l e o f t h e number of signals i n the cycle. With a s e c t o r w i d t h b e t w e e n t h e axes of equal signals of 15O and 60 s i g n a l s p e r c y c l e , each s i g n a l w i l l correspond t o 1 5 min o f a n g l e . If t h e Fig. 3.35. Grid of Position s e c t o r between t h e axes of e q u a l L i n e s f o r a n A i r c r a f t on t h e signals is then divided into Basis o f Fan-Shaped Radio f i v e p a r t s , t h e t h i n orthodromic Beacons. l i n e s w i l l diverge a t angles of 3O. T h i s n a r r o w s e c t o r w i l l c o n t a i n 1 2 s i g n a l s o f t h e same t y p e (Fig. 3.35).

For e x a m p l e , i f a n a i r c r a f t i s l o c a t e d a t t h e s e c t o r o f p o i n t s on t h e f i r s t t h i n l i n e t o t h e r i g h t of t h e a x i s o f e q u a l s i g n a l s , t h e n 1 2 d o t s w i l l b e h e a r d which w i l l f a d e i n t o a c o n t i n u o u s t o n e , a f t e r which t h e r e w i l l b e 48 d a s h e s . On t h e s e c o n d l i n e t h e r e w i l l b e 2 4 d o t s a n d 36 d a s h e s , 36 d o t s a n d 2 4 d a s h e s o n t h e t h i r d , e t c , A t t h e l i m i t of t h e s e c t o r ( t h e a x i s of e q u a l s i g n a l s ) , a t o t a l o f 60 d o t s and 60 dashes w i l l b e h e a r d .

Note. P r a c t i c a l l y s p e a k i n g , i f w e c o n s i d e r t h a t p a r t of t h e s i g n a l s ( d o t s and d a s h e s ) are mixed w i t h t h e c o n t i n u o u s t o n e , t h e number o f a u d i b l e s i g n a l s w i l l b e l e s s t h a n 6 0 , s o t h a t a f t e r c o u n t i n g them t h e number of a u d i b l e s i g n a l s s h o u l d b e t a k e n s u b t r a c t e d from 6 0 , t h e n d i v i d e d i n h a l f a n d a d d e d t o t h e number o f s i g n a l s o f b o t h t y p e s t h a t were h e a r d .
If t h e a i r c r a f t i s l o c a t e d b e t w e e n t h e t h i n o r t h o d r o m i c l i n e s p l o t t e d on t h e c h a r t , t h e n t h e l i n e of t h e b e a r i n g o f t h e a i r c r a f t can e a s i l y be found by i n t e r p o l a t i o n of t h e d i s t a n c e between t h e plotted lines.
Fan-shaped /295

b e a c o n s make i t p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e v e r y a c c u r a t e l y

30 8

t h e p o s i t i o n l i n e s of an aircraft. T o do t h i s , with t h e a i d of a r a d i o c o m p a s s or b y g e n e r a l l y c a l c u l a t i n g t h e p a t h o f t h e a i r c r a f t , it is necessary t o determine t h e approximate p o s i t i o n of t h e air c r a f t w i t h an e r r o r which i s n o g r e a t e r t h a n t h e w i d t h o f one s e c t o r . Then, h a v i n g l i s t e n e d t o t h e o p e r a t i n g c y c l e of t h e beacon w i t h t h e r a d i o c o m p a s s , or w i t h t h e c o h e r e n t r e c e i v e r , w e c a n d e t e r m i n e t h e position of t h e aircraft i n t h e s e c t o r . A s i m i l a r method i s u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e s e c o n d l i n e o f p o s i t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t , u s i n g t h e s e c o n d f a n - s h a p e d b e a c o n , whose f a m i l y of p o s i t i o n l i n e s i n t e r s e c t s t h e l i n e s o f t h e f i r s t b e a c o n . I n order not t o t a k e i n t o account t h e . s h i f t of t h e aircraft during t h e t i m e between t h e t a k i n g o f b e a r i n g s from t h e two b e a c o n s , i t i s d e s i r a b l e t o l i s t e n t o t h e o p e r a t i n g c y c l e s o f t h e two b e a c o n s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y u s i n g t w o m e m b e r s o f t h e c r e w who a r e u s i n g t w o r a d i o c o m p a s s e s or o n e r a d i o c o m p a s s a n d t h e c o h e r e n t r a d i o r e c e i v e r . The a c c u r a c y o f d i s t a n c e f i n d i n g w i t h t h e a i d o f f a n - s h a p e d Under t h e b e a c o n s d u r i n g t h e d a y t i m e i s n o w o r s e t h a n 0.1-0.3O. most u n f a v o r a b l e c o n d i t i o n s f o r d i s t a n c e measurement ( i n t w i l i g h t when w o r k i n g w i t h t h e s p a c e w a v e , or a t t h e b o u n d a r y f o r t h e u s e of s u r f a c e waves), t h e e r r o r s can reach 3 and sometimes 5 O . In a f u r t h e r zone o f d i s t a n c e measurement, and a l s o t h e s h o r t - r a n g e z o n e , w i t h o p e r a t i o n on a s u r f a c e wav e, t h e e r r o r s d o n o t e x c e e d 0 . 5-1. The o p e r a t i n g r a n g e o f a f a n - s h a p e d b e a c o n d u r i n g t h e d a y t i m e r e a c h e s 1 3 5 0 km o n d r y l a n d a n d 1 7 5 0 km a b o v e t h e s e a . A t night a b o v e d r y l a n d , t h i s f i g u r e i s 7 4 0 km a n d a b o v e t h e s e a , 9 5 0 km. An i m p o r t a n t a d v a n t a g e o f f a n - s h a p e d b e a c o n s i s t h e i n d e p e n dence of d i s t a n c e measurement from t h e a i r c r a f t c o u r s e , magnetic d e c l i n a t i o n , d e v i a t i o n of meridians , and r a d i o d e v i a t i o n s aboard t h e a i r c r a f t , as w e l l as t h e s i m p l i c i t y of o b t a i n i n g p o s i t i o n l i n e s of t h e aircraft during f l i g h t . One s h o r t c o m i n g t h a t s h o u l d b e men tioned i s t h e l a c k of a continuous indication of a navigational p a r a m e t e r , s u c h as w e h a v e i n t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l d i s t a n c e measure ment w i t h g r o u n d r a d i o s t a t i o n s . Unlike t h e r a d i o beacons with n o n - d i r e c t i o n a l and omnidirec t i o n a l o p e r a t i o n , which a r e mounted as a r u l e a t t h e t u r n i n g p o i n t s of a i r r o u t e s , f l i g h t a l o n g t h e b e a r i n g l i n e of a f a n - s h a p e d b e a c o n i s only a very r a r e case. T h e r e f o r e , t h e p r i n c i p a l method o f a i r craft navigation using fan-shaped beacons is determining a l l navi g a t i o n a l e l e m e n t s i n c l u d i n g t h e wind p a r a m e t e r s a t f l i g h t a l t i t u d e by s u c c e s s i v e m e a s u r e m e n t s of t h e L A . T h i s method i s t h e most s u i t a b l e one f o r f a n - s h a p e d b e a c o n s b e c a u s e t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d i n t h i s manner with a s u f f i c i e n t l y high accuracy.
It is often desirable t o carry out aircraft navigation during
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f l i g h t using fan-shaped beacons with conventional distance-finding For e x a m p l e , i n a f l i g h t t o w a r d a r a d i o s t a from r a d i o s t a t i o n s . t i o n or away f r o m a r a d i o s t a t i o n , i t i s d e s i r a b l e t o u s e b e a r i n g s f r o m f a n - s h a p e d b e a c o n s for c h e c k i n g t h e p a t h f o r d i s t a n c e a n d d e t e r mining t h e ground speed.

3. D I F F E R E N C E - R A N G E F I N D I N G ( H Y P E R B O L I C ) < N A V I G A T I O N A L
SYSTEMS

The b e s t n a v i g a t i o n a l d e v i c e s f r o m t h e s t a n d p o i n t o f g e o m e t r y are t h e goniometric-range f i n d i n g systems, s i n c e t h e l i n e s of posi t i o n of an aircraft i n t h e s e systems always c r o s s a t . r i g h t angles. However, t h e t e c h n i c a l r e q u i r e m e n t s o f s u c h s y s t e m s , which s a t i s f y t h e requirements of accuracy i n a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n and o p e r a t e o u t i s d e t h e l i m i t s of d i r e c t geometric v i s i b i l i t y , are connected with very high technical d i f f i c u l t i e s . The a z i m u t h l i n e s o f p o s i t i o n a r e d i v e r g e n t b e c a u s e as t h e range of operation of a system increases, increasingly high require m e n t s a r e i m p o s e d on t h e m e a s u r e m e n t a c c u r a c y , w h i l e b e y o n d t h e l i m i t s of d i r e c t geometric v i s i b i l i t y it is very d i f f i c u l t t o r e t a i n d i r e c t i o n a l i t y o f t r a n s m i s s i o n or r e c e p t i o n d u e t o t h e e f f e c t o f l o c a l r e l i e f a n d e s p e c i a l l y t h e i o n i z e d l a y e r s of t h e a t m o s p h e r e . The s i t u a t i o n i s somewhat b e t t e r as f a r a s t h e c i r c u l a r p.osi t i o n l i n e s are concerned. C i r c u l a r l i n e s do n o t d i v e r g e , s o t h a t t h e r e q u i r e m e n t f o r a c c u r a c y i n d e t e r m i n i n g them r e m a i n s c o n s t a n t at a l l distances. In a d d i t i o n , t h e l i n e a r e r r o r i n determining t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e a i r c r a f t i n a.goniometric system i s proportional t o t h e s i n e s of t h e angles of t h e propagation e r r o r s :

A2 = S sin Ad.
I n range finding systems, these e r r o r s a r e proportional to t h e cosines o f t h e a n g l e s of t h e p r o p a g a t i o n e r r o r s :

AS = S ( I - COS PA).
A t s m a l l a n g l e s , on t h e o r d e r o f 6 , t h e c o s i n e i s p r a c t i c a l l y O equal t o unity. Therefore, t h e e r r o r s i n determining t h e distance a r e u s u a l l y many t i m e s l e s s t h a n t h e e r r o r s i n t h e a z i m u t h a l s h i f t (Fig. 3.36).
W can s e e from t h e f i g u r e t h a t t h e l i n e a r e r r o r i n determin e i n g t h e d i r e c t i o n C C l = SsinAA, and t h e l i n e a r e r r o r i n d i s t a n c e i s A S = ABC - A C S(1-cosAA).

However, t h e t e c h n i c a l a c h i e v e m e n t i n m e a s u r i n g d i s t a n c e o v e r l o n g d i s t a n c e s i s much m o r e c o m p l e x t h a n t h a t i n m e a s u r e m e n t o f t h e azimuth.

310

.11.11.1...1.,,111.III

I 1111 . I1 1111111. I

I . I

II 1I

A s w e s a w i n t h e case o f UW s y s t e m s , d i s t a n c e i s d e t e r m i n e d S /297 by r e t r a n s l a t i o n o f s i g n a l s f r o m on b o a r d t h e a i r c r a f t by a g r o u n d This method, b e a c o n a n d t h e i r r e c e p t i o n b a c k on b o a r d t h e a i r c r a f t . which i s r e l a t i v e l y e a s i l y a c c o m p l i s h e d a t s h o r t d i s t a n c e s , t u r n s o u t t o b e u n s a t i s f a c t o r y o v e r l o n g d i s t a n c e s f o r u s e on medium a n d long waves. The b e s t method o f m e a s u r i n g long distances at the present t i m e i s t h e maintenance of a c a l i b r a t i o n f r e q u e n c y on b o a r d The g e n e r a t o r the aircraft. f o r t h e c a l i b r a t i o n frequency is set a t t h e frequency of a ground t r a n s m i t t e r and r e t a i n s a given frequency f o r long periods o f t i m e by means o f s p e c i a l s t a b i l i z i n g elements.

Fig. 3.36. Errors i n M e a s u r i n g B e a r i n g a n d Range w i t h R e f l e c t i o n o f E l e c t r o m a g n e t i c Waves from Obstacles: A: Location o f Ground R a d i o B e a c o n s ; B: Point of Mirror Reflection of R a d i o Waves; C : Location of t h e A i r c r a f t ( A c t u a l ) ; C1: M e a s u r e d P o s i t i o n of t h e A i r - craft; L A : A n g u l a r Error i n Propagation.

By m e a n s o f t h e s e s p e c i a l timing devices , t h e calibrat i o n frequency can be converted t o a l o w e r f r e q u e n c y which i s synchronous with t h e s i g n a l s of t h e g r o u n d b e a c o n . I f we t a k e t h e s i g n a l s from t h e ground s t a t i o n s a n d compare them i n t i m e with t h e s i g n a l s from t h e g e n e r a t o r of t h e c a l i b r a t i o n fre quency, w e can determine t h e d i s t a n c e t o t h e s e r a d i o s t a t i o n s . However, t h i s method h a s n o t b e e n w i d e l y employed due t o t h e complexity involved i n keeping a highly s t a b l e r e f e r e n c e frequency on b o a r d t h e a i r c r a f t , a l t h o u g h i t o f f e r s c o n s i d e r a b l e p r o m i s e i n future.

I t i s s i m p l e r t o s o l v e t h e problem of d e t e r m i n i q g t h e p o s i t i o n l i n e o f t h e a i r c r a f t on t h e b a s i s o f t h e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n t h e d i s t a n c e s t o two g r o u n d r a d i o s t a t i o n s . In t h i s case, there is no n e c e s s i t y f o r a s t r i c t s y n c h r o n i z a t i o n o f t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e g r o u n d i n s t a l l a t i o n s w i t h t h o s e on b o a r d . Only t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n of s i g n a l s from t h e ground s t a t i o n s must b e s y n c h r o n i z e d . The a i r craft generator f o r t h e c a l i b r a t i o n frequency i n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r case a c t s o n l y as a c e n t r a l m e a s u r i n g gauge t o d e t e r m i n e t h e t i m e i n t e r v a l s b e t w e e n t h e moments o f r e c e p t i o n o f t h e s i g n a l s f r o m t h e two r a d i o s t a t i o n s .

S y n c h r o n i z a t i o n of t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e a p p a r a t u s a t ground r a d i o s t a t i o n s c a n b e a c h i e v e d i n c o m p a r a b l y more e a s i l y t h a n s y n c h r o n i z a t i o n o f a g r o u n d a p p a r a t u s w i t h one a b o a r d an a i r c r a f t , s i n c e t h e d i s t a n c e between ground s t a t i o n s remains c o n s t a n t , thus a l l o w i n g u s t o u s e a s y n c h r o n i z i n g d e v i c e f o r t w o or t h r e e s t a t i o n s together. I n a d d i t i o n , ground i n s t a l l a t i o n s are n o t l i m i t e d by

311

s i z e and weight r e s t r i c t i o n s ,

n o t t o m e n t i o n t h e a p p a r a t u s on b o a r d .
/298

The m e t h o d s of m e a s u r i n g t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n d i s t a n c e t o g r o u n d r a d i o s t a t i o n s c a n i n v o l v e e i t h e r t i m e ( p u l s e ) s y s t e m s or p h a s e systems. E a c h o f t h e s e m e t h o d s h a s i t s own a d v a n t a g e s a n d d i s a d vantages. An a d v a n t a g e o f t h e p h a s e m e t h o d s i s t h e h i g h e r i n s t r u m e n t a l a c c u r a c y o f t h e m e a s u r e m e n t s , b u t i n t h i s c a s e t h e r e s u l t o f meas u r i n g i s o b t a i n e d a m b i g u o u s l y , i . e . , t h e r e may b e s e v e r a l i s o p h a s a l p a t h s simultaneously with d i f f e r e n t d i s t a n c e s t o t h e ground r a d i o s t a t i o n s , which d i f f e r i n magnitude and a r e m u l t i p l e s of t h e l e n g t h o f t h e measured wave. On e a c h o f t h e s e p a t h s , t h e r e s u l t o f meas, u r e m e n t i s t h e same a n d m u s t b e u s e d a s a m e a s u r e f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e pathway a l o n g which t h e a i r c r a f t i s t r a v e l i n g . The p u l s e m e t h o d s o f m e a s u r i n g d i s t a n c e h a v e somewhat l e s s i n s t r u m e n t a l a c c u r a c y , b u t t h e i r r e s u l t s a r e more d e f i n i t e .
O f c o u r s e . it should b e mentioned t h a t f o r long-range navi g a t i o n a l s y s t e m s , t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l a c c u r a c y o f measurement which c a n b e a t t a i n e d a t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e b o t h by t h e p u l s e a n d p h a s e m e t h o d s i s s u f f i c i e n t l y h i g h S O t h a t t h e i r e r r o r s a r e many t i m e s l e s s t h a n o t h e r s y s t e m a t i c e r r o r s which a r e r e l a t e d t o c o n d i t i o n s o f p r o p a g a t i o n of e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c e n e r g y . Since t h e e r r o r s i n oper a t i o n of t h e s y s t e m s u n d e r p r o p a g a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s o f r a d i o waves a r e p r a c t i c a l l y t h e s a m e for b o t h p u l s e d a n d p h a s e s y s t e m s , t h e a d v a n t a g e o f p h a s e m e t h o d s o f m e a s u r e m e n t may b e r e s t r i c t e d o n l y t o s h o r t d i s t a n c e s from ground r a d i o s t a t i o n s ( i n t h e short-range zone of e f f e c t i v e n e s s ) .

Operating P r i n c i p l e s of

Differential

Rangefinding Systems

D i f f e r e n t i a l rangefinding systems of a i r c r a f t navigation c o n s i s t o f two p a i r s o f s y n c h r o n o u s l y o p e r a t i n g ground r a d i o s t a t i o n s and a receiving-indicating apparatus aboard an aircraft. For p u r p o s e o f r e d u c i n g t h e a m o u n t o f g r o u n d e q u i p m e n t for t h e s y s t e m , o n e o f t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g r a d i o s t a t i o n s ( t h e m a s t e r ) i s made common f o r two p a i r s s o t h a t t h e s y s t e m c a n i n c l u d e t h r e e ground r a d i o s t a tions. The o p e r a t i o n o f t h e t w o s l a v e s t a t i o n s i s s y n c h r o n i z e d w i t h t h e master s t a t i o n b y s y n c h r o n i z i n g s i g n a l s s e n t o u t by t h e m a s t e r station.

L e t u s b e g i n b y e x a m i n i n g t h e g e o m e t r y of one p a i r o f ground r a d i o s t a t i o n s ( F i g . 3 . 3 7 ) .

t h e o p e r a t i o n of

Two g r o u n d r a d i o s t a t i o n s a r e l o c a t e d a t p o i n t s F1 a n d F2. The l i n e c o n n e c t i n g p o i n t s F 1 a n d F p w i l l b e c o n s i d e r e d as t h e f o c a l l i n e o f t h e b a s e , w h i l e t h e p o i n t s F1 a n d F 2 a r e t h e f o c i o f t h e system.

312

L e t u s assume t h a t a t p o i n t M t h e r e i s a n a i r c r a f t which i s r e c e i v i n g s i g n a l s f r o m r a d i o s t a t i o n s F1 a n d F 2 . A t the beginning, t h e a i r c r a f t w i l l r e c e i v e a s i g n a l from t h e f i r s t r a d i o s t a t i o n /299 and t h e n from t h e s e c o n d . The d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e d i s t a n c e s f r o m t h e a i r c r a f t t o t h e s e r a d i o s t a t i o n s i s d e t e r m i n e d by t h e d i f f e r ence i n t i m e between t h e a r r i v a l of t h e s i g n a l s i n t h e p u l s e system o r b y t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n m o d u l a t i o n of t h e p h a s e s i n t h e w a v e s r e c e i v e d from t h e two r a d i o s t a t i o n s i n t h e p h a s e s y s t e m .
W know t h a t t h e l i n e w h i c h e is t h e geometrical locus of p o i n t s , t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n whose d i s t a n c e t o two g i v e n p o i n t s i s a c o n s t a n t v a l u e , i s c a l l e d a hyperbola. The g i v e n p o i n t s , t o which t h e d i s t a n c e s are measured, are c a l l e d t h e f o c i of t h e h y p e r b o l a . Consequently, knowing t h e d i f f e r e n c e o f t h e d i s t a n c e s t o t h e two r a d i o s t a t i o n s , we c a n a l w a y s p l o t t h e h y p e r b o l i c l i n e o f t h e p o s i t i o n where t h e a i r craft is located.

Fig. 3.37. Hyperbolic System o f P o s i t i o n L i n e s .

The h y p e r b o l i c l i n e w i t h a d i f f e r e n c e i n d i s t a n c e s e q u a l t o z e r o becomes a s t r a i g h t l i n e p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e f o c a l a x i s and d i v i d i n g t h e d i s t a n c e between t h e f o c i of t h e system i n h a l f ( s e e Fig. 3.37). T h i s l i n e i s c a l l e d t h e i m a g i n a r y axis of t h e h y p e r

bola.
The d i s t a n c e a l o n g t h e f o c a l a x i s o f t h e f a m i l y o f h y p e r b o l a s from t h e f o c i t o t h e imaginary a x i s i s c a l l e d t h e p a r a m e t e r e .
I t i s obvious t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n d i s t a n c e s from t h e o f t h e h y p e r b o l a t o any p o i n t a l o n g i t s b r a n c h e s i s e q u a l t o t h e d i s t a n c e along t h e f o c a l a x i s from t h e imaginary a x i s t o This distance is c a l l e d parameter a . peak o f t h e h y p e r b o l a . i n g l y , t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n d i s t a n c e s from any p o i n t t o t h e f o c t h e hyperbola i s always e q u a l t o 2a.

foci t w i c e the Accord i of

T h e maximum d e n s i t y o f h y p e r b o l i c l i n e s o f p o s i t i o n i s f o u n d a l o n g t h e f o c a l a x i s b e t w e e n t h e f o c i of t h e s y s t e m , where t h e d i s t a n c e between t h e peaks of t h e hyperbola is e q u a l t o t h e d i f f e r ence i n parameters a . T h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e v a l u e 2a i s m e a s u r e d b y n a v i g a t i o n a l p a r a m eters of t h e system s o t h a t t h e accuracy i n determining t h e l i n e s o f p o s i t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t d e p e n d s on t h e a c c u r a c y w i t h which t h i s parameter i s measured. Consequently, an e r r o r i n determining t h e p o s i t i o n l i n e o f t h e a i r c r a f t on t h e f o c a l a x i s i s e q u a l t o t h e e r r o r i n m e a s u r i n g p a r a m e t e r 2a, d i v i d e d i n h a l f .
A s w e see from F i g u r e 3 . 3 7 ,

t h e family of hyperbolas is divided

313

by a family o f p o s i t i o n l i n e s . A t d i s t a n c e s from t h e c e n t e r o f t h e s y s t e m w h i c h e x c e e d 2c, t h e h y p e r b o l a s p r a c t i c a l l y become s t r a i g h t l i n e s , whose d i r e c t i o n c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e r a d i i Thus, t h e h y p e r b o l i c system e x t e n d e d from t h e c e n t e r o f t h e s y s t e m . i s converted i n t o a goniometric one. /300 H o w e v e r , t h e d e n s i t y of t h e l i n e s o f p o s i t i o n , i n t h i s c a s e w i l l n o t b e e q u a l a l o n g t h e c i r c u m f e r e n c e , as i s t h e case i n p u r e l y goniometric systems. A t a given d i s t a n c e from t h e c e n t e r of t h e s y s t e m , t h e maximum d e n s i t y of p o s i t i o n l i n e s w i l l b e f o u n d a t t h e imaginary a x i s of t h e hyperbola, gradually decreasing along t h e The d e n s i t y o f p o s t c i r c u m f e r e n c e as t h e y a p p r o a c h t h e f o c a l a x i s . t i o n l i n e s a t a d i s t a n c e g r e a t e r t h a n e on t h e f o c a l a x i s becomes s o s m a l l t h a t t h e s y s t e m becomes u n s u i t a b l e f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e l o c a t i o n of t h e a i r c r a f t .

Fig.

3.38.

E f f e c t i v e Area of H y p e r b o l i c N a v i g a t i o n a l System.

The m a s t e r s t a t i o n o f t h e s e c o n d h y p e r b o l i c p a i r c a n b e l o c a t e d a l o n g t h e e x t e n s i o n of t h e f o c a l a x i s o f t h e f i r s t p a i r . In t h i s case, t h e a n g l e of f r a c t u r e of t h e b a s e ( 8 ) i s e q u a l t o z e r o .
If t h e m a s t e r s t a t i o n of t h e s e c o n d p a i r i s n o t l o c a t e d on t h e f o c a l axis of t h e first p a i r , t h e r e is a d e f i n i t e f r a c t u r e of the base (Fig. 3.38).

The a n g l e o f f r a c t u r e o f t h e b a s e c r e a t e s a more f a v o r a b l e condition f o r i n t e r s e c t i o n of t h e p o s i t i o n l i n e i n t h a t region of a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e s y s t e m toward which i t i s d i r e c t e d , s i n c e t h e a n g l e o f i n t e r s e c t i o n o f t h e h y p e r b o l a s i n t h i s case a p p r o a c h e s a r i g h t angle and t h e r e f o r e t h e accuracy i n determining t h e l o c u s o f t h e a i r c r a f t i s i n c r e a s e d when t w o p o s i t i o n l i n e s i n t e r s e c t . However, 314 t h i s involves a decrease i n t h e q u a l i t y of t h e condi

t i o n s f o r n a v i g a t i o n a l e x p l o i t a t i o n , as w e l l as a n a r r o w i n g o f t h e range of a p p l i c a t i o n f o r t h e system from t h e opposite s i d e of t h e I n a d d i t i o n , t h e a n a l y t i c a l s o l u t i o n of problems r e l a t e d focal axis. t o n a v i g a t i o n a l a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e s y s t e m i s c o m p l i c a t e d t o a s i g n i f i c a n t degree by t h e f r a c t u r e of t h e b a s e , e . g . , i n converting hyperbolic coordinates t o geographical orthodromic ones ( s e e Chapter I , Section 7 ) . The c o m p l e x o f e q u i p m e n t f o r a h y p e r b o l i c n a v i g a t i o n a l s y s t e m aboard an aircraft usually c o n s i s t s of t h e following: a non d i r e c t i o n a l r e c e i v i n g antenna, a matching block f o r t h e antenna with a r e c e i v i n g device, a r e c e i v e r , and an i n d i c a t o r . The m a t c h i n g b l o c k s e r v e s t o p r o d u c e p a r a m e t e r s o f t h e r e c e i v i n g a n t e n n a s when s i g n a l s a r e r e c e i v e d f r o m g r o u n d r a d i o s t a t i o n s . S i g n a l s r e c e i v e d by t h e a n t e n n a a r e t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e i n d i c a t o r for m e a s u r e m e n t o f t h e n a v i g a t i o n a l p a r a m e t e r . The i n d i c a t o r has a g e n e r a t o r f o r a c a l i b r a t i o n f r e q u e n c y , which produces s t a n d a r d s i g n a l s f o r p u r p o s e s o f m e a s u r e m e n t , a n d a number o f f r e q u e n c y d i v i d e r s w h i c h a r e r e q u i r e d f o r f o r m i n g e l e c t r o n i c m a r k i n g s on t h e r e a d i n g s c a l e s , a s w e l l a s r e p e t i t i o n f r e q u e n c i e s f o r t h e s c a n on a c a t h o d e r a y t u b e , s y n c h r o n i z e d w i t h t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n s of s i g n a l s from ground r a d i o s t a t i o n s . The s i g n a l s w h i c h a r e r e c e i v e d p a s s t o t h e s c a n o f t h e c a t h ode r a y t u b e , where t h e o p e r a t o r c o n t r o l s t h e i r s i z e a c c o r d i n g t o t h e amplification of t h e receiver. The s y n c h r o n i z a t i o n o f t h e s c a n on t h e s c r e e n i s t h e n r e g u l a t e d w i t h t h e f r e q u e n c y o f t h e r e c e i v e d p u l s e s s o t h a t t h e l a t t e r r e m a i n f i x e d on t h e s c r e e n . The o p e r a t o r t h e n m i x e s a r e f e r e n c e ( s e l e c t i n g ) s i g n a l f r o m t h e g e n e r a t o r w i t h t h e s i g n a l from t h e m a s t e r s t a t i o n , which i s a c h i e v e d by t h e i n t e r m i t t e n t i n t r o d u c t i o n of s m a l l d i s t o r t i o n s i n t h e generator f o r the c a l i b r a t i o n frequency, s o t h a t t h e pulses of t h e s i g n a l s b e g i n t o move a c r o s s t h e s c r e e n . The m o t i o n o f t h e p u l s e s s t o p s when t h e s i g n a l o f t h e m a s t e r s t a t i o n c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e reference s i g n a l of t h e generator (usually a rectangular base a t t h e beginning of t h e scan). To m e a s u r e t h e t i m e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e a r r i v a l o f t h e s i g n a l s and t h e s i g n a l from t h e s l a v e s t a t i o n , a s e l e c t i n g p u l s e i s g i v e n which i s r e l a t e d t o t h e d e l a y i n s c a n n i n g o f t h e r e f e r e n c e s i g n a l , a f t e r which t h e i n d i c a t o r i s s w i t c h e d t o t h e r e f e r e n c e regime and t h e r e a d i n g i s t a k e n on t h e e l e c t r o n i c s c a l e . I n some t y p e s of r e c e i v e r i n d i c a t o r s , t h e r e c o r d i n g o f t h e r e a d i n g i s made o n a d i a l w i t h t w o or t h r e e s c a l e s ( f o r d i f f e r e n t scanning r a t e s ) , f o r example, beginning with thousands of micro s e c o n d s , t h e n h u n d r e d s a n d f i n a l l y t e n s , w i t h i n t e r p o l a t i o n up t o u n i t s of m i c r o s e c o n d s . This provides increased accuracy of readings due t o t h e many-fold i n c r e a s e i n t h e scale of t h e i n d i c a t o r .
/301

315

I I I1

I n systems w i t h a u t o m a t i c t r a c k i n g o f t h e s i g n a l s from ground s t a t i o n s , t h e t i m e i n t e r v a l s b e t w e e n t h e moments o f a r r i v a l o f t h e s i g n a l s a r e c a l c u l a t e d on m e c h a n i c a l c o u n t i n g d i a l s , whose r o t a t i o n i s r e l a t e d t o t h e d e l a y mechanisms f o r t h e s e l e c t i n g p u l s e . The r e f e r e n c e s i g n a l f r o m t h e g e n e r a t o r i s t h e n r e i n f o r c e d , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e s i g n a l f r o m t h e master s t a t i o n , by a n a u t o m a t i c f r e q u e n c y adjustment of t h e c a l i b r a t i o n generator. Thus, t h e r e i s an automatic t r a c k i n g of t h e s i g n a l s r a d i o s t a t i o n and a c o n s t a n t numerical i n d i c a t i o n of t h e navigational parameter of t h e system, and t h e difference t a n c e s from t h e a i r c r a f t t o t h e ground r a d i o s t a t i o n s i s i n m i c r o s e c o n d s o f r a d i o wave p r o p a g a t i o n . from t h e output i n dis expessed

/302

I n p h a s e s y s t e m s , b y means o f d i s t r i b u t i n g e l e m e n t s i n t h e c a l i b r a t i o n g e n e r a t o r , i t s phase i s matched w i t h t h e phase of t h e s i g n a l s from t h e master r a d i o s t a t i o n , a f t e r which a phasometer i s used t o measure t h e phase d i f f e r e n c e between t h e c a l i b r a t i o n generator and t h e s l a v e r a d i o s t a t i o n , and t h e p o s i t i o n l i n e of t h e a i r c r a f t i s determined from t h i s d i f f e r e n c e .

A s w e have already pointed o u t , i f t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n d i s t a n c e s t o t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n s includes s e v e r a l periods of t h e modulating f r e q u e n c y o f t h e g r o u n d s t a t i o n s , t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n w i l l b e ambig uous.

The s o l u t i o n o f t h e a m b i g u i t y of p l i s h e d by s e v e r a l methods. t h i s e s t i m a t e c a n b e accom

(1) An i n i t i a l s e t t i n g o f t h e c o o r d i n a t e s o f t h e a i r c r a f t with automatic t r a c k i n g of t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n s i g n a l s . In t h i s case, u s i n g known c o o r d i n a t e s o f t h e a i r c r a f t ( e . g . , on t h e b a s i s o f t h e v i s u a l determination of t h e aircraft l o c a t i o n ) , t h e i n d i c a t o r is s e t b y h a n d t o show t h e i s o p h a s a l l i n e on w h i c h t h e a i r c r a f t i s located. If c o n s t a n t t r a c k i n g o f t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n s i g n a l s i s t h e n c a r r i e d o u t , c o m p l e t e l y r e l i a b l e r e a d i n g s of t h e p o s i t i o n l i n e w i l l be obtained. A shortcoming of t h i s system is t h e n e c e s s i t y t o r e l a t e t h e a i r c r a f t t o t h e l o c a l t e r r a i n o n t h e b a s i s of t h e i n i t i a l r e a d i n g of t h e hyperbolic coordinates. In addition, during f l i g h t , there may b e r e a d i n g s o f o t h e r i s o p h a s a l l i n e s , d u e t o i n t e r f e r e n c e , w h i c h c a n be d e t e r m i n e d a n d c o r r e c t e d o n l y by a r e p e a t e d r e l a t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t t o t h e l o c a l t e r r a i n by means of o t h e r m e t h o d s .

(2) By m o d u l a t i o n o f t h e c a r r i e r f r e q u e n c y o f t h e g r o u n d r a d i o s t a t i o n s a t v e r y low f r e q u e n c i e s ( w i t h l o n g m o d u l a t i n g w a v e s , c o n s i d e r a b l y i n c r e a s i n g t h e p o s s i b l e d i f f e r e n c e i n d i s t a n c e s from t h e aircraft t o the radio stations). I n t h i s case, a t a low f r e q u e n c y p h a s e , t h e r o u g h p o s i t i o n of t h e i s o p h a s a l l i n e o f a c a r r i e r f r e q u e n c y or t h e f r e q u e n c y o f t h e s e c o n d m o d u l a t i o n w i t h a s m a l l , l o n g period can be determined.

3 16

(3) By u s i n g s e v e r a l c a r r i e r f r e q u e n c i e s f o r t h e g r o u n d r a d i o s t a t i o n s , t h e isophasal l i n e can be considered t o be determined i f it i s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y on t h e i s o p h a s a l l i n e s f o r a l l f r e q u e n c i e s a t which t h e measure ment i s c a r r i e d o u t ( u s u a l l y t h r e e f r e q u e n c i e s , s i n c e t w o w i l l b e i n a d e q u a t e i n some c a s e s ) . On a d j a c e n t isophasal l i n e s , f o r each frequency used, t h e isophasal l i n e s of o t h e r f r e q u e n c i e s w i l l n o t c o i n c i d e with t h e readings of t h e phaso meter.

Navigational Applications o f Differential-Rangefinding Systems

Differential-rangefinding navigational systems, l i k e fan-type beacons, are intended primarily f o r determining t h e locus of t h e a i r c r a f t on two p o s i t i o n l i n e s . T h e r e f o r e , t h e p r i n c i p a l method of aircraft navigation using these systems is t h e determination o f t h e n a v i g a t i o n a l e l e m e n t s on t h e b a s i s o f a s e r i e s o f d e t e r m i n a t i o n s of t h e LA. By r e c o r d i n g a n d p l o t t i n g on a c h a r t a s e r i e s o f p o i n t s f o r t h e l o c u s of t h e a i r c r a f t , r e c o r d i n g t h e time a t which t h e y were passed, and using a s c a l e r u l e r and p r o t r a c t o r t o measure t h e d i s t a n c e s b e t w e e n t h e m o n t h e c h a r t , a s w e l l a s t h e d i s t a n c e Erom t h e f i r s t r e c o r d i n g of t h e LA t o t h e s e c o n d , i t i s e a s y l t o d e t e r m i n e t h e speed and f l i g h t angle of t h e a i r c r a f t .

/303

4J = a1,2;

where a1.2 i s t h e azimuth of t h e second r e c o r d i n g of t h e LA from t h e f i r s t and S1.2 is t h e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n t h e r e c o r d i n g s o f t h e LA. The d r i f t a n g l e o f t h e a i r c r a f t i s d e t e r m i n e d a s t h e d i s t a n c e between t h e a c t u a l f l i g h t p a t h a n g l e and t h e average c o u r s e of t h e a i r c r a f t o v e r t h e segment b e t w e e n two s u c c e s s i v e r e c o r d i n g s o f t h e
LA:

W i t h a known g r o u n d s p e e d a n d d r i f t a n g l e , t a k i n g t h e a i r s p e e d i n t o a c c o u n t as w e l l as t h e c o u r s e t o b e f o l l o w e d , t h e wind param eters a t f l i g h t a l t i t u d e can be determined with t h e a i d of a naviga tional slide rule. I n s p e c i a l c o n d i t i o n s , when t h e f l i g h t d i r e c t i o n c o i n c i d e s w i t h one of t h e b r a n c h e s of t h e h y p e r b o l i c f l i g h t l i n e s , t h e f l i g h t To d o t h i s , i t i s s u f f i c i e n t t o m a i n c a n b e made a l o n g t h e l a t t e r . t a i n a c o n s t a n t r e a d i n g f o r t h e c a l c u l a t o r of h y p e r b o l i c c o o r d i n a t e s of one p a i r . The f a m i l y o f p o s i t i o n l i n e s f o r t h e s e c o n d p a i r i n t h i s case i s u s e d t o m o n i t o r t h e p a t h f o r d i s t a n c e .

317

M o n i t o r i n g t h e p a t h f o r d i s t a n c e b y means o f t h e r e a d i n g s o f o n e o f t h e c o u n t e r s c a n b e u s e d i n t h e c a s e when t h e a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n i n t e r m s o f d i r e c t i o n i s c a r r i e d o u t u s i n g two d e v i c e s , e . g . , t h e U S W b e a r i n g o f a g o n i o m e t r i c s y s t e m or a f a n - t y p e b e a c o n .

To increase the f e a s i b i l i t y of using differenfial-rangefind ing systems, t h e hyperbolic coordinates can be converted t o ortho d r o m i c or g e o g r a p h i c a l o n e s ( s e e C h a p t e r I , S e c t i o n 7 ) .

I n some h y p e r b o l i c s y s t e m s o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n , e . g . , t h a t o f Decca a n d D e c t r a ( E n g l a n d ) , s i m p l i f i e d m e t h o d s o f a u t o m a t i c p l o t t i n g o f t h e a i r c r a f t c o u r s e on a s p e c i a l c h a r t u s e t h e movement For t h i s p u r p o s e , of a pen i n mutually perpendicular d i r e c t i o n s . s p e c i a l c h a r t s a r e made on w h i c h t h e h y p e r b o l i c l i n e s o f t h e f i r s t and second family a r e l a i d out a t r i g h t a n g l e s . Naturally t h i s /304 r e s u l t s i n d i s t o r t i o n o f t h e c o n t o u r s o f t h e t e r r a i n on t h e c h a r t , as w e l l as t h e s c a l e a n d g e o g r a p h i c g r i d , a n d t h e l i n e o f f l i g h t of t h e aircraft i s a l s o bent. Such a method o f r e c o r d i n g h a s a number o f s h o r t c o m i n g s ( e . g . , i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of o r t h o d r o m i c c o o r d i n a t e s f o r t h e a i r c r a f t ) , b u t it i s v e r y e a s y t o a c h i e v e from t h e t e c h n i c a l s t a n d p o i n t and i t s shortcomings are considerably reduced i f t h e p a t h of t h e a i r c r a f t has markings f o r d i s t a n c e . Methods o f Improving D i f f e r e n t i a l R a n g e f i n d i n g Navigational Systems

The d e s i g n o f h y p e r b o l i c s y s t e m s c o n t a i n s e l e m e n t s w h o s e i m provement l e a d s t o a c o n v e r s i o n of t h e system t o a h y p e r b o l i c - r a n g e f i n d i n g or h y p e r b o l i c - e l l i p t i c a l s y s t e m . Such e l e m e n t s i n c l u d e t h e s t a n d a r d f r e q u e n c y g e n e r a t o r s a b o a r d When t h e s e g e n e r a t o r s o p e r a t e i n a h i g h l y s t a b l e the aircraft. r e g i m e , t h e r e f e r e n c e s i g n a l s from t h e s e g e n e r a t o r s c a n b e k e p t s o p r e c i s e t h a t i t becomes p o s s i b l e t o m e a s u r e d i s t a n c e s t o one of t h e ground r a d i o s t a t i o n s . T o do t h i s , i t i s s u f f i c i e n t t o combine t h e p h a s e s o f t h e f r e q u e n c i e s of t h e g e n e r a t o r a b o a r d t h e a i r c r a f t and t h e ground r a d i o s t a t i o n w i t h an i n i t i a l d i s t a n c e s e t t i n g ( e . g . , t h e takeoff point of t h e a i r c r a f t ) . F u r t h e r changes i n d i s t a n c e c a n be d e t e r m i n e d by t h e d e v i a t i o n o f t h e p h a s e s o f t h e s e f r e q u e n c i e s or b y t h e d e v i a t i o n o f t h e p u l s e s i g n a l s , i f t h e s y s t e m i s o p e r a t i n g i n a pulse regime. Measurement of d i s t a n c e i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h one p a i r o f h y p e r b o l i c p o s i t i o n l i n e s makes it p o s s i b l e t o c o n s i d e r a b l y improve t h e accur acy w i t h which t h e l o c u s o f t h e a i r c r a f t i s d e t e r m i n e d o v e r l o n g d i s t a n c e s , a n d one p a i r o f g?ound r a d i o s t a t i o n s w i l l s u f f i c e f o r measurements. However, t h e c o n d i t i o n s f o r measurement b e t w e e n t h e f o c i of t h e system near t h e f o c a l a x i s w i l l remain unfavorable (Fig. 3.39).

318

I t i s more a d v a n t a g e o u s i n t h i s case t o u s e t h e h y p e r b o l i c network of p o s i t i o n l i n e s ( s e e Chapter I , S e c t i o n 7).

H o w e v e r , s i n c e w e know t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e d i s t a n c e s t o t h e two r a d i o s t a t i o n s as w e l l a s t h e d i s t a n c e t o one o f them, i t i s e a s y t o d e t e r m i n e t h e sum o f t h e d i s t a n c e s t o t h e s e r a d i o stations, e.g., if

S2 > SI a n d AS=s2-s,,

so that

Sz = S i

+ AS

and

S I

+ s = 2s1 -I-p3. ,

S i m i l a r l y , o r t h e c a s e when 5 2 < S I ,

T h e r e f o r e , i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n t h e number o f t h e h y p e r b o l a , it is s u f f i c i e n t t o use t h e difference i n distances, while t o obtain t h e n u m b e r o f t h e e l l i p s e , we m u s t d o u b l e t h e d i s t a n c e t o o n e o f t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n s and add t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n d i s t a n c e s with t h e /305 corresponding sign. One g r e a t a d v a n t a g e o f t h e h y p e r b o l i c - e l l i p t i c a l n e t w o r k i s t h e o r t h o g o n a l i t y of t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n of t h e p o s i t i o n l i n e s a t any p o i n t i n t h e f i e l d which i s i n v o l v e d . On i n d i v i d u a l s h e e t s o f t h e c h a r t , t h e h y p e r b o l i c - e l l i p t i c a l network has t h e appearance of a nearly rectangular g r i d with noticeable curvature of t h e p o s i t i o n l i n e s o n l y i n t h e v i c i n i t y of t h e f o c i of t h e system. When u s i n g a h y p e r b o l i c - r a n g e f i n d i n g (and e s p e c i a l l y a hyper b o l i c - e l l i p t i c a l system, a system of p o s i t i o n l i n e s ) t h e accuracy w i t h which t h e c o o r d i n a t e s o f t h e aircraft are determined over long distances is increased several fold, s o t h a t t h e p r a c t i c a l range of appli cation of t h e system is a l s o consid erably increased, with t h e use of o n l y one p a i r o f ground r a d i o s t a tions. Fig. 3.39. Combination of H y p e r b o l i c and R a n g e f i n g i n g Navigational Systems.
It should be mentioned, however, t h a t a serious obstacle t o t h e devel opment of systems of long-range n a v i g a t i o n f o r u s e on h i g h - s p e e d a i r c r a f t i s t h e low n o i s e s t a b i l i t y

3 19

o f o p e r a t i o n o f t h e s e s y s t e m s , s i n c e o n l y v e r y l o n g waves c a n b e used f o r navigation over long distances.

4.

AUTONOMOUS RADIO-NAVIGATIONAL INSTRUMENTS

I n r e c e n t y e a r s , t h e r e has been a considerable i n c r e a s e i n t h e use of r a d i o n a v i g a t i o n a l i n s t r u m e n t s which are housed completely aboard t h e a i r c r a f t and o p e r a t e without t h e need f o r ground f a c i l ities. Such i n s t r u m e n t s a r e c a l l e d autonomous r a d i o - n a v i g a t i o n a l i n s t r u m e n t s or, i f t h e i r o p e r a t i o n i s c o m b i n e d w i t h s o m e o t h e r n a v i g a t i o n a l e q u i p m e n t a b o a r d t h e a i r c r a f t , autonomous n a v i g a t i o n a l s y s tems. These i n c l u d e a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n a l r a d a r , Doppler systems f o r a i r c r a f t navigation, and r a d i o altimeters.

All a u t o n o m o u s r a d i o - n a v i g a t i o n a l i n s t r u m e n t s o p e r a t e o n u l t r a s h o r t waves, s i n c e they have a very high ( p r a c t i c a l l y complete) free dom f r o m i n t e r f e r e n c e d u r i n g o p e r a t i o n ( n o t c o u n t i n g a r t i f i c i a l interference).
Doppler m e t e r s f o r measuring t h e ground s p e e d and d r i f t a n g l e of t h e a i r c r a f t m e a s u r e t h e m o t i o n p a r a m e t e r s o f t h e a i r c r a f t d i r e c t l y r e l a t i v e t o t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e , which c l e a r l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e s them from a l l e x i s t i n g forms of n a v i g a t i o n a l equipment, e s p e c i a l l y w i t h /306 r e g a r d t o problems of automation of a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n an? p i l o t age of aircraft.

A i rcraft Navigational

Radar

A i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n a l r a d a r i s a v e r y f l e x i b l e and e f f e c t i v e m e t h o d o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n d u r i n g f l i g h t o v e r l a n d or s e a c l o s e t o coastal regions.

I n terms o f t h e geometry of t h e i r u s e , a i r c r a f t r a d a r d e v i c e s However, c a n b e i n c l u d e d among t h e goniometric-rangefinding s y s t e m s . i n c o m p a r i s o n t o t h e goniometric-rangefinding n a v i g a t i o n a l s y s t e m s , t h e y h a v e a number o f t a c t i c a l a d v a n t a g e s :

(1) T h e h i g h s a t u r a t i o n o f g r o u n d l a n d m a r k s m a k e s i t p o s s i b l e t o s e l e c t t h e most s u i t a b l e ones f o r measurement i n n a v i g a t i o n .

(2) The l a c k o f e r r o r s i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e b e a r i n g s o f l a n d marks from t h e r a d i o d e v i a t i o n o f b o t h t h e a i r c r a f t i t s e l f and t h e l o c a l r e l i e f , s o m e t h i n g which a f f e c t s a l l non-autonomous n a v i g a t i o n a l systems.
(3) The p o s s i b i l i t y o f v i s u a l i z j - n g g r o u n d l a n d m a r k s w i t h t h e purposes of determining ground speed and d r i f t a n g l e t o a b e t t e r degree t h a n with o p t i c a l methods.

(4) The p o s s i b i l i t y o f i d e n t i f y i n g d a n g e r o u s m e t e o r o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s i n f l i g h t ( t h u n d e r s t o r m s , p o w e r f u l cumulus and cumulonim bus clouds).

320

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.. .

. ..

. . .. .. . - . . .. . . .

. .

.. .. .

. .

.-.- . . . ..

(5) The h i g h a c c u r a c y a n d e a s e o f t h e m e a s u r e m e n t s u s i n g o n l y one o p e r a t i o n a l f r e q u e n c y .

A t t h e same t i m e , s e v e r a l shortcomings:

t h e navigational use of aircraft r a d a r has

(a) The b e a r i n g o f t h e a i r c r a f t c a n b e u s e d o n l y a s a b a s i s f o r measuring t h e aircraft course, t h u s lowering t h e accuracy of distance findings.

A c e r t a i n amount o f e x p e r i e n c e i s n e e d e d f o r c o r r e c t r e c o g (b) n i t i o n of ground landmarks and t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of e r r o r s i n d e t e r mining a landmark, s i n c e they are n o t l a b e l l e d .

The o p e r a t i n g p r i n c i p l e o f r a d a r i s b a s e d on t h e a b i l i t y o f e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c waves a t h i g h f r e q u e n c i e s t o b e r e f l e c t e d from o b j e c t s l o c a t e d along t h e i r propagation path (from t h e i n t e r f a c e between media w i t h d i f f e r e n t o p t i c a l d e n s i t i e s ) .

T o o b t a i n a p a n o r a m i c i m a g e o f t h e t e r r a i n , a r o t a t i n g or s c a n ning antenna is used t o cover a c e r t a i n s e c t o r , s o t h a t i t s posi t i o n m u s t b e s y n c h r o n i z e d w i t h t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e s c k n n i n g beam on t h e s c r e e n o f a c a t h o d e r a y t u b e . In addition t o synchronizing t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e antenna with t h e scanning d i r e c t i o n of t h e beam, i t i s a l s o n e c e s s a r y t o e n s u r e t h a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e s c a n i s s y n c h r o n i z e d w i t h t h e moment when t h e U S W p u l s e s a r e o m i t t e d f r o m t h e antenna transmitter

The r a d a r t r a n s m i t t e r e m i t s h i g h - f r e q u e n c y p u l s e s whose p r o p a g a t i o n d i r e c t i o n d e p e n d s on t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e r o t a t i n g a n t e n n a /307 a t t h e moment o f e m i s s i o n . T h e s c a n n i n g o f t h e i n d i c a t o r beam b e g i n s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h t h e e m i s s i o n o f t h e p u l s e , moving from t h e c e n t e r o f t h e s c r e e n t o w a r d t h e p e r i p h e r y ; t h e d i r e c t i o n i n w h i c h t h e beam moves c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e movement o f t h e a n t e n n a . S i n c e t h e p r o p a g a t i o n r a t e of e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c waves i s v e r y h i g h , and t h e r o t a t i o n a l s p e e d of t h e a n t e n n a and t h e s c a n r a t e a r e s l o w , t h e p u l s e o f wave e n e r g y c a n c o v e r t h e d i s t a n c e t o t h e i r r a d i a t e d o b j e c t a n d r e t u r n i n a p e r i o d of t i m e w h i c h i s s u f f i c i e n t l y s h o r t s o t h a t t h e a n t e n n a h a s n o t y e t moved t h r o u g h a n y noticeable angle. Therefore, t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e antenna a t t h e moment o f r e c e i v i n g t h e s i g n a l c o i n c i d e s w i t h i t s d i r e c t i o n a t t h e moment o f e m i s s i o n . The r e c e i v e d r e f l e c t e d s i g n a l i s a m p l i f i e d i n t h e r e c e i v e r a n d p a s s e s t o a n i n d i c a t o r , where i t c o n t r o l s t h e b r i g h t n e s s o f t h e s c a n n i n g beam. Thus, t h e r a d a r s c r e e n shows t h e f o l l o w i n g : (a) The d i r e c t i o n o f t h e o b j e c t on t h e b a s i s o f t h e a n t e n n a p o s i t i o n a t t h e moment o f e m i s s i o n a n d r e c e p t i o n o f t h e s i g n a l .

(b)

The d i s t a n c e t o t h e o b j e c t on t h e b a s i s o f t h e t i m e r e

321

q u i r e d for t h e s i g n a l t o t r a v e l b e t w e e n t h e moment when i t i s e m i t t e d t o t h e moment w h e n i t i s r e c e i v e d . (c) The n a t u r e o f t h e o b j e c t , on t h e b a s i s o f t h e b r i g h t n e s s o f t h e s c a n n i n g beam a t t h e p o i n t w h e r e t h e r e f l e c t e d wave i s r e c e i v e d .

u a n d a . r d f r ea ue'n CY st and dividers -

Fig.

3.40.

Diagram o f A i r c r a f t R a d a r .

T h e r a d a r s c r e e n h a s a l o n g a f t e r g l o w s o t h a t when t h e a n t e n n a h a s made a c o m p l e t e r e v o l u t i o n , t h e s c r e e n s t i l l s h o w s a t r a c e o f a l l t h e i r r a d i a t e d o b j e c t s on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e wh i ch a r e l o c a t e d i n t h e f i e l d s c a n n e d by t h e r a d a r . T h e m a i n s e c t i o n o f t h e r a d a r , c o n t r o l l i n g t h e pera at ion o f t h e e n t i r e system, i s t h e standard-frequency generator with fre quency d i v i d e r s f o r forming d i s t a n c e markings and a s i g n a l - t r a n s m i s s i o n f r e q u e n c y s y n c h r o n i z e d w i t h t h e s a w - t o o t h s c a n n i n g image on t h e s c r e e n ( F i g . 3 . 4 0 ) . The s i g n a l s from t h e s t a n d a r d - f r e q u e n c y g e n e r a t o r r e a c h t h e modulator, where t h e y a r e c o n v e r t e d t o h i g h - v o l t a g e r e c t a n g u l a r T h e h i g h - v o l t a g e p u l s e s from o s c i l l a t i o n s of a s p e c i a l l e n g t h . t h e m o d u l a t o r p a s s t o t h e t r a n s m i t t e r m a g n e t r o n , where h i g h - f r e quency groups a r e g e n e r a t e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e p u l s e l e n g t h . The h i g h f r e q u e n c y r e a c h e s t h e a n t e n n a t h r o u g h a w a v e g u i d e and i s r a d i a t e d i n t o space.
A t t h e same t i m e , i n s y n c h r o n i z a t i o n w i t h t h e p u l s e s o f h i g h v o l t a g e which are s e n t t o t h e t r a n s m i t t e r , t h e s c a n n i n g g e n e r a t o r . forms a s a w - t o o t h v o l t a g e w h i c h c o n t r o l s t h e s c a n n i n g b e a m on t h e screen. The s c a n n i n g r a t e d e p e n d s on t h e s t e e p n e s s o f t h e s l o p e for t h e s a w - t o o t h w a v e s . A t a low s c a n n i n g r a t e , a f i n e image s c a l e i s o b t a i n e d as w e l l as l o n g - d i s t a n c e d e t e c t i o n o f o b j e c t s . When t h e s c a n n i n g r a t e i s i n c r e a s e d , t h e s c a l e o f t h e image d e c r e a s e s p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y w i t h t h e d i s t a n c e c o v e r e d by t h e r a d i u s o f t h e s c r e e n . The c o n t r o l o f t h e s c a n n i n g r a t e i s a c h i e v e d w i t h t h e a i d o f a s w i t c h on t h e c o n t r o l p a n e l .
1308

322

The d u r a t i o n o f t h e h i g h - f r e q u e n c y p u l s e s c o n t r o l s t h e r e s o l v For e x a m p l e , a p u l s e d u r a t i o n o f 2 m i c r o i n g power o f t h e r a d a r . s e c o n d s c o r r e s p o n d s t o a p r o p a g a t i o n d i s t a n c e o f t h e wave ( b a c k a n d f o r t h ) o f 300 m . Hence, i f two r e f l e c t i n g o b j e c t s are l o c a t e d a t a d i s t a n c e o f l e s s t h a n 300 m a l o n g t h e p r o p a g a t i o n d i r e c t i o n o f t h e wave, t h e y w i l l a p p e a r as one o b j e c t . T h e r e f o r e , when w o r k i n g a t c o u r s e s c a l e s , t h e m o d u l a t o r i s s e t for t h e f o r m a t i o n of s h o r t e r pulses with an increase i n t h e frequency of t h e i r trans mission. The r e s o l v i n g p o w e r o f t h e r a d a r i n t e r m s o f a z i m u t h s i s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e s h a r p n e s s o f t h e d i r e c t i o n a l i t y o f t h e a n t e n n a beam. The a z i m u t h s o f g r o u n d l a n d m a r k s c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d i m m e d i a t e l y by t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e a n t e n n a ( a n d t h e r e f o r e by t h e s c a n n i n g l i n e on t h e s c r e e n ) , a n d t h e a n t e n n a mechanism i s f i t t e d w i t h a s e l s y n mechanism f o r t i l t i n g t h e i n d i c a t o r . T h e a z i m u t h r e a d i n g i s made on a s c a l e l o c a t e d a l o n g t h e p e r i p h e r y o f t h e s c r e e n . To m e a s u r e t h e d i s t a n c e t o a l a n d m a r k , p u l s e s f r o m t h e f r e quency d i v i d e r a r e s e n t t o t h e r e c e i v e r (and t h e r e f o r e t o t h e scan n i n g beam). T h e s e p u l s e s i n c r e a s e t h e b r i g h t n e s s o f t h e beam a t c e r t a i n d i s t a n c e s from t h e c e n t e r o f t h e s c r e e n , f o r m i n g c i r c u l a r distance markings. When u s i n g t h e r a d a r on d i f f e r e n t s c a l e s t h e d i s t a n c e m a r k For example, ings are shifted t o different distance intervals. w i t h a s c a l e o f 1 0 km f o r t h e r a d i u s o f t h e s c r e e n , t h e m a r k i n g s a r e u s u a l l y 2 km a p a r t ; when u s i n g s c a l e s f r o m 1 0 t o 1 0 0 km, t h e m a r k i n g s a r e 1 0 km a p a r t ; a t a s c a l e o f 2 0 0 km, t h e y a r e 2 0 or 4 0 km a p a r t . Now l e t u s f o l l o w t h e p a t h o f t h e h i g h - f r e q u e n c y p u l s e s f r o m t h e t r a n s m i t t e r t o t h e o b j e c t a n d b a c k a g a i n , a n d s e e how t h e y c o n t r o l t h e b r i g h t n e s s o f t h e s c a n n i n g beam. The h i g h - f r e q u e n c y p u l s e p a s s e s t h r o u g h t h e wave g u i d e t o t h e r a d i a t i n g h o r n o f t h e a n t e n n a , a f t e r which i t i s s h a p e d i n t o t h e r e q u i r e d d i r e c t i o n a l d i a g r a m f o r r a d i a t i o n by means o f a r e f l e c tor. Usually, t h e d i r e c t i o n a l i t y of t h e antenna i n t h e h o r i z o n t a l T o do t h i s , i t i s n e c e s s a r y p l a n e i s made a s s h a r p a s p o s s i b l e . f o r t h e p h a s e o f t h e beam when e m e r g i n g f r o m t h e a n t e n n a t o r e m a i n constant over its e n t i r e perpendicular cross section (Fig. 3.41), i . e . , t h e r e f l e c t i o n i n t h i s p l a n e must have a shape such t h a t t h e wave p a t h from t h e h o r n r a d i a t o r t o t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e r e f l e c t o r and a l o n g i t s chord of emergence i s uniform. The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f d i r e c t i o n a l i t y o f t h e r a d i a t i o n i n t h e v e r t i c a l p l a n e m u s t b e s u c h t h a t t h e i l l u m i n a t i o n ot t h e t e r r a i n from t h e v e r t i c a l o f t h e a i r c r a f t i s as u n i f o r m as p o s s i b l e o v e r t h e e n t i r e e f f e c t i v e r a d i u s of t h e r a d a r . T o do t h i s , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o h a v e t h e maximum a m o u n t o f w a v e e n e r g y t r a n s m i t t e d a t s m a l l /309

323

a n g l e s t o t h e p l a n e o f t h e h o r i z o n , i . e . , o v e r t h e maximum r a n g e , and t o h a v e t h e s m a l l e s t amount of e n e r g y r a d i a t e d a l o n g t h e v e r t ical of t h e aircraft. S u c h a c h a r a c t e r < s t i c is c a l l e d t h e c o s e c a n t square, i . e . , t h e r e f l e c t o r s i n t h e vert i c a l plane are given a shape such t h a t t h e a m o u n t of e n e r g y r a d i a t e d i n t o s p a c e is roughly proportional t o t h e square of t h e cosecant of t h e angle of t h e plane of the horizon t o the propagation direc tion.

I n some t y p e s o f r a d a r , a n a c i c u l a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f d i r e c t i o n a l i t y i s emplQyed, :.e., one which i s s h a r p e s t i n b o t h t h e h o r i z o n t a l a n d v e r t i c a l p l a n e s , combin ing it with t h e cosesant-square i n the v e r t i c a l p l a n e , e . g . , by a s c a n n i n g c y c l e . Fig. 3.41. R a d a r Ant e n n a f o r Use A b o a r d This i s achieved by u s i n g s p e c i a l l y shaped Aircraft. reflectors with a telescoping deflector or b y s e n d i n g e n e r g y t o t h e a n t e n n a b y d i f f e r e n t wave g u i d e s f o r t h e a c i c u l a r a n d c o s e c a n t - s q u a r e a n t e n n a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s af t h e r a d a r .
A n t e n n a s w i t h c o s e c a n t - s q u a r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e u s e d or c i r c u l a r - s c a n r a d a r , mounted below t h e f u s e l a g e o f t h e a i r c r a f t . Antennas w i t h combined r a d i a t i o n a r e u s e d f o r s e c t o r - s c a n r a d a r s and a r e mounted i n t h e n o s e o f t h e f u s e l a g e t o c o v e r o n l y t h e a r e a ahead of t h e aircraft. I n t h i s c a s e , t h e r a d a r s c r e e n i s made w i t h t h e c e n t e r d i s p l a c e d s o t h a t t h e maximum a r e a o f t h e s c r e e n c a n be used. Usually, t h e t i l t i n g of t h e t h e r e f o r e t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of i s a d j u s t e d m a n u a l l y by means o f a s w i t c h on t h e c o n t r o l p a n e l o f antenna i n t h e v e r t i c a l plane (and d i r e c t i o n a l i t y of t h e r a d i a t i o n ) a s p e c i a l e l e c t r i c a l d e v i c e and the radar.

4 ;

The t r a n s m i t t i n g a n t e n n a o f t h e r a d a r a c t s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a s a receiving antenna, since t h e d i r e c t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e a n t e n n a a r e r e v e r s e d , i . e . , u s e d b o t h for e m i t t i n g a n d r e c e i v i n g t h e wave e n e r g y . I n o r d e r f o r t h e p u l s e s o f wave e n e r g y e m i t t e d f r o m t h e t r a n s m i t t e r n o t t o r e t u r n i m m e d i a t e l y t o t h e wave g u i d e o f t h e r e c e i v e r , s p e c i a l a r r e s t e r s a r e u s e d w h i c h b l o c k t h e wave e n e r g y f r o m e n t e r i n g t h e r e c e i v e r a t t h e moment w h e n t h e t r a n s m i t t e r i s o p e r a t i n g . The t r a n s m i s s i o n f r e q u e n c y o f t h e p u l s e s o f wave e n e r g y f r o m t h e t r a n s m i t t e r i s s e t s o t h a t t h e t i m e i n t e r v a l s b e t w e e n them a r e not s h o r t e r than those required f o r propagation of electromagnetic w a v e s t o t h e m o s t d i s t a n t o b j e c t a t a g i v e n o p e r a t i n g r a n g e for t h e r a d a r and f o r i t s r e t u r n t o t h e a i r c r a f t . When u s i n g t h e r a d a r a t large-scale settings, the decrease i n t h e pulse duration is

/310

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accompanied serving the t i o n of t h e between t h e

by a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n f r e q u e n c y , t h u s p r e a v e r a g e power of t h e t r a n s m i t t e r . Hence, t h e r e c e p reflected signals takes place i n the t i m e intervals p u l s e s o f wave e n e r g y e m i t t e d b y t h e t r a n s m i t t e r .

The r a d a r r e c e i v e r s h a v e s p e c i a l vacuum d e v i c e s ( k l y s t r o n s f o r g e n e r a t i n g h i g h f r e q u e n c y ) w h i c h p l a y t h e same r o l e a s h e t e r odynes i n c o n v e n t i o n a l r e c e i v e r s . The s i g n a l s r e c e i v e d b y t h e a n t e n n a a r e mi x ed w i t h t h e f r e quency o f t h e k l y s t r o n ; a n i n t e r m e d i i i t , e f r e q u e n c y i s p r o d u c e d which t h e n g o e s on ( a f t e r d e t e c t i o n a n d a m p 1 i f i c a t i o n ) t o c o n t r o l t h e b r i g h t n e s s o f t h e s c a n n i n g beam. I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e s p e c i a l f e a t u r e s of t h e r a d a r which w e have d i s c u s s e d above, t h e r e c e i v e r h a s a d d i t i o n a l c i r c u i t s and c o n t r o l units. I n p a r t i c u l a r , t o a l l o w t h e f r e q u e n c y of t h e k l y s t r o n t o b e c h a n g e d , t h e r e i s a n a u t o m a t i c f r e q u e n c y a d j u s t e r (AFA), e t c . F o r i m p r o v e d c o n t r a s t o f t h e i m a g e on t h e s c r e e n , i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e devices f o r a d j u s t i n g t h e o v e r a l l amplification of t h e r e c e i v e r , t h e o p e r a t o r o f t h e r a d a r c a n u s e a s e p a r a t e s i g n a l a m p l i f i e r which This makes it p o s s i b l e t o d i s o p e r a t e s a t h i g h a n d low l e v e l s . t i n g u i s h s h a d e d or i l l u m i n a t e d o b j e c t s o n t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e a s desired. For example, t o examine p o p u l a t e d a r e a s , t h e h i g h - l e v e l s i g n a l s a r e i n c r e a s e d and t h e low-level s i g n a l s a r e reduced (by decreasing t h e b r i g h t n e s s of t h e background of t h e s c r e e n ) . To pick out r i v e r s and l a k e s , t h e low-level s i g n a l s are i n c r e a s e d , t h u s improving t h e v i s i b i l i t y of shaded o b j e c t s a g a i n s t a b r i g h t e r g e n e r a l background.
I t should be mentioned t h a t f o r t h e formation of high-frequency p u l s e s by t h e t r a n s m i t t e r , v e r y h i g h v o l t a g e s m u s t b e p r o d u c e d i n t h e m o d u l a t o r ; t h i s means t h a t a t h i g h a l t i t u d e s ( i . e . , a t l o w atmo s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e ) , t h e r e may b e f l a s h o v e r s i n t h e w i r i n g o f t h e s e units. T h e r e f o r e , t h e s e u n i t s ( i n c l u d i n g t h e wave g u i d e s o f t h e /311 t r a n s m i t t e r ) a r e hermetically s e a l e d and t h e r e q u i r e d p r e s s u r e i s m a i n t a i n e d i n t h e m b y a s p e c i a l pump or b y s y s t e m s f o r p r e s s u r i z i n g the aircraft cabin.

I n d i c a t o r s of A i r c r a f t N a v i g a t i o n a E R a d a r s
The a i r c r a f t r a d a r i s a n a u t o n o m o u s g o n i o m e t r i c - r a n g e - f i n d i n g a n d s i g h t i n g d e v i c e , s o t h a t i t s i n d i c a t o r m u s t b e made s o t h a t a l l r e q u i r e d n a v i g a t i o n a l measurements can be performed satisfac t o r i l y with it. C i r c u l a r i n d i c a t o r s a r e t h e o n e s which a r e o f g r e a t e s t i n t e r e s t from t h e n a v i g a t i o n a l s t a n d p o i n t ( F i g . 3 . 4 2 ) . The c e n t e r o f t h i s i n d i c a t o r , m a r k i n g t h e ' p o s i t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t a g a i n s t t h e panorama o f t h e f i e l d of v i s i o n , c o i n c i d e s w i t h

325

the center of the screen. Around t h e e d g e o f t h i s s c r e e n i s a s c a l e of b e a r i n g s , which c a n b e r o t a t e d manually; i n t h e upper p a r t of i t i s a c o u r s e m a r k i n g which shows t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e l o n g i t u d The s c a l e of b e a r i n g s i s s e t t o i t s i n a l axis of t h e aircraft. own d i v i s i o n s b y m e a n s o f a " c o u r s e ' l . r a c k a n d p i n i o n d e v i c e , f o r s e t t i n g t h e course o f t h e aircraft by t h e c o u r s e markings, accord i n g t o t h e r e a d i n g s of t h e c o u r s e i n s t r u m e n t s . The s i g h t i n g l i n e s o f t h e i n d i c a t o r a r e m a r k e d on t h e p r o t e c t i v e g l a s s o f t h e s c r e e n , which c a n b e r o t a t e d by means o f " s i g h t " rack and p i n i o n . F o r c o n v e n i e n c e i n s i g h t i n g , t h r e e movable p o i n t s f o r l o n g i t u d i n a l s i g h t i n g l i n e s a r e p r o v i d e d , and one . t r a n s v e r s e s i g h t i n g l i n e i s p r o v i d e d f o r i n d i c a t i n g t r a v e r s e s when f l y i n g o v e r landmarks. When t h e r a d a r i s o p e r a t i n g , c i r c u l a r d i s t a n c e markings appear on t h e s c r e e n , a n d t h e d e f l e c t i o n of t h e luminous course l i n e s of t h e a i r c r a f t may a l s o b e i n c l u d e d . I n t h e lower p a r t of t h e i n d i c a t o r u n i t , i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e "course" and " s i g h t " adjustments , t h e r e are other controls: "scale illumination", "beam s c a n f o c u s " , "beam b r i g h t n e s s a d j u s t m e n t " , a n d some t y p e s o f i n d i c a t o r s a l s o have a " v e r t i c a l and h o r i zontal centering of scan". Thus, t h e c i r c u l a r s c r e e n of t h e r a d a r can b e used t o measure b e a r Fig. 3.42. Indicator for i n g s p r e c i s e l y or d e t e r m i n e t h e c o u r s e Radar w i t h Screen' angle of a landmark, i t s d i s t a n c e , as w e l l as t h e p r o v i s i o n a l l i n e o f motion of t h e landmark f o r purposes of determining t h e d r i f t angle /312 a n d t h e g r o u n d s p e e d on t h e b a s i s of t h e t r a v e r s e of t h e f l i g h t over t h e landmark. Sector-type 3.43). r a d a r s c r e e n s h a v e somewhat fewer p o s s i b i l i t i e s

(Fig.

Since t h e c e n t e r of r o t a t i o n ( t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e aircraft o n t h e s c r e e n ) i s s h i f t e d f r o m t h e c e n t e r o f t h e s c r e e n on t h i s t y p e o f i n d i c a t o r , t h e r e i s n o p o s s i b i l i t y for u s i n g a r o t a t i n g s c a l e o f b e a r i n g s or s i g h t i n g l i n e s , t h u s c o m p l i c a t i n g t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f b e a r i n g s a n d t h e m o t i o n o f l a n d m a r k s on t h e s c r e e n . Instead, t h e screen i s f i t t e d with a system of divergent l i n e s f o r t h e c o u r s e a n g l e of t h e landmark ( C A L ) . The d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e b e a r i n g s i n t h i s c a s e i s made b y a d d i n g t h e c o u r s e a n g l e o f t h e landmark t o t h e c o u r s e o f t h e a i r c r a f t by t h e f o r m u l a :

326

TBL = TC
TBA = T C

CAL;

CAL

+ - 180

6.

I t i s very d i f f i c u l t and n o t always p o s s i b l e on t h e s e i n d i c a t o r s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e moment o f f l y i n g o v e r t h e t r a v e r s e s of landmarks.

I n s t e a d o f v i s u a l i z i n g t h e movement o f landmarks, t h e s o l u t i o n of n a v i g a t i o n a l p r o b l e m s on t h e s e i n d i c a t o r s i s more o f t e n accomplished by a succession of m e a s u r e m e n t s o f t h e LA on a c h a r t . An e x c e p t i o n t o t h i s i s c o n s t i t u t e d by l a n d m a r k s w h i c h move a c r o s s t h e s c r e e n i n t h e immediate v i c i n i t y of t h e course Fig. 3.43. Indicator m a r k i n g , and c a n b e u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e f o r Sector-Type Radar. t h e d r i f t a n g l e by t h e p a r a l l e l i s m of t h e i r s h i f t i n g , using t h e l i n e s of t h e c o u r s e a n g l e s a n d t h e g r o u n d s p e e d when p a s s i n g o v e r t h e d i s t a n c e m a r k i n g s on t h e s c r e e n .

N a t u r e of t h e V i s i b i Z i t y of Landmarks on t h e S c r e e n of a n A i r c r a f t Radar
For purposes of a i r c r a f t navigation using aircraft r a d a r , following landmarks can be used: the

1. Large populated a r e a s and i n d u s t r i a l e n t e r p r i s e s . The v i s i b i l i t y a n d o u t l i n e s o f t h e s e l a n d m a r k s d e p e n d on t h e n u m b e r and l o c a t i o n of m e t a l s t r u c t u r e s and c o v e r i n g s i n t h e o b j e c t . Popu l a t e d a r e a s a n d i n d u s t r i a l e n t e r p r i s e s a p p e a r as b r i g h t s p o t s on t h e s c r e e n , as a r u l e , w i t h s h a r p l y bounded o u t l i n e s . T h i s means t h a t t h e o u t l i n e s of t h e landmarks c o i n c i d e c l o s e l y w i t h t h e i r o u t l i n e s o n a c h a r t or a s t h e y a r e s e e n b y v i s u a l o b s e r v a t i o n , a s g r o u p s o f s t r u c t u r e s w i t h n o n - m e t a l l i c c o v e r i n g s s h o w u p much l e s s c l e a r l y / 3 1 3 and a r e v i s i b l e from s h o r t e r d i s t a n c e s t h a n m e t a l s t r u c t u r e s and coverings.
P o p u l a t e d a r e a s s h o w u p m o s t c l e a r l y w i t h maximum a m p l i f i c a t i o n o f t h e h i g h - l e v e l s i g n a l s a n d a minimum a m p l i f i c a t i o n o f t h e l o w level signals. 2. R i v e r s and l a k e s . D u r i n g t h e summer, t h e s e l a n d m a r k s a r e v i s i b l e as d a r k a r e a s a n d s p o t s whose o u t l i n e s m a t c h t h o s e o f t h e landmarks a g a i n s t t h e a l i g h t e r background of t h e surrounding ter rain. I n t h e w i n t e r , when t h e s e b o d i e s o f w a t e r a r e c o v e r e d b y a smooth l a y e r o f i c e , o n l y t h e r i v e r v a l l e y s a r e s e e n , e s p e c i a l l y a g a i n s t f o r e s t e d areas. I c e p a c k s on r i v e r s c a n b e s e e n i n t h e f o r m o f b r i g h t s p o t s a g a i n s t a d a r k e r b a c k g r o u n d o f snow c o v e r e d banks. R i v e r s and l a k e s c a n b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d by a m p l i f y i n g t h e low-level s i g n a l s t o i n c r e a s e t h e b r i g h t n e s s of t h e e n t i r e background
327

of t h e screen. Then t h e d a r k o b j e c t s w i l l b e o b s e r v e d as s t i l l d a r k e r areas a g a i n s t t h e l i g h t background. T h e s e l a n d m a r k s a p p e a r on t h e r a d a r s c r e e n , as t h e y appear t o v i s u a l observation. Mountains c a n b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d by a s u i t a b l e s e l e c t i o n o f s i g n a l a m p l i f i c a t i o n a t b o t h h i g h a n d low levels.

3.

Mountains.

i n a form which i s v e r y c l o s e t o t h e i r n a t u r a l one, i . e .

4. Forested areas. Landmarks o f t h i s t y p e c a n o n l y be s e e n c l e a r l y i n w i n t e r , a g a i n s t a g e n e r a l background of snow-covered s u r f a c e , b y a m p l i f y i n g t h e l o w - l e v e l s i g n a l s ; i n summer, a g a i n s t a background of v e g e t a t i o n and c u l t i v a t e d areas, f o r e s t s a r e seen v e r y dimly and c a n n o t b e u s e d as l a n d m a r k s .
5. Highway and r a i l w a y b r i d g e s . T h e s e l a n d m a r k s show up e s p e c The r a i l w a y s i a l l y w e l l a g a i n s t t h e background of l a r g e r i v e r s . t h e m s e l v e s s h o w u p c l e a r l y o n l y when t h e r e a r e e m b a n k m e n t s or s t e e l s t r u c t u r e s for s u p p o r t i n g c a t e n a r i e s f o r e l e c t r i f i e d r a i l w a y s .
I n summer, t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f p o w e r f u l cumulus a n d cumulonim b u s c l o u d s shows up v e r y c l e a r l y on r a d a r s c r e e n s . Areas w h i c h are dangerous f o r f l i g h t (with a l a r g e - d r o p l e t s t r u c t u r e , and t h e r e f o r e w i t h i n t e n s e t u r b u l e n c e and h i g h i n t e n s i t y of e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d s ) a p p e a r on t h e s c r e e n i n t h e f o r m o f b r i g h t s p o t s w i t h d i f f u s e e d g e s . T h e s e s t o r m s c a n b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d v e r y w e l l w i t h maximum a m p l i f i c a t i o n o f h i g h - l e v e l s i g n a l s a n d minimum a m p l i f i c a t i o n o f l o w level signals. A m p l i f i c a t i o n o f l o w - l e v e l s i g n a l s r e d u c e s t h e con t r a s t of t h e images o f t h e s e dangerous s t o r m s , b u t areas of r a d a r shadows b e g i n t o a p p e a r , which a r e v e r y c l e a r on t h e s c r e e n a n d are c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i g n s of storm clouds. I n o b s e r v i n g t e r r e s t r i a l landmarks a n d c l o u d s i n which t h e r e is thunderstorm a c t i v i t y , it i s necessary (besides adjusting t h e a m p l i f i c a t i o n l e v e l of t h e r e c e i v e r ) t o choose t h e p r o p e r i n c l i n A s a r u l e , landmarks which a r e l o c a t e d a t i o n of t h e r a d a r antenna. c l o s e t o t h e aircraft are observed with an increased i n c l i n a t i o n o f t h e a n t e n n a downward, w h i l e t h o s e f u r t h e r away ( a n d s t o r m c l o u d s ) / 3 1 4 a r e v i e w e d w i t h a s l i g h t i n c l i n a t i o n d o w n w a r d or w i t h t h e a n t e n n a aimed upward, d e p e n d i n g on t h e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e a n d t h e v i e w i n g r a n g e . The i n c l i n a t i o n o f t h e a n t e n n a c a n b e s e l e c t e d t o p r o v i d e t h e optimum c l a r i t y o f t h e i m a g e s of t h e l a n d m a r k s on t h e s c r e e n .

Use o f A i r c r a f t Radar f o r P u r p o s e s of A i r c r a f t N a v i g a t i o n and A v o i d a n c e o f Dangerous M e t e o r o l o g i c a l Phenomena

Aircraft r a d a r can b e used t o s o l v e a l l problems of aircraft n a v i g a t i o n , b e g i n n i n g w i t h t h e r e c o g n i t i o n of l a n d m a r k s o v e r which t h e a i r c r a f t i s f l y i n g and e n d i n g w i t h measurement of a l l b a s i c elements of aircraft navigation.

328

For r e c o g n i t i o n o f t e r r e s t r i a l l a n d m a r k s , i t i s d e s i r a b l e t o u s e o p e r a t i n g s c a l e s of t h e r a d a r which c o i n c i d e w i t h t h e s c a l e s of f l i g h t c h a r t s .
W i t h a n i n d i c a t o r s c r e e n r a d i u s o f 5 5 m m , a n i m a g e s c a l e of 1:1,000,000 p r o d u c e s a r a n g e o f 5 5 km o n t h e s c r e e n . This oper a t i n g s c a l e f o r t h e r a d a r i s m o s t s u i t a b l e when u s i n g m a p s w i t h a s c a l e o f 1 0 km t o 1 c m . H e n c e , when u s i n g c h a r t s w i t h a s c a l e o f 1 : 2 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 , one must u s e a r a d a r s c a l e o f 1 0 0 km; 1 1 0 km i s p o s s i b l e , i f t h e d e s i g n o f t h e radar permits. The s h a r p e s t d i s t i n c t i o n o f r a d a r l a n d m a r k s i s o b t a i n e d by u s i n g t h e p r o p e r s e l e c t i o n of c o n t r a s t i n t h e i mag e b y u s i n g v a r i o u s a m p l i f i c a t i o n s of t h e s i g n a l s a t h i g h and low l e v e l s , a d j u s t i n g t h e i n c l i n a t i o n of t h e a n t e n n a t o t h e p r o p e r a n g l e , and s e t t i n g t h e beam b r i g h t n e s s o n t h e s c r e e n . The l o c a t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d v e r y a c c u r a t e l y i n terms of t h e b e a r i n g and d i r e c t i o n from a p o i n t landmark. Point l a n d m a r k s i n t h i s c a s e c a n b e t h e c e n t e r s of p o p u l a t e d a r e a s , c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f e a t u r e s of t h e s h o r e s o f r i v e r s and l a k e s , i n d i v i d u a l mountain peaks , e t c . When u s i n g c i r c u l a r s c a n r a d a r , w i t h a r o t a t i n g s c a l e o f b e a r i n g s , t h e l o c u s o f t h e a i r c r a f t i s d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e same m e t h o d used f o r goniometric-rangefinding n a v i g a t i o n a l USW systems, i . e . , p l o t t i n g t h e b e a r i n g and d i s t a n c e from a landmark t o t h e a i r c r a f t on a c h a r t . However, i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o t a k e i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h e correction f o r t h e deviation of t h e meridians, i f t h e d i f f e r ence i n t h e l a t i t u d e s of t h e landmark and l o c u s of t h e a i r c r a f t is significant. In using sector-type radars, the bearing of t h e aircraft is o b t a i n e d by a d d i n g t h e a i r c r a f t c o u r s e and t h e c o u r s e a n g l e o f t h e l a n d m a r k , a s i s d o n e when u s i n g a i r c r a f t r a d i o c o m p a s s e s w i t h n o n integrated indicators.
A s i n t h e c a s e when UW r a n g e f i n d i n g s y s t e m s a r e u s e d , t h e S measurement o f d i s t a n c e s w i t h a n a i r c r a f t r a d a r means t h a t t h e r a d a r / 3 1 5 m e a s u r e s n o t t h e h o r i z o n t a l b u t t h e o b l i q u e d i s t a n c e ( O D ) of t h e landmark. T h e r e f o r e , when m e a s u r i n g d i s t a n c e s t o l a n d m a r k s , w h i c h a r e l e s s t h a n f i v e t i m e s t h e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e (H), t h e measurement must i n c l u d e a c o r r e c t i o n A R , which always h a s a n e g a t i v e s i g n :

AR = -

( v o m- R);

R=OD-AR,
where OD i s t h e o b l i q u e d i s t a n c e , H i s t h e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e , and R is the horizontal distance.

329

If t h e o b l i q u e d i s t a n c e t o t h e l a n d m a r k i s e q u a l t o t h e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e ( t h e c o r r e c t i o n f o r t h e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e becomes e q u a l t o the oblique distance), the horizontal distance w i l l be equal t o zero. T h i s i s a l s o r e f l e c t e d i n t h e p a n o r a m a o f t h e i m a g e , when a dark s p o t appears i n t h e middle of t h e i n d i c a t o r s c r e e n with a s h a r p l i m i t for t h e b e g i n n i n g o f i m a g e f o r m a t i o n . The b e g i n n i n g of image f o r m a t i o n i s s e p a r a t e d from t h e c e n t e r o f t h e s c r e e n by a d i s t a n c e w h i c h i s e q u a l t o t h e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e on t h e s c a n n i n g scale. T h i s s p o t i s caZZed t h e a Z t i m e t r a Z a n d i s u s e d for meas u r i n g t h e t r u e a l t i t u d e of f l i g h t a b o v e t h e l o c a l r e l i e f .

TABLE 3.1.
Flight1 a l t i t u d e , ~
K.u

.u

- -

1 1 2 1 3 i 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 _ 1 0 1 1 1 ) 12 1

c ) r r e c t i onsr,
5.0 1,5 1.0 0.5

KX

1.

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
I

2.0 .1,5 1,0

- - - - - 3,O

2.0
1.5 0,5 0.0

4,O 2,5

660 10,O *3,O 4,O 5,O

2,5 1,5 1,0 0,5 3,O 3.5 240 2.5 1,5 2,O I t 0 1.5 015 1.0 0,O 0,5 0.0 0,o

630
430 3.0 2,5 250 !,5 1.0

2.0
1,0 0.5 0.0

0,o 0,o 0,o 00 ' 0,o 0,o

00 . 00 . 0,o
0,o

00 .
0.0

00 . 040 0,O 0,O O,? 0 0 00 . . 0,B 0.0 0,o

0,o

For m a k i n g c o r r e c t i o n s i n t h e m e a s u r e d d i s t a n c e s f o r t h e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e , w e can use Table 3.1.

The l o c a t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d b y m e a n s o f a i r c r a f t r a d a r and d i r e c t l y i n s t a g e s of orthodromic c o o r d i n a t e s . T o d o t h i s , t h e s c a l e o f b e a r i n g s on t h e i n d i c a t o r m u s t b e s e t n o t t o t h e c o u r s e of t h e a i r c r a f t , b u t t o t h e l e a d a n g l e (LA) o n t h e course of t h e a i r c r a f t r e l a t i v e t o a g i v e n orthodromic path a n g l e o f f l i g h t or d r i f t a n g l e . The s i g h t i n g d e v i c e c a n t h e n b e u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e p a t h For e x a m p l e , w i t h LA = y-JI = - l o o , b e a r i n g o f t h e l a n d m a r k (PBL). t h e b e a r i n g s c a l e must b e s e t t o 350 o p p o s i t e t h e c o u r s e m a r k i n g ; w i t h a c o u r s e a n g l e o f 4 0 , t h e p a t h b e a r i n g o f t h e l a n d m a r k (PBL) w i l l b e e q u a l t o 30; w i t h a n e g a t i v e d r i f t a n g l e , a n d t h e r e f o r e a p o s i t i v e l e a d a n g l e , s u c h a s l o o , e . g . , t h e b e a r i n g s c a l e must b e s e t t o loo o p p o s i t e t h e c o u r s e m a r k i n g . Knowing t h e p a t h b e a r i n g a n d t h e d i s t a n c e t o a l a n d m a r k ( R ) , w e can v e r y s i m p l y d e t e r m i n e t h e o r t h o d r o m i c c o o r d i n a t e s o f t h e aircraft:

/ 316

330

X = X

RcosPBL = X

2 = 2

1 RsinPBL.

Rsin(9OO-PBL);

These formulas are d i f f e r e n t from ( 1 . 7 1 ) and ( 1 . 7 1 a ) only i n t h e s i g n o f t h e s e c o n d t e r m s on t h e r i g h t - h a n d s i d e . This is explained b y t h e f a c t t h a t when w e a r e u s i n g g o n i o m e t r i c - r a n g e f i n d i n g s y s t e m s , t h e d i r e c t i o n i s reckoned from a ground beacon t o t h e a i r c r a f t , w h i l e i n t h i s case i t i s r e c k o n e d from t h e a i r c r a f t t o a ground landmark.

Example. The r a d a r l a n d m a r k h a s o r t h o d r o m i c c o o r d i n a t e s X1 = 2 5 0 km; 2 1 = 8 0 km a n d i s o b s e r v e d w i t h a p a t h b e a r i n g o f 40

a s a d i s t a n c e o f 1 2 5 km. and 2 . Find t h e coordinates of t h e aircraft

Solution:
X = 250 - 125~sin50" 250- 96 = 156 K A . =
Z=80-~25*~0~40~=80-82=--!2~~~.

T h u s we h a v e f o u n d t h a t t h e a i r c r a f t i s l o c a t e d a t a d i s t a n c e o f 1 5 6 km f r o m t h e l a s t P B L , 2 km t o t h e l e f t o f t h e L G F , w i t h o u t r e s o r t i n g t o a p l o t t i n g o f t h e b e a r i n g s on t h e f l i g h t c h a r t .

0
@

40"
82

96

V 125

I n s o l v i n g t h i s problem, it i s very convenient t o use t h e cal culating navigational slide rule.

Fig. 3.44. Determination of Orthodromic Coordinates of a n A i r c r a f t on t h e N L - 1 O M .

To d o t h i s , t h e t r i a n g u l a r i n d e x on s c a l e 4 i s s e t t o t h e d i s t a n c e of t h e landmark a l o n g scale 5. The s l i d e r i n d i c a t o r i s t h e n s e t on s c a l e 3 t o t h e mark i n g which corresponds t o 90 -PBL and P B L , w h i l e t h e v a l u e s R s i n ( 9 0 - P B L ) and R s i n P B L a r e s e t on s c a l e 5 ( F i g . 3 . 4 4 ) .

A f t e r t h i s , t h e r e remains only t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of these values from t h e c o o r d i n a t e s of t h e landmark and t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e aircraft coordinates.

T h e p r o b l e m i s c o n s i d e r a b l y s i m p l i f i e d when t h e p a t h b e a r i n g of t h e landmark i s e q u a l t o 90 ( f l i g h t o v e r t h e t r a v e r s e of t h e landmark). Then

I t should be mentioned t h a t t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e a i r c r a f t c o o r d i n a t e s when f l y i n g o v e r t h e t r a v e r s e o f a l a n d m a r k i s a d v a n t a g e o u s , s i n c e i n t h i s case t h e e r r o r s i n measuring t h e p a t h b e a r i n g o f t h e l a n d m a r k h a v e a b s o l u t e l y n o e f f e c t on t h e a c c u r a c y o f d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e l a t e r a l d e v i a t i o n of t h e a i r c r a f t f r o m t h e

/317

331

l i n e of f l i g h t . This is very u s e f u l f o r monitoring t h e path i n t e r m s o f d i r e c t i o n a n d c o r r e c t i n g t h e c o u r s e o f t h e a i r c r a f t by u s i n g a u t o n o m o u s D o p p l e r m e a s u r e m e n t s of t h e g r o u n d s p e e d a n d d r i f t angle. T h i s m e t h o d o f d e t e r m i n i n g t h e o r t h o d r o m i c c o o r d i n a t e s of a n In this aircraft is a l s o suitable f o r use with sector-type radars. c a s e , t h e p a t h b e a r i n g o f t h e landmark i s d e t e r m i n e d by t h e f o r m u l a

PBL = C A L

LA.

T h i s p r o b l e m c a n t h e n b e s o l v e d i n t h e same way a s f o r c i r c ular-screen radars. However , on s e c t o r - t y p e s c r e e n s as a r u l e , it i s n o t possible t o determine t h e markings of t h e t r a v e r s e of f l i g h t s over landmarks. Therefore, f o r an accurate c o n t r o l of t h e path, taking i n t o account t h e reduced accuracy of d i r e c t i o n finding, due t o t h e l a c k o f s i g h t i n g l i n e s , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o image t h e landmarks a t c o u r s e a n g l e s which a r e as l a r g e as p o s s i b l e . The g r o u n d s p e e d o f t h e a i r c r a f t a n d d r i f t a n g l e c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d m o s t e a s i l y w i t h t h e a i d of a i r c r a f t r a d a r by u s i n g s u c c e s s i v e m e a s u r e m e n t s o f t h e L A , ( l o c u s of t h e a i r c r a f t ) , e s p e c i a l l y i n o r t h o d r o m i c c o o r d i n a t e s , when i t i s n o t n e c e s s a r y t o p l o t t h e l o c u s o f The e s s e n c e o f t h i s met h o d h a s b e e n d e t h e a i r c r a f t on a c h a r t . s c r i b e d above. However, t h e method u s e d f o r m e a s u r i n g t h e g r o u n d s p e e d o n t h e b a s i s o f s u c c e s s i v e m e a s u r e m e n t s of t h e l o c u s o f t h e a i r c r a f t , i s i n s u f f i c i e n t l y p r a c t i c a l f o r measurements of t h e d r i f t The f a c t i s t h a t f o r a n a c c u r a t e m e a s u r e angle of an a i r c r a f t . m e n t t o b e made a l o n g a g i v e n p a t h , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o d e t e r m i n e t h e d r i f t a n g l e q u i t e f r e q u e n t l y a n d r a p i d l y , s o t h a t t h e method of s u c c e s s i v e measurements of t h e l o c u s of t h e a i r c r a f t r e q u i r e s a l a r g e b a s e for m e a s u r e m e n t s . I n some c a s e s , i t i s a d v i s a b l e t o u s e o t h e r m e t h o d s f o r d e t e r mining t h e ground speed ( e . g . , i f v i s u a l p o i n t s l i e i n t h e f i e l d o f v i s i o n of t h e r a d a r which do n o t a l l o w t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t t o b e d e t e r m i n e d ) s i n c e t h e y do n o t a p p e a r on t h e c h a r t . How e v e r , t h e y a r e s u i t a b l e f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e d r i f t a n g l e and t h e g r o u n d s p e e d by v i s u a l methods. T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l methods o f d e t e r m i n i n g t h e d r i f t a n g l e and t h e g r o u n d s p e e d by v i s u a l means. L e t u s d i s c u s s s e v e r a l of them which a r e most o f t e n employed:

1. Measurement o f t h e d r i f t a n g l e o f an a i r c r a f t on t h e b a s i s o f t h e secondary Doppler e f f e c t . The d i r e c t i o n a l i t y o f t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of r a d i a t i o n from an a i r c r a f t r a d a r i n t h e h o r i z o n t a l p l a n e i s made a s n a r r o w a s p o s s i b l e . The n a r r o w e r t h e beam f o r t h e p r o p a g a t i o n of e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c w a v e s , t h e b e t t e r t h e r e s o l v i n g p o w e r of t h e radar i n a tangential direction (perpendicular t o the radius /318 of t h e scan). However, i n o r d e r t o p r o d u c e a v e r y n a r r o w c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f r a d i a t i o n , w e m u s t u s e a n a n t e n n a r e f l e c t o r on t h e r a d a r which h a s v e r y l a r g e d i m e n s i o n s . Therefore, t h e p r a c t i c a l width o f t h e beam i s 2-3O.
332

The w i d e n i n g o f t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f d i r e c t i o n a l i t y w i t h i n these l i m i t s is undesirable i n principle f o r surveying the terrain, b u t can be used very advantageously f o r measuring t h e d r i f t angle by t h e s o - c a l l e d s e c o n d a r y D o p p l e r e f f e c t . The e s s e n c e o f t h i s method i s t h e f o l l o w i n g .
L e t u s s a y t h a t w e h a v e s t o p p e d t h e r o t a t i o n o f t h e r a d a r an tenna a t a c e r t a i n angle t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e a i r c r a f t ' s motion (Fig. 3.45).

F
L

I n t h e p i c t u r e , w e can see t h e r e f l e c t i o n of t h e electromag n e t i c waves f r o m t h e e l e m e n t a r y a r e a S which w e have s e l e c t e d . The h i g h f r e q u e n c y r e f l e c t e d f r o m t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e , when r e ceived aboard t h e aircraft, w i l l n o t be equal t o t h e frequency r a d i a t e d by t h e r a d a r , b u t w i l l h a v e a c e r t a i n p o s i t i v e or n e g a t i v e f r e quency s h i f t which i s c a l l e d t h e Doppler e f f e c t .

' R

F i g . 3.45. C r e a t i o n of t h e Secondary Doppler E f f e c t .

L e t us a l s o n o t e t h a t t h e Doppler e f f e c t i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e cosine of t h e angle between t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e a i r c r a f t ' s m o t i o n a n d t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e wave p r o p a g a t i o n ( i . e . , f3-a). Angle f3 h e r e r e p r e s e n t s t h e c o u r s e a n g l e o f t h e a n t e n n a p o s i t i o n o f t h e r a d a r , while t h e angle a r e p r e s e n t s t h e d r i f t angle of t h e aircraft.

For t h e s a k e o f s i m p l i c i t y , l e t u s c o n s i d e r t h e D o p p l e r e f f e c t o n l y f o r t w o e x t r e m e l i m i t s o f t h e b e a m w i t h a common c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f r a d i a t i o n d i r e c t i o n a l i t y , t h e l e f t - h a n d beam i s m a r k e d L a n d t h e r i g h t - h a n d beam R i n o u r d i a g r a m .

The s o l u t i o n o f t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c w i l l b e r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e angle 6 , so t h a t

f D R -cos(P-u+-

') ',

where f D

i s t h e Doppler frequency.

T h u s , w e s e e t h a t t h e D o p p l e r e f f e c t on t h e l e f t - h a n d e d g e o f t h e beam i s g r e a t e r t h a n on t h e r i g h t - h a n d s i d e , s o t h a t t h e frequency r e c e i v e d by t h e a n t e n n a from t h e l e f t - h a n d s i d e of t h e beam w i l l b e s o m e w h a t h i g h e r t h a n t h a t f r o m t h e r i g h t . The f r e q u e n c i e s o f t h e l e f t ( L ) a n d r i g h t ( R ) b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e beam w i l l b e c o m b i n e d i n t h e r e c e i v e r a n d p r o d u c e a n i n t e r m e d i a t e 333

f r e q u e n c y as f o l l o w s

/319

which w i l l amount t o a m p l i t u d e m o d u l a t i o n o f t h e r e c e i v e d s i g n a l . Now l e t u s s a y t h a t t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e a n t e n n a c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e d i r e c t i o n i n w h i c h t h e a i r c r a f t i s m o v i n g , i . e . , B=a. Then t h e D o p p l e r f r e q u e n c i e s o f t h e l e f t a n d r i g h t s i d e s o f t h e beam w i l l be uniform i n value and p r o p o r t i o n a l according t o t h e cosines
6/2:

fDL

8 - +cos -;

fDR--c0s-

2 .

a n d t h e a m p l i t u d e m o d u l a t i o n f r o m t h e e d g e s o f t h e beam w i l l b e absent. I n a c t u a l i t y , t h e r e w i l l be a very low-frequency amplitude m o d u l a t i o n owing t o t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e D o p p l e r f r e q u e n c i e s of t h e e d g e s o f t h e beam r e l a t i v e t o t h e e f f e c t o f t h e c e n t e r o f t h e beam ( t h e b i s e c t r i x o f t h e r a d i a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c ) , b u t d u e t o t h e very s m a l l d i f f e r e n c e between t h e c o s i n e s of t h e a n g l e s , t h e b e a t f r e q u e n c y w i l l b e v e r y low ( e x p r e s s e d i n H e r t z ) , w h i l e t h e v i s u a l e f f e c t o f t h e b e a t i s maximum. With c i r c u l a r r o t a t i o n o f t h e a n t e n n a , t h e b e a t i n g o f t h e f r e quencies is n o t n o t i c e a b l e t o t h e e y e , s i n c e each of t h e luminous p o i n t s i s r a p i d l y c r o s s e d b y t h e s c a n n i n g beam a n d a p p e a r s on t h i s s c r e e n as an i n d i v i d u a l p o i n t w i t h s u b s e q u e n t a f t e r g l o w . A s l i g h t impression remains of t h e secondary Doppler e f f e c t i n a f i x e d a n t e n n a , when i t s d i r e c t i o n d i f f e r s c o n s i d e r a b l y f r o m t h e d i r e c t i o n i n which t h e a i r c r a f t i s moving, s i n c e t h e f l i c k e r i n g of t h e p o i n t s i n t h i s c a s e t a k e s p l a c e a t h i g h f r e q u e n c i e s and i s b l u r r e d by t h e a f t e r g l o w on t h e s c r e e n . If t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e a n t e n n a s l o w l y a p p r o a c h e s t h e d i r e c t i o n i n which t h e a i r c r a f t i s moving, t h e luminous p o i n t s a l l b e g i n t o f l a s h a t a reduced frequency and increased amplitude. A slow b u t b r i g h t f l a s h i n g o f t h e l u m i n o u s p o i n t s on t h e s c r e e n i n d i c a t e s a c o i n c i d e n c e of t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e a n t e n n a w i t h t h e d i r e c t i o n The d r i f t a n g l e o f t h e a i r c r a f t i n which t h e a i r c r a f t i s moving. i s d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e s c a n n i n g l i n e s on t h e s c r e e n w i t h naximum s e c o n d a r y D o p p l e r e f f e c t . Measurement i s performed b e s t o f a l l w i t h a l a r g e - s c a l e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e r a d a r ( 2 0 km f o r t h e s c r e e n r a d i u s ) , u s i n g a s c a n n i n g d e l a y o f 2 0 km. I t i s t h e n necessary t o make a corresponding ampli f i c a t i o n i n t h e r e c e i v e r for t h e common a m p l i f i c a t i o n c h a n n e l , i n b o t h t h e h i g h a n d low s i g n a l l e v e l s , a s w e l l as t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g i n c l i n a t i o n of t h e antenna.
334

One a d v a n t a g e o f t h e m e t h o d o f d e t e r m i n i n g t h e d r i f t a n g l e of t h e a i r c r a f t according t o t h e secondary Doppler effect i s i t s high accuracy. With a l i t t l e e x p e r i e n c e i n s e l e c t i n g t h e r e c e i v e r a m p l i f i c a t i o n and t h e a n g l e f o r t i l t i n g t h e a n t e n n a , measurements c a n b e made l i t e r a l l y w i t h i n s e v e r a l s e c o n d s . S e v e r a l t y p e s o f s e c t o r - t y p e r a d a r s have a s p e c i a l o p e r a t i n g regime and an a d d i t i o n a l i n d i c a t o r f o r measuring t h e d r i f t a n g l e according t o t h e secondary Doppler e f f e c t .
0

/320

2. Measurement o f t h e d r i f t angle and ground speed by s i g h t i n g p o i n t s near t h e course. If a c l e a r l y v i s i b l e point is located near the line o f f l i g h t of t h e a i r c r a f t on t h e r a d a r s c r e e n , t h e ground speed and t h e d r i f t a n g l e of t h e a i r c r a f t can be measured by t h e movement o f t h i s p o i n t .
To a v o i d g r o s s e r r o r s i n measurement due t o a l t i t u d e e r r o r s , t h e s i g h t i n g of t h e p o i n t s m u s t b e made a t d i s t a n c e s f r o m 6 0 t o 30 km. A t t h e moment when t h e p o i n t b e i n g o b s e r v e d c r o s s e s t h e 6 0 km m a r k i n g , t h e timer i s switched on. The b e a r i n g s c a l e of t h e r a d a r i s t h e n t h e c o u r s e i n d i c a t i o n , and t h e is located along its parallel c r o s s e s t h e 30 km m a r k i n g , t h e t t i m e of t h e b a s e i s c a l c u l a t e d .

Fig. 3.46. Change i n t h e D r i f t A n g l e a n d Ground S p e e d o f a P o i n t Near t h e C o u r s e I n d i c a t o r on a R a d a r S c r e e n .

set with the zero division opposite s i g h t i s moved s o t h a t t h e l a n d m a r k lines (Fig. 3.46). When t h e o b j e c t t i m e r i s switched off and t h e f l i g h

The d r i f t a n g l e i s c a l c u l a t e d d i r e c t l y f r o m t h e b e a r i n g s c a l e , w i t h n e g a t i v e d r i f t a n g l e s b e i n g c a l c u l a t e d a s a d d e d t o 360O. To determine t h e ground speed, t h e c o r r e c t i o n f o r f l i g h t a l t i t u d e f o r a d i s t a n c e o f 30 km i s a d d e d t o t h e l e n g t h o f t h e b a s e , t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t t h e c o r r e c t i o n f o r a d i s t a n c e o f 6 0 km a s e q u a l t o z e r o . T h u s , a t f l i g h t a l t i t u d e s o f 8 - 1 0 km, t h e l e n g t h o f t h e b a s e t u r n s out t o be equal t o :

A t a h e i g h t of 8 km, 30.5 a h e i g h t o f 1 0 km, 3 1 . 5 km.

km;

a t a h e i g h t o f 9 km,

3 1 km;

at

The g r o u n d s p e e d i s d e t e r m i n e d b y means o f r u l e (Fig. 3.47, a ) .

a navigational slide

L e t u s s a y t h a t a t a f l i g h t a l t i t u d e o f 1 0 km t h e t i m e r e q u i r e d t o f l y a l o n g t h e b a s e b e t w e e n t h e 60 a n d 30 km m a r k i n g s i s 2 m i n The g r o u n d s p e e d i n t h i s case i s 840 and 1 5 sec ( F i g . 3.47, b ) . km/hr.

335

T h i s method can b e used w i t h s u f f i c i e n t a c c u r a c y f o r measuring The a c c u r a c y of d e t e r m i n a t i o n t h e d r i f t angle of t h e aircraft. o f t h e g r o u n d s p e e d i s o b t a i n e d w i t h a low a n d t h e r e f o r e v e r y s m a l l /321 measurement b a s e . Thus, e . g . , a t an a i r s p e e d o f 900 km/hr, t h e e r r o r i n m e a s u r i n g t h e f l i g h t t i m e on t h e b a s e ( w h i c h amounts t o 4 s e c ) produces an e r r o r i n measuring t h e ground speed of about 30 k m / h r . I n a d d i t i o n , a t l a r g e d r i f t a n g l e s , when t h e v e c t o r o f t h e motion of t h e t a r g e t p o i n t does n o t agree with t h e r a d i u s of t h e s c r e e n , e r r o r s a r i s e i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e measurement b a s e from t h e d i s t a n c e m a r k i n g s on t h e s c r e e n .

Fig.

3.47.

F i g . 3.47. D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f Ground Speed of a P o i n t Near t h e Course I n d i c a t o r on a Radar Screen.

F i g . 3.48. D e t e r m i n a t i o n of D r i f t Angle a n d Ground S p e e d b y Means o f a R i g h t Triangle. Fig. 3.48.

3 . Determination of t h e d r i f t angle of t h e a i r c r a ground s p e e d b y means o f a r i g h t t r i a n g l e . T h i s method convenient and p r e c i s e i n comparison t o t h e s i g h t i n g of of a landmark n e a r t h e c o u r s e . I n addition, t h e use of t r i a n g l e method makes i t p o s s i b l e t o s e l e c t more f r e e l y m a r k s on t h e r a d a r s c r e e n i n o r d e r t o t r a c k them.

f t and t h e i s more t h e motion the right t h e land

The b e a r i n g s c a l e o f t h e r a d a r i s s e t t o z e r o o p p o s i t e t h e c o u r s e m a r k i n g , a f t e r which t h e c o u r s e a n g l e of t h e l a n d m a r k i s m e a s u r e d w i t h t h e s i g h t , i t s d i s t a n c e on t h e c i r c u l a r m a r k i n g s i s observed, and t h e timer i s switched on. Leaving t h e s i g h t i n g i n s t r u ment i n a f i x e d p o s i t i o n , t h e o p e r a t o r o b s e r v e s t h e m o t i o n o f t h e A t t h e moment w h e n i t c r o s s e s t h e p e r landmark a c r o s s t h e s c r e e n . p e n d i c u l a r l i n e on t h e s i g h t ( F i g . 3 . 4 8 ) , t h e t i m e r i s s w i t c h e d o f f , t h e d i s t a n c e t o t h e landmark i s d e t e r m i n e d by t h e c i r c u l a r markings, and t h e f l i g h t t i m e along t h e b a s e i s c a l c u l a t e d . C o r r e c t i o n s a r e t h e n made i n t h e f i r s t a n d s e c o n d m e a s u r e m e n t s o f t h e o b l i q u e d i s t a n c e f o r t h e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e ; a n g l e c1 b e t w e e n t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e s i g h t i n g l i n e a n d t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e move ment of t h e landmark i s t h e n d e t e r m i n e d as f o l l o w s :
$a=-,

R
2

and t h e l e n g t h o f t h e measurement b a s e i s :

336

,,.. .

T h i s p r o b l e m i s e a s i l y s o l v e d on a n a v i g a t i o n a l s l i d e r u l e (Fig.
3.49).

/322

F i g . 3.49. Keys f o r D e t e r m i n i n g t h e ( a ) A c u t e An g l e o f t h e T r i a n g l e a n d ( b ) Measurement Base on t h e N L - 1 O M . The d r i f t a n g l e i s d e t e r m i n e d as t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e f i r s t c o u r s e a n g l e o f t h e l a n d m a r k a n d t h e a n g l e c1 ( F i g . 3 . 4 9 , a ) , w h i l e t h e g r o u n d s p e e d i s d e t e r m i n e d a s t h e l e n g t h of t h e b a s e r e l a t i v e t o t h e t i m e required t o cover t h e distance (Fig. 3.49, b ) . a f l i g h t a l t i t u d e o f 1 0 k m , t h e c o u r s e a n g l e of i n i t i a l l y equal t o 8 O a t O D 1 = 6 0 km. The o b l i q u e d i s t a n c e a t t h e moment w h e n t h e l a n d m a r k c r o s s e s t h e t r a n s v e r s e The f l i g h t t i m e a l o n g t h e b a s e w a s l i n e i n t h e s i g h t w a s 2 3 km. 5 min a n d 35 s e c . F i n d t h e d r i f t a n g l e of t h e a i r c r a f t a n d t h e ground speed.
A t

Example.

a l a n d m a r k was

S o l u t i o n . T h e c o r r e c t i o n for t h e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e f o r t h e f i r s t d i s t a n c e w i l l be c o n s i d e r e d as e q u a l t o z e r o . The c o r r e c t i o n f o r t h e s e c o n d d i s t a n c e (OD = 2 3 k m , H = 1 0 km) i s e q u a l t o 3 km, S O t h a t t h e h o r i z o n t a l d i s t a n c e i s HD2 = 2 0 km.

On t h e n a v i g a t i o n a l s l i d e r u l e , w e f i n d t h e a n g l e c1 = 1 8 . 5 O ( F i g . 3 . 5 0 , a ) and t h e l e n g t h of t h e measurement b a s e i s S = 6 0 km ( F i g . 3 . 5 0 , b ) .

Fig.

3.50. angle,

D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f ( a ) t h e Acute Angle o f a T r i ( b ) t h e B a s e a n d ( c ) t h e Ground Speed on t h e NL-1OM.

T h e r e f ore

U S = 8 - 18.5O

= -10.5O.

337

3.50,

The g r o u n d s p e e d ( W ) i s t h e r e f o r e e q u a l t o 830 km/hr c).

(Fig.

4. D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e g r o u n d s p e e d a n d d r i f t a n g l e of a n a i r c r a f t by d o u b l e d i s t a n c e f i n d i n g u s i n g a s i g h t i n g p o i n t w i t h equal oblique distances.

T h i s method i s t h e most p r e c i s e of t h e methods which w e have d i s c u s s e d w h i c h u s e s i g h t i n g of l a n d m a r k s . However, it c a l l s f o r t h e maximum t i m e f o r m e a s u r e m e n t a n d c a l c u l a t i o n . When a h i g h l y v i s i b l e p o i n t s h o w s u p i n t h e f o r w a r d p a r t o f t h e s c r e e n , t h e crew w a i t s u n t i l i t r e a c h e s o n e o f t h e c i r c u l a r A t t h e moment when t h i s p o i n t c r o s s e s d i s t a n c e markings ( F i g . 3.51). t h e d i s t a n c e m a r k i n g , t h e t i m e r i s s w i t c h e d on a n d t h e c o u r s e a n g l e of t h i s p o i n t i s m e a s u r e d . The crew t h e n w a i t s u n t i l t h i s p o i n t m o v e s a c r o s s t h e s c r e e n a n d c r o s s e s t h e same c i r c u l a r d i s t a n c e m a r k i n g a t t h e r e a r cf t h e s c r e e n . A t t h e moment w h e n i t c r o s s e s i t , t h e t i m e r i s s w i t c h e d o f f a n d t h e c o u r s e a n g l e o f t h e p o i n t i s meas u r e d once a g a i n . S i n c e i n t h i s c a s e HD1 = HD2, t h e l i n e o f m o t i o n o f t h e p o i n t ( f r o m A t o B) i s p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e b i s e c t r i x b e t w e e n CALl a n d CAL2, ; . e . , i f t h e p o i n t moves t o t h e r i g h t o f t h e c o u r s e l i n e o f t h e a i r c r a f t , t h e d r i f t l i n e o f t h e a i r c r a f t i s d e t e r m i n e d by .the formula /323

us

= CAL1tCAL2 - 9 0 0 ,
2

a n d if t h e p o i n t moves t o t h e l e f t of t h e c o u r s e l i n e
+

us or

CALltCALp 2

360

us

CAL1tCAL7

2700,

To d e t e r m i n e t h e g r o u n d s p e e d , a c o r r e c t i o n f o r f l i g h t a l t i t u d e i s made i n t h e o b l i q u e d i s t a n c e a t p o i n t s A a n d B a n d t h e l e n g t h of t h e measurement b a s e i s determined by t h e formula

S = 2Rsin

CAL~-CALL

2 the cor

If H D 1 = HD2 e x c e e d s f i v e t i m e s t h e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e , rection f o r a l t i t u d e is considered t o be zero.

Example. H = 1 0 km, HD1 = HD2 = 60 km; CALI = 32O; CAL2 = 152O; t h e f l i g h t t i m e a l o n g t h e b a s e i s 8 min a n d 1 5 s e c . Find t h e d r i f t a n g l e and t h e ground speed.
338

Solution.

us

320+15i" '-90"e + 20; 2 152- 32 S = 2.60 ah--- 120 sin 6 0; 2

'

'

B y u s i n g a n a v i g a t i o n a l s l i d e r u l e , w e can s o l v e t h e l a t t e r e q u a t i o n and f i n d t h e ground speed (Fig. 3.52).

Sg105K-q

wt=765

km /hr

Fig. 3.52. Fig. 3.52. Determination of ( a ) t h e M e a s u r e m e n t B a s e a n d (b) t h e G r o u n d Speed on t h e N L - 1 O M .

CAL
Fig. 3.51.

Fig. 3.51. D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e Ground Speed and D r i f t Angle by Double D i s t a n c e F i n d i n g o f a Landmark a t E q u a l Oblique Distances.

W should mention t h a t i n s o l v i n g problems i n determining t h e e /324 d r i f t a n g l e o f an a i r c r a f t by t h e f o u r methods e n u m e r a t e d a b o v e , t h e b e a r i n g s c a l e o f t h e r a d a r may b e s e t t o t h e a i r c r a f t c o u r s e r a t h e r than zero, e . g . , according t o t h e orthodrome. Then t h e c o u r s e angles i n a l l t h e formulas w i l l b e r e p l a c e d by t h e b e a r i n g s of t h e landmarks, and t h e r e s u l t of t h e s o l u t i o n w i l l n o t be t h e d r i f t a n g l e b u t t h e a c t u a l f l i g h t a n g l e of t h e a i r c r a f t .

Autonomous

Doppler Meters f o r D r i f t A n g l e and G r o u n d S p e e d

Autonomous m e t e r s f o r g r o u n d s p e e d a n d d r i f t a n g l e o f a n a i r c r a f t , b a s e d on t h e D o p p l e r e f f e c t , o f f e r b r o a d p e r s p e c t i v e s f o r automation of t h e processes of aircraft navigation and p i l o t a g e of aircraft.

i
F i g . 3.53. D i a g r a m of F o r m a t i o n o f D o p p l e r F r e q u e n c y With a Moving O b j e c t . 339

Continuous measurement of t h e motion p a r a m e t e r s of a n a i r c r a f t makes i t p o s s i b l e t o use simple i n t e g r a t i n g devices f o r a p r e c i s e In addition, automatic c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e aircraft path i n t i m e . a c o n s t a n t knowledge o f t h e s e p a r a m e t e r s makes i t p o s s i b l e t o r e g u l a t e t h e m i n s u c h a way t h a t t h e a i r c r a f t f o l l o w s a g i v e n f l i g h t t r a j e c t o r y w i t h a minimum n u m b e r o f d e v i a t i o n s .

A l l o t h e r r a d i o d e v i c e s f o r a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n make i t p o s s i b l e The m o t i o n p a r a m e t e r s t o determine only t h e locus of t h e aircraft. o f a n a i r c r a f t c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d o n l y d i s c r e t e l y or i n d i v i d u a l path segments , using t h e n a v i g a t i o n a l devices described above.
A s w e p o i n t e d o u t a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f C h a p t e r One, t h e f l i g h t regimes of an aircraft are almost never s t a b l e , with t h e exception A strictly o f t h e e n d p o i n t s of c u r v e s a l o n g s e p a r a t e p a r a m e t e r s . s t a b l e f l i g h t regime f o r a l l parameters simultaneously is never encountered. T h e r e f o r e , a u t o m a t i c or s e m i - a u t o m a t i c c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e p a t h on t h e b a s i s o f m o t i o n p a r a m e t e r s m e a s u r e d o v e r i n d i v i d u a l segments i s a v e r y approximate and u n r e l i a b l e method.

The o p e r a t i n g p r i n c i p l e of

Doppler meters is t h e following.

L e t u s s a y t h a t w e h a v e a moving s o u r c e of e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c o s c i l l a t i o n s a t a h i g h f r e q u e n c y A and a f i x e d o b j e c t B which r e f l e c t s these o s c i l l a t i o n s (Fig. 3.53).

If t h e s o u r c e A r e m a i n s f i x e d r e l a t i v e t o o b j e c t B y t h e n a f t e r a p e r i o d o f t i m e which i s r e q u i r e d f o r t h e e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c waves t o t r a v e l from p o i n t A t o p o i n t B , e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c o s c i l l a t i o n s w i l l b e s e t u p i n t h e l a t t e r a t t h e same f r e q u e n c y a s t h o s e e m i t t e d by t h e s o u r c e .
/325

When t h e s o u r c e o f o s c i l l a t i o n s m o v e s t o w a r d p o i n t B , e a c h s u c c e s s i v e c y c l e o f o s c i l l a t i o n s i s e m i t t e d somewhat c l o s e r t o t h i s p o i n t ; i t s p r o p a g a t i o n t i m e t o r e a c h p o i n t B i s somewhat l e s s t h a n i n t h e p r e c e d i n g c y c l e , s o t h a t t h e moments a t w h i c h t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s a r r i v e a t p o i n t B can b e compared.

L e t us c a l l t h e wavelength of t h e source With a t i o n r a t e of e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c waves e . f r e q u e n c y o f t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s (f) b o t h a t t h e a n d a t t h e p o i n t of r e f l e c t i o n o f t h e w av es w

A , and t h e propaga fixed source, the p o i n t of emission i l l be equal t o

f = , .

e
With a movable s o u r c e , t h e number o f o s c i l l a t i o n s r e a c h i n g p o i n t B p e r u n i t t i m e i s i n c r e a s e d by t h e number of w a v e l e n g t h s c o n t a i n e d i n t h e d i s t a n c e c o v e r e d b y t h e a i r c r a f t i n t h a t same u n i t time, i.e., c c w I=---+ w
A

+Tr

340

The i n c r e a s e i n t h e f r e q u e n c y W / X , p r o d u c e d by t h e m o t i o n o f t h e s o u r c e , i s c a l l e d t h e Doppler frequency (fD). S i m i l a r l y , t h e o s c i l l a t i o n frequency a t t h e p o i n t of reflec t i o n w i l l d e c r e a s e i f t h e s o u r c e r e c e d e s from t h e r e f l e c t i o n p o i n t f o r t h e e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c waves. D o p p l e r m e t e r s w o r k o n t h e same p r i n c i p l e o f s i g n a l t r a n s m i s s i o n as a i r c r a f t r a d a r s , i . e . , f r e q u e n c i e s a r e r e c e i v e d t h a t h a v e b e e n e m i t t e d by a i r c r a f t s o u r c e s a f t e r t h e i r r e f l e c t i o n from t h e Earth's surface. Therefore , a double Doppler frequency i s r e c e i v e d which a r i s e s a l o n g t h e p a t h o f e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c waves, from t h e a i r c r a f t t o t h e r e f l e c t i n g s u r f a c e and a l o n g t h e r e v e r s e r o u t e from t h e r e f l e c t i n g s u r f a c e b a c k t o t h e a p p r o a c h i n g or r e c e d i n g a i r c r a f t T h e r e a r e t h r e e ways o f s e p a r a t i n g t h e D o p p l e r f r e q u e n c y i n receiving s i g n a l s aboard an aircraft:

(1) T h e i n t e r n a l c o h e r e n c e o f t h e s i g n a l s , w h e n t h e r e c e i v e d f r e q u e n c y i s combined w i t h i n t h e r e c e i v e r w i t h a f r e q u e n c y r a d i a t e d by t h e s o u r c e , a s a r e s u l t o f w h i c h t h e r e i s a b e a t i n g o f t h e double Doppler frequency;

(2) E x t e r n a l c o h e r e n c e , when t h e r e c e i v i n g a n t e n n a p i c k s u p s i g n a l s which have b e e n r e f l e c t e d from t h e ground as w e l l as s i g n a l s r a d i a t e d b y t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g a n t e n n a t h r o u g h t h e e x t e r n a l med ium ;
(3) Autocoherence of t h e s i g n a l s ; i n t h i s case, t h e frequen/326 c i e s of s i g n a l s r e f l e c t e d from t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e i n t h e forward and backward r a d i a t i o n o f t h e r e c e i v i n g - t r a n s m i t t i n g a n t e n n a a r e combined i n t h e r e c e i v e r w i t h o u t t h e f r e q u e n c y r a d i a t e d by t h e a n t e n n a . S i n c e t h e o s c i l l a t i o n f r e q u e n c y i s i n c r e a s e d by 2 f D r e l a t i v e t o t h e p r e c e d i n g beam, a n d d e c r e a s e d by t h e same v a l u e f o r t h e f o l l o w i n g b e a m , t h e b e a t f r e q u e n c y w i l l b e e q u a l t o f o u r t i m e s t h e Dop p l e r frequency.
I f we a g r e e t o c a l l t h e D o p p l e r f r e q u e n c y t h e b e a t f r e q u e n c y s e p a r a t e d i n t h e r e c e i v e r as a r e s u l t o f s u p e r p o s i t i o n o f t h e s i g n a l s , t h e n f o r t h e cases o f i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l c o h e r e n c e w e w i l l have

and f o r t h e case o f

autocoherence w e w i l l have:

I n p r i n c i p l e , Doppler meters w i t h i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l coher e n c e c a n b e made w i t h a s i n g l e - b e a m a n t e n n a , b u t w i t h a u t o c o h e r e n c e a minimum o f t w o b e a m s i s r e q u i r e d . I n p r a c t i c e , as w e w i l l s e e l a t e r o n , i t i s c o n v e n i e n t t o u s e a n t e n n a s w i t h t h r e e or f o u r beams. R e c e n t l y , t h e most w i d e l y employed t y p e i s t h e Doppler meter w i t h four-beam a n t e n n a s .

341

Since t h e characteristics o f d i r e c t i o n a l i t y of t h e a n t e n n a s o f D o p p l e r meters i n t h e g e n e r a l case do n o t c o i n c i d e w i t h t h e v e c t o r of t h e ground speed of t h e aircraft, it is necessary t o c o n s i d e r t h e ' a c t u a l Doppler frequencies separated i n the receivers. Usually, the slope of t h e a n t e n n a beams o f t h e meter i s s e l e c t e d s o t h a t t h e areas o f t h e i r r e f l e c t i o n from t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e are n o t t o o f a r from t h e a i r c r a f t , i . e . , t h e power o f t h e t r a n s m i t t e r i s used most e f f e c t i v e l y . The s l o p e a n g l e o f t h e beam r e l a t i v e t o the horizontal plane is called t h e angle 8 (Fig. 3.54).

Fig. 3.54. Projection of the Ground-Speed V e c t o r on t h e Direction of t h e Radiation of E l e c t r o m a g n e t i c Waves.

O b v i o u s l y , w h e n t h e beam i s i n c l i n e d r e l a t i v e t o t h e p l a n e of t h e horizon, t h e Doppler frequency w i l l b e p r o p o r t i o n a l not t o t h e modulus of t h e g r o u n d s p e e d v e c t o r , b u t t o i t s p r o j e c t i o n i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e a n t e n n a beam. For example, f o r a meter with i n t e r n a l coherence,

On t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e g r o u n d s p e e d v e c t o r o f t h e a i r c r a f t can b e d i v i d e d i n t o two v e c t o r components:

.I327

T h e v e c t o r WlW i s d i r e c t e d p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e a n t e n n a b e a m , The v e c t o r and t h e r e f o r e t h e Doppler e f f e c t i s n o t produced.

O W ]= owcos
is effective.
I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e a n t e n n a beam i s s e t a t a c e r t a i n a n g l e t o t h e v e r t i c a l p l a n e , t h e a n t e n n a beam i s u s u a l l y d i r e c t e d at a c e r t a i n angle t o t h e longitudinal a x i s of t h e aircraft i n t h e horizontal plane. For example, w i t h a four-beam a n t e n n a , t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l a x i s of t h e a i r c r a f t i s t h e b i s e c t r i x of t h e a n g l e s betweeh t h e d i r e c t i o n s o f t h e f o r w a r d a n d r e a r beams o f t h e a n t e n n a ( F i g . 3.55). The a n g l e b e t w e e n t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l a x i s o f t h e a i r c r a f t a n d t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e a n t e n n a beam i n t h e h o r i z o n t a l p l a n e i s called the angle 8 . Hence, i n r e c e i v e r s w i t h i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l c o h e r e n c e , t h e separated Doppler frequency

342

I I II11111 I I I I

where a i s t h e d r i f t a n g l e o f t h e aircraft.

I n t h e s p e c i a l case where t h e d r i f t a n g l e o f t h e a i r c r a f t i s ab s e n t , t h e Doppler frequency f o r e a c h a n t e n n a b e a m w i l l b e t h e same:

Fig. 3.55. Diagram o f t h e

P o s i t i o n s o f t h e B e a m s from a n Antenna on a D o p p l e r Meter.

Three- and four-beam a n t e n n a s

a r e d e s i r a b l e b e c a u s e t h e y make
it p o s s i b l e t o compensate a u t o m a t i c a l l y
f o r e r r o r s i n measurements which a r i s e with l o n g i t u d i n a l and t r a n s

verse r o l l i n g of t h e aircraft.
A t t h e same t i m e , i n c a s e s when s i n g l e b e a m or t w o - b e a m a n t e n n a s a r e u s e d , t h e y m u s t b e p l a c e d on g y r o s t a b i l i z i n g d e v i c e s . I n t h e o p p o s i t e c a s e , l o n g i t u d i n a l or t r a n s v e r s e r o l l i n g o f t h e a i r c r a f t w i l l change t h e s l o p e a n g l e of t h e a n t e n n a 0 , t h u s l e a d i n g t o a change i n t h e Doppler f r e q u e n c y .

I n t h e c a s e o f a f o u r - b e a m a n t e n n a , t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l or t r a n s v e r s e r o l l i n g of t h e a i r c r a f t produces a change i n t h e s l o p e a n g l e o f one p a i r o f beams i n a p o s i t i v e d i r e c t i o n a n d c h a n g e s t h e oppo s i t e p a i r i n t h e n e g a t i v e d i r e c t i o n by t h e same m a g n i t u d e . If a n g l e s 8 a r e t h e n l o c a t e d on a n a p p r o x i m a t e l y l i n e a r s e c t i o n o f t h e c o s i n e / 3 2 8 c u r v e , t h e f r e q u e n c y s h i f t o f t h e o p p o s i t e a n t e n n a beams w i l l b e o p p o s i t e i n s i g n b u t a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e same i n m a g n i t u d e , w h i c h c a n a l s o b e u s e d for c o m p e n s a t i n g roll e r r o r s i n t h e s y s t e m ( F i g . 3.56, a ) . a

Fig. 3.56. S h i f t s i n t h e Doppler Frequency with T i l t i n g of t h e System: (a) Change i n t h e C o s i n e s of t h e Angles; ( b ) Frequency S h i f t .
343

For e x a m p l e , i n t t h e Doppler frequency d e c r e a s e s b y t h e same b e a t f r e q u e n c y of one

h e c a s e of r e c e i v e r s w i t h a u t o c o h e r e n c e , when i n c r e a s e s i n t h e f r o n t r i g h t - h a n d beam a n d m a g n i t u d e i n t h e r e a r l e f t - h a n d beam, t h e p a i r w i l l simply be r e t a i n e d .

I n systems w i t h i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l coherence, t u r n i n g of t h e a n t e n n a l e a d s t o d o u b l i n g o f t h e f r e q u e n c y s p e c t r u m o f t h e oppo s i t e beams ( F i g . 3 . 5 6 , b ) . With a h o r i z o n t a l p o s i t i o n o f t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l a n d t r a n s v e r s e a x e s o f t h e a i r c r a f t , t h e D o p p l e r f r e q u e n c y i n t h e f o r w a r d a n d oppo s i t e r e a r beams w i l l b e t h e same. T i l t i n g t h e system s h i f t s t h e f r e q u e n c y s p e c t r u m o f o n e of t h e beams f o r w a r d , a n d t h a t o f t h e However, if w e add up o p p o s i t e b e a m b a c k w a r d t o t h e same e x t e n t . t h e s e f r e q u e n c i e s w i t h t i m e and d i v i d e them by t h e measurement time', t h e average frequency w i l l t u r n out t o be equal t o t h e frequency of t h e h o r i z o n t a l p o s i t i o n of t h e a x i s of t h e a i r c r a f t . Doppler meters which a r e p r e s e n t l y i n u s e c a n b e d i v i d e d i n t o f o u r t y p e s , d e p e n d i n g on t h e r e g i m e of e m i s s i o n a n d r e c e p t i o n o f signals:

1. P u l s e meters. I n t r a n s m i t t e r s , t h e s e meters produce highf r e q u e n c y p u l s e s i n t h e same m a n n e r a s i s d o n e i n a i r c r a f t r a d a r s . Reception of r e f l e c t e d s i g n a l s takes place i n t h e i n t e r v a l s between pulse emission. I n o r d e r t o s e p a r a t e t h e Doppler frequency, autoc o h e r e n c e b y beam p a i r s i s e m p l o y e d .
A s h o r t c o m i n g o f t h i s method i s t h e p r e s e n c e o f "dead" a l t i t u d e s , ; . e . , w h e n t h e r e f l e c t e d s i g n a l s a r r i v e a t t h e moment c o i n /329 c i d i n g with t h e emission of p u l s e s , and n o t i n t h e i n t e r v a l s between them. I n a d d i t i o n , when f l y i n g o v e r m o u n t a i n o u s t e r r a i n , t h e d i s t a n c e t o t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e a c c o r d i n g t o o p p o s i t e beams o f t h e a n t e n n a may n o t b e t h e s a m e , t h u s l e a d i n g t o a f a i l u r e o f t h e a r r i v a l o f r e f l e c t e d s i g n a l s t o c o i n c i d e f o r t h e s e beams a n d p r o d u c i n g a d i s t u r b ance of t h e i r c o h e r e n c e .

Another shortcoming of p u l s e meters i s t h e need f o r high v o l t ages t o d r i v e t h e magnetron i n analyzing t h e high-frequency p u l s e s , t h u s n e c e s s i t a t i n g a hermetic s e a l i n g of t h e t r a n s m i t t e r u n i t s and s u b j e c t i n g them t o a c e r t a i n p r e s s u r e .

2. Meters u s i n g continuous r a d i a t i o n of h i g h frequency. In t h i s c a s e , t h e h i g h f r e q u e n c y i s r a d i a t e d c o n t i n u o u s l y by t h e t r a n s mitter. Reception of s i g n a l s is accomplished with a separate antenna, having a c e r t a i n by-pass c o e f f i c i e n t with t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g antenna.
The r e f l e c t e d s i g n a l s a r e co mb i n ed i n t h e r e c e i v i n g a n t e n n a w i t h t h e f r e q u e n c y p r o d u c e d by t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g a n t e n n a , s o t h a t t h e b e a t frequency i s separated out i n an e x t e r n a l coherence system. The a d v a n t a g e s of t h i s method a r e t h e i n d e p e n d e n c e o f t h e re

344

c e p t i o n c o n d i t i o n s f o r t h e s i g n a l s of f l i g h t a l t i t u d e a n d t h e l o c a l relief. I n a d d i t i o n , d e v i c e s of t h i s t y p e w o rk ed a t r e l a t i v e l y low p o w e r s i n t h e r e c e i v e r m e c h a n is m.
A s h o r t c o m i n g o f t h i s method i s t h e n e e d t o have s e p a r a t e an tennas f o r transmission and r e c e p t i o n of t h e s i g n a l s .

3. Meters w i t h c o n t i n u o u s l y p u l s e d r a d i a t i o n . These meters employ a c o n s t a n t r e g i m e o f g e n e r a t i o n a n d t r a n s m i s s i o n w i t h p u l s e d e m i s s i o n o f a p o r t i o n o f t h e h i g h f r e q u e n c y i n t o t h e a n t e n n a s by means o f c o m m u t a t i n g d e v i c e s . The r e f l e c t e d s i g n a l s a r e combined w i t h t h e f r e q u e n c y d e v e l o p e d by t h e t r a n s m i t t e r i n t h e i n t e r v a l s b e t w e e n t h e moments when t h e h i g h - f r e q u e n c y s e g m e n t s a r e e m i t t e d ( i n t e r n a l coherence). T h i s means t h a t i t becomes p o s s i b l e t o u s e p a r t of t h e advantages of continuous emission (operation a t rela t i v e l y low v o l t a g e s i n t h e t r a n s m i t t e r c i r c u i t s ) a n d t h e p u l s e s y s t e m s ( r e c e p t i o n and t r a n s m i s s i o n w i t h a s i n g l e a n t e n n a ) .
However, t h e s h o r t c o m i n g s s t i l l r e m a i n which a f f l i c t p u l s e d meters, i . e . , t h e p r e s e n c e of "dead" a l t i t u d e s and t h e e f f e c t o f t h e r e l i e f on r e c e p t i o n c o n d i t i o n s . In addition, there are also d i f f i c u l t i e s i n u s i n g t h e s e m e t e r s a t low f l i g h t a l t i t u d e s , s i n c e a t a v e r y s h o r t s i g n a l p a t h , t h e moments o f t r a n s m i s s i o n a n d r e c e p t i o n are p r a c t i c a l l y impossible t o separate.

4. Meters w i t h f r e q u e n c y m o d u l a t i o n o f s i g n a l t r a n s m i s s i o n . Frequency modulation of s i g n a l t r a n s m i s s i o n can be used e i t h e r i n a p u l s e d or c o n t i n u o u s - p u l s e d r e g i m e o f o p e r a t i o n f o r t h e m e t e r .

If t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n of h i g h - f r e q u e n c y p u l s e s a t a c o n s t a n t f r e q u e n c y a t low a l t i t u d e s m a k e s i t p o s s i b l e t o s u p e r p o s e t h e moments o f r e c e p t i o n o f s i g n a l s o n t h e m o m e n t s o f e m i s s i o n , w h i l e i n moun/330 t a i n o u s r e g i o n s t h e r e may b e d i s r u p t i o n s i n t h e c o h e r e n c e o f t h e s i g n a l s , when t h e r e i s a c h a n g e i n t h e f r e q u e n c y o f t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f t h e s i g n a l s , and o n l y a p o r t i o n of them w i l l c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h t h e r a d i a t i o n moments. The m a j o r i t y o f s i g n a l s w i l l be r e c e i v e d i n t h e i n t e r v a l s b e t w e e n t h e moments o f e m i s s i o n , s i n c e t h e d u r a t i o n o f t h e i n t e r v a l s i s made s u f f i c i e n t l y To a certain degree, i n g r e a t e r than t h e duration of t h e pulses. t h i s c a s e , t h e e f f e c t o f d i s r u p t i o n o f c o h e r e n c e i s r e d u c e d i n moun tainous regions.

The b e s t p r o p e r t i e s a r e e x h i b i t e d b y c o n t i n u o u s - p u l s e d m e t e r s with frequency modulation of s i g n a l transmission, s i n c e i n t h i s case a l l p o s i t i v e q u a l i t i e s o f t h e c o n t i n u o u s and p u l s e d systems a r e employed. However, t h e s h o r t c o m i n g s of t h e p u l s e d s y s t e m s r e m a i n , i n c l u d i n g d i f f i c u l t y i n making m e a s u r e m e n t s a t v e r y low f l i g h t a l t i tudes.
O f t h e t y p e s o f D o p p l e r meters which w e have d i s c u s s e d , t h e o n e s which a r e c u r r e n t l y u s e d m o s t w i d e l y a r e t h e meters w i t h con t i n u o u s r a d i a t i o n a n d c o n t i n u o u s - p u l s e d m e t e r s w i t h f r e q u e n c y modu l a t i o n of s i g n a l transmission.
345

I..

a.

Fig. 3.57. Doppler-Meter Antenna: ( a ) Waveguide L a t t i c e ; ( b ) Diagram o f B e a m F o r m a t i o n .

I n t h e f i r s t tyj?es of D o p p l e r m e t e r s , b e g i n n i n g w i t h t h e s i n g l e beam v e r s i o n s , r e f l e c t o r - t y p e a n t e n n a s w e r e u s e d w i t h a n i s o s c e l e s directional characteristic. R e c e n t l y , a n t e n n a s of t h e " w a v e g u i d e n e t w o r k " t y p e h a v e come i n t o u s e . The p r i n c i p l e o f o p e r a t i o n of i n g ( F i g . 3.57, a ) . t h e s e antennas i s t h e follow

I m a g i n e a r e c t a n g u l a r l a t t i c e , made u p o f w a v e g u i d e s , t o o n e c o r n e r o f w h i c h a n e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c wave o f h i g h f r e q u e n c y is a p p l i e d . On t h e u p p e r w a l l s o f t h e t r a n s v e r s e w a v e g u i d e i n t h i s l a t t i c e , t h e r e a r e s l o t s f o r e m i s s i o n of wave e n e r g y i n t o s p a c e . The wave e n e r g y , p r o p a g a t e d a l o n g a t r a n s v e r s e w a v e g u i d e , e m e r g e s /331 t h r o u g h t h e s l i t s w i t h a c e r t a i n s h i f t i n t i m e f r o m one s l i t t o t h e n e x t , s o t h a t t h e r e i s a n i n t e r f f e r e n c e of t h e waves e m e r g i n g from t h e s l i t s , as i s t h e case i n s p a c e d a n t e n n a s ( F i g . 3.57, b ) . T h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e r a d i a t i o n maximum a n d t h e i s o p h a s a l l i n e s a r e l o c a t e d a t a n a n g l e t o t h e s u r f a c e of t h e w a v e g u i d e . Since t h e electromagnetic energy propagated along t h e longitud i n a l wave g u i d e r e a c h e s t h e n e x t t r a n s v e r s e w a v e g u i d e a l s o w i t h a s h i f t i n t i m e , a similar picture of interference with a t i l t i n g of t h e i s o p h a s a l l i n e a l s o t a k e s p l a c e a l o n g t h e waveguide l a t t i c e . A s a r e s u l t , an i s o p h a s a l s u r f a c e i s formed above t h e waveguide l a t t i c e , having a s l o p e i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of i t s diagonal toward t h e c o r n e r o p p o s i t e t h e c o r n e r a t which t h e e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c waves C o n s e q u e n t l y , one of t h e beams w i l l b e f o r m e d enter the lattice. along t h e diagonal of t h e antenna. If wave e n e r g y i s a l s o t r a n s m i t t e d f r o m t h e d i a g o n a l l y o p p o s i t e c o r n e r o f t h e l a t t i c e , two o p p o s i t e l y d i r e c t e d a n t e n n a beams can b e formed s i m u l t a n e o u s l y .

346

F l a t , m u l t i - b e a m a n t e n n a s , e s p e c i a l l y when f i x e d i n p o s i t i o n , are v e r y u s e f u l , s i n c e t h e y can b e p l a c e d below t h e r a d i o - t r a n s p a r e n t h o u s i n g f l u s h w i t h t h e s k i n o f t h e a i r c r a f t and do n o t p r o d u c e any a d d i t i o n a l aerodynamic r e s i s t a n c e d u r i n g f l i g h t .

S c h e m a t i c Diagram of t h e O p e r a t i o n of a M e t e r w i t h C o n t i n uous R a d i a t i o n Regime

The h i g h f r e q u e n c y p r o c e s s e d b y t h e t r a n s m i t t e r p a s s e s t h r o u g h a commutation d e v i c e t o t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g a n t e n n a , where t h e beams The f o r p r o p a g a t i o n of e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c waves a r e f o r m e d i n p a i r s . commutating d e v i c e i s connected t o t h e c o u n t e r o f t h e meter, t o s e p a r a t e t h e f r e q u e n c i e s of t h e f i r s t a n d s e c o n d p a i r s o f beams (Fig. 3.58).
A p o r t i o n o f t h e wave e n e r g y r a d i a t e d b y t h e t r a n s m i t t e r r e a c h e s t h e r e c e i v i n g a n t e n n a , where i t i s combined w i t h t h e r e c e i v e d s i g n a l s r e f l e c t e d from t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e , s o t h a t t h e Doppler f r e q u e n c y of t h e g i v e n p a i r of beams c a n b e s e p a r a t e d .

The s e p a r a t e d D o p p l e r f r e q u e n c y , a f t e r a m p l i f i c a t i o n , p a s s e s t o t h e c a l c u l a t i n g d e v i c e , a t whose o u t p u t i s a n i n d i c a t o r f o r t h e ground speed and d r i f t angle of t h e a i r c r a f t .

A s w e a l r e a d y know, f o r t h e four-beam a n t e n n a o f a D o p p l e r m e t e r w i t h i n t e r n a l c o h e r e n c e , t h e s e p a r a t e d f r e q u e n c y by beam p a i r s w i l l be equal to:

(a)

For t h e f i r s t p a i r ,
fDl =

7 cos (p + a); cos0

/332

(b)

For t h e s e c o n d p a i r ,
fD
=

2w
COS 0 COS (p - a).

For a D o p p l e r m e t e r , t h e s i g n o f t h e a n g l e i s n o t i m p o r t a n t , but its absolute value is. T h e r e f o r e , w e c a n s i m p l y assume t h a t with a positive d r i f t angle, t h e d r i f t angle i n t h e right-hand p a i r o f beams w i l l b e c a l c u l a t e d f r o m t h e a n g l e 8 , w h i l e i n t h e l e f t hand p a i r t h e s e a n g l e s w i l l b e added. With a n e g a t i v e d r i f t a n g l e , t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e angles w i l l be performed i n t h e left-hand p a i r o f beams, and combined i n t h e r i g h t . T h e r e f o r e , t h e l a s t two f o r m u l a s g i v e n above can b e w r i t t e n i n t h e form

347

where t h e s i g n shows t h a t t h e f o r m u l a s c h a n g e p l a c e s f o r t h e l e f t a n d r i g h t - h a n d p a i r s o f beams when t h e s i g n o f t h e d r i f t a n g l e changes.

i n d i c a t o r YP receiver .device. r eac en v i n g n n a L - F y n i t e

c o u n t e r X, 2

mitter w

t rn tn s m i t t i n g a a enna

Fig. 3.58. Meter.

F u n c t i o n a l Diagram of A Doppler

Note. S i n c e t h e p a i r s o f beams a r e d i a g o n a l t o t h e wave g u i d e l a t t i c e , a n d e a c h o f t h e m c o n t a i n s a l e f t a n d r i g h t - h a n d beam r e l a t i v e t o t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l a x i s o f t h e a i r c r a f t , t h e l e f t or r i g h t - h a n d p a i r o f beams h e r e i s r e f e r r e d t o a s a p a i r w h o s e l e a d i n g beam i s d i r e c t e d t o t h e l e f t or r i g h t o f t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l a x i s o f t h e a i r craft.

O b v i o u s l y , i n t h e c a s e o f a f i x e d a n t e n n a on t h e a i r c r a f t ( F i g . 3.59), t h e f i r s t problem f o r t h e c a l c u l a t i n g device of t h e Doppler /333 meter i s t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f a n a n g l e a t which c

Since t h e angle 6 i s a c o n s t a n t v a l u e , and t h e f r e q u e n c i e s f D Y are v a r i a b l e , t h e s o l u t i o n of a problem of t h i s kind does n o t fD2 p r e s e n t any s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f i c u l t i e s . The d e s i r e d a n g l e a i s t h e d r i f t angle of t h e aircraft. The s e c o n d p r o b l e m f o r t h e c o m p u t i n g d e v i c e i s t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e g r o u n d s p e e d ( W ) w i t h a p r e v i o u s l y known d r i f t a n g l e

348

and Doppler f r e q u e n c y f o r a p a i r o f beams:

fD,

fD,X

The c a l c u l a t e d d r i f t a n g l e o f t h e a i r c r a f t and t h e ground speed are transmitted t o the visual indicator of t h e s e p a r a m e t e r s a n d a l s o t o t h e automatic navigational device f o r inte g r a t i o n of t h e aircraft path i n t i m e . The p r o b l e m o f t h e c a l c u l a t i n g d e v i c e of t h e D o p p l e r m e t e r i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y s i m p l i f i e d by m o u n t i n g a movable a n t e n n a on t h e a i r c r a f t . In t h i s case, t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e antenna
i s s e t s o t h a t t h e Doppler frequen
c i e s o f b o t h a n t e n n a s fD 1 and b e t h e same, i . e . , t h e b i s e c t r i x o f t h e beams w i l l c o i n c i d e w i t h t h e d i r e c

Fig. 3.59. Differece i n Doppler Frequencies of

t h e Right- and Left-Hand B e a m s of a n Antenna. t i o n of t h e a i r c r a f t motion:

Then t h e d r i f t a n g l e o f t h e a i r c r a f t i s d e t e r m i n e d by t h e c o u r s e a n g l e o f t h e a n t e n n a s e t t i n g , a n d t h e g r o u n d s p e e d i s f o u n d by t h e formula : (a) With i n t e r n a l a n d e x t e r n a l c o h e r e n c e

w=
2

fDX .- . e COS p

(b)

With a u t o c o h e r e r l c e

fDx
W=
4 COS e COS B

T h i s means t h a t a l l c o e f f i c i e n t s e n t e r e d i n t o t h e f o r m u l a s ( w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f fD) a r e c o n s t a n t s w h i l e f D i s a v a r i a b l e q u a n t i t y .
W s h o u l d mention t h a t d u r i n g f l i g h t above t h e ocean, Doppler e f r e q u e n c i e s f r o m p a i r s o f beams i n a D o p p l e r m e t e r a r e somewhat l o w e r t h a n a b o v e d r y l a n d a t t h e same a i r s p e e d s . This is caused by p e c u l i a r f e a t u r e s of t h e r e f l e c t i o n of e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c waves from t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e w a t e r .

/334

I n f l i g h t a b o v e d r y l a n d , i f t h e c o n d i t i o n s for d i f f u s e r e f l e c t i o n o f t h e w a v e s a r e a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e same o v e r a l l a r e a s i n c o n t a c t w i t h t h e E a r t h s s u r f a c e , a n d t h e maximum a m p l i t u d e c o i n c i d e s w i t h

349

I*

I1 I l l

t h e c e n t e r o f t h e beam a t t h e maximum o f t h e r a d i a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , t h e n t h e r e f l e c t i o n c o n d i t i o n s above a watery s u r f a c e w i l l depend t o a c o n s i d e r a b l e e x t e n t upon t h e a n g l e o f i n c i d e n c e of t h e beam. T h e r e f o r e , t h e l e a d i n g e d g e o f t h e beam w i l l h a v e a s h a r p e r a n g l e o f i n c i d e n c e ( a n d t h e r e f o r e a l o w e r s i g n a l amp'litude), w h i l e t h e t r a i l i n g e d g e o f t h e beam w i l l s t r i k e more o b l i q u e l y a n d h a v e somewhat g r e a t e r a m p l i t u d e . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e maximum a m p l i t u d e of t h e s i g n a l s s h i f t s from t h e c e n t e r t o a r e g i o n of lower Doppler frequency (see Fig. 3.54). To c o m p e n s a t e f o r e r r o r s i n t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e m e t e r a b o v e water, t h e c i r c u i t i s designed t o i n c l u d e a c a l i b r a t i o n element w h i c h i s s w i t c h e d on f r o m t h e c o n t r o l p a n e l b y t u r n i n g a s w i t c h from t h e " l a n d " p o s i t i o n t o t h e "sea" p o s i t i o n . Over a smooth w a t e r y s u r f a c e ( w i t h a s w e l l l e s s t h a n a s c a l e v a l u e o f o n e ) , t h e p o t e n t i a l o f t h e r e f l e c t e d s i g n a l s becomes i n a d equate t o ensure o p e r a t i o n of t h e meter, and t h e l a t t e r t h e n i s t u r n e d o f f b y s w i t c h i n g t h e a u t o m a t i c n a v i g a t i o n a l d e v i c e t o memory operation. The c h a n n e l o f t h e D o p p l e r f r e q u e n c y r e c e i v e r i s f i t t e d w i t h a f i l t e r i n t e n d e d t o damp o u t a l l p a r a s i t i c f r e q u e n c i e s p r o d u c e d by o t h e r e l e c t r o n i c d e v i c e s m o u n t e d a b o a r d t h e a i r c r a f t w h i c h c o u l d d i s t u r b r e c e p t i o n of r e f l e c t e d s i g n a l s from t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e . T h e f i l t e r must h a v e a n a r r o w p a s s b a n d w i t h i n t h e r e g i o n o f D o p p l e r frequencies of t h e received s i g n a l s . If t h e f r e q u e n c y o f a c a r e f u l l y a d j u s t e d f i l t e r d i f f e r s c o n s i d e r a b l y from t h e midpoint of t h e r a n g e o f Doppler f r e q u e n c i e s b e i n g employed, it b e g i n s t o i n t r o d u c e e r r o r s i n t h e measurement of t h e Doppler frequency, s h i f t i n g it toward t h e p o i n t o f f i n e t u n i n g Therefore, f i l t e r s a r e used with automatic tuning of t h e f i l t e r . f o r t h e frequency o f t h e s i g n a l s employed.

Use of D o p p l e r M e t e r s f o r P u r p o s e s of A i r c r a f t N a v i g a t i o n
Doppler meters f o r ground speed and d r i f t a n g l e are v e r y effec tive i n aircraft navigation. The f o l l o w i n g p r o b l e m s c a n b e s o l v e d d i r e c t l y by u s i n g a D o p p l e r m e t e r : (a) M a i n t a i n a n c e o f a g i v e n d i r e c t i o n of f l i d r o m e or l o x o d r o m e , a u t o m a t i c a l l y i f d e s i r e d . TO o n l y n e c e s s a r y t h a t t h e sum o f t h e c o u r s e ( y ) a n d of t h e a i r c r a f t b e c o n s t a n t l y e q u a l t o a g i v e n f l i
$ = y t a ;

g h t a l o n g an ortho do t h i s , it i s d r i f t (a> angles /335 g h t path angle ($):

(b) The c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e p a t h o f t h e a i r c r a f t i n t e r m s o f d i s t a n c e c a n b e s o l v e d on t h e b a s i s o f t h e g r o u n d s p e e d and t i m e :

s
350

= Wt.

The r e s u l t s o f s o l v i n g t h e s e p r o b l e m s by u s i n g D o p p l e r m e t e r s a r e much m o r e a c c u r a t e t h a n t h o s e o b t a i n e d w h e n o t h e r t y p e s o f e l e c t r o n i c d e v i c e s a r e u s e d , a n d t h e r e i s l e s s work i n v o l v e d . H o w e v e r , a c c u r a t e a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n r e q u i r e s c o n s t a n t mon i t o r i n g of a l l v a r i a b l e f a c t o r s i n t h e ground speed, d r i f t a n g l e , and a i r c r a f t c o u r s e , which a r e t e d i o u s f o r t h e crew. However, i f we use individual, discrete values f o r calculating t h e d r i f t angle, c o u r s e , a n d g r o u n d s p e e d , ( e . g . , e v e r y 1 5 m i n o f f l i g h t t i m e ) , as i s done w i t h a i r c r a f t r a d a r , one o f t h e b a s i c a d v a n t a g e s o f Doppler meters w i l l b e l o s t : the constant supply of information regard i n g t h e motion parameters of t h e a i r c r a f t . I n view o f t h e a b o v e , as w e l l as t h e r e l a t i v e s i m p l i c i t y o f a u t o m a t i n g a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n on t h e b a s i s o f D o p p l e r m e a s u r e m e n t s , t h e l a t t e r a r e p r a c t i c a l l y i m p o s s i b l e t o u s e w i t h o u t c o m b i n i n g them with automatic navigational instruments. Automatic n a v i g a t i o n a l i n s t r u m e n t s connected t o Doppler meters c a l c u l a t e t h e a i r c r a f t p a t h w i t h t i m e i n a n o r t h o d r o m i c or g e o g r a p h i c system of c o o r d i n a t e s . To c a l c u l a t e t h e p a t h o f t h e a i r c r a f t i n a n o r t h o d r o m i c s y s t e m of coordinates, t h e navigational devices a r e connected t o trans m i t t e r s of t h e o r t h o d r o m i c c o u r s e ( a gyro assembly f o r t h e c o u r s e s y s t e m , o p e r a t i n g i n t h e GSC r e g i m e ) . The a u t o m a t i c s y s t e m i n c l u d e s a t r a n s m i t t e r of t h e f l i g h t a n g l e or ( a s i t i s u s u a l l y c a l l e d ) t h e g i v e n c h a r t a n g l e (GCA)

The s i g n a l s f o r t h e d r i f t a n g l e o f t h e a i r c r a f t , o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e m e t e r , and t h e c o u r s e s i g n a l s o f t h e a i r c r a f t , o b t a i n e d from t h e c o u r s e s y s t e m , a r e c o m b i n e d a n d t h e i r sum c o m p a r e d w i t h a g i v e n path angle fed i n t o t h e transmitter.

I f t h e sum o f t h e c o u r s e a n d t h e d r i f t a n g l e o f t h e a i r c r a f t is e q u a l t o t h e g i v e n p a t h a n g l e of t h e f l i g h t $ = y t a , t h e ground s p e e d i s d i r e c t e d a l o n g t h e X - a x i s : W = W,; W, = 0 .

If t h i s e q u a t i o n i s n o t s a t i s f i e d , s p e e d i s d i v i d e d i n t o two components:

t h e v e c t o r of t h e ground

wx'= w cos (7 + - 49;

W,= Wsin (1 +

- +I/336

The v e c t o r c o m p o n e n t s o b t a i n e d for t h e g r o u n d s p e e d a l o n g t h e axes of t h e c o o r d i n a t e s are i n t e g r a t e d over t i m e and c a l c u l a t o r s a r e u s e d t o f i n d t h e r u n n i n g v a l u e s of t h e a i r c r a f t c o o r d i n a t e s X and 2 . C a l c u l a t i o n of t h e a i r c r a f t p a t h a n d g e o g r a p h i c c o o r d i n a t e s c a n a l s o b e d o n e d i r e c t l y o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e s i g n a l s f r o m t h e Dop However, t o do t h i s i t i s p l e r meter and t h e course c a l c u l a t o r . n e c e s s a r y t o h a v e a n exact knowledge of t h e t r u e c o u r s e of t h e a i r 351

craft and t o express t h e d i v i s i o n of t h e ground-speed t h e aircraft according t o t h e formulas:

vector of

*w
dt

cos (7

+ a);

T o ensure operation of t h e gyroscopic t r a n s m i t t e r i n a regime o f t r u e c o u r s e , i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e moment w h i c h c o m p e n s a t e s for t h e d i u r n a l r o t a t i o n of t h e E a r t h

= 52 sin 'p,

i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o a d d t h e moment w h i c h c o m p e n s a t e s f o r t h e c h a n g e i n t h e t r u e c o u r s e w i t h t i m e d u e t o t h e e a s t e r n or w e s t e r n compo nent of t h e ground-speed v e c t o r of t h e a i r c r a f t :

However, c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e a i r c r a f t c o u r s e b y t h i s s y s t e m c a n n o t b e c o n s i d e r e d a d e q u a t e for t h r e e r e a s o n s :

(1) T h e p a t h d u r i n g f l i g h t w i t h a c o n s t a n t t r u e c o u r s e i s l o x o d r o m i c , b u t t h i s c o m p l i c a t e s t h e p r e p a r a t i o n s a n d makes i t more d i f f i c u l t t o u s e t h e r a d i o - e n g i n e e r i n g and a s t r o n o m i c a l methods There during f l i g h t f o r c o r r e c t i n g t h e coordinates of t h e aircraft. f o r e , i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e m a g n e t i c ( t r u e ) compass on t h e a i r c r a f t , t h e r e must a l s o b e an orthodromic couse d e v i c e .
(2) T h e c o n s t a n t d e p e n d e n c e o f t h e o p e r a t i o n of t h e c o u r s e s y s t e m o n t h e o p e r a t i o n of t h e D o p p l e r m e t e r a n d a c a l c u l a t i n g d e v i c e introduces inaccuracies i n t o t h e aircraft navigational elements. For e x a m p l e , w h e n t h e E a r t h is n o t v i s i b l e , a f l i g h t c a n b e made over dry land; however, i f t h e a i r c r a f t t h e n b e g i n s t o t r a v e l over a smooth w a t e r y s u r f a c e , t h e r e f l e c t e d D o p p l e r s i g n a l s w i l l n o t o n l y i n t r o d u c e e r r o r s i n t o t h e a c c u r a c y w i t h which t h e p a t h i s calcu l a t e d with time, but w i l l a l s o incorporate e r r o r s i n the operation of t h e c o u r s e s y s t e m .

(3) T h e e r r o r s w h i c h a p p e a r i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e a i r c r a f t c o u r s e a t t h e p o i n t s of c o r r e c t i o n o f i t s c o o r d i n a t e s c a n n o t b e u s e d d i r e c t l y f o r c o r r e c t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t c o u r s e , as can e a s i l y be done i n a n o r t h o d r o m i c s y s t e m o f c o o r d i n a t e s .

A more l o g i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e g e o g r a p h i c c o o r d i n a t e s o f t h e a i r c r a f t would i n v o l v e t h e o r t h o d r o m i c s y s t e m of a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n , b a s e d o n a c o n s t a n t c o n v e r s i o n o f t h e o r t h o d r o m i c c o u r s e of t h e a i r c r a f t t o t h e t r u e c o u r s e on t h e b a s i s of t h e r u n n i n g c o o r d i n a t e s of t h e aircraft:

352

where

The t r u e c o u r s e f o r t h e a i r c r a f t o b t a i n e d i n t h i s man n er c a n be u s e d t o c a l c u l a t e t h e g e o g r a p h i c c o o r d i n a t e s o f a n a i r c r a f t as w a s shown e a r l i e r ; i t c a n a l s o b e u s e d f o r c o r r e c t i n g t h e o r t h o dromic c o u r s e by a s t r o n o m i c a l means.

1337 The a d v a n t a g e s o f a m e t h o d o f t h i s k i n d a r e t h e i n d e p e n d e n c e of t h e t r u e c o u r s e f r o m t h e g r o u n d s p e e d a n d i t s a u t o m a t i c c o r r e c t i o n a l o n g w i t h t h e c o r r e c t i o n of t h e a i r c r a f t c o o r d i n a t e s .

However, w e s h o u l d m e n t i o n t h a t t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t course and geographic c o o r d i n a t e s should r e a l l y be r e p l a c e d by a c o n s t a n t c o n v e r s i o n o f t h e r u n n i n g o r t h o d r o m i c c o o r d i n a t e s i n t o g e o g r a p h i c o n e s , e . g . , by F o r m u l a s ( 1 . 6 4 ) a n d ( 1 . 6 5 ) : sin+ = sin+ cose-cosh sine; geog ort ort sinX Jeog
= sinh

ort

cos+

ort

sec+ geog'

I n t h i s c a s e , t h e geographic coordinates w i l l always s t r i c t l y with t h e orthodromic ones, so t h a t t h e r e w i l l be p a r a m e t e r s from o n l y one i n t e g r a t i n g d e v i c e and a u t o m a t i c t i o n i n t h e second system w i t h c o r r e c t i o n of c o o r d i n a t e s i of t h e m .

agree output correc n one

I n g e n e r a l , t h e g e o g r a p h i c c o o r d i n a t e s a r e n o t o f much i n t e r e s t as f a r as a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n i s concerned. However, t h e y a r e i m p o r t a n t for e n s u r i n g a c c u r a t e o p e r a t i o n o f n a v i g a t i o n a l t r a n s m i t t e r s ( l a t i t u d i n a l c o r r e c t i o n of course systems, a n a l y s i s of gyrov e r t i c a l s , r e l i a b l e operation of i n e r t i a l navigational systems, etc.). I n a d d i t i o n , t h e geographic coordinates can be conveniently used i n t h e p r e s e n c e of a s t r o n o m i c a l methods of a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n and f o r i n t r o d u c i n g t h e c o o r d i n a t e s o f r e f e r e n c e p o i n t s i n t o t h e c a l c u l a t i n g device, used f o r c o r r e c t i o n of aircraft coordinates. For purposes of a i r c r a f t navigation, automatic n a v i g a t i o n a l d e v i c e s a r e much m o r e d e p e n d a b l e f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e p a t h o f t h e a i r c r a f t i n orthodromic coordinates. I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e b a s i c r e g i m e o f o p e r a t i o n by s i g n a l s f r o m a Doppler m e t e r , a u t o m a t i c n a v i g a t i o n a l d e v i c e s as a r u l e have an o p e r a t i n g r e g i m e w i t h "memorized" n a v i g a t i o n a l p a r a m e t e r s . T h e r e g i m e f o r o p e r a t i n g b y "memory" one o f t h e f o l l o w i n g two v e r s i o n s . 1. By "memorizing" t h e d r i f t angle o f the a i r c r a f t . can be incorporated i n

l a s t v a l u e s o f t h e g r o u n d speed and I n t h i s v e r s i o n , i n t h e case when

353

t h e r e i s a n i n t e r r u p t i o n i n t h e a r r i v a l o f D o p p l e r s i g n a l s f o r some r e a s o n , ( e . g . , when t h e r e a r e n o w a v e s i n a f l i g h t o v e r w a t e r ) , t h e p a t h c a n b e c a l c u l a t e d b y "memory" f o r a p e r i o d o f 1 5 - 2 0 m i n , only under t h e c o n d i t i o n t h a t t h e f l i g h t d i r e c t i o n and a i r s p e e d have been recorded. With a c h a n g i n g f l i g h t r e g i m e f o r t h e a i r c r a f t , c a l c u l a t i o n b y "memory" l e a d s t o l a r g e e r r o r s , s i n c e t h e g r o u n d s p e e d a n d d r i f t a n g l e c h a n g e o n a new c o u r s e or w i t h a c h a n g e i n other parameters.

2. By " m e m o r i z i n g " w i n d p a r a m e t e r s a t f l i g h t a l t i t u d e . In t h i s v a r i e t y , t h e c a l c u l a t i n g d e v i c e i s p r o v i d e d w i t h s p e c i a l "memory" p o t e n t i o m e t e r s , which c o n s t a n t l y s e t t h e v a l u e o f t h e wind param eters: ux = w c o s (7 a - 4 ) v c o s (7- $);

u,=

Wsin(r+a-+)-

Vsln(r-+).

Then, i f t h e s i g n a l s s h o u l d n o t b e r e c e i v e d from t h e Doppler meter,

t h e p a t h of t h e a i r c r a f t c a n b e c a l c u l a t e d b y c o m p a r i n g t h e v e c t o r
o f t h e w i n d s p e e d a l o n g t h e a x i s of t h e s y s t e m o f c o o r d i n a t e s w i t h -~ /33: t h e wind v e c t o r components added t o i t . If t h e given path angle o f t h e f l i g h t t h e n c h a n g e s , t h e components of t h e wind v e c t o r are r e d i s t r i b u t e d among t h e c o o r d i n a t e a x e s a n d t h e c a l c u l a t i o n r e g i m e is not disturbed. However, i n b o t h t h e f i r s t a n d s e c o n d methods o f "memorizing" n a v i g a t i o n a l p a r a m e t e r s , n o p r o v i s i o n i s made f o r a n e x a c t c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e aircraft path during a long period of t i m e , s i n c e t h e wind p a r a m e t e r s change w i t h d i s t a n c e . I n t h e s e cases, t h e navi g a t i o n a l mechanism i s u s e d f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e p a t h o f t h e a i r c r a f t on t h e b a s i s o f d i s c r e t e d a t a o b t a i n e d b y m e a s u r i n g t h e g r o u n d s p e e d a n d d r i f t a n g l e , e . g . , b y m e a n s o f a a i r c r a f t r a d a r or some o t h e r d e v i c e , a s i s d o n e ( e . g . 1 when u s i n g t h e n a v i g a t i o n a l i n d i c a t o r NI-SOB. I n some t y p e s o f n a v i g a t i o n a l i n s t r u m e n t s , i n e r t i a l or a s t r o i n e r t i a l i n s t r u m e n t s a r e u s e d a s memory d e v i c e s . The p r o b l e m d o e s n o t i n v o l v e a d e t a i l e d s t u d y o f i n e r t i a l n a v i g a t i o n a l d e v i c e s , because t h e l a t t e r have n o t y e t found wide a p p l i cation i n c i v i l aviation. I n a d d i t i o n , t h e problem of t h e a d v i s a b i l i t y o f i n s t a l l i n g them i s s t i l l n o t s u f f i c i e n t l y c l e a r , s i n c e t h e c o n s i d e r a b l e c o m p l e x i t y a n d s t a b i l i t y o f t h e s e i n s t r u m e n t s means t h a t t h e range o f problems which t h e y can s o l v e i s s t i l l extremely narrow. T h e r e f o r e , w e w i l l c o n t e n t o u r s e l v e s with a b r i e f mention of t h e o p e r a t i n g p r i n c i p l e o f t h e s e i n s t r u m e n t s . I n e r t i a l navigational devices are gyrostabilized platforms on which a c c e l e r o m e t e r s a n d s p e c i a l g y r o s c o p e s a r e mounted which i n t e g r a t e t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n s of t h e a i r c r a f t w i t h t i m e a l o n g t h e axes of t h e reference system. I n t h e case when t h e m o t i o n of t h e a i r c r a f t a l o n g o n e or t w o

354

a x e s t a k e s p l a c e w i t h a c c e l e r a t i o n , a moment i s a p p l i e d t o t h e a x e s o f t h e g y r o s c o p e which i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e s e a c c e l e r a t i o n s , s o t h a t precession of t h e gyroscope axes takes place, i.e. , t h e r e i s integration of accelerations with t i m e .
Since
t

w, =
and

cr,(f)dt

w, = 0

az(t)df,

w h e r e ax a n d a , a r e t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n s a l o n g t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g a x e s , we can use t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e gyroscope axes t o g e t an i d e a of t h e components of t h e a i r c r a f t s p e e d a l o n g t h e axes of t h e coord inates. T h e c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e g r o u n d s p e e d a l o n g t h e a x e s of t h e r e f e r e n c e s y s t e m c a n b e i n t e g r a t e d i n t u r n w i t h t i m e by means o f a navigational instrument. I n an o p e r a t i n g Doppler meter, t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e axes of t h e i n t e g r a t i n g g y r o s c o p e s c a n b e c o r r e c t e d by s i g n a l s from t h i s meter. I n t h e c a s e when t h e D o p p l e r i n f o r m a t i o n d o e s n o t a r r i v e , t h e i n e r t i a l device can be used f o r a long period of t i m e t o r e t a i n "remembered" v a l u e s of t h e components o f t h e s p e e d a l o n g t h e a x e s of t h e c o o r d i n a t e s , c o r r e c t i n g t h e m for a n y a c c e l e r a t i o n s t h a t a r i s e i n t h e way o f w i n d c h a n g e s , a s w e l l a s i n c h a n g e s i n t h e f l i g h t regime. A i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n u s i n g Doppler m e t e r s and a u t o m a t i c nav i g a t i o n a l i n s t r u m e n t s becomes e x t r e m e l y s i m p l e and p r a c t i c a l , b u t v e r y c a r e f u l p r e p a r a t i o n s f o r f l i g h t and e x a c t measurements of t h e c o o r d i n a t e s of t h e a i r c r a f t a t t h e c o r r e c t i o n p o i n t s a r e r e q u i r e d . An e x a c t m e a s u r e m e n t o f t h e a i r c r a f t c o u r s e i s e x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t i n t h i s regard. On t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e f a c t t h a t t h e c r e w i s c o n s t a n t l y a w a r e o f t h e g r o u n d s p e e d , t h e d r i f t a n g l e of t h e a i r c r a f t , a n d i t s c o o r d i n a t e s makes i t p o s s i b l e t o m a i n t a i n a g i v e n f l i g h t t r a j e c t o r y f o r long periods of time according t o t h e i n d i c a t i o n s of t h e i n s t r u ments. To d o t h i s , i t i s s u f f i c i e n t t h a t t h e sum o f t h e a i r c r a f t course and t h e d r i f t angle b e c o n s t a n t l y e q u a l t o t h e given path a n g l e , a n d t h a t t h e Z - c o o r d i n a t e of t h e a i r c r a f t b e e q u a l t o z e r o .

/339

I-t i s p a r t i c u l a r l y e a s y t o s o l v e p r o b l e m s i n a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n i f che readings of t h e a i r c r a f t course and t h e d r i f t angle are obtained f r o m t h e i n d i c a t o r i n t h e f o r m of a sum, : . e . , as t h e a c t u a l p a t h a n g l e of t h e a i r c r a f t f l i g h t . It is then sufficient t o p i l o t the aircraft so t h a t with Z equal t o zero, t h e f l i g h t angle w i l l actually be equal t o t h e given one.
355

I n a case when t h e p a t h a n g l e o f t h e f l i g h t i s n o t m a i n t a i n e d p r e c i s e l y and t h e Z-coordinate of t h e a i r c r a f t i s n o t e q u a l t o z e r o , or, i f t h e i m p r o p e r o p e r a t i o n o f a s y s t e m h a s c a u s e d t h e a i r c r a f t t o d e v i a t e from t h e g i v e n f l i g h t p a t h as r e v e a l e d by c o r r e c t i o n o f i t s coordinates, t h e path angle of t h e f l i g h t is set so t h a t t h e aircraft approaches t h e given l i n e of f l i g h t a t an angle of 3-5O. When t h e Z - c o o r d i n a t e d e c r e a s e s t o z e r o , t h e p a t h a n g l e o f t h e f l i g h t becomes e q u a l t o t h e g i v e n v a l u e . The a i r c r a f t c a n b e p l a c e d on t h e g i v e n l i n e of f l i g h t b y u s i n g For t h i s p u r p o s e t h e r e m u s t b e a c a l c u l a t i n g u n i t the autopilot. a b o a r d t h e a i r c r a f t for r e l a t i n g t h e D o p p l e r m e t e r w i t h t h e a u t o matic n a v i g a t i o n a l d e v i c e and an a u t o p i l o t which s o l v e s t h e s i m p l e problem : AZ+kA$ = 0 , w h e r e A Z i s t h e l a t e r a l d e v i a t i o n f r o m t h e l i n e o f f l i g h t , A$ i s t h e angle of approach t o t h e l i n e of f l i g h t , and k is the selected coupling f a c t o r . The a i r c r a f t i s t h e n s t e e r e d s o t h a t a l e a d i n t h e p a t h a n g l e o f t h e f l i g h t i s t a k e n when t h e a i r c r a f t d e v i a t e s t o a c e r t a i n d e g r e e from t h e g i v e n l i n e of f l i g h t w i t h a c e r t a i n c o e f f i c i e n t . Then, i n t h e presence of l a t e r a l d e v i a t i o n , t h e a i r c r a f t w i l l automat i c a l l y move i n t o t h e l i n e o f f l i g h t , d e c r e a s i n g i t s l e a d a s i t a p proaches t h e l a t t e r . C e r t a i n d i f f i c u l t i e s i n a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n when u s i n g Dop p l e r meters with automatic navigational devices are encountered i n converting t h e computer t o c a l c u l a t e t h e p a t h i n orthodromic coordinates of t h e previous s t a g e , a t t h e t u r n i n g points along t h e route. T h e m e t h o d s o f c o n v e r s i o n t o t h e new s y s t e m o f c a l c u l a t i o n o f c o o r d i n a t e s i s s h o w n i n C h a p t e r 11, S e c t i o n 9 . H o w e v e r , when u s i n g Doppler m e t e r s , i t i s b e t t e r t o s e t t h e a i r c r a f t coordinates t o t h e reference system of t h e previous s t a g e before beginning t h e t u r n of t h e aircraft. For e x a m p l e , w i t h 21 = 0 , Xi = - L L T .
X2 = -LLT
COS

/340

TA;

22 = L L T s i n T A .

For p u r p o s e s o f s i m p l i f y i n g t h e c o n v e r s i o n o f t h e p a t h c a l c u l a t i o n i n t o t h e s y s t e m of c o o r d i n a t e s o f t h e n e x t s t a g e , d o u b l e c o o r d i n a t e c a l c u l a t o r s a r e u s e d , l i n k e d m u t u a l l y w i t h one a n o t h e r . I n t h i s c a s e , t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e a i r c r a f t p a t h i s p e r f o r m e d by one o f t h e c a l c u l a t o r s i n t h e s y s t e m o f c o o r d i n a t e s o f t h e f l i g h t The s e c o n d c a l c u l a t o r segment i n which t h e f l i g h t i s b e i n g made. a d j u s t s i t s e l f according t o t h e path angle of t h e next path seg ment, and it c a n b e used t o c a l c u l a t e t h e a i r c r a f t c o o r d i n a t e s i n t h e r e f e r e n c e system of t h i s segment.

356

The t r a n s i t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t t o t h e n e x t o r t h o d r o m i c s e g m e n t of t h e p a t h i s a c c o m p l i s h e d b y t h e i n d i c a t i o n s o f t h e s e c o n d c a l c u l a t o r , a f t e r which t h e f i r s t c a l c u l a t o r i s c l e a r e d and s e t f o r t h e next path segment.

A s w e have a l r e a d y p o i n t e d o u t , i n t h e case o f double c a l c u l a t o r s , t h e i r r e a d i n g s a r e m u t u a l l y r e l a t e d , i . e . , t h e y a r e con verted according t o t h e formulas:
X2
22

= XlcosTA-21sin

TA;

= X1sinTAtZlcosTA.

T h e r e f o r e , i n c o r r e c t i n g t h e c o o r d i n a t e s of t h e a i r c r a f t on one o f t h e s e c o m p u t e r s , a c o r r e c t i o n i s a u t o m a t i c a l l y made i n t h e a i r craft coordinate i n t h e reference system of t h e next stage. T h u s , a t e a c h t u r n i n g p o i n t a l o n g t h e r o u t e , t h e a i r c r a f t makes a t u r n i n a previously prepared and c o r r e c t e d system of c o o r d i n a t e s for t h e n e x t s t a g e o f f l i g h t , t h u s c o m p l e t e l y g e t t i n g r i d o f a n y u n d e s i r a b l e f e a t u r e s of t h e t r a n s i t i o n which m i g h t o c c u r i f o n l y one c a l c u l a t o r were u s e d .

P r e p a r a t i o n f o r F Z i g h t and C o r r e c t i o n of E r r o r s i n A i r c r a f t N a v i g a t i o n b y U s i n g DoppZer M e t e r s
A i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n u s i n g Doppler meters f o r measuring t h e ground s p e e d and d r i f t a n g l e o f a n a i r c r a f t c a n b e done v e r y s i m p l y and rapidly. However, t h e r e q u i r e d a c c u r a c y f o r a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n when u s i n g t h e s e d e v i c e s c a n o n l y b e a c h i e v e d w i t h v e r y c a r e f u l p r e p a r a t i o n f o r f l i g h t , as w e l l as c a r e f u l c o r r e c t i o n f o r e r r o r s i n a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n which a r i s e d u r i n g f l i g h t . When u s i n g D o p p l e r m e t e r s , t h e r e may b e e r r o r s i n m e a s u r i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g e l e m e n t s i n a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n due t o e r r o r s i n t h e transmitters: (a) M e a s u r e m e n t of t h e a i r c r a f t c o u r s e ; M e a s u r e m e n t of t h e d r i f t a n g l e a n d g r o u n d s p e e d ;

(b)

(c) I n t h e p r o g r a m m i n g of t h e g i v e n p a t h a n g l e a n d t h e d i s t a n c e of t h e f l i g h t s t a g e s ; (d) I n t h e integration of t h e aircraft f l i g h t along t h e axes o f t h e c o o r d i n a t e s by t h e a u t o m a t i c n a v i g a t i o n a l d e v i c e . The a c c u r a c y w i t h w h i c h t h e a i r c r a f t c o u r s e i s m e a s u r e d i s o f e x t r e m e i m p o r t a n c e f o r a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n when u s i n g D o p p l e r meters and i s c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e p r o p e r programming o f p a t h angles f o r each f l i g h t s t a g e . T h i s i s e x p l a i n e d by t h e v e r y h i g h

/341

357

requirements f o r accuracy i n determining path angles i n preparing for flight. P r e p a r a t i o n for f l i g h t u s i n g D o p p l e r m e t e r s m u s t b e c a r r i e d o u t properly according t o t h e t h i r d group of conditions i n Chapter Two, S e c t i o n 2 .

For e a c h f l i g h t s e g m e n t , a l l p a r a m e t e r s o f t h e o r t h o d r o m e m u s t : be determined, b e g i n n i n g w i t h X dis

G )bl=

tg 'p2 c t g 'pr c o s e c ~b

- ctg AL

It i s then necessary t o determine t h e o r i g i n a l azimuth of t h e o r t h o d r o m e a0 b y t h e f o r m u l a

a n d t h e n t h e c o o r d i n a t e s of t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e p o i n t s on t h e o r t h o drome f o r p l o t t i n g t h e m on t h e c h a r t :
tg7/=

-.

sin h

01

tg a0

The d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n t h e t u r n i n g p o i n t s a l o n g t h e r o u t e a l o n g t h e orthodrome can b e determined by t h e f o r m u l a

COS

Si = COS A

01

COS 'pi.

If w e i n t r o d u c e i n t o t h i s f o r m u l a t h e c o o r d i n a t e s o f t h e i n i t i a l and f i n a l p o i n t s o f t h e f l i g h t s e g m e n t , and (when n e c e s s a r y ) any i n t e r m e d i a t e p o i n t s , w e can f i n d t h e d i s t a n c e t o t h o s e p o i n t s from t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t of t h e orthodrome. The d i s t a n c e s b e t w e e n t h e p o i n t s a r e d e t e r m i n e d by c a l c u l a t i n g t h e d i s t a n c e s from t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t of t h e orthodrome t o them.

For p r o g r a m m i n g t h e f l i g h t p a t h a n g l e w e d e t e r m i n e t h e a z i muths o f t h e orthodrome a t t h e b e g i n n i n g and end o f e a c h segment according t o t h e formula

If i t i s p r o p o s e d t h a t w e u s e a s t r o n o m i c a l m e t h o d s for c o r r e c t i n g t h e a i r c r a f t course i n f l i g h t ( e . g . , i n f l i g h t over water or t e r r a i n w h i c h h a s n o i d e n t i f y i n g l a n d m a r k s ) , t h e c o u r s e c o r r e c t i o n p o i n t s are marked and t h e azimuths of t h e orthodromes a t t h e c o r r e c t i o n p o i n t s a r e d e t e r m i n e d by t h i s f o r m u l a .

Reference points are s e l e c t e d f o r correcting t h e coordinates of t h e a i r c r a f t d u r i n g f l i g h t . Usually t h e s e a r e landmarks which s h o w u p c l e a r l y o n r a d a r or p l a c e s w h e r e g o n i o m e t r i c - r a n g e f i n d i n g Then t h e o r t h o d r o m i c c o o r d i n a t e s o f i n s t a l l a t i o n s are l o c a t e d .

1342

358

t h e s e p o i n t s are determined, and t h e ground goniometric-rangefinding instruments are used t o determine t h e azimuths of t h e orthodromic s e g m e n t s o f t h e p a t h on w h i c h t h e s e d e v i c e s w i l l b e u s e d , r e l a t i v e t o t h e m e r i d i a n s on which t h e g r o u n d b e a c o n s a r e l o c a t e d . The g i v e n p a t h a n g l e f o r t h e f i r s t f l i g h t s e g m e n t i s c o n s i d e r e d e q u a l t o t h e ' a z i m u t h of t h e o r t h o d r o m e a t t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t o f t h i s segment. The p a t h a n g l e s of a l l s u b s e q u e n t p a t h s e g m e n t s a r e c o n s i d e r e d t o b e e q u a l t o t h e sum o f t h e p a t h a n g l e o f t h e p r e v i o u s s e g m e n t p l u s t h e a n g l e of t u r n i n t h e p a t h a t t h e t u r n i n g p o i n t on t h e r o u t e . D o p p l e r m e t e r s h a v e r e l a t i v e l y low e r r o r s i n m e a s u r i n g t h e d r i f t a n g l e of an a i r c r a f t , s o t h a t t h e y can b e compensated f o r i n t h e t o t a l by t h e e r r o r s i n a i r c r a f t c o u r s e . In g e n e r a l , besides t h e e r r o r s i n measuring t h e d r i f t angle, d e p e n d i n g on t h e o p e r a t i n g r e g i m e o f t h e m e t e r , t h e h e i g h t a n d s p e e d o f f l i g h t , w h i c h h a v e a more or l e s s c o n s t a n t c h a r a c t e r , t h e r e a r e e r r o r s which h a v e a f l u c t u a t i n g n a t u r e ( o s c i l l a t i o n s i n t h e m e t e r r e a d i n g s from t h e a v e r a g e v a l u e ) . The p r i n c i p a l r e a s o n f o r f l u c t u a t i o n s i s t h e v a r y i n g c o n d i t i o n s of r e f l e c t i o n of e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c waves from t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e . When s o m e p o i n t i s e n c o u n t e r e d w h i c h r e f l e c t s e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c waves w e l l , i n t h e e l l i p s e o f r e f l e c t i o n from t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e , t h e maximum o f t h e a m p l i t u d e o f D o p p l e r f r e q u e n c y i s f i r s t d i s p l a c e d f o r w a r d ( f o r a r e a r beam, b a c k w a r d ) ; t h e n , as t h e p o i n t p a s s e s t h r o u g h t h e e l l i p s e o f r e f l e c t i o n , t h e maximum o f t h e a m p l i t u d e s h i f t s t o w a r d the average Doppler frequency and then backward, i n t o a region of lower frequencies. Thus, t h e r e i s f i r s t a p o s i t i v e " f i r i n g " of t h e Doppler f r e quency, then a l e v e l i n g o f f , and f i n a l l y a negative " f i r i n g " . For t h e r e a r beam, t h e " f i r i n g s " of f r e q u e n c i e s t a k e p l a c e i n r e v e r s e order. The p e r i o d s o f f l u c t u a t i n g o s c i l l a t i o n s a r e s h o r t a n d d e p e n d on t h e t i m e r e q u i r e d f o r t h e r e f l e c t i n g p o i n t s t o p a s s t h r o u g h t h e e l l i p s e of r e f l e c t i o n . P r a c t i c a l l y speaking, they are l o c a t e d w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s of 3-6 s e c , s o t h a t t h e y c a n b e s m o o t h e d o u t t o a c o n s i d e r a b l e d e g r e e by s e l e c t i n g t h e p r o p e r r a t e o f a n a l y s i s f o r t h e r e a d ings of t h e d r i f t angle and ground speed.
A s f a r as t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s of t h e a i r c r a f t p a t h f o r d i s t a n c e and d i r e c t i o n a r e c o n c e r n e d , t h e f l u c t u a t i n g o s c i l l a t i o n s do n o t h a v e a n y n o t i c e a b l e e f f e c t on i t , s i n c e a f t e r 3-5 min o f f l i g h t t h e i n t e g r a l v a l u e of t h e p o s i t i v e f l u c t u a t i o n s becomes e q u a l t o t h e i n t e g r a l value of t h e negative f l u c t u a t i o n s .

T h e p r o c e s s o f n a v i g a t i o n a l e x p l o i t a t i o n o f a u t o n o m o u s Dop/343 p l e r s y s t e m s f o r a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n c a n b e employed f o r a d j u s t ing t h e system i t s e l f , i - e . , i n correcting t h e aircraft coordinates

359

m a n u a l l y or a u t o m a t i c a l l y i t i s p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e a n d c o m p e n sate simultaneously the systematic errors i n t h e operation of the s y s t e m as a whole. In fact, i f t h e aircraft ( a t t h e s t a r t i n g point of a f l i g h t s e g m e n t ) i s l o c a t e d p r e c i s e l y on t h e d e s i r e d f l i g h t l i n e , b u t i t s Z-coordinate i s e q u a l t o z e r o , and w e keep t h e c o o r d i n a t e Z e q u a l t o z e r o d u r i n g a11 s u b s e q u e n t s t a g e s o f t h e f l i g h t , t h e a i r c r a f t w i l l h a v e t o r e m a i n on t h i s l i n e c o n s t a n t l y . If t h i s i s n o t t h e c a s e , a n e r r o r w i l l c r o p up i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t p a t h w i t h r e s p e c t t o d i r e c t i o n , i . e . , a c e r t a i n a n g l e w i l l develop between t h e g i v e n a n d a c t u a l f l i g h t p a t h a n g l e s of t h e a i r c r a f t .
I t i s most l i k e l y t h a t under t h e c o n d i t i o n s of p r e c i s e deter. m i n a t i o n and s e t t i n g o f a g i v e n p a t h a n g l e on t h e t r a n s m i t t e r , a n e r r o r i n c a l c u l a t i o n w i l l a r i s e as a r e s u l t o f i m p r o p e r measure ment o f t h e a i r c r a f t c o u r s e , s i n c e g y r o s c o p i c d e v i c e s c a n show d r i f t i n t h e i r readings with t i m e . T h e r e f o r e , t h e t o t a l c o r r e c t i o n which i s r e q u i r e d for p r o p e r c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e p a t h s h o u l d m o s t l o g i c a l l y b e made i n t h e r e a d i n g s o f t h e c o u r s e i n s t r u m e n t . If a p o r t i o n o f t h e e r r o r s i n c a l c u l a t i n g i s n o t r e l a t e d t o t h e o p e r a t i o n of t h e c o u r s e i n s t r u m e n t , t h e n t h e i r c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e c o u r s e e r r o r s w i l l n o t make t h e a c c u r a c y o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n any w o r s e .

The l a t t e r s t a t e m e n t i s v a l i d f o r a c o m p l e x o f i n s t r u m e n t s w h i c h p e r m i t c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e p a t h i n t e r m s of d i r e c t i o n , b u t it is t h e o r e t i c a l l y n o t completely v a l i d f o r instruments intended f o r d i s t a n c e f i n d i n g o f landmarks f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f making c o r r e c tions i n the aircraft coordinates. N e v e r t h e l e s s , if w e c o n s i d e r t h a t t h e t o t a l e r r o r i n measuring t h e d r i f t a n g l e and c a l c u l a t i n g t h e p a t h s i n terms of d i r e c t i o n w i t h a n a u t o m a t i c a p p a r a t u s i s n o m o r e t h a n 0 . 2 t o 0.3O a s a r u l e , w e must r e c o g n i z e t h a t c o r r e c t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t c o u r s e by t h e r e s u l t s o f c a l c u l a t i n g t h e p a t h i s much m o r e a c c u r a t e t h a n c o r r e c t i n g i t by any o t h e r methods, i n c l u d i n g a s t r o n o m i c a l o n e s . During f l i g h t , t h e a c t u a l a i r c r a f t c o o r d i n a t e s are determined by t h e d i s t a n c e s R and t h e p a t h b e a r i n g s o f t h e landmarks (PBL), s e l e c t e d f o r t h i s purpose by t h e formulas: (a) I n t h e m e a s u r e m e n t of

aircraft radars
COS

X -R
7,

PBL;

2 = 2 -R

s i n PBL. goniometric-rangefinding systems:

(b)

I n t h e measurement of
Z = $4

X = X u + Rcos(A-+M);

+ R sin ( A -h).

360

I1 I111

where con.

XM a n d ZM a r e t h e o r t h o d r o m i c c o o r d i n a t e s o f a g r o u n d b e a

/344 O b v i o u s l y , t h e f o r m u l a s f o r t h e a i r c r a f t r a d a r a n d t h e goniometric-rangefinding systems are i n v a r i a b l e . The d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e s i g n s o f t h e s e c o n d t e r m s on t h e r i g h t - h a n d s i d e s i s e x p l a i n e d by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e b e a r i n g o f a landmark i s o b t a i n e d w i t h t h e a i d of a n a i r c r a f t r a d a r b u t t h e b e a r i n g of a n a i r c r a f t r e l a t i v e t o a g r o u n d b e a c o n i s o b t a i n e d w i t h t h e a i d of a g o n i o m e t r i c - r a n g e finding system.

A t t h e moment when t h e d i s t a n c e a n d p a t h b e a r i n g o f a l a n d m a r k or a i r c r a f t a r e d e t e r m i n e d f r o m a g r o u n d b e a c o n , t h e i n d i c a t o r A f t e r deter readings f o r t h e aircraft coordinates are recorded. m i n i n g t h e a c t u a l c o o r d i n a t e s o f t h e a i r c r a f t by means o f a n a v i g a t i o n a l s l i d e r u l e , t h e y a r e compared w i t h t h e c o o r d i n a t e s on t h e i n d i c a t o r r e c o r d e d a t t h e moment o f d i s t a n c e f i n d i n g , a n d t h e e r r o r s i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e coordinates are found:

AX = X

act
act

'talc;

A2 = Z

'talc'

where Xact and Zact a r e t h e c o o r d i n a t e s o f t h e a i r c r a f t on t h e b a s i s are the coordinates of t h e measurement r e s u l t s and X c a l c and Z c a l c o f t h e a i r c r a f t a c c o r d i n g t o t h e r e a d i n g s on t h e c a l c u l a t o r . The c o r r e s p o n d i n g c o r r e c t i o n s a r e t h e n e n t e r e d i n t h e r e a d i n g s o f t h e r u n n i n g o r t h o d r o m i c c o o r d i n a t e s o f t h e a i r c r a f t on t h e calculator. The c h a v a c t e r i s t i c f e a t u r e o f t h e s o l u t i o n o f t h e s e p r o b l e m s i s t h e l a c k of a need t o f i x t h e t i m e of measurement of t h e a i r c r a f t c o o r d i n a t e s a n d t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of c o r r e c t i o n s i n t h e r e a d i n g s o f t h e c a l c u l a t o r s w h e n t h e y c h a n g e , a s i s n e c e s s a r y when u s i n g a l l other radionavigational instruments. This f e a t u r e i s completely c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f o r Doppler systems. The r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t i m e h e r e i s m a i n t a i n e d o n l y w i t h s e l e c t i o n of regimes of speed f o r reaching checkpoints a t a given t i m e . In measuring t h e a i r c r a f t c o o r d i n a t e s and a l l o t h e r elements of a i r c r a f t navigation, t h e time need not be taken i n t o account.
L e t us examine f u r t h e r t h e methods of g e t t i n g r i d of s y s t e matic e r r o r s i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e a i r c r a f t path and p r i m a r i l y t h e measurements of t h e a i r c r a f t c o u r s e w i t h t h e u s e of Doppler meters.

For a p r e c i s e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e e r r o r s i n m e a s u r i n g t h e aircraft course, w e need t o determine t h e a c t u a l coordinates of t h e a i r c r a f t a t a t l e a s t two s u c c e s s i v e p o i n t s , w%th t h e measure m e n t b a s e on t h e o r d e r o f 2 0 0 - 3 0 0 km.

361

A t t h e first p o i n t , t h e actual coordinates of t h e aircraft are determined and t h e readings of t h e c a l c u l a t o r a r e c o r r e c t e d . A t t h e s e c o n d p o i n t , t h e a c t u a l c o o r d i n a t e s of t h e a i r c r a f t a r e determined once a g a i n and t h e e r r o r i n c a l c u l a t i o n i s found, which
has been accumulated d u r i n g t h e f l i g h t time a l o n g t h e base from t h e f i r s t t o t h e second measurement p o i n t .

I f we c o n s i d e r t h e e r r o r i n t h e r e a d i n g s

of

the calculator

a t t h e f i r s t p o i n t t o be e q u a l t o z e r o ( s i n c e t h e y have been cor

r e c t e d ) , t h e e r r o r i n m e a s u r i n g t h e c o u r s e i s d e t e r m i n e d by t h e formula

where AZ, i s t h e e r r o r i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e a i r c r a f t c o o r d i n a t e s a t t h e second p o i n t , and X1,2 i s t h e l e n g t h o f t h e measurement b a s e between p o i n t s 1 and 2 . T h i s p r o b l e m i s e a s i l y s o l v e d on a n a v i g a t i o n a l s l i d e r u l e 3.60).

/345

(Fig.

By u s i n g a D o p p l e r m e t e r , i t i s p o s s i b l e t o f i n d n o t o n l y t h e e r r o r s i n m e a s u r i n g t h e a i r c r a f t c o u r s e , b u t also t h e n a t u r e o f t h e i r accumulation with time.

Fig. Fig.

3.60.

Fig.

3.61.

3 . 6 0 . D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e Error i n M e a s u r i n g t h e C o u r s e o n t h e NL-1OM. 3 . 6 1 . D e t e r m i n a t i o n of G y r o s c o p e D e v i a t i o n on t h e S e c o n d Measurement Base.

Fig.

Fig. 3.62. Use o f t h e N L - 1 O M t o D e t e r m i n e ( a ) D e g r e e o f D e v i a t i o n of t h e Gyroscope and ( b ) Orthodromic C o o r d i n a t e s of t h e A i r c r a f t f r o m Ground R a d i o B e a c o n s .

362

A s w e a l r e a d y know, t h e d e v i a t i o n o f a g y r o s c o p e w i t h t i m e c a n b e c o m p e n s a t e d b y a s u i t a b l e s h i f t o f t h e l a t i t u d e on t h e c o m p e n s a t o r f o r t h e d i u r n a l r o t a t i o n of t h e Earth. If t h e d e v i a t i o n o f t h e gyroscope i s s i g n i f i c a n t (2-3 d e g / h r ) , it can b e determined by c h a n g e s i n t h e e r r o r s i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e p a t h on t w o a d j a c e n t b a s e s , p r e f e r a b l y o f t h e same l e n g t h ( F i g . 3 . 6 1 ) .

With c o n s i d e r a b l e d e v i a t i o n s o f t h e g y r o s c o p e a x i s , t h e p a t h o f t h e a i r c r a f t t u r n s o u t t o b e c u r v i l i n e a r if t h e Z - c o o r d i n a t e r e c o r d e d on t h e c a l c u l a t o r i s e q u a l t o z e r o , a n d t h e f i n a l e r r o r i n measuring t h e course w i l l be g r e a t e r than t h i s average e r r o r which a p p e a r s on t h e f i r s t b a s e a t t h e i n i t i a l v a l u e (Ayd) d i v i d e d in half. Therefore, after introducing the corrections i n the readings o f t h e c o u r s e i n s t r u m e n t , a n e r r o r remains i n t h e measurement of t h e c o u r s e which i s e q u a l t o t h i s v a l u e .
I f t h e m e a s u r e m e n t i s r e p e a t e d on t h e a d j a c e n t b a s e , o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y the s a m e l e n g t h , t h e e r r o r found i n t h e measurement of t h e c o u r s e w i l l c o n s i s t o f two v a l u e s :

(a)

The e r r o r i n t h e i n i t i a l s e t t i n g ,

e q u a l t o Ayd/2;

(b) The a v e r a g e e r r o r d u e t o t h e d e v i a t i o n o f t h e g y r o s c o p e on t h e s e c o n d b a s e , a l s o e q u a l t o A y d / 2 . Thus, t h e e r r o r which i s found w i l l c o n s t i t u t e t h e magnitude of t h e g y r o s c o p e d e v i a t i o n d u r i n g t h e f l i g h t t i m e a l o n g t h e s e c o n d base. I n o r d e r t o d e t e r m i n e t h e m a g n i t u d e of g y r o s c o p e d e v i a t i o n p e r h o u r of f l i g h t , i t i s s u f f i c i e n t t o d i v i d e t h e e r r o r which h a s b e e n f o u n d i n t o t h e f l i g h t t i m e on t h e s e c o n d b a s e . /346

Example. The f l i g h t t i m e o f a n a i r c r a f t on t h e f i r s t a n d s e c ond b a s e s i s 2 0 min e a c h . On t h e f i r s t b a s e , a n e r r o r i n m e a s u r i n g t h e a i r c r a f t c o u r s e w a s found and compensated f o r . H o w e v e r , on t h e second base t h e e r r o r i n measuring t h e course turned out t o b e e q u a l t o lo. F i n d t h e m a g n i t u d e of g y r o s c o p e d r i f t p e r h o u r of f l i g h t .

Solution:
"d

10 = 3 degrees/hr. 0.33 h r

I f t h e d e v i a t i o n s o f t h e g y r o s c o p e a r e s m a l l (0.5-lo), t h e y However, i n c a n n o t be found by measurement from a s e c o n d b a s e . t h i s case, it i s n o t n e c e s s a r y t o s h i f t t h e l a t i t u d i n a l p o t e n t i o m e t e r i n making c o m p e n s a t i o n . It is sufficient t o correct the readings of t h e c o u r s e p e r i o d i c a l l y ( a l o n g w i t h t h e c o r r e c t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t c o o r d i n a t e s ) by t h e r e s u l t s of t h e m e a s u r e m e n t s on o n e b a s e .

363

When n e c e s s a r y , a D o p p l e r m e t e r c a n b e u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e small-scale v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e gyroscope (0.5-2 d e g / h r ) . T o do t h i s , both t h e a i r c r a f t c o o r d i n a t e s and e r r o r i n measuring t h e course a r e d e t e r m i n e d on t h e f i r s t b a s e . On s u b s e q u e n t b a s e s , o n l y t h e a i r c r a f t c o o r d i n a t e s a r e d e t e r mined and c o r r e c t e d . On t h e l a s t b a s e , t h e e r r o r i n t h e a i r c r a f t course i s again determined. The e r r o r w h i c h i s f o u n d w i l l c o n s t i t u t e t h e d e v i a t i o n o f t h e g y r o s c o p e f r o m t h e moment o f t h e e n d o f t h e first t o t h e end of t h e last base. A t t h e same t i m e , t h e r e m a i n i n g e r r o r a t t h e e n d o f t h e f i r s t b a s e i s e q u a l t o Ayd/2, w h i l e t h e e r r o r f o u n d a t t h e end o f t h e last base,(e.g.) the fourth, is equal to:

i.e., if the last base is equal t o the first, the b e f o u n d by m e a s u r i n g t h e c o u r s e w i l l b e e q u a l t o of t h e gyroscope i n t h e second, t h i r d , and f o u r t h t h e f l i g h t t i m e w i l l b e s u f f i c i e n t f o r s h o w i n g up deviations of t h e gyroscope p e r hour of f l i g h t .

e r r o r which w i l l the deviation bases. Thus, even small-scale

Since t h e n a v i g a t i o n a l u s e o f Doppler meters does n o t pose any d i f f i c u l t i e s , b u t t h e d e t e c t i o n of e r r o r s i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e p a t h a n d m e a s u r i n g t h e a i r c r a f t c o u r s e a r e much m o r e d i f f i c u l t , w e w o u l d l i k e t o c o n c l u d e b y p r o v i d i n g s e v e r a l e x a m p l e s o f how t o determine these e r r o r s . 1. The l a s t c o r r e c t i o n o f a i r c r a f t c o o r d i n a t e s w a s made a t t h e p o i n t X = 1 5 6 km, w h e r e t h e e r r o r i n t h e Z - c o o r d i n a t e w a s f o u n d t o be z e r o . The f l i g h t t h e n c o n t i n u e d w i t h m a i n t a i n a n c e o f t h e Z - c o o r d A t t h e p o i n t X = 330 km, a c c o r d i n a t e on t h e c o m p u t e r e q u a l t o z e r o . i n g t o t h e r e a d i n g s of t h e c o m p u t e r , t h e a c t u a l c o o r d i n a t e s o f t h e a i r c r a f t w e r e d e t e r m i n e d on t h e b a s i s o f a r a d a r l a n d m a r k , h a v i n g the coordinates Xi= 3 7 5 km, Zi = 6 1 km. T h e p o l a r c o o r d i n a t e s /347 o f t h e landmark were as f o l l o w s : P B L = 5 4 O , R = 72 km. Find t h e errors i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e coordinates i n measuring t h e aircraft course.
SOlUtiOn: following:

by u s i n g a n a v i g a t i o n a l s l i d e r u l e , w e f i n d t h e

R c o s P B L = 4 2 . 5 km; R s i n P B L = 5 8 km.
C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e a c t u a l c o o r d i n a t e s o f t h e a i r c r a f t a r e as follows: X = 3 7 5 - 4 2 . 5 = 3 3 2 . 5 km; Z = 6 1 - 5 8 = 3 km, w h i l e t h e e r r o r s i n calculating t h e coordinates are: A X = t 2 . 5 O km, A Z = + 3 km. 364

The e r r o r i n m e a s u r i n g t h e a i r c r a f t c o u r s e i s
67 = arctg
'

3 332.5-156

==

0'58'.

I n t h i s case, t h e a i r c r a f t d e v i a t e d t o t h e r i g h t from t h e g i v e n path, s o t h a t t h e readings of t h e course instrument w e r e reduced a n / i t w a s n e c e s s a r y t o m a k e a c o r r e c t i o n e q u a l t o tOO58' o r a p p r o x imately tlO.
2. A f t e r correcting the coordinates i n the aircraft course, considered i n t h e first example, t h e aircraft t r a v e l e d along a base e q u a l t o 1 8 0 km w i t h a g r o u n d s p e e d o f 8 5 0 k m / h r .
A second check of t h e a i r c r a f t c o o r d i n a t e s r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e T h e f l i g h t w a s made w i t h i n e r r o r i n measuring t h e course w a s + O 0 3 5 ' . l a t i t u d i n a l l i m i t s o f 50-60. Find t h e degree of d e v i a t i o n of t h e gyroscope p e r hour of f l i g h t and t h e required s h i f t i n t h e l a t i t u d i n a l compensator t o g e t r i d of it.

S o l u t i o n : The f l i g h t t i m e o f t h e a i r c r a f t a l o n g t h e b a s e i s e q u a l t o 1 3 . 5 min. The l e n g t h o f t h e s e c o n d b a s e i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y equal t o t h e f i r s t base, s o t h a t t h e deviation of t h e gyroscope a l o n g t h e s e c o n d b a s e i s e q u a l t o t h e e r r o r f o u n d by m e a s u r i n g t h e course.

The d e v i a t i o n o f t h e g y r o s c o p e w a s f o u n d b y m e a n s o f a n a v i gational s l i d e r u l e (Fig. 3.62, a ) . Answer: t h e d e v i a t i o n of t h e gyroscope p e r hour of f l i g h t a m o u n t s t o 1 5 4 ' or 2 O 3 4 ' .
A t l a t i t u d e s of 50-60, f o r each d e g r e e p e r hour of d e v i a t i o n i n t h e g y r o s c o p e , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o s h i f t t h e l a t i t u d i n a l compen s a t o r by 6 O . In our example, t h e gyroscope deviated i n t h e direc t i o n of a reduction of t h e course indication s o t h a t t h e l a t i t u d e 6 O x 2 . 6 = 15.6O. on t h e c o m p e n s a t o r h a d t o b e s e t t o t h e v a l u e : A f t e r t h e d e s i r e d change i n t h e s e t t i n g of t h e l a t i t u d i n a l poten t i o m e t e r i s m a d e , t h e d e v i a t i o n o f t h e g y r o s c o p e s h o u l d c e a s e com pletely.

For c o r r e c t i n g t h e a i r c r a f t c o o r d i n a t e s , a g o n i o m e t r i c 3. r a n g e f i n d i n g system i s employed. The o r t h o d r o m i c c o o r d i n a t e s o f a ground r a d i o beacon are:

x ,

187 U S ;

z~= 142 K J l .

The f l i g h t a n g l e o f a n o r t h o d r o m e s e g m e n t , m e a s u r e d r e l a t i v e t o t h e m e r i d i a n of t h e p o i n t where t h e beacon i s e s t a b l i s h e d , i s equal t o 64O. Find t h e orthodromic coordinates, of t h e aircraft i f i t s a z i m u t h ( A ) i s e q u a l t o 24O a n d R = 2 2 5 km.

365

Solution:

A - = 320"; cos 3200 = COS 40"=sin 50"; sin 3%" = - sin 40".
3.62,

+,,

i.e.

By u s i n g a n a v i g a t i o n a l s l i d e r u l e , w e f i n d ( F i g .

b),

R cos 320"= 170 #A; R sin 3%"= - I45 U.U.

C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e o r t h o d r o m i c c o o r d i n a t e s of t h e aircraft are

X = 187 170 = 357 K X ; Z = 142-145=*3~A.

5.

PRINCIPLES O F COMBINING NAVIGATIONAL INSTRUMENTS

/348

I n C h a p t e r s Two a n d T h r e e o f t h e p r e s e n t work, w e d i s c u s s e d t h e c o m p l e x e s o f n a v i g a t i o n a l i n s t r u m e n t s , w h i c h make i t p o s s i b l e i n o n e way or a n o t h e r t o a u t o m a t e t h e p r o c e s s e s o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n or m e a s u r e m e n t o f i n d i v i d u a l n a v i g a t i o n a l p a r a m e t e r s . The f i r s t n a v i g a t i o n a l co mp l ex i s t h e c o u r s e s y s t e m . The b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s of c o m b i n i n g i n d i v i d u a l t r a n s m i t t e r s i n t o a c o u r s e s y s t e m i s t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h e r e a d i n g s for p u r p o s e s o f a u t o m a t i c m u t u a l c o r r e c t i o n ( t h e M C , A C , GSC r e g i m e s ) , a n d a l s o t o combine t h e r e a d i n g s of i n d i v i d u a l i n s t r u m e n t s t o improve t h e n a v i g a t i o n a l v a l u e s , c o n s t i t u t i n g t h e sum o f i n d i v i d u a l e l e m e n t s . For e x a m p l e : OBR = O C t C A R . The s e c o n d c o m p l e x i s t h e n a v i g a t i o n a l i n d i c a t o r N I - S O B , i n which t h e r e i s a c o u r s e t r a n s m i t t e r , a t r a n s m i t t e r of t h e a i r s p e e d , and a m a n u a l l y - s e t wind t r a n s m i t t e r . The m o s t c o m p l e t e o f t h e s e c o m p l e x e s i s t h e a u t o n o m o u s D o p p l e r s y s t e m o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n , which works i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h c o u r s e t r a n s m i t t e r s and an automatic n a v i g a t i o n a l device. Thus, t h e b a s i c reasons f o r combining n a v i g a t i o n a l instruments are t h e following: (a) (b) C o m p a r i s o n o f r e a d i n g s for p u r p o s e s o f m u t u a l c o r r e c t i o n , C o m b i n a t i o n o f r e a d i n g s f o r p u r p o s e s of a u t o m a t i c summation.

Combination of i n d i v i d u a l t r a n s m i t t e r s i n t o n a v i g a t i o n a l sys tems n o t o n l y m a k e s i t p o s s i b l e t o s o l v e n a v i g a t i o n a l p r o b l e m s a u t o m a t i c a l l y or s e m i - a u t o m a t i c a l l y , b u t a l s o m a k e s i t p o s s i b l e t o r e a l i z e t h e i r s o l u t i o n f o r automatic p i l o t a g e of an aircraft along t h e given trajectory. An e x a m p l e o f s u c h a r e a l i z a t i o n i s t h e a u t o m a t i c p i l o t

366

...

a g e o f a n a i r c r a f t on t h e b a s i s o f s i g n a l s from D o p p l e r meters w i t h automatic navigational instruments. These complexes g e n e r a l l y i n v o l v e autonomous n a v i g a t i o n a l i n struments: t r a n s m i t t e r s f o r t h e c o u r s e , a i r s p e e d , and d r i f t angle. The o n l y e x c e p t i o n i s t h e a i r c r a f t r a d i o c o m p a s s , whose r e a d i n g s a r e combined w i t h t h e r e a d i n g s o f c o u r s e i n s t r u m e n t s t o o b t a i n h e a r i n g s . However, t h i s i s a r e s u l t o f a p e c u l i a r f e a t u r e on t h e u s e o f r a d i o compasses ( f o r o b t a i n i n g t h e b e a r i n g it i s n e c e s s a r y t o add t h e course angle of t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n t o t h e a i r c r a f t course). The u s e o f s i m p l e c o m b i n a t i o n s o f n a v i g a t i o n a l s y s t e m s s u c h as g r o u n d ra d a r s , r a d i o d i s t a n c e - f i n d e r s , e x t e r n a l l y d i r e c t e d g o n i o m e t r i c and goniometric-rangefinding systems, fan-type beacons, and h y p e r b o l i c s y s t e m s c a n n o t b e combined s a t i s f a c t o r i l y . Nevertheless, it i s d e s i r a b l e t h a t t h e s e r e l a t e d n a v i g a t i o n a l /349 s y s t e m s , as w e l l as t h e a i r c r a f t r a d a r a n d a s t r o n o m i c a l n a v i g a t i o n a l i n s t r u m e n t s , s h o u l d a l s o b e combined i n t o n a v i g a t i o n a l complexes f o r t h e purposes of automatic c o r r e c t i o n of aircraft coordinates. How e v e r , t h e p r i n c i p l e o f combining t h e s e i n s t r u m e n t s i n t o g e n e r a l nav i g a t i o n a l systems must be of a q u i t e d i f f e r e n t n a t u r e t h a n i s t h e c a s e f o r t h e c o m p l e x e s w h i c h we h a v e d i s c u s s e d . The f i r s t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of co mb i n ed n a v i g a t i o n a l s y s t e m s an d a v i a t i o n a l s e x t a n t s i s t h a t they are intended only f o r determining Therefore, they can be d i s c r e t e values of aircraft coordinates. u s e d i n n a v i g a t i o n a l complexes as s o u r c e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n which dup l i c a t e t h e r e s u l t s of automatic c a l c u l a t o r s of t h e a i r c r a f t p a t h , i . e . , o n l y f o r p u r p o s e s of c o r r e c t i n g p r e v i o u s l y o b t a i n e d n a v i g a t i o n a l parameters. The s e c o n d f e a t u r e o f t h e s e d e v i c e s i s t h a t w i t h a r e l a t i v e l y h i g h a c c u r a c y of c o o r d i n a t e measurement f o r t h e a i r c r a f t , t h e y can n o t be used t o d e t e r m i n e t h e f i r s t d e r i v a t i v e s of t h e s e c o o r d i n a t e s with t i m e . Let us i l l u s t r a t e t h i s with a concrete example.
L e t u s s a y t h a t some n a v i g a t i o n a l i n s t r u m e n t , t a k i n g i t s i n s t r u mental e r r o r s i n t o account ( f o r e l e c t r o n i c devices, considering t h e c o n d i t i o n s f o r p r o p a g a t i o n of e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c waves, and f o r a s t r o n omical o n e s , t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n s of t h e l e v e l of t h e a i r c r a f t ) make i t possible t o determine t h e successive coordinates of an aircraft with a n e r r o r w h i c h d o e s n o t e x c e e d 1 km, s o t h a t t h e e r r o r i n m e a s u r e ment c a n c h a n g e i n v a l u e a n d s i g n .

I n t h i s c a s e , t h e e r r o r i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e a i r c r a f t m o t i o n o n t h e b a s i s o f t w o s u c c e s s i v e m e a s u r e m e n t s may h a v e a maximum v a l u e o f A Z --- 2

s -s.

W i t h a m e a s u r e m e n t b a s e o f 3 0 km ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 m i n o f f l i g h t i n a j e t a i r c r a f t ) , t h e a n g u l a r error i n t h e m e a s u r e m e n t s c a n r e a c h

367

-2_-30

15

z 4".

I f t h e m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e made m o r e f r e q u e n t l y , ( e . g . 1 o f t e n e r than each minute o f f l i g h t , t h e e r r o r i n measuring t h e d i r e c t i o n can reach 8 O .

With c o n t i n u o u s m e a s u r e m e n t of t h e a i r c r a f t c o o r d i n a t e s , t h e n u m e r a t o r i n our e x a m p l e c a n r e t a i n i t s v a l u e , b u t t h e d e n o m i n a t o r w i l l tend toward z e r o , i . e . , t h e e r r o r i n determining t h e d i r e c t i o n o f f l i g h t or ( w h a t a m o u n t s t o t h e s a m e t h i n g ) t h e f i r s t d e r i v a t i v e of t h e Z-coordinate with t i m e , w i l l be equal t o i n f i n i t y . W can r e a c h a n a n a l o g o u s c o n c l u s i o n f o r t h e case of d e t e r m i n - / 3 5 0 e i n g t h e g r o u n d s p e e d o f a n a i r c r a f t ( t h e f i r s t d e r i v a t i v e o f t h e X c o o r d i n a t e w i t h t i m e ) by c o n t i n u o u s measurement o f i t a t a s u c c e s s i o n of p o i n t s w h e r e t h e L A i s m e a s u r e d . T h i s example shows t h a t communication a n d a s t r o n o m i c a l n a v i g a t i o n a l systems can only provide a rough p i l o t a g e of t h e a i r c r a f t along a given trajectory. With a v e r y p r e c i s e measurement o f t h e a i r c r a f t c o o r d i n a t e s a l o n g t h e r o u t e ( w i t h e r r o r s no g r e a t e r t h a n 2 0 0 - 3 0 0 m) a n d a v e r y c a r e f u l d a m p i n g o f t h e r e a d i n g s ( a v e r a g i n g f o r t i m e ) , automatic p i l o t a g e w i l l t a k e place with v a r i a t i o n s of t h e c o u r s e w i t h i n l i m i t s of 5 - 6 O , i . e . , 5-10 times g r e a t e r t h a n would b e o b t a i n e d by t h e r e s u l t s o f m e a s u r i n g t h e d r i f t a n g l e b y a Doppler meter. The o n l y e x c e p t i o n t o t h i s i s t h e p i l o t a g e o f a n a i r c r a f t u s i n g s t r i c t l y s t a b i l i z e d zones of l a n d i n g b e a c o n s , where t h e e r r o r s i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e d e v i a t i o n s from a g i v e n t r a j e c t o r y are measured i n several meters. Under t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s , t h e p i l o t a g e o f a n a i r c r a f t c a n t a k e p l a c e w i t h v a r i a t i o n of t h e c o u r s e w i t h i n l i m i t s of 1 - 2 O with a very p r e c i s e maintainance of t h e g e n e r a l d i r e c t i o n of flight. The t h i r d f e a t u r e o f t h e s e m e t h o d s i s t h e c o n s i d e r a b l e d i v e r s i t y of s p e c i a l coordinate systems used (Chapter I , Section 7 ) . T o i n t r o d u c e t h e s e methods i n t o n a v i g a t i o n a l complexes, it i s nec c e s s a r y t o have an automatic conversion of s p e c i a l c o o r d i n a t e s i n t o o r t h o d r o m i c c o o r d i n a t e s , c a l l i n g for t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y a b o a r d t h e a i r c r a f t of v e r y complex and p r e c i s e m a t h e m a t i c a l i n s t r u m e n t s , t o make t h e s p h e r i c a l c o n v e r s i o n s .

I t i s somewhat s i m p l e r i n t h i s r e g a r d t o u s e g o n i o m e t r i c - r a n g e f i n d i n g methods f o r s h o r t - r a n g e n a v i g a t i o n and a i r c r a f t r a d a r s . Due t o t h e l i m i t e d r a d i u s o f t h e i r o p e r a t i o n , t h e p o l a r c o o r d i n a t e s of t h e s e d e v i c e s c a n b e c o n v e r t e d i n t o o r t h o d r o m i c o n e s b y s o l v i n g simple equations f o r plane representations, using simple calcula t i n g devices with l o w accuracy.

368

.-11.11

I1111.111.11111.1.1.11

111

I 1.1, .

I .1 I

I1

I 1 I I

I111 I

I I 11 1

1111

Combined n a v i g a t i o n a l s y s t e m s and a s t r o n o m i c a l methods c a n b e c o m b i n e d i n t o n a v i g a t i o n a l c o m p l e x e s o n l y f o r p u r p o s e s of c o r r e c t i n g t h e aircraft coordinates a t d i s c r e t e p o i n t s , maintaining t h e regime of c o r r e c t i o n by t h e a i r c r a f t crew. The a d v i s a b i l i t y o f i n c l u d i n g e a c h o f t h e s e d e v i c e s i n t h e t o t a l c o m p l e x or i t s i n d e p e n d e n t u s e f o r c o r r e c t i o n of t h e c o o r d i n a t e s o f t h e a i r c r a f t b y t h e c r e w i s determined by t h e t a c t i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e system i n t h e c o n d i t i o n s for f l i g h t o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r t y p e o f a i r c r a f t i n v o l v e d .

369

CHAPTER FOUR
D E V I C E S A N D METHODS F O R M A K I N G A N I N S T R U M E N T L A N D I N G S Y S T E M S FOR M A K I N G A N I N S T R U M E N T L A N D I N G
Landing an a i r c r a f t under c o n d i t i o n s of l i m i t e d c e i l i n g and meteorological v i s i b i l i t y i n t h e l a y e r of t h e atmosphere n e a r t h e g r o u n d i s t h e most: c o m p l i c a t e d a n d d i f f i c u l t s t a g e o f t h e f l i g h t . Even u n d e r f a v o r a b l e m e t e o r o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s , a p r o p e r l a n d i n g o f t h e a i r c r a f t r e q u i r e s c o n s i d e r a b l e a t t e n t i o n a n d e x p e r i e n c e on t h e p a r t o f t h e crew. /351

Fig. 4.1. Setting the Aircraft Course f o r L i n i n g Up w i t h t h e Runway.

E x p e r i e n c e h a s shown t h a t i n o r d e r t o l a n d any k i n d of a i r c r a f t , it i s neces s a r y t h a t i t b e l o c a t e d e x a c t l y on t h e l a n d i n g p a t h a t a c e r t a i n d i s t a n c e from It is t h e touchdown p o i n t ( F i g . 4 . 1 ) . a l s o necessary t h a t t h e course followed by t h e a i r c r a f t b e s e l e c t e d s o t h a t t h e v e c t o r of t h e ground speed is d i r e c t e d along t h e a x i s of t h e landing and take off s t r i p (LTS).

However, i t i s n o t d e s i r a b l e t o l a n d a n a i r c r a f t w i t h a l e a d i n t h e course being followed i n o r d e r t o compensate f o r t h e d r i f t a n g l e , s i n c e t h i s c a u s e s c o n s i d e r a b l e l a t e r a l s t r e s s e s on t h e a i r c r a f t u n d e r c a r r i a g e when i t b e g i n s t o t a x i a l o n g t h e r u n w a y . There f o r e , t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l a x i s m u s t b e l i n e d u p w i t h t h e LTS i m m e d i a t e l y b e f o r e l a n d i n g , by making a f l a t t u r n w i t h o u t b a n k i n g . Then ( s i n c e t h e t u r n w a s f l a t ) t h e aircraft w i l l keep t h e desired d i r e c t i o n of motion r e l a t i v e t o t h e Earths s u r f a c e f o r a s h o r t period of t i m e , s h o w i n g l a t e r a l d e v i a t i o n r e l a t i v e t o t h e a i r mass f l o w i n g over it. This s h i f t gradually dies o u t , eventually turning i n t o a d r i f t Therefore, the a n g l e r e l a t i v e t o t h e new c o u r s e o f t h e a i r c r a f t . s e l e c t i o n o f t h e a p p r o a c h a n g l e m u s t b e made s e v e r a l s e c o n d s ( n o more t h a n 5 o r 7 ) b e f o r e l a n d i n g t h e a i r c r a f t .
It should be mentioned t h a t t h e c o r r e c t s e l e c t i o n of an air c r a f t c o u r s e w h i l e k e e p i n g i t s i m u l t a n e o u s l y on t h e g i v e n t r a j e c t o r y f o r l a n d i n g p o s e s c o n s i d e r a b l e d i f f i c u l t i e s f o r t h e crew i n preparing t o land.

/352

370

I n c a s e s when t h e a i r c r a f t i s n o t l i n e d u p w i t h t h e r u n w a y , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o c a r r y o u t a maneuver w h i c h w i l l b r i n g i t on t o t h e a x i s o f t h e LTS, a n d w h i c h i n v o l v e s a c o n s i d e r a b l e loss o f t i m e a n d a l s o a loss o f d i s t a n c e a l o n g a x i s LTS ( F i g . 4 . 2 ) .

L e t us say t h a t i n a f l i g h t a l o n g t h e LTS a x i s , t h e c r e w h a s r e a c h e d a p o i n t a t which t h e i r l a t e r a l deviation is equal t o 2.

Obviously, i n order t o l i n e u p t h e a i r c r a f t w i t h t h e LTS a x i s i n t h e most economical f a s h i o n and w i t h o u t any remaining d e v i a t i o n r e l a t i v e t o t h e LTS a x i s , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o t u r n t h e aircraft toward Fig. 4.2. S - S h a p e d Maneut h e r u n w a y t h r o u g h a t u r n a n g l e (TA) v e r f o r L i n i n g Up t h e A i r of a m a g n i t u d e s u c h t h a t t h e l a t e r a l c r a f t w i t h t h e Runway. d e v i a t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t from t h e LTS a x i s i s r e d u c e d by a f a c t o r o f t w o . Then t h e a i r c r a f t must b e t u r n e d by t h e same amount i n t h e o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n b u t t h r o u g h an a n g l e s u c h t h a t t h e t r a j e c t o r y a l o n g which t h e a i r c r a f t i s t r a v e l i n g when i t e m e r g e s f r o m t h e t u r n c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e LTS a x i s . I n o r d e r t o a v o i d loss o f t h e s e l e c t e d d i r e c t i o n o f t h e g r o u n d s p e e d v e c t o r w h i l e making t h e t u r n s , i . e . , s h i f t i n g t h e a i r c r a f t a f t e r p l a c i n g i t on t h e l a n d i n g c o u r s e , t h e t u r n s made b y t h e a i r c r a f t m u s t b e c o o r d i n a t e d a s much a s p o s s i b l e .
I t i s o b v i o u s from F i g u r e 4 . 2 t h a t t h e m a g n i t u d e of e a c h o f t h e t w o c o o r d i n a t e d t u r n s f o r b r i n g i n g t h e a i r c r a f t on t o t h e r u n w a y c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d by t h e f o r m u l a
2 = 2(R-

COSTA) = ~ R ( ~ - c o s T A ) ,

whence
COSTA

= 1 - 2R

where R i s t h e t u r n i n g r a d i u s o f t h e a i r c r a f t w i t h a g i v e n bank i n g and a i r s p e e d d u r i n g t h e t u r n . O b v i o u s l y , w h i l e t h e a i r c r a f t i s making t h e maneuver t o l a n d , i t m u s t t r a v e l t h r o u g h a p a t h a l o n g a x i s LTS

X = 2RsinTA.
ExampZe. When a n a i r c r a f t i s d e s c e n d i n g a n d i s l i n e d u p w i t h t h e runway on t h e d e s i r e d c o u r s e a n d w i t h a h o r i z o n t a l g r o u n d s p e e d o f 2 8 0 k m / h r , t h e r e i s a l a t e r a l d e v i a t i o n f r o m t h e LTS a x i s e q u a l t o 60 m .

371

F i n d t h e a n g l e s o f t h e combined t u r n s o f t h e a i r c r a f t w i t h /353 a g i v e n b a n k i n g of 8 and t h e p a t h o f t h e a i r c r a f t a l o n g t h e d e s c e n t O p a t h d u r i n g t h e completion of t h e maneuver.

Solution. T h e r a d i u s o f t . h e t u r n s made b y t h e a i r c r a f t a r e f o u n d by u s i n g a n a v i g a t i o n a l s l i d e r u l e ( F i g . 4 . 3 ) , which g i v e s t h e a n s w e r 4500 m.

COSTA = 1

- -= 0 . 9 8 6 7 ; 4500

60

TA = 9O20';

sinTA = 0.1625; ANSWER:

X = 2 4500 0 . 1 6 2 5 = 1 4 6 3 m .

R = 4500 m ;

TA = 9O20';

X = 1463 m.

However, w e must t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h e f a c t t h a t t h e d e s i r e d a i r c r a f t p a t h i n l i n i n g u p w i t h t h e r u n w a y m u s t b e c h o s e n on t h e b a s i s o f t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e t u r n s a r e made w i t h a c o n s t a n t A t t h e same t i m e , banking angle, i . e . , with a s t a b l e t u r n regime. t h e r e i s a d e l a y i n t h e maneuver p r o d u c e d by t h e r e a c t i o n o f t h e c r e w a n d m a i n l y d u e t o t h e i n e r t i a o f t h e a i r c r a f t when e n t e r i n g and emerging from t h e t u r n s .

8'

a
Fig. Fig.

4500

280

4.3. Fig. 4.4.

Fig.

4.3. Using t h e NL-1OM Aircraft. 4.4.

t o Determine t h e Turning Radius of an

Landing P r o f i l e f o r a J e t A i r c r a f t .

A s s p e c i a l t e s t s have shown, t h e d e l a y i n t h e maneuver o c c u r s p r i m a r i l y a l o n g t h e d e s c e n t p a t h and h a s p r a c t i c a l l y no i n f l u e n c e on t h e d e s i r e d m a g n i t u d e o f t h e a n g l e s o f t h e c o m b i n e d t u r n s . This i s e x p l a i n e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t when t h e a i r c r a f t i s e n t e r i n g a n d e m e r g i n g from a bank a t t h e b e g i n n i n g a n d e n d o f t h e maneuver, t h e a x i s of t h e aircraft p r a c t i c a l l y coincides with t h e a x i s of t h e LTS a n d t h e a i r c r a f t h a s p r a c t i c a l l y n o l a t e r a l v e l o c i t y a t t h e s e points.
A s f a r as t h e m o v e m e n t o f t h e c o n t r o l s u r f a c e s when m a k i n g t h e t u r n s i s c o n c e r n e d , t h e t i m e r e q u i r e d t o move t h e m i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y t w o t i m e s l e s s t h a n t h e t i m e r e q u i r e d for t h e a i r c r a f t t o e n t e r and l e a v e t h e t u r n , s o t h a t t h e l a t e r a l component o f t h e a i r

372

c r a f t s p e e d a t t u r n a n g l e s up t o 1 2 O h a s a magnitude l e s s t h a n onef i f t h of t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l v e l o c i t y .

The d e l a y t i m e i n t h e m a n e u v e r d e p e n d s on t h e s q u a r e o f t h e A t g l i d e s p e e d s o f 280 k m / h r , horizontal velocity of t h e aircraft. t h e d e l a y t i m e i s e q u a l t o 4 . 5 s e c o f f l i g h t t i m e on t h e a v e r a g e , or 3 5 0 m o f t h e a i r c r a f t ' s f l i g h t a l o n g t h e LTS a x i s . T h i s means t h a t i n our example, t h e r e q u i r e d t r a v e l of t h e a i r c r a f t i n l i n i n g up w i t h t h e runway i s e q u a l t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1800 m .
A t t h e same t i m e t h a t t h e c o u r s e i s b . e i n g s e l e c t e d w h i c h m u s t b e f o l l o w e d i n o r d e r t o make t h e l a n d i n g , t h e c r e w m u s t b e g i n s o m e d i s t a n c e away f r o m t h e l a n d i n g p o i n t t o s e t u p t h e d e s i r e d d e s c e n t / 3 5 4 trajectory i n the v e r t i c a l plane (Fig. 4.4).

I n F i g u r e 4 . 4 , P o i n t A i s t h e p o i n t of t r a n s i t i o n from hor i z o n t a l f l i g h t along t h e landing path t o t h e descent regime of t h e aircraft. P o i n t B i s t h e p o i n t where t h e l a n d i n g d i s t a n c e b e g i n s , which i s a l s o c a l l e d t h e c r i t i c a l p o i n t f o r s a f e t r a n s i t i o n t o making another pass. After t h i s point has been passed, a second attempt a t l a n d i n g c a n n o t b e m a d e , s o t h a t t h e a i r c r a f t m u s t make a f i n a l s e l e c t i o n of t h e a i r c r a f t c o u r s e b e f o r e t h i s p o i n t i s r e a c h e d and t h e d e v i a t i o n of t h e a i r c r a f t from t h e g i v e n t r a j e c t o r y (upward and downward) must n o t e x c e e d c e r t a i n l i m i t s . Before t h i s point i s r e a c h e d , a d e c i s i o n m u s t b e made e i t h e r t o make t h e l a n d i n g or c i r c l e around t h e a i r p o r t once a g a i n . After t h e s t a r t i n g point f o r t h e landing distance has been p a s s e d , t h e crew c a r e f u l l y o b s e r v e s t h e a l t i t u d e . To d o t h i s , a l e v e l i n g point C i s s e l e c t e d along t h e approach t o t h e a i r p o r t ( t h i s i s a c o n d i t i o n a l d e s i g n a t i o n f o r t h e p o i n t where t h e d e s c e n t t r a j e c t o r y of t h e a i r c r a f t c r o s s e s t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e ) , toward which t h e f u r t h e r descent of t h e a i r c r a f t i s aimed. With p r o p e r d e s c e n t and a c o n s t a n t p i t c h a n g l e o f t h e a i r c r a f t , t h i s p o i n t i s p r o j e c t e d a t a c o n s t a n t l e v e l on t h e c o c k p i t w i n d o w . I f t h e a p p r o a c h i s b e i n g made t o o r a p i d l y , t h i s p o i n t s h i f t s u p w a r d on t h e g l a s s , a n d i f t h e a i r c r a f t i s c o m i n g i n t o o s l o w l y i t m o v e s downward. B e f o r e r e a c h i n g P o i n t C ( a t a n a l t i t u d e o f 8-15 m , d e p e n d i n g on t h e t y p e o f a i r c r a f t ) t h e a i r c r a f t l e v e l s o f f a n d t h e n l a n d s a t Point D. The d e s c e n t t r a j e c t o r y o f t h e a i r c r a f t i n t h e v e r t i c a l p l a n e is c a l l e d t h e gZide path. The a i r c r a f t i s k e p t on a f i x e d g l i d e p a t h by s e l e c t i n g t h e p r o p e r a n g l e o f p i t c h f o r t h e a i r c r a f t a n d t h e c o r r e c t amount o f power t o t h e e n g i n e s . T h i s p r o c e s s i s much s i m p l e r i n p r i n c i p l e t h a n t h e s e l e c t i o n of t h e c o u r s e t o b e f o l lowed by t h e a i r c r a f t , s i n c e i t d o e s n o t r e q u i r e m a n e u v e r i n g b u t

373

o n l y t h e p r o p e r s e t t i n g of t h e p i t c h a n g l e a n d t h e l e v e r s w h i c h c o n t r o l t h e motors. However, i t c o m p l i c a t e s l a n d i n g as a whole because b o t h p r o c e s s e s must b e c a r r i e d o u t s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w h i l e a given horizontal airspeed is being maintained. Unlike a l l o t h e r n a v i g a t i o n a l devices, t h e systems used i n making an i n s t r u m e n t l a n d i n g are i n t e n d e d s p e c i a l l y f o r k e e p i n g t h e a i r c r a f t on a g i v e n d e s c e n t t r a j e c t o r y b e f o r e l a n d i n g i n t h e h o r i z o n t a l and v e r t i c a l p l a n e s . The p r o p e r o p e r a t i o n o f t h e s e d e v i c e s a n d t h e m a n e u v e r a b i l i t y o f t h e a i r c r a f t d e t e r m i n e t h e minimum p e r m i s s i b l e d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e LTS a t w h i c h t h e a i r c r a f t c a n b e p i l o t e d b y i n s t r u m e n t s or b y i n s t r u c t i o n s from t h e ground, w i t h c o r r e c t i o n o f any e r r o r s t h a t The more p r e c i s e l y may o c c u r a f t e r c h a n g e o v e r t o v i s u a l f l i g h t . t h e d e s i r e d t r a j e c t o r y i s m a i n t a i n e d by i n s t r u m e n t s , t h e c l o s e r t h e t r a n s i t i o n t o v i s u a l f l i g h t w i l l l i e t o t h e l a n d i n g p o i n t and t h e lower t h e a l t i t u d e a t t h a t p o i n t . The l i m i t s w i t h i n w h i c h a n a i r c r a f t c a n b e p i l o t e d b y i n s t r u - / 3 5 5 ments w i t h o u t t h e a i r p o r t b e i n g v i s i b l e and w i t h no t e r r e s t r i a l l a n d m a r k s i n s i g h t which c o u l d show a p p r o a c h e s t o t h e a i r p o r t i s c a l l e d t h e w e a t h e r m i n i m u m for l a n d i n g t h e a i r c r a f t .
A t t h e present t i m e , t h e r e a r e t h r e e p r i n c i p a l types of sys tems f o r making i n s t r u m e n t l a n d i n g s :

(a) A s i m p l i f i e d l a n d i n g s y s t e m w h i c h i n v o l v e s l i n i n g up t h e aircraft with r a d i o s t a t i o n s . (b) (c) A course-glide landing system.

A r a d a r landing sytem.

A n e c e s s a r y complement t o e a c h of t h e s e s y s t e m s i s t h e s y s t e m of landing l i g h t s a t t h e a i r p o r t .

S i m p l i f i e d System f o r Making an

I n s t r u m e n t Landing

The c o m p l e x of d e v i c e s i n t h e s i m p l i f i e d s y s t e m f o r mak i n g a n i n s t r u m e n t l a n d i n g on t h e b a s i s o f i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m two m a s t e r radio s t a t i o n s includes the following: (1) Two m a s t e r r a d i o b e a c o n s , l o c a t e d o n t h e LTS a x i s , w h o s e s t a n d a r d d e s i g n a t i o n i s t h e s h o r t - r a n g e m a s t e r s t a t i o n (SRMS), l o c a t e d 1 0 0 0 m from t h e e n d of t h e L T S , a n d t h e l o n g - r a n g e master s t a t i o n ( L R M S ) , l o c a t e d 4 0 0 0 m f r o m t h e e n d o f t h e LTS. (2) Two USW m a r k e r b e a c o n s w i t h a n a r r o w v e r t i c a l p r o p a g a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f o r e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c w a v e s , l o c a t e d on t h e same s i t e s a s t h e LRMS a n d SRMS.

374

(3)

The l i g h t i n g o f t h e a p p r o a c h e s t o t h e LTS a n d i t s o u t

line.
(4) The complex o f a i r c r a f t r a d i o n a v i g a t i o n a l a n d p i l o t a g e n a v i g a t i o n a l equipment as a w h o l e . This includes :

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h)

One or t w o r a d i o c o m p a s s e s ,
A marker r e c e i v e r ,
Course c o n t r o l of t h e a i r c r a f t ,
A barometric altimeter,
A r a d i o a l t i m e t e r f o r low a l t i t u d e s ,
An a i r s p e e d i n d i c a t o r ,
A gyrohorizon,
A v e r t i c a l speed indicator (variometer).

W have already discussed i n g r e a t d e t a i l ( i n Chapters Two e and T h r e e ) most o f t h e g r o u n d and a i r c r a f t equipment which i s i n c l u d e d i n t h e s i m p l i f i e d s y s t e m f o r making i n s t r u m e n t l a n d i n g s . In this c h a p t e r , w e w i l l p r o v i d e o n l y a b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e o p e r a t i n g p r i n c i p l e s of t h e p i l o t a g e and s p e c i a l l a n d i n g equipment , which were n o t d i s c u s s e d i n t h e o t h e r c h a p t e r s , s i n c e t h i s e q u i p m e n t h a s a v e r y l i m i t e d a p p l i c a t i o n f o r p u r p o s e s of a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n a n d i t s u s e i s v e r y s i m p l e f r o m t h e s t a n d p o i n t of t h e m e t h o d o l o g i c a l /356 e r r o r s which m u s t be t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t .

I n p a r t i c u l a r , w e s h a l l acquaint ourselves with the operating p r i n c i p l e s of t h e following pieces of equipment: marker devices , r a d i o a l t i m e t e r s f o r low a l t i t u d e s , t h e g y r o h o r i z o n a n d v a r i o m e t e r .

Marker Devices
I n o r d e r t o make a landing with t h e s i m p l i f i e d system, it i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t t o know ( a d m i t t e d l y , a t s e p a r a t e p o i n t s ) t h e d i s t a n c e remaining u n t i l t h e end of t h e runway.
A s w e know, a i r c r a f t r a d i o c o m p a s s e s d o n o t p e r m i t a p r e c i s e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e moment when a n a i r c r a f t f l i e s o v e r t h e c o n t r o l r a d i o s t a t i o n ; t h i s i s due t o t h e s p e c i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e To solve t h i s o p e r a t i o n of t h e open a n t e n n a a b o a r d t h e a i r c r a f t . problem, marker beacons and a i r c r a f t m a r k e r r e c e i v e r s have been d e v ised

Marker r a d i o b e a c o n s a r e t r a n s m i t t e r s w i t h a d i r e c t i o n a l t r a n s mission c h a r a c t e r i s t i c v e r t i c a l l y upward, sometimes with a s l i g h t d e v i a t i o n t o w a r d t h e LTS s o t h a t t h e l i m i t o f t h e d i r e c t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e r a d i a t i o n i s l o c a t e d t o o n e s i d e o f t h e LTS a n d as d o s e as p o s s i b l e t o t h e v e r t i c a l . I n t h i s case, an aircraft w h i c h i s f l y i n g o v e r t h e b e a c o n t o w a r d s t h e LTS w i l l r e c e i v e t h e s i g n a l s f r o m t h e m a r k e r t r a n s m i t t e r a t t h e moment when i t is e x a c t l y above t h e b e a c o n .

For p u r p o s e s of

r e c o g n i t i o n , t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n from t h e m a r k e r

375

b e a c o n i s n o t c o n t i n u o u s b u t i n t h e form o f f r e q u e n t s h o r t p u l s e s (SRMS) or l o n g e r , l e s s f r e q u e n t s i g n a l s (LRMS). These s i g n a l s are h e a r d a b o a r d t h e a i r c r a f t f o r a p e r i o d o f 3-6 s e c a f t e r i t h a s f l o w n o v e r t h e v e r t i c a l l i m i t of t h e r a d i a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c and b e f o r e it c r o s s e s t h e second, d e f l e c t e d l i m i t of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c .

A s t i l l simpler device i s t h e aircraft marker r e c e i v e r . It i s s e t t o o n e f r e q u e n c y w h i c h i s t h e same f o r a l l b e a c o n s . There f o r e , it i s v e r y s i m p l e i n d e s i g n , h a s s m a l l dimensions, and r e q u i r e s no a t t e n t i o n f o r u s e e x c e p t t o b e s w i t c h e d on a n d o f f .

When u s e d i n a c o m p l e x t o g e t h e r w i t h c o u r s e - g l i d e d e v i c e s , t h e m a r k e r r e c e i v e r i s t u r n e d on by a s w i t c h w h i c h i s combined w i t h t h e c o u r s e - g l i d e e q u i p m e n t , s o t h a t t h e crew d o e s n o t h a v e t o i n t e r I n many c a s e s , t h e m a r k e r r e c e i v e r fere i n its operation at a l l . i s combined w i t h t h e s w i t c h f o r t h e r a d i o c o m p a s s e s , t h e p u r p o s e b e i n g t o e n s u r e a low c o n s u m p t i o n o f e l e c t r i c a l e n e r g y , a n d a l l o w s t a b i l i t y and h i g h r e l i a b i l i t y i n t h e o p e r a t i o n of t h i s r e c e i v e r . The m a r k e r r e c e i v e r i s c o n n e c t e d t o a l i g h t s i g n a l on t h e i n s t r u m e n t p a n e l i n t h e c o c k p i t marked m a r k e r ) d e v i c e which g i v e s a s i m u l t a n e o u s s o u n d s i g n a l by means T h u s , when t h e a i r c r a f t f l i e s o v e r t h e m a r k e r , t h e l a m p and a s e r i e s of s h o r t r i n g s i s h e a r d . (a red light and t o a of a b e l l . flashes

Low-Altitude Radio A Ztimeters

A t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e , l o w - a l t i t u d e r a d i o a l t i m e t e r s b a s e d on t h e p r i n c i p l e of f r e q u e n c y m o d u l a t i o n a r e t h e o n e s most w i d e l y e m ployed.

/357

A s c h e m a t i c d i a g r a m o f s u c h a r a d i o a l t i m e t e r i s shown i n F i g u r e
4.5.

indicator

Fig.

4.5.

Diagram o f L o w - A l t i t u d e R a d i o a l t i m e t e r .

376

The r a d i o a l t i m e t e r t r a n s m i t t e r h a s a m o d u l a t i n g d e v i c e which For t h i s Purpose, w e can use ( e . g . > p r o d u c e s a s a w - t o o t h wave. a v a r i a b l e membrane c a p a c i t o r w i t h m e c h a n i c a l o s c i l l a t i o n of t h e membrane. The f r e q u e n c y o f t h e s i g n a l s r e f l e c t e d from t h e ground and p i c k e d up by t h e r e c e i v i n g a n t e n n a h a s t h e same s a w - t o o t h c h a r a c t e r istic, but is shifted i n t i m e by a v a l u e T , r e q u i r e d f o r t h e e l e c t r o m a- n e t i c w a v e s t o t r a v e 1 g from t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g a n t e n n a t o t h e ground and back a g a i n t o t h e receiving antenna (Fig. 4.6).

1.

Fig. 4.6. Frequency Char acteristic of Radioaltimeter.

I t i s c l e a r from t h e f i g u r e t h a t t h e f r e q u e n c y d i f f e r e n c e be t w e e n t h e e m i t t e d a n d r e c e i v e d w a v e s a t a n y moment i n t i m e ( w i t h t h e exception of t h e segments between t h e extreme values of t h e frequency c h a r a c t e r i s t i c ) w i l l be s t r i c t l y l i n e a r with respect t o the flight altitude. For a complete r e t e n t i o n of t h e l i n e a r i t y , t h e s e s e g m e n t s c a n b e c u t o u t by c u t t i n g o f f t h e r e c e i v i n g s e c t i o n w i t h a II-shaped v o l t a g e a t t h e end p o i n t s o f t h e e m i t t e d f r e q u e n c y .

The e m i t t e d a n d r e c e i v e d f r e q u e n c i e s a r e co mb i n ed i n t h e b a l a n c i n g d e t e c t o r , w h e r e a low f r e q u e n c y i s f o r m e d w h i c h i s p r o p o r tional t o the flight altitude. /358 F o l l o w i n g a m p l i f i c a t i o n , t h e low f r e q u e n c y i s c o n v e r t e d t o r e c t a n g u l a r o s c i l l a t i o n s which a r e c a l i b r a t e d b o t h i n t e r m s of ampli tude and d u r a t i o n . Thus, t h e counting c i r c u i t w i l l receive pulses which a r e o f u n i f o r m m a g n i t u d e , and whose number p e r u n i t t i m e w i l l d e p e n d on t h e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e . T h e n u m b e r o f c a l i b r a t e d p u l s e s i s summed a n d f e d i n t h e f o r m o f a d i r e c t c u r r e n t t o t h e i n d i c a t o r , whose p o i n t e r shows t h e a l t i t u d e i n meters. In t h e s i m p l i f i e d landing system, t h e r a d i o a l t i m e t e r plays o n l y an a u x i l i a r y r o l e as a n i n d i c a t o r o f a d a n g e r o u s a p p r o a c h t o t h e g r o u n d , s i n c e i t s r e a d i n g s d e p e n d upon t h e n a t u r e o f t h e r e l i e f and cannot be used f o r checking t h e r a t e of d e s c e n t . T o s e t up t h e descent t r a j e c t o r y of t h e a i r c r a f t , barometric altimeters are used. I n more c o m p l e t e l a n d i n g s y s t e m s , t h e r a d i o a l t i m e t e r c a n b e u s e d t o g i v e a t r a j e c t o r y v a l u e as w e l l , b u t o n l y i n t h e l a s t s t a g e of descent b e f o r e landing above a given f i n a l area of s a f e t y adjoin i n g t h e LTS. S i n c e t h o s e l a n d i n g s y s t e m s which e n s u r e d e s c e n t o f t h e a i r c r a f t by i n s t r u m e n t s u n t i l t h e p o i n t where t h e l a n d i n g d i s t a n c e 377

b e g i n s use t h e r a d i o altimeter only t o s i g n a l a dangerous approach t o t h e g r o u n d , w e c a n e x c l u d e them f o r c o n v e n i e n c e f r o m t h e g r o u p of basic pilotage instruments located i n t h e center of the f i e l d o f v i s i o n of t h e p i l o t , and u s e a u d i b l e s i g n a l s . If a n a i r c r a f t i s making a d e s c e n t and r e a c h e s t h e l i m i t of p e r m i s s i b l e a l t i t u d e a b o v e t h e g r o u n d , t h e a u d i b l e s i g n a l w a r n s t h e crew o f t h e n e c e s s i t y t o terminate descent.

Gy ro h or iz o n
The a r t i f i c i a l i n d i c a t o r of t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e h o r i z o n r e l a t i v e t o t h e a x i s o f t h e a i r c r a f t ( g y r o h o r i z o n ) i s a common p i l o t a g e i n s t r u m e n t , i n t e n d e d f o r p i l o t i n g t h e a i r c r a f t when t h e t r u e horizon is not v i si b l e . However, i t i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t i n g u i d i n g t h e a i r c r a f t a l o n g a l a n d i n g t r a j e c t o r y , where i t i s u s e d f o r main taining a desired landing trajectory. In p r i n c i p l e , t h e design of t h e gyrohorizon is simpler than t h a t of t h e gyrosemicompass , e .g. , u n l i k e t h e l a t t e r , t h e gyrohor i z o n h a s a v e r t i c a l a x i s o f r o t a t i o n for t h e g y r o s c o p e , a n d a g r a v i t a t i o n a l c o r r e c t i o n d e v i c e suspended from t h e bottom of t h e gyro assembly. This s e r v e s t o keep t h e gyroscope a x i s c o n s t a n t l y v e r t i c a l in the aircraft. The e x t e r n a l f r a m e o f t h e g y r o h o r i z o n i s l o c a t e d h o r i z o n t a l l y , while i t s axis of r o t a t i o n coincides with t h e longitudinal axis T h e r e f o r e , w e can immediately determine t h e e x i s t of t h e aircraft. e n c e and magnitude o f a l a t e r a l r o l l i n g o f t h e a i r c r a f t by t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e e x t e r n a l frame r e l a t i v e t o t h e a x i s o f t h e a i r c r a f t .

For t h i s p u r p o s e , a s i l h o u e t t e o f t h e a i r c r a f t h a s b e e n p a s t e d on t h e g l a s s which c o v e r s t h e d i a l , a n d a h o r i z o n t a l s t r i p which moves u p a n d down i m i t a t e s t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e v i s i b l e h o r i z o n .

F i g u r e 4 . 7 s h o w s t h e s c h e m a t i c d i a g r a m of t h e g y r o h o r i z o n .

Fig. 378

4.7.

D i a g r a m s of

Gyrohorizon:

( a ) Kinematics;

(b) Indicator.

G y r o a s s e m b l y 1, w i t h a v e r t i c a l a x i s o f t h e g y r o s c o p e r o t o r and t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a l c o r r e c t i o n d e v i c e 2 mounted a t t h e b o t t o m , a r e s u s p e n d e d i n t h e h o r i z o n t a l e x t e r n a l f r a m e 3 3 n t h e g y r o assem b l y b e a r i n g s 4. The c a r r i e r f o r t h e h o r i z o n l i n e 5 i s f a s t e n e d t o t h e c a s i n g o f t h e g y r o a s s e m b l y a n d d i s p l a c e d somewhat f o r w a r d r e l a t i v e t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l axis of t h e gyro assembly (along t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e a i r c r a f t ' s f l i g h t from t h e forward p a r t o f t h e instrument). The a x i s o f t h e l i n e i s f a s t e n e d a t t h e f r o n t t o t h e e x t e r n a l frame, a l s o along t h e f l i g h t d i r e c t i o n of t h e aircraft. T h e r e f o r e , when r e d u c i n g t h e a n g l e of p i t c h o f t h e a i r c r a f t , t h e s t r i p o f t h e g y r o h o r i z o n 7 moves u p w a r d , r e m a i n i n g p a r a l l e l t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l a x i s of t h e g y r o assembly. When t h e p i t c h a n g l e i n c r e a s e s , t h e h o r i z o n l i n e moves downward as t h e t r u e h o r i z o n d o e s . During l a t e r a l r o l l i n g of t h e a i r c r a f t , t h e c a s i n g of t h e gyroh o r i z o n ( a l o n g w i t h t h e s i l h o u e t t e of t h e a i r c r a f t ) r o t a t e s r e l a t i v e t o t h e b e a r i n g s of t h e e x t e r n a l f r a m e 9 i n t h e d i r e c t i o n i n which t h e a i r c r a f t i s r o l l i n g , which p r o v i d e s a n i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e For e s t i r o l l i n g of t h e aircraft r e l a t i v e t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l s t r i p . mating and m a i n t a i n i n g g i v e n l o n g i t u d i n a l and l a t e r a l r o l l i n g of t h e a i r c r a f t , a s c a l e i s l o c a t e d b e t w e e n t h e o u t e r frame a n d t h e h o r i z o n l i n e a n d shows s c a l e d i v i s i o n s f o r e s t i m a t i n g t h e m a g n i t u d e of t h e r o l l i n g i n d e g r e e s . The g y r o h o r i z o n , f i t t e d w i t h t h e k i n e m a t i c s y s t e m d e s c r i b e d a b o v e , c a n be u s e d w i t h i n l i m i t e d d e g r e e s of l o n g i t u d i n a l and t r a n s verse r o l l i n g of t h e aircraft. Obviously, t h e r e a r bearing of t h e o u t e r frame, i . e . , t h e one l o c a t e d b e t w e e n t h e o u t e r frame a n d t h e s c a l e , m u s t b e m o u n t e d on a s u p p o r t i n t h e u n i t . This support acts/360 as a p i v o t f o r t h e l e v e r s u p p o r t i n g t h e h o r i z o n l i n e , e . g . , when t h e a i r c r a f t rolls o v e r o n o n e w i n g . I n t h e case o f c o n s i d e r a b l e changes i n t h e p i t c h i n g a n g l e of t h e aircraft (e.g., i n a Nestrov loop), a support w i l l hold t h e l e v e r f o r t h e s t r i p i n a n o t c h on t h e o u t e r f r a m e . The p r o j e c t i o n o f one o f t h e s e s u p p o r t s l i m i t s t h e d e g r e e o f f r e e d o m of t h e g y r o s c o p e , t h u s l e a d i n g t o a " d i s - l o c a t i o n " o f i t s i n d i c a t i o n s , and a v e r y l o n g p e r i o d of t i m e i s r e q u i r e d t o r e a d j u s t t h e m by g r a v i t a t i o n a l c o r r e c t i o n . To e n s u r e " n o n d i s l o c a t i o n " o f t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e g y r o h o r izon, t h e gyroscopic section protrudes outside t h e housing of t h e instrument, i.e., constitutes a separate gyroscopic instrument, a g y r o c o m p a s s w i t h o u t a l i m i t e d d e g r e e of f r e e d o m . The r e a d i n g s of t h e g y r o v e r t i c a l are t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e horizon i n d i c a t o r by means o f m a s t e r a n d s l a v e s e l s y n s .
W s h o u l d a l s o n o t e t h a t g y r o h o r i z o n s or g y r o v e r t i c a l s a r e e t r a n s m i t t e r s w h i c h i n d i c a t e l o n g i t u d i n a l a n d l a t e r a l r o l l i n g for t h e o p e r a t i o n of a u t o p i l o t s , a c t i n g as t r a n s m i t t e r s of t u r n angles of t h e a i r c r a f t i n t h e h o r i z o n t a l p l a n e , i n w h i c h g y r o s c o p i c s e m i compasses are u s e d .

379
H

V a r i ome t e r
A uar<ometer i s a d e v i c e which m e a s u r e s t h e r a t e o f v e r t i c a l d e s c e n t or c l i m b o f a n a i r c r a f t . T h e o p e r a t i n g p r i n c i p l e o f a v a r i o m e t e r i s b a s e d on t h e d e c e l e r a t i o n o f a c u r r e n t o f a i r which e q u a l i z e s t h e p r e s s u r e i n s i d e t h e body o f t h e u n i t w i t h t h e e x t e r n a l s t a t i c p r e s s u r e . T h i s means t h a t when v e r t i c a l m o v e m e n t o c c u r s , a p r e s s u r e d r o p d e v e l o p s w i t h i n t h e body o f t h e u n i t and i n t h e s t a t i c t u b e ( F i g . 4 . 8 ) .

capillary
E=

t h e m a n o m e t r i c chamber o f t h e i n s t r u ment. W i t h i n t h e body o f t h e i n s t r u ment, t h i s p r e s s u r e passes through a

To measure t h i s drop, t h e variometer i s f i t t e d with a t r a n s m i t t e r mechanism, s i m i l a r i n p r i n c i p l e t o t h e mechanism o f t h e a l t i m e t e r or s p e e d i n d i c a t o r . The i n d i c a t o r s c a l e i s g r a d u a t e d d i r e c t l y i n t e r m s o f v e r t i c a l s p e e d , as e x p r e s s e d m e t e r s / s e c . A n g l e o f Slope for Aircraft G1 ide

/ 361

The p r o p e r s e l e c t i o n o f a n a n g l e o f s l o p e for g l i d i n g i s v e r y important f o r a l l instrument landing systems, and e s p e c i a l l y f o r t h e s i m p l i f i e d s y s t e m s g u i d e d by m a s t e r r a d i o s t a t i o n s , b o t h f r o m t h e s t a n d p o i n t of making a s a f e l a n d i n g a n d t h e m e t e o r o l o g i c a l minimum a t w h i c h a l a n d i n g c a n b e m a d e . When m a k i n g a n a p p r o a c h t o l a n d , i t i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t t h a t t h e t o the f l i g h t a l t i t u d e (H) correspond t o t h e remaining d i s t a n c e p o i n t w h e r e t h e a i r c r a f t t o u c h e s down:

(s)

H
where 8 i s t h e g l i d e a n g l e .

= S

rem

tg0

A s i m p l i f i e d s y s t e m o f i n s t r u m e n t l a n d i n g makes i t p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e t h e r e m a i n i n g d i s t a n c e t o t h e l a n d i n g p o i n t o n l y when p a s s i n g o v e r t h e LRMS a n d SRMS. The p o i n t a t w h i c h t h e a i r c r a f t b e g i n s t o d e s c e n d f r o m t h e

3 80

a l t i t u d e e s t a b l i s h e d f o r c i r c l i n g above t h e f i e l d i s d e t e r m i n e d by c a l c u l a t i n g t h e t i m e , and i s t h e r e f o r e i n s u f f i c i e n t l y e x a c t . A d e s c e n t b e t w e e n t h e LRMS a n d SRMS i s a l s o made b y c a l c u l a t i n g t h e path of the aircraft with t i m e , but t h i s calculation takes only a s h o r t p e r i o d of t i m e and i s performed a f t e r a c e r t a i n p o i n t has b e e n p a s s e d ; it i s t h e r e f o r e more a c c u r a t e . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e s t a n d a r d s a d o p t e d i n t h e USSR, t h e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e f o r c i r c l i n g o v e r an a i r p o r t ( f o r a i r c r a f t w i t h g a s t u r b i n e e n g i n e s ) h a s been s e t a t 400 m; f o r p i s t o n - e n g i n e a i r c r a f t , i t is 300 m . I n b o t h cases, however, t h e t r u e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e above t h e l o c a l t e r r a i n s u r r o u n d i n g t h e a i r p o r t must b e n o l e s s t h a n 200 m . T h i s a l t i t u d e r e s e r v e i s r e t a i n e d e v e n when c o m i n g s t r a i g h t i n f o r a landing, u n t i l t h e beginning of descent i n t h e designated glide pattern. From t h e moment when d e s c e n t b e g i n s i n a g l i d e , a n d u n t i l t h e a i r c r a f t p a s s e s o v e r a c e r t a i n m a r k e r (LRMS), t h e a l t i t u d e r e s e r v e a b o v e t h e r e l i e f i s k e p t a t a minumum o f 1 5 0 m . After flying over t h e L R M S , a n d b e f o r e r e a c h i n g t h e SRMS, t h e h e i g h t o f t h e a i r c r a f t above t h e t e r r a i n i s r e d u c e d from 1 5 0 t o 5 0 m . During t h i s maneuver, h o w e v e r , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o k e e p i n m i n d t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e may b e a p o s s i b l e p r e m a t u r e l o s s o f a l t i t u d e , i n c a s e o f an u n e x p e c t e d s t r o n g head wind. F o r t h i s r e a s o n , i t i s c o n s i d e r e d t h a t t h e minimum f l i g h t a l t i t u d e b e t w e e n t h e LRMS a n d t h e SRMS ( f l i g h t a l t i t u d e a b o v e t h e SRMS) m u s t b e a t l e a s t 5 0 m e t e r s a b o v e t h e h e i g h e s t p o i n t i n t h e v i c i n i t y , b e g i n n i n g a t h a l f t h e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n t h e LRMS a n d SRMS a n d e x t e n d i n g t o t h e p o i n t w h e r e t h e SRMS i s l o c a t e d . T h e s e s a m e a l t i t u d e r e s e r v e s a r e m a i n t a i n e d e v e n when u s i n g more c o m p l e t e l a n d i n g s y s t e m s , a l t h o u g h i n t h i s c a s e t h e g i v e n g l i d e p a t h f o r t h e a i r c r a f t i s d e f i n e d i n s p a c e a n d t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of a premature descent is sharply reduced. I n t h i s case, however, t h e /362 b a s i c m e t h o d or c h e c k i n g t h e p r o p e r d e s c e n t i s t h e m e a s u r e m e n t o f t h e b a r o m e t r i c a l t i t u d e when f l y i n g o v e r t h e m a r k e r p o i n t s , t h u s guaranteeing safety of f l i g h t i n case the landing instruments a b o a r d t h e a i r c r a f t o r on t h e g r o u n d s h o u l d m a l f u n c t i o n . I n c a s e s when t h e a p p r o a c h e s t o a n a i r p o r t a r e f r e e o f o b structions, the angle of slope i n the glide path is set equal t o 2'40'. The f l i g h t a l t i t u d e r e l a t i v e t o t h e l e v e l o f t h e a i r p o r t i n t h i s c a s e i s s e t a t 2 0 0 m a b o v e t h e LRMS a n d 60 m a b o v e t h e SRMS. Typical Maneuvers
i n Landing

an A i r c r a f t

S i m p l i f i e d s y s t e m s f o r b r i n g i n g an a i r c r a f t i n f o r a l a n d i n g a r e u s e d a t a i r p o r t s w i t h a low t r a f f i c d e n s e , wh ere t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n o f complex l a n d i n g s y s t e m s would n o t b e j u s t i f i e d . Conse q u e n t l y , i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o know i n a d v a n c e w h e t h e r t h e s e a i r p o r t s w i l l h a v e p r o v i s i o n f o r r a d a r c o n t r o l , t o s e t up t h e a p p r o a c h a n d l a n d i n g p a t t e r n on command f r o m t h e g r o u n d . Hence, t h e a p p r o a c h f o r l a n d i n g i s made w i t h t h e same d e v i c e s w h i c h a r e u s e d i n l a n d i n g
381

t h e aircraft along a s t r a i g h t line. For t h i s r e a s o n , a s u c c e s s f u l a c c o m p l i s h m e n t o f t h e maneuv,er u n d e r t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s w i l l b e a s s u r e d i f t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r t h e maneuver i s one o f t h e marker p o i n t s of t h e system. U s u a l l y a LRMS i s u s e d f o r t h i s purpose, Bince a t t h e major i t y o f a i r p o r t s , it i s t h e main control f a c i l i t y at the airport. There are t h e n t h r e e p o s s i b l e ways t o b r i n g t h e a i r c r a f t t o the starting point f o r the ma neuver: & . (1) An a p p r o a c h o f t h e a i r H 3900-4 0 1 21 c r a f t t o t h e LRMS, w i t h a p a t h angle close t o the landing course. Fig. 4.9. Large and Small ( 2 ) An a p p r o a c h t o t h e LRMS, Rectangular Landing P a t t e r n s . with a path angle n e a r l y perpen d i c u l a r t o t h e landing course. ( 3 ) An a p p r o a c h o f t h e a i r c r a f t t o t h e LRMS, w i t h a p a t h a n g l e nearly the reverse o f the landing course. I n d i r e c t i n g t h e a i r c r a f t t o w a r d t h e LRMS a t p a t h a n g l e c l o s e t o t h e l a n d i n g c o u r s e , t h e a p p r o a c h or l a n d i n g c a n b e made a l o n g a m o r e or l e s s s t r a i g h t - l i n e c o u r s e ( F i g . 4 . 9 ) . A l a r g e r e c t a n g u l a r r o u t e i s c o v e r e d i n t h i s case, i f t h e /363 aircraft approaches t h e a i r p o r t a t a g r e a t a l t i t u d e ( f o r aircraft w i t h g a s t u r b i n e e n g i n e s , t h i s i s 3 9 0 0 t o 4200 m), and an a d d i t i o n a l . l e n g t h o f t i m e i s r e q u i r e d for t h e a i r c r a f t t o d e s c e n d b e f o r e l a n d ing. I n t h i s c a s e , i n m a k i n g t h e a p p r o a c h t o t h e LRMS, t h e a i r c r a f t makes a t u r n t o t h e p a t h a n g l e f o r l a n d i n g ( i n t h e f o l l o w i n g , t h e p a t h a n g l e s w ' i l l b e r e f e r r e d t o as m a g n e t i c ) , a t w h i c h t h e a i r c r a f t d e s c e n d s t o 2800 m ( r e l a t i v e t o t h e p r e s s u r e a t t h e l e v e l o f t h e a i r p o r t where i t i s l a n d i n g ) . A t an a l t i t u d e o f 2800 m , t h e d o u b l e t u r n b e g i n s ( f i r s t a n d second t u r n s w i t h o u t a s t r a i g h t l i n e between them) a t 180 w i t h a d e s c e n t t o 1200 m. F l i g h t then continues with a magnetic path a n g l e (MPA) o p p o s i t e t o t h e l a n d i n g a n g l e , w i t h d e s c e n t t o t h e a l t i t u d e set f o r c i r c l i n g over the a i r p o r t . I n a i r c r a f t with gas t u r b i n e engines, l i m i t s have been s e t f o r t h e h o r i z o n t a l a i r s p e e d with t h e undercarriage lowered. There f o r e , i n a f l i g h t w i t h a MPA o p p o s i t e t o t h e l a n d i n g a n g l e , t h e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e f o r c i r c l i n g t h e f i e l d i s m a i n t a i n e d f o r 5 t o 6 km u n t i l t h e LRMS i s p a s s e d , s o t h a t a t t h e moment when i t a c t u a l l y i s p a s s e d , t h e s p e e d o f t h e a i r c r a f t i n h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t can b e cut t o the speed e s t a b l i s h e d f o r lowering t h e undercarriage.

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A f t e r p a s s i n g o v e r t h e t r a v e r s e of t h e continues opposite t o t h e landing direction s t a r t i n g t h e t h i r d turn ( u s u a l l y a t a f l i g h up t o C A R = 1 2 0 t o t h e r i g h t a n d up t o C A R straight-line paths). The u n d e r c a r r i a g e i s segment.

LRMS, t h e f l i g h t f o r 70 s e c , p r i o r t o t a l t i t u d e o f 400 m , = 2 4 0 on t h e l e f t lowered i n t h i s path

A f t e r a p e r i o d o f 7 0 s e c f l y i n g t i m e f r o m t h e moment when t h e t r a v e r s e o f t h e LRMS i s p a s s e d or u n t i l CAR-120 ( 2 4 0 O ) i s r e a c h e d , t h e t h i r d t u r n i s made. Since t h e horizontal airspeed i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f t h e t h i r d t u r n i s much l e s s t h a n i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f t h e doubling of t h e first and second t u r n s , t h e r a d i i o f t h e t h i r d a n d f o u r t h t u r n s ( w i t h a b a n k i n g a n g l e o f 1 5 t o 1 7 O ) a r e t h e n much less than t h e r a d i u s o f t h e double t u r n . T h e r e f o r e , between t h e t h i r d and f o u r t h t u r n s t h e r e i s a p e r i o d of s t r a i g h t - l i n e f l i g h t This s t r a i g h t - l i n e segment is used f o r which l a s t s 50 t o 5 5 s e c . p r e l i m i n a r y l o w e r i n g o f t h e wing f l a p s b e f o r e l a n d i n g , and a l s o a c t s as a " b u f f e r t ' , w h i c h c o m p e n s a t e s f o r e r r o r s i n a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n i n c a s e s when t h e e f f e c t o f a s i d e w i n d i n m a k i n g t h e m a n e u v e r from t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t u n t i l t h e end o f t h e t h i r d t u r n h a s n o t been e s t i m a t e d s u f f i c i e n t l y p r e c i s e l y .

I n t h e s e c a s e s , t h e l l b u f f e r " l i n e c a n b e e x t e n d e d or s h o r t e n e d s o m e w h a t , b u t t h e l a s t ( f o u r t h ) t u r n m u s t b e a l w a y s made on t i m e .
A t a i r p o r t s w h e r e t h e n a t u r e o f t h e l o c a l t e r r a i n or c o m p l e x wind c o n d i t i o n s r e n d e r f l i g h t a l o n g a s t r a i g h t l i n e a t 400 m i m possible ( f o r aircraft with gas t u r b i n e engines), b u t t h e estab l i s h e d f l i g h t a l t i t u d e i s 6 0 0 or 9 0 0 m , t h e d u r a t i o n o f t h e f l i g h t f r o m t h e t r a v e r s e o f t h e LRMS t o t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e t h i r d t u r m i s i n c r e a s e d , s o t h a t a f t e r t h e a i r c r a f t emerges from t h e f o u r t h t u r n it i s l o c a t e d below t h e g l i d e p a t h e s t a b l i s h e d f o r a g i v e n approach d i r e c t i o n and h a s a segment o f h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t t o t h e J This t i m e e n d o f t h e g l i d e p a t h w h i c h i s o n l y 2 t o 30 s e c l o n g . i s n e e d e d t o p r e p a r e t h e crew f o r l a n d i n g and f o r e x t e n d i n g t h e flaps fully.

/364

For e x a m p l e , i f t h e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e a l o n g a s t r a i g h t - l i n e course is s e t a t 600 m, and t h e s l o p e angle o f t h e g l i d e p a t h is 2 O 4 ' , t h e f o u r t h t u r n m u s t b e e x e c u t e d n o c l o s e r t h a n 1 5 km f r o m t h e e n d o f t h e LTS, s i n c e t h e a i r c r a f t ( a t a n a l t i t u d e o f 6 0 0 m) e n t e r s t h e g l i d e p a t h a t a d i s t a n c e o f 1 3 km f r o m t h e e n d o f t h e LTS, a n d 2 km a r e r e q u i r e d f o r t h e h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t s e g m e n t b e f o r e entering the glide path.
C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e s t a r t of t h e t h i r d t u r n u n d e r c a l m c o n d i t i o n s , a f t e r p a s s i n g t h e t r a v e r s e o f t h e LRMS, l a s t s 2 m i n u t e s a n d 30 s e c o n d s o f f l y i n g t i m e ( a t V = 3 5 0 k m / h r ) , w i t h C A R a p p r o x i m a t e l y e q u a l t o 135O ( 2 2 5 O ) . If t h e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e along t h e s t r a i g h t - l i n e p a t h i s s e t a t 900 m, t h e f l y i n g t i m e from t h e t r a v e r s e o f t h e LRMS t o t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e f o u r t h t u r n i s i n c r e a s e d t o 3 m i n u t e s a n d 30 s e c o n d s , s o t h a t i t i s a d v i s a b l e t o i n c r e a s e

383

t h e g l i d e p a t h u p t o 4O f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f s h o r t e n i n g t h e t i m e i n volved i n making t h e d e s c e n t . I n c a s e s when a n a i r c r a f t i s a p p r o a c h i n p a n a i r p o r t w i t h a p a t h a n g l e c l o s e t o t h e l a n d i n g a n g l e , a t a n a l t i t u d e o f 1 5 0 0 m or l e s s , t h e d o u b l e f i r s t a n d s e c o n d t u r n s a r e made i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r p a s The d e s c e n t t o c i r c l i n g a l t i t u d e a n d r e d u c t i o n o f s i n g t h e LRMS. s p e e d t o l o w e r t h e u n d e r c a r r i a g e i n t h i s case a r e p e r f o r m e d i n t h e designated turn. Hence, t h e l a r g e r e c t a n g u l a r f l i g h t p a t t e r n i n converted t o a s m a l l one, and t h e maneuvering t i m e i s s h o r t e n e d t o a b o u t 4.5 min.

If t h e a i r c r a f t approaches t h e a i r p o r t a t t h e a l t i t u d e e s t a b l i s h e d f o r c i r c l i n g t h e f i e l d , t h e r a d i i o f a l l f o u r t u r n s a r e made approximately t h e same, s o t h a t i n o r d e r t o create t h e buffer1 l i n e between t h e t h i r d and f o u r t h t u r n s , t h e f i r s t and second t u r n s of t h e a i r c r a f t a r e e x e c u t e d i n s u c c e s s i o n w i t h a t i m e i n t e r v a l between t h e end o f t h e f i r s t and t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e second t u r n which e q u a l s 40 sec.
The f o u r t h t u r n on t h e l a r g e a n d s m a l l r e c t a n g u l a r p a t t e r n s i s made a l o n g t h e c o u r s e a n g l e . In aircraft with gas turbine e n g i n e s , t h e C A R a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e f o u r t h t u r n (when t u r n i n g t o t h e r i g h t ) m u s t b e e q u a l t o 7 0 ( a n d - 2 9 0 when t u r n i n g t o the left). The l a n d i n g a p p r o a c h f o r a i r c r a f t w i t h p i s t o n e n g i n e s , i s made according t o t h e small rectangular p a t t e r n , with d i f f e r e n t first a n d s e c o n d t u r n s , a n d t h e same t i m e p a r a m e t e r s b e t w e e n t h e f i r s t a n d s e c o n d t u r n s ( 4 0 s e c ) , f r o m t h e t r a v e r s e o f t h e LRMS t o t h e beginning of the t h i r d turn (70 s e c ) ( a t a f l i g h t a l t i t u d e of 3 0 0 m). T h e f o u r t h t u r n for t h e s e a i r c r a f t b e g i n s a t C A R = 75 or 285O. However, due t o t h e l o w e r a i r s p e e d a l o n g t h e s t r a i g h t - l i n e segments and t h e smaller t u r n i n g r a d i i , t h e l i n e a r dimensions o f t h e m a n e u v e r f o r a i r c r a f t w i t h p i s t o n e n g i n e s a r e much l e s s t h a n I n a d d i t i o n , due t o t h e for aircraft with gas turbine engines. s h o r t e r t i m e f o r each t u r n , t h e t o t a l t i m e f o r executing the ma neuver f o r a i r c r a f t with p i s t o n engines i s s h o r t e r ( f o r example) by 1 m i n u t e .

/365

F i g . 4 . 1 0 . L a n d i n g M a n e u v e r When Approaching t h e LTS Axis a t a 90 Angle.

384

. .

..

When a n a i r c r a f t i s a p p r o a c h i n g an a i r p o r t a t a n M A w h i c h i s P perpendicular t o the landing angle , the landing altitude f o r air c r a f t with gas t u r b i n e e n g i n e s i s u s u a l l y s e t a t 1 2 0 0 m above t h e l e v e l of t h e ai rp o rt (Fig. 4.10). A f t e r p a s s i n g t h e LRMS, t h e a i r c r a f t c o n t i n u e s on a c o u r s e w h i c h l a s t s f o r 40 s e c u n t i l d e s c e n t , a n d t h e s e c o n d t u r n i s a l s o e x e c u t e d w i t h loss o f a l t i t u d e .
A f t e r c o m p l e t i n g t h e s e c o n d t u r n , t h e f l i g h t l a s t s 30 s e c u n t i l t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e t h i r d t u r n , when t h e u n d e r c a r r i a g e i s l o w e r e d .

A s i m i l a r m a n e u v e r i s e x e c u t e d by ' p i s t o n - e n g i n e a i r c r a f t , w i t h t h e s o l e d i f f e r e n c e t h a t t h e f l y i n g t i m e f r o m t h e LRMS t o t h e beginning o f t h e second t u r n is s e t a t no less than 1 min, s i n c e t h e a i r s p e e d o f t h e s e a i r c r a f t i n a l l s t a g e s o f t h e landing approach u n t i l e m e r g e n c e f r o m t h e f o u r t h t u r n i s r o u g h l y t h e same.
If an a i r c r a f t a p p r o a c h e s an a i r p o r t w i t h an M A which i s c l o s e P t o t h e r e v e r s e o f t h e l a n d i n g a n g l e , t h e crew o f a g a s t u r b i n e aircraft travels along a s m a l l rectangular pattern with different s i d e s f o r t h e f i r s t and second t u r n s (Fig. 4.11,a). I n t h e case of aircraft with piston engines, t h e so-called standard turn is e x e c u t e d i n t h i s i n s t a n c e ( F i g . 4 . 1 1 , b ) on t h e l a n d i n g c o u r s e .

These maneuvers a g r e e i n t e r m s o f t h e magnitude and d i r e c t i o n o f t h e t u r n s ; i n t h e f o r m e r , however, t h e r e i s a s t r a i g h t - l i n e segment between t h e second and thkd t u r n s f o r lowering t h e under c a r r i a g e , w h i l e t h e r e i s a " b u f f e r " l i n e between t h e t h i r d and fourth turns. I n a d d i t i o n , i f t h e aircraft approaches t h e a i r p o r t a t t h e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e f o r c i r c l i n g t h e f i e l d , and a l l t h e t u r n s o f t h e a i r c r a f t a r e made w i t h o u t loss o f a l t i t u d e ( t h e r a d i i o f a l l t h e t u r n s being t h e same), then between t h e f i r s t and second t u r n s t h e r e w i l l a l s o be a p e r i o d of f l i g h t along a s t r a i g h t l i n e f o r a p e r i o d o f 40 s e c . I n t h e c a s e o f a s t a n d a r d t u r n , a l l f o u r t u r n s w i l l b e made i n /366 s u c c e s s i o n w i t h o u t t h e r e b e i n g any s t r a i g h t - l i n e s e g m e n t s between turns.

F i g . 4 . 1 1 . Landing Maneuver w i t h a Course O p p o s i t e t o t h e Landing C o u r s e . ( a > Along a S t r a i g h t - L i n e P a t h ; ( b ) S t a n d a r d T u r n .

Analogous maneuvers

f o r approaching t o make a l a n d i n g can a l s o

385

b e made b y u s i n g m o r e c o m p l e t e l a n d i n g s y s t e m s . However, a i r p o r t s t h a t h a v e s u c h s y s t e m s , as a r u l e , a r e a l s o e q u i p p e d w i t h r a d a r devices t o monitor t h e a i r c r a f t maneuvering i n t h e v i c i n i t y of the airport. T h e r e f o r e , t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e l a n d i n g maneuver n e e d n o t n e c e s s a r i l y b e made a t t h e m a r k e r p o i n t o n t h e L T S a x i s , t h u s m a k i n g i t p o s s i b l e t o come i n f o r a l a n d i n g a l o n g t h e s h o r t e s t p a t h from any d i r e c t i o n .
A s m a l l or l a r g e r e c t a n g u l a r p a t t e r n i s u s u a l l y u s e d as t h e b a s i s f o r s e t t i n g up a l a n d i n g a p p r o a c h a l o n g t h e s h o r t e s t p a t h . However, i t i s n o t g e n e r a l l y c o m p l e t e d , u s u a l l y b e g i n n i n g a t t h e p o i n t o f t a n g e n c y of t h e e n t r a n c e i n t o t h e m a n e u v e r t o o n e o f i t s turns.

C a l c u l a t i o n o f Landing Approach P a r a m e t e r s for a Simplified System I n t h e p r e c e J i n g s e c t i o n , we d i s c u s s e d t h e t y p i c a l m a n e u v e r s f o r l a n d i n g a n a i r c r a f t when a p p r o a c h i n g t h e a i r p o r t f r o m a n y d i rection. The e x e c u t i o n o f t h e s e m a n e u v e r s d o e s n o t p o s e g r e a t d i f f i c u l t y f o r t h e c r e w o f t h e a i r c r a f t , s i n c e t h e f l i g h t i s made w i t h a s u f f i c i e n t a l t i t u d e r e s e r v e and s u f f i c i e n t s p e e d , w h i l e t h e d e m a n d s on t h e a c c u r a c y o f m a k i n g t h e m a n e u v e r a r e n o t v e r y h i g h . The m a i n d i f f i c u l t y l i e s i n f l y i n g a l o n g a g i v e n d e s c e n t t r a j e c t o r y i n t h e g l i d e p a t h , d u e t o t h e v e r y h i g h demands on t h e maintenance o f f l i g h t d i r e c t i o n , a l t i t u d e , and h o r i z o n t a l g l i d e s p e e d , d e p e n d i n g on t h e r e m a i n i n g d i s t a n c e t o t h e t o u c h d o w n p o i n t . I n t h e case o f a i r c r a f t w i t h g a s t u r b i n e e n g i n e s , t h e r e i s t h e a d d i t i o n a l n e e d t o r e d u c e t h e a i r s p e e d g r a d u a l l y as t h e a j r p o r t i s approached

I n o r d e r t o f a c i l i t a t e t h e t a s k of d e s c e n d i n g a l o n g a g i v e n t r a j e c t o r y t o a c e r t a i n d e g r e e , as w e l l a s t o a v o i d s e r i o u s e r r o r s i n f l i g h t a l o n g t h e l a n d i n g p a t h , some p r e l i m i n a r y c a l c u l a t i o n s are made, o f which t h e f o l l o w i n g i s t h e most i m p o r t a n t .

/367

I f t h e l a n d i n g a p p r o a c h i s made i n a d e a d calm, t h e g e o m e t r i c dimensions of t h e maneuver ( a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e p o i n t where t h e d e s c e n t b e g i n s a l o n g t h e l a n d i n g p a t h ) are d e t e r m i n e d by s i m p l e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between t h e a i r s p e e d , t i m e , t u r n r a d i i , f l i g h t a l t i t u d e i n c i r c l i n g t h e f i e l d , and e s t a b l i s h e d steepness of t h e glide path.
T h e c a l c u l a t e d d a t a f o r m a k i n g a l a n d i n g i n a calm a r e u s u a l l y p l o t t e d on s p e c i a l l a n d i n g p a t t e r n s , d e v i s e d f o r e a c h a i r p o r t . Under a c t u a l c o n d i t i o n s , however, i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o t a k e i n t o ac count t h e head wind and s i d e wind components ( f o r the l a n d i n g c o u r s e ) , w h i c h c a n h a v e a v e r y g r e a t e f f e c t on t h e m a k i n g o f a landing.

3 86

. . .

_.

C a Z c u Z a t i o n of C o r r e c t i o n s for t h e Time for B e g i n n i n g t h e T h i r d Turn

In preparing t o land, especially with the a i d of a simplified system, it i s n e c e s s a r y t o e n s u r e t h a t t h e a i r c r a f t emerges from t h e f o u r t h t u r n o n t o t h e l a n d i n g a p p r o a c h a l w a y s a t t h e same d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e LTS. Obviously, i n o r d e r t o s o l v e t h i s problem, i t is n e c e s s a r y t o c o n s i d e r o n l y t h e head-wind component f o r t h e l a n d i n g course. I n making an a p p r o a c h t o l a n d a l o n g a r e c t a n g u l a r p a t t e r n , t h e last r e l i a b l e point f o r determining t h e X-coordinate of t h e air craft (the distance along the axis of the direction of the a i r p o r t ) i s t h e t r a v e r s e o f t h e LRMS, w h i l e i n a s t a n d a r d t u r n i t i s t h e p a s s a g e o v e r t h e LRMS w i t h a n M A o p p o s i t e t o t h e l a n d i n g a n g l e . P
I f w e d o n o t t a k e t h e w i n d i n t o a c c o u n t when c o m i n g i n f o r a landing, the aircraft w i l l enter the landing path a t a distance f r o m t h e L T S w h i c h e x c e e d s t h e d i s t a n c e f o r c a l m c o n d i t i o n s by t h e value

w h e r e t i s t h e f l y i n g t i m e f r o m t h e t r a v e r s e o f t h e LRMS t o t h e e m e r g e n c e f r o m t h e f o u r t h t u r n , or f r o m t h e moment when t h e air c r a f t p a s s e s o v e r t h e LRMS u n t i l i t e m e r g e s f r o m t h e s t a n d a r d t u r n .

Example: The f l y i n g t i m e f r o m t h e t r a v e r s e o f t h e LRMS t o t h e e m e r g e n c e f r o m t h e f o u r t h t u r n i n a calm i s 4 m i n , d i v i d e d i n t o these stages: T r a v e r s e o f t h e LRMS t o b e g i n n i n g o f t h i r d t u r n . . . 7 0 s e c Third turn... 60 sec Buffer l i n e 50 s e c Fourth t u r n . 60 sec

..................................... ....................................... ......................................

t h e head-wind

The s p e e d o f

c o m p o n e n t on t h e l a n d i n g c o u r s e i s

/368

ux = 1 5 m/sec.
F i n d t h e v a l u e o f A X for e m e r g e n c e f r o m t h e f o u r t h t u r n .

Solution:
AX

= 240

1 5 = 360p m.

I n o r d e r f o r t h e d i s t a n c e f o r emergence from t h e f o u r t h t u r n t o r e m a i n t h e same a s i n a c a l m , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o s h o r t e n t h e f l y i n g t i m e f r o m t h e t r a v e r s e o f t h e LRMS t o t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e t h i r d t u r n by a v a l u e 3600

At

V+UX

387

I n o u r e x a m p l e , f o r a n a i r s p e e d o f 4 0 0 k m / h r (110 m / s e c ) a n d a course opposite t o the landing course,

3600 3600 - . 2 9 s e c At = l l O + 15 - 125
I-

T h u s , a f l i g h t f r o m t h e t r a v e r s e o f t h e LRMS t o t h e s t a r t o f t h e t h i r d t u r n w o u l d l a s t 41 s e c i n s t e a d o f 7 0 s e c . By c o m b i n i n g t h e f o r m u l a s for o b t a i n i n g t h e v a l u e s or A X a n d A t , we f i n a l l y obtain t h e formula f o r determing t h e value A t :

At=
tux

Vfu,

For our e x a m p l e ,
At==
240.15

l l O + 15

=29sec

The p r o b l e m f o r a s t a n d a r d t u r n i s s o l v e d i n t h e same w a y . I n t h i s case, t h e t i m e t i s t h e t i m e from t h e p a s s a g e o v e r t h e LRMS i n a c o u r s e o p p o s i t e t o t h e l a n d i n g c o u r s e , t o t h e e n d o f t h e s t a n d a r d t u r n ; t h e v a l u e o f A t i s c a l c u l a t e d f r o m t h a t f o r a calm i n f l y i n g f r o m t h e LRMS t o t h e s t a r t o f t h e s t a n d a r d t u r n .

C a Z c u Z a t i o n of t h e C o r r e c t i o n f o r t h e Time of S t a r t i n g t h e F o u r t h T u r n
The b e g i n n i n g o f t h e f o u r t h t u r n i n c o m i n g i n f o r a l a n d i n g i s u s u a l l y d e t e r m i n e d f r o m t h e c o u r s e a n g l e o f t h e LRMS. For e x a m p l e , when e x e c u t i n g a m a n e u v e r t o t h e r i g h t :
R ctgCAR= -

w h e r e R i s t h e r a d i u s o f t h e t u r n made b y t h e a i r c r a f t , a n d X i s t h e d i s t a n c e a l o n g t h e LTS a x i s f r o m t h e LRMS t o t h e s t a r t i n g po3n.t. of t h e f o u r t h t u r n . Under t h e i n f l u e n c e o f a s i d e w i n d , t h e f o u r t h t u r n i s begun e a r l i e r i f t h e l a t e r a l c o m p o n e n t o f t h e w i n d on t h e l a n d i n g c ~ u r s e is favorable between t h e t h i r d and f o u r t h t u r n s , l a t e r i f t h i s component i s u n f a v o r a b l e . O b v i o u s l y , if w e t a k e t h e wind i n t o a c c o u n t :
ctg C A R =

/ 369

R+ X
t*uz

w h e r e t i s t h e t i m e o f t h e f o u r t h t u r n a n d u Z i s t h e l a t e r a l com ponent o f t h e wind speed.

For e x a m p l e , w i t h a t u r n i n g r a d i u s o f 4 5 0 0 m a n d X = 12.5 km,

388

CtgCAl?,

e-

4500
12500 '

If t h e l a t e r a l component o f t h e w i n d a p p e a r s on t h e " b u f f e r " l i n e a n d i s f a v o r a b l e , w i t h a s p e e d o f 1 0 m/sec, t h e n f o r a t u r n i n g t i m e o f 60 sec w e w i l l have:

4500+60*10

ctg CAR=

.
'

12'500

CAR= 68".

i.e.,

t h e t u r n must b e g i n 2 O e a r l i e r t h a n under calm c o n d i t i o n s .

C a Z c u Z a t i o n of t h e Moment f o r B e g i n n i n g D e s c e n t Along t h e Landing Course

Under calm c o n d i t i o n s , t h e distance a t w h i c h t h e a i r c r a f t e m e r g e s f r o m t h e f o u r t h t u r n i s d e t e r m i n e d by t h e f l y i n g t i m e f r o m t h e LRMS t o t h e s t a r t o f t h e t h i r d t u r n .

For e x a m p l e , w i t h V = 1 1 m / s e c ( 4 0 0 k m / h r ) , 1
w i l l be :
X---:70*111 8 K A c t o L m S x

t h i s distance

The f o u r t h t u r n w i l l b e c o m p l e t e d a t a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h i s d i s t a n c e i f a c o r r e c t i o n f o r t h e e f f e c t o f t h e w i n d i s made i n t h e time f o r s t a r t i n g the t h i r d t u r n . Consequently, with a standard l o c a t i o n o f t h e LRMS, t h e d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e p o i n t w h e r e t h e a i r c r a f t comes o u t o f t h e f o u r t h t u r n t o t h e touchdown p o i n t i s 1 2 km. The d i s t a n c e f o r ; b e g i n n i n g t h e d e s c e n t a l o n g t h e g l i d e p a t h i s d e t e r m i n e d by t h e f o r m u l a xd =tic,ctge, where X i s t h e d i s t a n c e f o r beginning t h e descent and H is the C flight daltitude for circling the field.

For e x a m p l e , a t a c i r c l i n g a l t i t u d e o f H c angle f o r the glide path 8 = 2040f:

= 400 m and a s l o p e

x d = 400.ctg2Q40'= 8500.u.
Thus, a f t e r coming o u t o f t h e f o u r t h t u r n a t a d i s t a n c e o f 1 2 km f r o m t h e L T S , t h e a i r c r a f t m u s t f o l l o w t h e l a n d i n g p a t h w i t h o u t losing altitude for a period of t i m e
/370

3 89

"h =

Xe - x d
v-uu,

'

where t h is t h e t i m e o f h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t a l o n g t h e l a n d i n g p a t h .

For example, i f t h e h o r i z o n t a l a i r s p e e d a f t e r coming o u t o f a t u r n i s 360 km/hr ( 1 0 0 m / s e c ) , and t h e h e a d w i n d ' i s moving a t 1 5 m/sec, t h e t i m e f o r h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t i n o u r case w i l l b e
12000-8500

fh =

100-

15

- 3500 -- 85

= 4 1 sec

U n d e r calm c o n d i t i o n s , t h e t i m e f o r h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t i n t h i s case w i l l b e :

P r a c t i c a l l y s p e a k i n g , t h e d e s c e n t o f t h e a i r c r a f t must begin 5 t o 6 seconds before t h i s time has a c t u a l l y elapsed, since a c e r t a i n period of t i m e i s required t o guide t h e aircraft i n t o i t s landing regime.

C a l c u l a t i o n of t h e V e r t i c a l R a t e of D e s c e n t Along t h e G l i d e Path
The v e r t i c a l r a t e o f d e s c e n t o f a n a i r c r a f t a l o n g t h e g l i d e p a t h i s d e t e r m i n e d by t h e s i m p l e f o r m u l a

vy= wxtgo = ( V x -

a x ) tgo.

For e x a m p l e , w i t h a mean h o r i z o n t a l r a t e o f d e s c e n t o f 2 9 0 km/hr (80 m/sec), a head wind o f 1 5 m/sec, and a s l o p e a n g l e i n t h e g l i d e p a t h o f 2O40':
Vy = 65. tg 2'40' = 3 W / sec
The c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e v e r t i c a l r a t e o f d e s c e n t i s o f p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t for p i s t o n - e n g i n e a i r c r a f t , w h o s e h o r i z o n t a l g l i d e i s a b o u t 50 m/sec. S i n c e t h e h e a d w i n d c a n b e as h i g h as 2 5 m / s e c on l a n d i n g , t h e v e r t i c a l g l i d e s p e e d f o r t h e s e a i r c r a f t can change by a f a c t o r from 2 . 3 t o 1 . 1 5 m/sec. o f 2 , :.e., I n t h e case of a i r c r a f t w i t h g a s t u r b i n e e n g i n e s , t h e r a t i o o f t h e maximum r a t e o f d e s c e n t t o t h e minimum r a t e , w i t h t h e same steepness of glide, is 1.5.

390

D e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e Lead AngZe for t h e Landing Path

A knowledge o f t h e approximate v a l u e o f t h e d r i f t a n g l e , and c o n s e q u e n t l y t h e n e c e s s a r y l e a d a n g l e f o r t h e l a n d i n g p a t h o f an aircraft, considerably facilitates t h e choice of t h e course t o be followed along a given descent t r a j e c t o r y . The v a l u e o f t h e d r i f t a n g l e a l o n g t h e l a n d i n g p a t h c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d by t h e a p p r o x i m a t e f o r m u l a

/371

I n f l i g h t along a given descent t r a j e c t o r y , however, t h e hor i z o n t a l a i r s p e e d , a l t i t u d e , and wind are v a r i a b l e s , s o t h a t it i s s u f f i c i e n t t o use t h e following r u l e i n finding the d r i f t angle: ( a ) For a i r c r a f t w i t h g a s t u r b i n e e n g i n e s , a t g l i d e s p e e d s o f 2 7 0 - 2 9 0 k m / h r , t h e l e a d a n g l e i s c o n s i d e r e d t o b e e q u a l t o 0.7O f o r each 1 m/sec of s i d e wind. ( b ) For a i r c r a f t w i t h p i s t o n e n g i n e s , ( g l i d e s p e e d s o f 1 8 0 - 2 0 0 km/hr), t h e l e a d a n g l e i s c o n s i d e r e d t o be lo f o r each 1 m/sec o f s i d e wind.

For e x a m p l e , w i t h a 8 mjsec, coming from t h e - f o r aircraft with - f o r aircraft with

s i d e wind a l o n g t h e l a n d i n g p a t h o f r i g h t , t h e l e a d angle w i l l be: gas t u r b i n e engines, 5 . 5 O t o t h e l e f t ; p i s t o n e n g i n e s , 8O t o t h e l e f t .

The c a l c u l a t i o n s g i v e n a b o v e for t h e t i m e o f s t a r t i n g t h e t h i r d t u r n , the course angle f o r beginning the fourth t u r n , the time f o r beginning t h e d e s c e n t , t h e v e r t i c a l rate of d e s c e n t , and t h e l e a d a n g l e for t h e l a n d i n g p a t h , m u s t a l l b e made b y t h e c r e w o f t h e a i r c r a f t b e f o r e a p p r o a c h i n g t h e a i r p o r t on t h e b a s i s o f landing-condition information. A l l c a l c u l a t i o n s must b e c o m p l e t e b e f o r e t h e l a n d i n g maneuver b e g i n s .
L a n d i n g t h e A i r c r a f t o n t h e Runway a n d F l i g h t a l o n g a Given T r a j e c t o r y w i t h a S i m p l i f i e d Landing System

W h i l e m a k i n g p r e p a r a t i o n s for l a n d i n g , t h e c r e w m u s t p r e p a r e t h e course t o be followed by t h e aircraft along a l l t h e s t r a i g h t l i n e segments of t h e approach p a t t e r n , with t h e exception of t h e l i n e between t h e t h i r d and f o u r t h t u r n s , beginning with a c a l c u l a t i o n of the d r i f t angle. T h e r a d i o c o m p a s s m u s t b e s e t b y t h e LRMS; i f t h e r e a r e t w o s e t s o f r a d i o c o m p a s s e s , t h e s e c o n d must b e s e t by t h e SRMS. Along t h e l i n e b e t w e e n t h e t h i r d a n d f o u r t h t u r n s , t h e c o u r s e t o b e f o l l o w e d i s a l w a y s e q u a l t o t h e MPA o f t h e " b u f f e r " s e g m e n t ,

391

s o t h a t t h e s t a r t o f t h e f o u r t h t u r n w i l l b e determined by t h e CAR. The s l i g h t d r i f t o f t h e a i r c r a f t w h i c h o c c u r s a t t h i s t i m e , a s w e h a v e s e e n , i s c o m p e n s a t e d b y r e d e f i n i n g t h e t i m e for s t a r t i n g t h e third turn. When t h e c o u r s e a n g l e o f t h e LRMS b e c o m e s e q u a l t o t h e c a l culated value, t h e fourth t u r n is executed with a banking angle o f 15O b e f o r e a c q u i r i n g t h e c a l c u l a t e d l a n d i n g p a t h . I f a l l t h e c a l c u l a t e d d a t a a r e c o r r e c t , t h e a i r c r a f t w i l l come o u t o f t h e t u r n p r e c i s e l y on t h e l a n d i n g p a t h w i t h t h e d e s i r e d At t h e moment when t h e a i r c r a f t e m e r g e s f r o m t h e f o u r t h course. t u r n , t h e t i m e r i s s w i t c h e d on t o d e t e r m i n e t h e t i m e f o r b e g i n n i n g descent i n the glide path. I n t h e m a j o r i t y o f cases, however, due t o e r r o r s i n t h e oper a t i o n o f t h e radiocompass, improper maintenance o f t h e c o u r s e and a i r s p e e d o f t h e a i r c r a f t , e r r o r s i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e s i d e - w i n d com p o n e n t , a n d f a i l u r e t o b a n k ;It t h e p r o p e r a n g l e when t u r n i n g , t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f t h e g l i d e p a t h by t h e a i r c r a f t i s n o t a c c u r a t e . The a c c u r a c y w i t h w h i c h t h e a i r c r a f t a c q u i r e s t h e l a n d i n g p a t h i s d e t e r m i n e d by a comparison o f t h e m a g n e t i c b e a r i n g o f t h e LRMS w i t h t h e MPA f o r l a n d i n g . IF MC + C A R = MPA1, b u t t h e com the aircraft w i l l b i n e d r e a d i n g o f t h e r a d i o c o m p a s s i s M B R = MPA1, b e e x a c t l y on t h e a x i s o f t h e L T S . I f MBR i s g r e a t e r t h a n MPA1, t h e aircraft w i l l be t o the l e f t of t h e g i v e n l a n d i n g p a t h . W i t h MBR s m a l l e r t h a n MPA1, t h e a i r c r a f t w i l l be t o t h e r i g h t o f t h e given landing path. The d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n M P A l a n d MBR i s c a l l e d t h e a c q u i s i t i o n e r r o r a.

/372

Example: MPAl = 68O, w i t h a c a l c u l a t e d d r i f t a n g l e o f t 3 O ; t h e a i r c r a f t e m e r g e d f r o m t h e f o u r t h t u r n w i t h MC = 6 5 O , t h e c o u r s e a n g l e f o r t h e t u r n o v e r t h e LRMS w a s 358O; f i n d t h e a c q u i s i t i o n error.

Solution:
a =68 - (65 + 358) = 5", i.e.,the acquisition error is 5O t o the right.
4 %

For l i n i n g u p t h e a i r c r a f t w i t h t h e l a n d i n g p a t h , t h e c o u r s e f o l l o w e d by t h e a i r c r a f t i s u s u a l l y c h a n g e d b y d o u b l i n g t h e a c q u i s i tion error. I n our e x a m p l e , t h e c o u r s e t o b e f o l l o w e d m u s t b e r e d u c e d l o o , s o t h a t t h e C A R o f t h e LRMS b e c o m e s 8O; t h e f l i g h t i s continued at t h i s course u n t i l the value of the course angle in creases t o t h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e a c q u i s i t i o n e r r o r , ; . e . , becomes 13O.
39 2

When t h e p o i n t e r o f t h e r a d i o c o m p a s s i s o n t h e 1 3 O m a r k ( o n a combined i n d i c a t o r , a b e a r i n g o f 6 8 O ) , w i t h a s l i g h t l e a d ( n o more t h a n 1 t o 2 O ) , t h e a i r c r a f t makes a n o t h e r t u r n t o t h e c a l c u l a t e d l a n d i n g p a t h , a n d t h e C A R o f t h e LRMS b e c o m e s e q u a l t o t h e c a l c u l a t e d d r i f t angle o f t h e aircraft (3O i n t h e example).

A s t h e a i r c r a f t c o n t i n u e s t o f o l l o w t h e l a n d i n g p a t h on t h e c a l c u l a t e d c o u r s e , t h e CAR w i l l remain e q u a l t o t h e c a l c u l a t e d d r i f t angle i f t h e course o f t h e aircraft has been properly s e l e c t e d . If t h e CAR i s i n c r e a s e d , t h e a i r c r a f t w i l l d r i f t t o t h e l e f t o f t h e LTS a x i s , a n d t h e p a t h b e i n g f o l l o w e d w i l l h a v e t o b e i n c r e a s e d f o r a c q u i s i t i o n of t h e d e s i r e d l i n e o f f l i g h t , and decreased l a t e r o n , a l t h o u g h i t w i l l r e m a i n somewhat g r e a t e r t h a n t h e c a l c u l a t e d v a l u e ( t h e CAR i s t h e n l e s s t h a n t h e c a l c u l a t e d d r i f t a n g l e ) . If /373 t h e CAR i s t h e n t o remain c o n s t a n t , t h e c o u r s e t o b e f o l l o w e d must be s e l e c t e d properly.

S i m i l a r o p e r a t i o n s i n s e l e c t i n g a c o u r s e a r e c a r r i e d o u t when the aircraft deviates t o the r i g h t of the desired l i n e of f l i g h t . T h e s e o p e r a t i o n s w i l l h a v e t h e f o r m of a m i r r o r image o f t h e o p e r a t i o n s d e s c r i b e d a b o v e , : . e . , when t h e C A R i s r e d u c e d , i t i s a l s o n e c e s s a r y t o reduce t h e c o u r s e t o be f o l l o w e d i n a c q u i r i n g t h e de s i r e d l i n e o f f l i g h t , t h e n i n c r e a s e i t somewhat, b u t s t i l l k e e p it below t h e c a l c u l a t e d v a l u e . I n t h e c a s e when t h e c o u r s e a n g l e o f t h e LRMS c o n t i n u e s t o change, a f t e r t h e f i r s t o p e r a t i o n t o c o r r e c t t h e course by acquir i n g t h e l i n e of t h e g i v e n c o u r s e , t h e o p e r a t i o n s are r e p e a t e d u s i n g t h e f a m i l i a r method o f h a l f c o r r e c t i o n s . Thus, t h e r e a d i n g s o f t h e radiocompasses , b e g i n n i n g w i t h t h e LRMS a n d t h e n t h e SRMS, a r e u s e d t o m a i n t a i n t h e g i v e n d i r e c t i o n of the descent trajectory. When t h e a i r c r a f t is c a l c u l a t e d t o h a v e r e a c h e d t h e p o i n t f o r b e g i n n i n g i t s d e s c e n t , it i s s h i f t e d t o a d e s c e n t regime w i t h a calculated r a t e of descent. The v e r t i c a l r a t e o f d e s c e n t i s m a i n t a i n e d by o b s e r v i n g t h e v a r i o m e t e r r e a d i n g s a n d t h o s e o f t h e g y r o horizon , while maintaining t h e e s t a b l i s h e d regime of h o r i z o n t a l a i r s p e e d on t h e b a s i s o f t h e i n s t r u m e n t - s p e e d i n d i c a t o r . The g y r o h o r i z o n m u s t b e u s e d t o m a i n t a i n t h e v e r t i c a l r a t e o f descent, because t h e readings o f t h e variometer are less s t a b l e than those of the angle of p i t c h of t h e aircraft obtained with the a i d of t h e gyrohorizon i n d i c a t o r . The r e a d i n g s o f t h e v a r i o m e t e r m u s t be averaged o v e r t h e t i m e . In addition, t h e variometer has s l i g h t delays i n the readings w i t h a change i n t h e a n g l e o f p i t c h o f t h e a i r c r a f t . Therefore, t h e gyrohorizon i s employed t o s e l e c t t h e a n g l e o f p i t c h f o r t h e a i r c r a f t a t which t h e a v e r a g e r e a d i n g s o f t h e v a r i o m e t e r are e q u a l
393

t o the calculated values, on t h e g y r o h o r i z o n .

a n d t h i s a n g l e i s m a i n t a i n e d by t h e r e a d i n g s

If t h e tive t o the the engines t o maintain

h o r i z o n t a l a i r s p e e d i s t h e n i n c r e a s e d or d e c r e a s e d r e l a g i v e n v a l u e , it i s r e g u l a t e d by changing t h e t h r u s t o f and s i m u l t a n e o u s l y c h a n g i n g t h e aogle o f p i t c h s l i g h t l y t h e c a l c u l a t e d r a t e of d e s c e n t .

A f a i l u r e t o maintain t h e c a l c u l a t e d settirgi f o r t h e g l i d e p a t h , or e r r o r s i n c a l c u l a t i o n s , may c a u s e t h e a i r c r a f t t o p a s s o v e r t h e LRMS e a r l i e r a t t h e r e q u i r e d a l t i t u d e , s o t h a t t h e d e s c e n t of t h e a i r c r a f t i s t e r m i n a t e d and t h e a i r c r a f t i s once a g a i n p l a c e d i n t h e r e g i m e o f d e s c e n t a t t h e moment i t p a s s e s o v e r t h e LRMS. H o w e v e r , i f t h e g i v e n a l t i t u d e h a s n o t b e e n a t t a i n e d when p a s s i n g o v e r t h e LRMS, t h e v e r t i c a l r a t e o f d e s c e n t i s i n c r e a s e d a t t h e s t a g e o f t h e f l i g h t b e t w e e n t h e LRMS a n d t h e SRMS.

Similarly, t h e descent of t h e aircraft is terminated i f it r e a c h e s t h e a l t i t u d e s e t f o r p a s s i n g o v e r t h e SRMS b e f o r e t h e s o u n d /374 o f t h e SRMS i s h e a r d , m a r k i n g t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e l a t t e r . The minimum w e a t h e r f o r t h e c e i l i n g when l a n d i n g w i t h a s i m p l i f i e d s y s t e m , i n t h e case o f a i r c r a f t w i t h p i s t o n e n g i n e s , i s n o t s e t a n y l o w e r t h a n t h e a l t i t u d e for p a s s i n g o v e r t h e SRMS; i n t h e case o f a i r c r a f t w i t h g a s t u r b i n e e n g i n e s , i t i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y higher. T h e r e f o r e , t h e a i r c r a f t can be allowed t o descend only i n t h e c a s e when t h e c r e w o f t h e a i r c r a f t c a n s e e t h e l i g h t s o f t h e a p p r o a c h e s t o t h e LTS a n d t h e e n d o f t h e r u n w a y .

Course-Glide Landing Systems

The s i m p l i f i e d s y s t e m f o r l a n d i n g a n a i r c r a f t as d e s c r i b e d i n t h e p r e c e d i n g s e c t i o n , u s i n g t h e master r a d i o s t a t i o n s , h a s a number o f i m p o r t a n t d e f i c i e n c i e s : ( a ) The m e a s u r e m e n t a c c u r a c y o f t h e a i r c r a f t b e a r i n g , u s i n g an a i r c r a f t radiocompass and course meter, i s v e r y low, s o t h a t i t d o e s n o t make i t p o s s i b l e t o l a n d t h e a i r c r a f t ( e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e w i t h g a s - t u r b i n e e n g i n e s ) w i t h low w e a t h e r minima. ( b ) The o p e r a t i o n o f r a d i o c o m p a s s e s d u r i n g f l i g h t i n c l o u d s and p r e c i p i t a t i o n i s h i g h l y s u b j e c t t o a t m o s p h e r i c d i s t u r b a n c e s , t h u s c o m p l i c a t i n g a l a n d i n g w i t h t h e s e d e v i c e s as g u i d e s . ( c ) The s i m p l i f i e d s y s t e m r e q u i r e s c o n s t a n t c h e c k i n g o f t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t a l o n g a given d e s c e n t t r a j e c t o r y i n terms of d i r e c t i o n o n l y ; t h e d e s c e n t o f t h e a i r c r a f t i n a g i v e n g l i d e path i s accomplished by maintaining t h e v e r t i c a l rate of descent of t h e a i r c r a f t and c a l c u l a t i n g t h e t i m e , t h u s c o m p l i c a t i n g t h e l a n d i n g procedure and n o t e n s u r i n g safe d e s c e n t under e s p e c i a l l y d i f f i c u l t conditions

394

If w e c o n s i d e r t h a t t h e p e r i o d o f l a n d i n g t h e a i r c r a f t w i t h low c e i l i n g a n d low m e t e o r o l o g i c a l v i s i b i l i t y i s t h e mo s t d i f f i c u l t a n d d a n g e r o u s s t a g e o f t h e f l i g h t , it i s n e c e s s a r y t o d e v i s e more complete systems o f instrument l a n d i n g . One s u c h s y s t e m i s t h e course-glide landing system.
The g e o m e t r i c e s s e n c e o f c o u r s e - g l i d e s y s t e m s i s t h e u s e o f r a d i o - e n g i n e e r i n g methods t o d e f i n e t w o m u t u a l l y p e r p e n d i c u l a r planes i n space ( F i g . 4.12): (.a> A v e r t i c a l . p l a n e which i n t e r s e c t s t h e E a r t h s s u r f a c e a l o n g t h e LTS a x i s . ( b ) An i n c l i n e d p l a n e w h i c h r e p r e s e n t s t h e g l i d e p a t h o f t h e

aircraft.
I f t h e a i r c r a f t i s i n one o f t h e s e two p l a n e s , t h e r e a d i n g s o f t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g p o i n t e r o n t h e i n d i c a t o r ( d i r e c t i o n or g l i d e ) must be e q u a l t o z e r o .

When t h e a i r c r a f t m o v e s o u t o f o n e o f t h e s e p l a n e s , t h e corresponding p o i n t e r s h i f t s from z e r o . The s h i f t o f t h e p o i n t e r proportional t o the must be l i n e a r w i t h i n c e r t a i n l i m i t s ( ; . e . , d e v i a t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t from t h e given p l a n e ) . Obviously, t h e given t r a j e c t o r y f o r t h e descent of t h e airc r a f t i s t h e l i n e o f i n t e r s e c t i o n o f t h e s e two p l a n e s . When t h e a i r c r a f t i s on t h e g i v e n t r a j e c t o r y , b o t h i n d i c a t o r p o i n t e r s m u s t p o i n t t o z e r o on t h e i n d i c a t o r .
/375

Fig.

4.12.

Radio-Signal Planes o f a Course-Glide Landing System.

For t h e b e s t v i s u a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t r e l a t i v e t o a g i v e n d e s c e n t t r a j e c t o r y , t h e p o i n t e r s on t h e i n d i c a t o r a r e made i n t h e f o r m o f s t r i p s , o n e h o r i z o n t a l for g l i d e and one v e r t i c a l . f o r d i r e c t i o n . The movement o f t h e s t r i p s t h e n o c c u r s i n a d i r e c t i o n which i s o p p o s i t e t o t h e d e v i a t i o n o f t h e aircraft from a g i v e n t r a j e c t o r y ( F i g . 4.13).

395

The c e n t e r o f t h e i n s t r u m e n t , w i t h a s i l h o u e t t e o f a n a i r c r a f t shown on t h e s c a l e , shows t h e p o s i t i o n ' o f t h e a i r c r a f t r e l a t i v e t o t h e course plane and t h e g l i d e plane. Thus, f o r example, i n Fig. 4.13 t h e aircraft i s l o c a t e d below t h e given g l i d e p a t h To s e t t h e a i r c r a f t o n t h e d e a n d t o t h e l e f t o f t h e LTS a x i s . s i r e d t r a j e c t o r y , it must b e t u r n e d i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e p l a n e s , ;.e., upward ( t o i n c r e a s e t h e a n g l e o f p i t c h ) a n d t o t h e r i g h t . The i n d i c a t o r f o r t h e d i r e c t i o n a n d g l i d e h a s t h e t r a d i t i o n a l name o f " L a n d i n g S y s t e m A p p a r a t u s " , or LAS for s h o r t .

Ground ControZ o f Course-GZide S y s t e m s

The p r i n c i p a l p i e c e s o f e q u i p m e n t i n a c o u r s e - g l i d e l a n d i n g s y s t e m a r e two g r o u n d b e a c o n s which f o r m t h e c o u r s e zone a n d t h e g l i d e zone marking t h e g i v e n t r a j e c t o r y f o r t h e d e s c e n t of t h e aircraft. B o t h b e a c o n s o p e r a t e on m e t e r or c e n t i m e t e r w a v e l e n g t h s . The a n t e n n a s o f t h e b e a c o n s t h a t u s e m e t e r w a v e s a r e c r o s s e d h o r i z o n t a l dipoles ( h o r i z o n t a l frames) i n course beacons and
h o r i z o n t a l dipoles i n g l i d e beacons. T h u s , t h e e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c waves f r o m t h e b e a c o n s are h o r i z o n t a l l y p o l a r i z e d , w h i c h t o a c e r t a i n d e g r e e r e d u c e s t h e i r e f f e c t on t h e d i r e c t i o n a l ~ h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e a n t e n n a s on t h e g r o u n d c control facilities at the airport.

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1
Fig. Fig. Fig. 4.13. 4.14. I n d i c a t o r of 4.13. Course-Glide
396

to transmitting device

Fig.

4.14.

Landing System. o f Course Radio Beacon.

Diagram o f L o c a t i o n o f Antennas

However, t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e p l a y s a r o l e i n t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e c o u r s e zone a n d t h e g l i d e zone by t h e s e b e a c o n s . The c o u r s e zone t h e n becomes m u l t i l o b e d i n t h e v e r t i c a l p l a n e , w i t h t h e major l o b e b e i n g t h e working l o b e , which h a s a g l i d e a n g l e o f t h e b i s e c t r i x which c o r r e s p o n d s r o u g h l y t o t h e s l o p e a n g l e o f t h e g l i d e The E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e i s o f s t i l l g r e a t e r plane of the aircraft.

i m p o r t a n c e f o r t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e g l i d e z o n e , whose s l o p e a n g l e d e p e n d s on t h e h e i g h t of t h e a n t e n n a ab o v e t h e g r o u n d . The i n v o l v e m e n t o f t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e i n t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e b e a c o n z o n e s imposes l i m i t a t i o n s on t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f t h e beacons i n t e r m s of e n s u r i n g t h e a c c u r a c y w i t h which t h e a i r c r a f t can b e landed. T h i s i s e s p e c i a l l y t r u e f o r t h e g l i d e z o n e , whose l o c a t i o n c a n c h a n g e w i t h t h e s t a t e o f t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e ( w e t or dry ground, g r a s s cover, snow). The a c c u r a c y o f t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e c o u r s e zone i s s u b j e c t t o t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e l o c a l r e l i e f and equipment l o c a t e d w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s o f t h e d i r e c t i o n a l charac teristic of the antennas. The m o s t i m p o r t a n t o f t h e s e s h o r t c o m i n g s c a n b e o v e r c o m e t o a g r e a t e x t e n t by e m p l o y i n g b e a c o n s w h i c h o p e r a t e on t h e c e n t i m e t e r w a v e l e n g t h , u s i n g r e f l e c t i n g a n t e n n a s t o form v e r y n a r r o w d i r e c t i o n a l characteristics

A t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e , however, t h e s e beacons have n o t been a d o p t e d s u f f i c i e n t l y w i d e l y and a r e n o t u s e d i n enough l o c a t i o n s . Therefore, w e s h a l l give a b r i e f description of t h e course-glide s y s t e m s o n l y for t h e m e t e r w a v e l e n g t h s .

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e b e a c o n s , which form t h e c o u r s e and g l i d e z o n e s , t h e c o u r s e - g l i d e s y s t e m for l a n d i n g a l s o i n c l u d e s m a r k e r d e v i c e s , whose l o c a t i o n s c a n c o i n c i d e w i t h t h o s e f o r t h e m a r k e r s i n a s i m p l i f i e d landing system. In foreign practice, the first (long-range) marker i s l o c a t e d
/377

7 km f r o m t h e e n d o f t h e L T S ; a t a s l o p e a n g l e f o r t h e g l i d e p a t h o f 2O30' and a c i r c l i n g a l t i t u d e o f 300 m , t h i s marks t h e p o i n t a t

which t h e a i r c r a f t b e g i n s t o d e s c e n t i n a g l i d e . However, n o s i g n i f i c a n t a d v a n t a g e s a r e g a i n e d by p l a c i n g t h e m a r k e r a t t h i s s p o t , s i n c e t h e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e o f t h e a i r c r a f t when c i r c l i n g t h e f i e l d d e p e n d s on t h e t y p e o f a i r c r a f t , w h i l e t h e s l o p e a n g l e for t h e g l i d e p a t h d e p e n d s on t h e n a t u r e o f t h e s u r r o u n d i n g t e r r a i n . T h i s means t h a t t h e p o i n t f o r b e g i n n i n g t h e g l i d e d o e s n o t always c o i n c i d e w i t h t h e s t a n d a r d l o c a t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t ( 7 km).

For p u r p o s e s o f c h e c k i n g f o r t h e c o r r e c t n e s s o f t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e g l i d e z o n e , i t i s b e t t e r t o c h o o s e a m a r k e r l o c a t e d 4 km f r o m t h e e n d o f t h e LTS, s i n c e a t t h i s p o i n t t h e a i r c r a f t w i l l a l r e a d y have t h e s e l e c t e d r a t e of d e s c e n t f o r f o l l o w i n g t h e g l i d e p a t h , a n d t h e a l t i t u d e o f i t s l o c a t i o n w i l l b e d e t e r m i n e d more precisely.

An i n h e r e n t p a r t o f t h e c o u r s e - g l i d e l a n d i n g s y s t e m i s a l s o t h e l i g h t i n g s y s t e m f o r t h e a p p r o a c h e s t o t h e runways a n d a l o n g t h e e d g e s o f t h e runway i t s e l f . T h e c o u r s e beacon i s a t r a n s m i t t i n g d e v i c e w i t h a n a n t e n n a s y s t e m which c o n s i s t s ( a s a r u l e ) of f i v e o r s e v e n h o r i z o n t a l antennas (Fig. 4.14). 397

Antenna A h a s a r a d i a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c which i s d i r e c t e d e x t e r n a l l y i n t h e h o r i z o n t a l p l a n e , a n d is p o w e r e d b y a t r a n s m i t t e r o p e r a t i n g w i t h o u t m o d u l a t i o n on t h e m e t e r w a v e l e n g t h . Antennas A1 and A 2 r e c e i v e amplitude-modulated f r e q u e n c i e s t h e t r a n s m i t t e r , o n e a t 9 0 Hz a n d t h e o t h e r a t 1 5 0 'Hz. from

A n t e n n a s A 3 a n d A 4 ( a s w e l l as A 5 a n d A g , i n s o m e t y p e s o f beacons) s e r v e t o r e g u l a t e t h e d i r e c t i o n a l i t y of t h e r a d i a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , as w e l l as t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e r a d i o - s i g n a l zone of the e n t i r e system. The c o m b i n e d r e s u l t o f t h e e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c o s c i l l a t i o n s o f t h e e n t i r e antenna system forms t h e d i r e c t i o n a l r a d i a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c waves i n t h e h o r i z o n t a l p l a n e ; an example o f t h i s i s shown i n F i g . 4 . 1 5 . F i g u r e 4 . 1 5 . a , shows t h e s h a p e of t h e radiation c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i n the horizontal plane ; the l e f t s i d e i s ihe o n e m o d u l a t e d ' b y t h e 1 5 0 Hz f r e q u e n c y , w h i l e t h e r i g h t s i d e i s m o d u l a t e d by t h e 9 0 Hz f r e q u e n c y . Along a x i s AB , w h e r e t h e r a d i a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n t e r s e c t t h e m o d u l a t i o n f r e q u e n c i e s o f 1 5 0 and 90 Hz, t h e m o d u l a t i o n d e p t h o f t h e c a r r i e r f r e q u e n c y by b o t h l o w f r e q u e n c i e s i s t h e s a m e ( ; . e . t h e difference i n modulation depth is zero).

When t h e a i r c r a f t m o v e s t o t h e l e f t o f a x i s A B , t h e d e p t h o f t h e m o d u l a t i o n w i t h t h e 9 0 Hz f r e q u e n c y i n c r e a s e s a n d t h a t w i t h t h e 1 5 0 Hz f r e q u e n c y d e c r e a s e s . The p i c t u r e i s r e v e r s e d when t h e a i r c r a f t moves t o t h e r i g h t o f t h e a x i s . The d o t t e d l i n e s i n F i g . 4 . 1 5 s h o w t h e p r o j e c t i o n s o f t h e r a d i a t i o n l o b e s o f t h e e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c waves i n t h e v e r t i c a l p l a n e ( a s s h o w n i n F i g . 4 . 1 5 , b ) on t h e h o r i z o n t a l p l a n e . L i n e A B i s t h e common a x i s w i t h a d i f f e r e n c e i n m o d u l a t i o n d e p t h s which i s e q u a l t o z e r o f o r a l l l o b e s . However, t h e p r i n c i p a l operating lobes are the first ones, located n e a r e s t t o the ground. /378

a)

b)

Fig. 4.15. Radlatrsn Characteri'sti'cs of Course Radio Beacon: ( a ) i n t h e Horizontal Plane; (b) i n the Verti c a l Plane.

398

The r a d i a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e c o u r s e b e a c o n i s r e g u l a t e d i n s u c h a way t h a t t h e a x i s o f t h e z e r o d i f f e r e n c e i n m o d u l a t i o n d e p t h c o i n c i d e s e x a c t l y w i t h t h e a x i s o f t h e LTS. Hence, it i s necessary t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n modulation depths within l i m i t s o f 3-4O o f t h e e q u a l - s i g n a l a x i s i n c r e a s e l i n e a r l y w i t h t h e l a t e r a l deviation. W i t h f u r t h e r d e v i a t i o n f r o m t h e LTS a x i s ( w i t h i n l i m i t s up t o l o o ) , t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n m o d u l a t i o n d e p t h s must a l s o i n c r e a s e , b u t n o t i n p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e l a t e r a l d e v i a t i o n ; it can m a i n t a i n i t s v a l u e or d e c r e a s e , b u t w i t h o u t c h a n g i n g s i g n i n t h e e n t i r e h e m i s p h e r e t o t h e l e f t or r i g h t o f t h e r a d i o - s i g n a l a x i s . The d i s t a n c e f o r p o s s i b l e r e c e p t i o n o f t h e b e a c o n s i g n a l s i n t h e s e c t o r l o o from t h e e q u a l - s i g n a l a x i s i n t h e working l o b e of t h e z o n e m u s t b e w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s o f 45 t o 70 km. T h e g l i d e beacon i s a l s o a t r a n s m i t t i n g d e v i c e , o p e r a t i n g i n t h e m e t e r wavelength, b u t a t a frequency d i f f e r e n t from t h a t o f t h e course beacon. The a n t e n n a s y s t e m o f t h e g l i d e b e a c o n c o n s i s t s o f o n l y t w o The a n t e n n a s ( a n u p p e r a n d a l o w e r ) , m o u n t e d o n a common m a s t . u p p e r a n t e n n a i s d o u b l e , as s h o w n i n F i g . 4 . 1 6 , a . Both t h e u p p e r a n d l o w e r a n t e n n a s r e c e i v e an a m p l i t u d e - m o d u l a t e d frequency, but with d i f f e r e n t modulation frequencies ( f o r example, 90 and 150 Hz). Each o f t h e a n t e n n a s , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e g r o u n d forms a n i n d e p e n d e n t w o r k i n g l o b e w i t h i t s own m o d u l a t i o n f r e q u e n c y ( F i g . 4 . 1 6 , b ) . The p o i n t s o f i n t e r s e c t i o n o f t h e w o r k i n g l o b e s i n t h e v e r t i c a l p l a n e a l s o f o r m a r a d i o - s i g n a l a x i s AB w i t h a z e r o d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e modulation depth. S i n c e t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e a n t e n n a d i r e c t i o n a l i t y i n t h e /379 horizontal plane is r a t h e r broad, the surface with a zero difference i n m o d u l a t i o n d e p t h i s c o n i c a l , w i t h AB as t h e g e n e r a t r i x . There f o r e , t h e g l i d e p a t h can b e an i d e a l s t r a i g h t l i n e o n l y i n t h e case when t h e a n t e n n a s y s t e m o f t h e b e a c o n i s l o c a t e d a t t h e p o i n t w h e r e t h e a i r c r a f t t o u c h e s down on t h e r u n w a y .

Fig.

4.16.

Fig. 4.17 ( a ) Diagram o f A n t e n n a L o c a t i o n ;

F i g . 4.16. G l i d e R a d i o Beacon: (b) Radiation Characteristic. Fig. 4.17.

Hyperbolic Trajectory f o r Glide Plane.

39 9

However,

t h e g l i d e b e a c o n c a n n o t b e l o c a t e d on t h e LTS a x i s

or e v e n i n t h e i m m e d i a t e v i c i n i t y o f t h e LTS, s i n c e i t w o u l d c o n T h e r e f o r e , t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n o f t h e cone s t i t u t e a f l i g h t hazard.

with t h e zero d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e modulation depth f o r t h e g l i d e beacon o f t h e e q u a l - s i g n a l plane o f a course beacon g i v e s a hyper b o l i c t r a j e c t o r y which does n o t touch t h e ground ( F i g . 4.17).

A s t h e aircraft approaches along t h e landing path toward t h e t r a v e r s e of t h e g l i d e beacon, t h e g l i d e path begins t o "float" above t h e g r o u n d , moving upward a f t e r p a s s i n g o v e r t h e b e a c o n .
Since t h e l o c a t i o n and shape o f t h e d i r e c t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e t w o a n t e n n a s o f t h e g l i d e b e a c o n d e p e n d s on t h e h e i g h t o f t h e a n t e n n a s above t h e ground, t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c and t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e l i n e of t h e i r i n t e r s e c t i o n i n t h e v e r t i c a l plane i s regu l a t e d by t h e c h a n g e i n t h e h e i g h t o f t h e u p p e r a n d l o w e r a n t e n n a s above t h e ground. A s in t h e c a s e o f t h e c o u r s e b e a c o n , t h e i n c r e a s e i n t h e d i f f e r e n c e o f t h e modulation depth w i t h d e v i a t i o n from t h e g l i d e s u r f a c e u p w a r d or d o w n w a r d m u s t b e l i n e a r w i t h t h i s d e v i a t i o n . However, t h e c u r v a t u r e o f t h e c u r v e o f t h e c h a n g e i n t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n m o d u l a t i o n d e p t h w i l l n o t b e s y m m e t r i c i n t h i s c a s e , as i t i s f o r t h e course beacon. A s t e e p e r curve f o r t h e change i n t h e d i f f e r e n c e o f modulation depth i s found above t h e g l i d e s u r f a c e , and a l e s s s t e e p c u r v e i s f o u n d below t h e s u r f a c e .
+8 The o p e r a t i n g r a n g e f o r a g l i d e b e a c o n i n a s e c t o r d f O t h e LTS a x i s m u s t b e a t l e a s t 1 8 t o 2 5 km.

from

A i r c r a f t - M o u n t e d E q u i p m e n t for t h e C o u r s e - G l i d e Landing S y s t e m
T h e f o l l o w i n g u n i t s m a k e up t h e a i r c r a f t - m o u n t e d e q u i p m e r l t t h e course-glide landing system: ( a ) Antenna and r e c e i v e r f o r course-beacon s i g n a l s . ( b ) Antenna and r e c e i v e r f o r glide-beacon s i g n a l s . ( c > Control panel. ( d ) L a n d i n g - s y s t e m a p p a r a t u s (LSA) The r e c e i v e r s o f s i g n a l s f r o m t h e c o u r s e a n d g l i d e b e a c o n s c o n t a i n e s s e n t i a l l y t h e same e l e m e n t s , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f t h e AAC ( a u t o m a t i c a m p l i f i c a t i o n c o n t r o l ) , w h i c h i s n o t shown i n t h e figure for

/380

Fig.
400

4.18.

Diagram o f A i r c r a f t - M o u n t e d

G l i d e Radio Beacon.

The g l i d e - b e a c o n r e c e i v e r u s e s t h e c i r c u i t f o r t h e r e i n f o r c e d AAC. The l a t t e r i s n o t e m p l o y e d i n c o u r s e - b e a c o n r e c e i v e r s , s i n c e i t w o u l d a d d t h e m i c r o p h o n e commands r e l a y e d v i a t h i s b e a c o n t o t h e a i r c r a f t when t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s r e c e i v e r s a r e o u t o f o r d e r . The s i g n a l s f r o m t h e c o u r s e a n d g l i d e b e a c o n s a r e p i c k e d up by t h e a n t e n n a s a n d a m p l i f i e d b y t h e H F A . The s e l e c t i o n o f t h e f r e q u e n c y c h a n n e l i s made o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e f i r s t i n t e r m e d i a t e f r e q u e n c y by q u a r t z r e t u r n i n g o f t h e h e t e r o d y n e fyom t h e c o n t r o l panel. The s i g n a l s a r e t h e n a m p l i f i e d b y t h e I F A a n d LFA c h a n n e l s , s o t h a t t h e s i g n a l s p a s s t h r o u g h 9 0 Hz a n d 1 5 0 Hz f i l t e r s t o t h e r e c t i f i e r s , t h e n t o t h e emergency b l i n k e r , and f i n a l l y t o t h e r e c e i v e r ground. The i n d i c a t o r for t h e c o u r s e or g l i d e z o n e i s c o n n e c t e d i n a b r i d g e c i r c u i t between t h e r e c t i f i e r s f o r t h e 90 a n d 1 5 0 Hz s i g n a l s .
I f t h e s i g n a l s d o n o t r e a c h t h e r e c e i v e r or t h e r e i s s o m e m a l f u n c t i o n i n t h e r e c e i v e r b l o c k s somewhere a h e a d o f t h e 9 0 a n d 1 5 0 Hz f i l t e r s , t h e r e a d i n g s o f t h e L S A i n d i c a t o r on t h a t c h a n n e l w i l l b e z e r o ; i f t h e e q u i p m e n t i s o p e r a t i n g p r o p e r l y , i t means t h a t the a i r c r a f t i s l o c a t e d p r e c i s e l y i n t h e corresponding zone. T h e r e f o r e , t h e LSA s y s t e m i n c l u d e s t h e emergency b l i n k e r s . When n o c u r r e n t i s f l o w i n g i n t h e 9 0 a n d 1 5 0 Hz r e c t i f i e r s , t h e c u r r e n t t h r o u g h t h e emergency b l i n k e r w i n d i n g s w i l l n o t f l o w , a n d a s i g n a l i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e a p p a r a t u s i s malfunctioning w i l l be d i s p l a y e d o n ihe i n d i c a t o r .

/381 The d e s i g n c i r c u i t f o r t h e r e c e i v e r s o f t h e s i g n a l s f r o m t h e g l i d e a n d c o u r s e b e a c o n s i n c l u d e s p o t e n t i o m e t e r s for e l e c t r l c a l Each o f t h e r e c t i f i e r s r e c e i v e s b a l a n c e o f t h e LSA i n d i c a t o r s . s i g n a l s w h i c h d o n o t p a s s t h r o u g h t h e 9 0 a n d 1 5 0 Hz f i l t e r s . The i n dicator pointer should then point t o zero. If t h e balance of t h e c u r r e n t s i n t h e r e c t i f i e r i s u p s e t , it causes t h e r e g u l a t i n g poten tiometer t o rotate. The b a l a n c i n g p o t e n t i o m e t e r o f t h e r e c e i v e r for t h e s i g n a l s f r o m t h e g l i d e b e a c o n i s u s u a l l y m o u n t e d on t h e r e c e i v e r h o u s i n g , w h i l e t h e r e c e i v e r f o r s i g n a l s from t h e c o u r s e b e a c o n i s mounted on t h e c o n t r o l p a n e l . For smoothing t h e s h o r t - p e r i o d o s c i l l a t i o n s o f t h e c o u r s e and g l i d e i n d i c a t o r o f t h e LAS, d u e t o l o c a l d i s t u r b a n c e s i n t h e r a d i o - s i g n a l zone , t h e i n d i c a t o r c i r c u i t c o n t a i n s a s p e c i a l s e a l e d u n i t damping c a p a c i t o r s i n t h e c i r c u i t f o r t u r n i n g on t h e a p p a r a t u s .

L o c a e i o n and P a r a m e t e r s f o r R e g u l a t i n g t h e
E q u i p m e n t f o r t h e C o u r s e - G l i d e LandZng S y s t e m

The r a d i o b e a c o n f o r t h e c o u r s e z o n e o f t h e c o u r s e - g l i d e s y s t e m f o r l a n d i n g an a i r c r a f t i s mounted a t a d i s t a n c e o f 600 t o 1000 m f r o m t h e e n d o f t h e r u n w a y , a l o n g a n e x t e n s i o n o f t h e a x i s o f t h e LTS.

401

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...
11 1 .

I II

I, . I 1 1 1 111.1.1.1. I

The b e a c o n f o r t h e g l i d e zo n e i s mo u n t ed t o t h e s i d e of t h e LTS ( a s a r u l e , t o t h e l e f t o f t h e l a n d i n g p a t h ) , a t a d i s t a n c e o f glide beacon

-mnu
s h o r t r a n g e imarke:r
Fig.
4.19.

c o u r s e beacon

Diagram o f L o c a t i o n o f Ground-Based Equipment f o r C o u r s e Glide System.

1 5 0 t o 200 m f r o m i t s a x i s a n d 2 5 0 - 2 7 5

m from t h e e n d o f t h e runway.

The a x i s o f t h e z o n e o f t h e c o u r s e b e a c o n c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e LTS a x i s . A c o n t r o l p o i n t is chosen f o r measuring t h e parameters f o r r e g u l a t i n g t h e s y s t e m on t h e LTS a x i s . T h e c o n t r o l p o i n t i s s e l e c t e d as a p o i n t w h e r e t h e a n t e n n a r e c e i v i n g s i g n a l s from t h e g l i d e beacon aboard t h e a i r c r a f t w i l l be l o c a t e d a t t h e moment when t h e a i r c r a f t t o u c h e s down on t h e r u n w a y . I t i s c o n s i d e r e d t h a t t h i s p o i n t i s l o c a t e d a t an a l t i t u d e o f 6 m a b o v e t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e LTS, a n d i s p l o t t e d f r o m t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e g l i d e b e a c o n , 7 5 m t o w a r d t h e e n d o f t h e LTS ( i . e . , t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e e n d o f t h e runway t o t h e c o n t r o l p o i n t i s 1 8 0 t o 2 0 0 m). The s l o p e a n g l e f o r t h e g l i d e p a t h i s c a l c u l a t e d f r o m a t h e o r e t i c a l p l a n e l o c a t e d 6 m a b o v e t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e LTS. The v e r t e x o f t h e s l o p e a n g l e o f t h e g l i d e p a t h i s the c o n t r o l p o i n t ( C P ) . The w i d t h o f t h e z o n e o f t h e c o u r s e a n d g l i d e b e a c o n s i s r e c k oned from t h e a n g l e s o f d e v i a t i o n from t h e g i v e n d e s c e n t t r a j e c t o r y , c a l c u l a t e d r e s p e c t i v e l y from t h e p o i n t where t h e c o u r s e beacon i s l o c a t e d and from t h e c o n t r o l p o i n t , w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s o f which t h e s t r i p s o f t h e landing-system a p p a r a t u s d e v i a t e from t h e z e r o p o s i t i o n t o t h e l i m i t s of t h e scale. O b v i o u s l y , t h e a n g l e o f d e v i a t i o n o f t h e LSA s t r i p d e p e n d s o n t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e m o d u l a t i o n d e p t h s i n t h e b e a c o n z o n e s , as w e l l as on t h e s e n s i t i v i t y o f t h e r e c e i v e r a b o a r d t h e a i r c r a f t . Therefore, t h e a n g u l a r width o f t h e zones o f t h e course and g l i d e b e a c o n s i s r e g u l a t e d by t h e s e n s i t i v i t y o f t h e r e c e i v e r s mounted a b o a r d t h e a i r c r a f t , which a r e used as s t a n d a r d s . The s t a n d a r d s f o r t h e w i d t h o f t h e c o u r s e - b e a c o n s e t as f o l l o w s : zone a r e
/382

( a > The a n g u l a r w i d t h o f h a l f t h e z o n e mu s t b e l o c a t e d w i t h i n 2 t o 3 O o f t h e LTS a x i s .

402

( b ) The l i n e a r w i d t h o f h a l f t h e z o n e a t a d i s t a n c e o f 1 3 5 0 m from t h e c o n t r o l p o i n t (1150 m t o t h e end of t h e runway) must b e e q u a l t o 150 m. An e x p a n s i o n o f t h e z o n e f r o m t h e n o m i n a l v a l u e t o 45 m a n d a n a r r o w i n g t o 30 m i s c o n s i d e r e d p e r m i s s i b l e . The h o r i z o n t a l s c a l e o f t h e LSA ( s e e F i g . 4 . 1 3 ) f r o m t h e c e n t e r t o the scale s t o p has 6 divisions. The f i r s t d i v i s i o n i s t h e w h i t e c i r c l e on t h e s i l h o u e t t e o f t h e a i r c r a f t , t h e s e c o n d i s t h e e n d o f t h e v a n e , t h e t h i r d , f o u r t h , a n d f i f t h a r e p o i n t s on t h e h o r i z o n t a l a x i s o f t h e s c a l e , while t h e s i x t h is t h e scale s t o p . The v e r t i c a l s c a l e a l s o h a s s i x d i v i s i o n s , o f w h i c h t h e s e c o n d d i v i s i o n h e r e i s t h e f i r s t p o i n t on t h e v e r t i c a l a x i s o f t h e apparatus. E a c h d i v i s i o n o f t h e h o r i z o n t a l s c a l e o f t h e LSA c o r r e s p o n d s t o a d e v i a t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t f r o m t h e LSA a x i s ( r e l a t i v e t o t h e p o i n t w h e r e t h e c o u r s e b e a c o n i s l o c a t e d ) w i t h i n l i m i t s o f 2 0 t o 3 0 ' or 2 5 m ( t 7 , - 5 m) f r o m t h e LTS a x i s a t a d i s t a n c e o f 1 3 5 0 m f r o m t h e control point. The a n g l e w i d t h o f t h e z o n e o f t h e g l i d e b e a c o n i s l i n k e d b t h e s l o p e a n g l e o f t h e g l i d e p a t h , which i s d e t e r m i n e d by t h e con d i t i o n s o f t h e f o r m a t i o n of t h e z o n e . The w i d t h o f t h e zone b e n e a t h t h e g l i d e p a t h i s t h e n somewhat g r e a t e r t h a n above t h e g l i d e path. The s t a n d a r d s f o r r e g u l a t i n g t h e g l i d e z o n e a r e t h e f o l l o w i n g : ( a ) The p o s i t i o n o f t h e u p p e r l i m i t a t a n a n g l e t o t h e a x i s o f t h e zone w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s from 0 . 1 9 t o 0 . 2 1 8 , ? . e . , a p p r o x i mately 1/5 of t h e slope angle f o r t h e g l i d e path. ( b ) The l o c a t i o n o f t h e l o w e r l i m i t a t a n a n g l e t o t h e a x i s o f t h e zone w i t h i n l i m i t s from 0 . 2 9 t o 0 . 3 1 8 (somewhat l e s s t h a n 1 / 3 of the slope angle f o r the glide path). A c c o r d i n g l y , one d i v i s i o n o f t h e v e r t i c a l s c a l e o f t h e LSA i n t h e upper p a r t i s e q u a l t o about 0.030 8 , while i n t h e lower p a r t it i s about 0.05 8 , where 0 is t h e s l o p e a n g l e o f t h e g l i d e p a t h .

L a n d i n g an A i r c r a f t w i t h t h e C o u r s e - G Z i d e S y s t e m
S e t t i n g up t h e m a n e u v e r f o r a n a i r c r a f t a p p r o a c h i n g a n a i r p o r t t o descend with t h e use of t h e course-glide system i s performed a c c o r d i n g t o t h e s a m e r u l e s as i n t h e s i m p l i f i e d s y s t e m for l a n d i n g an a i r c r a f t . The c o m p l e m e n t l a n d i n g an a i r c r a f t radio s t a t i o n s with simplified landing, o f e q u i p m e n t f o r t h e c o u r s e - g l i d e s y s t e m for i s u s u a l l y s u p p l e m e n t e d b y o n e or t w o m a s t e r marker beacons, located i n t h e system f o r w h i c h i s u s e d f o r s e t t i n g up t h e m a n e u v e r f o r

/383

403

bringing t h e aircraft i n f o r a landing and t o a c e r t a i n degree r e s e r v e s t h e c o u r s e - g l i d e s y s t e m f o r cases o f m a l f u n c t i o n o f t h e g r o u n d or a i r b o r n e e q u i p m e n t , as w e l l as d u r i n g t i m e s w h e n e q u i p m e n t i s b e i n g r e p a i r e d or a d j u s t e d . If i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e c o u r s e - g l i d e and master beacons, t h e air p o r t i s equipped w i t h r a d a r f o r o b s e r v i n g t h e a i r c r a f t , t h e maneuver f o r l a n d i n g i n minimum w e a t h e r c a n b e made a l o n g t h e s h o r t e s t p a t h f o r each l a n d i n g d i r e c t i o n and t a k e o f f d i r e c t i o n . By t h e same r u l e s w h i c h g o v e r n t h e s i m p l i f i e d l a n d i n g s y s t e m , p r e l i m i n a r y c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e c a r r i e d o u t which e n s u r e a s i m p l e r and more e x a c t a c t i o n o f t h e crew i n f l i g h t a l o n g a g i v e n d e s c e n t t r a jectory. A p o r t i o n o f t h e p r e l i m i n a r y c a l c u l a t i o n s , s u c h a s (for e x a m p l e ) t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e moment f o r s t a r t i n g t h e d e s c e n t i n a g l i d e , c a n n o t be done i n t h i s case i f w e k e e p i n mind t h e f a c t t h a t t h e The c a l c u l a t i o n s o f t h e given glide path is defined i n space. d r i f t angle o f the aircraft and t h e v e r t i c a l rate of descent along t h e l a n d i n g p a t h a r e o f somewhat l e s s i m p o r t a n c e i n t h i s c a s e . When t h e m a n e u v e r f o r m a k i n g a l a n d i n g i s made on command f r o m t h e g r o u n d , t h e n e e d f o r s u c h c a l c u l a t i o n s as t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e moment f o r m a k i n g t h e t h i r d t u r n n o l o n g e r e x i s t s . However, t h e moment or b e g i n n i n g t h e f o u r t h t u r n m u s t i n a l l c a s e s b e d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e c r e w o f t h e a i r c r a f t , w i t h t h e maximum a c c u r a c y possible. I n s e t t i n g up t h e m a n e u v e r f o r l a n d i n g , t h e s t r i p s o f t h e L S A c a n b e l o c a t e d on a n y d i v i s i o n s o f t h e s c a l e a n d n o a t t e n t i o n n e e d b e p a i d t o t h e i r r e a d i n g s ; h o w e v e r , when a p p r o a c h i n g t h e f o u r t h t u r n , b o t h s t r i p s m u s t b e l o c a t e d on t h e s c a l e s t o p s . The s t r i p f o r t h e c o u r s e z o n e r e s t s o n t h e s t o p on t h e s i d e o p p o s i t e t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e m a n e u v e r , t h e s t r i p for t h e g l i d e z o n e r e s t s o n The e m e r g e n c y b l i n k e r s m u s t t h e n b e o f f . the stop at the top. T h e s t r i p f o r t h e c o u r s e z o n e m u s t move a w a y f r o m t h e s c a l e stop during the fourth turn. T h e m o v e m e n t o f t h e s t r i p away f r o m the stop is called deflection. When t h e f o u r t h t u r n i s made c o r r e c t l y , d e f l e c t i o n o f t h e s t r i p f o r t h e c o u r s e z o n e o c c u r s a t t h e moment w h e n t h e t u r n a n g l e i s h e l d u n t i l the aircraft acquires the calculated landing course (Fig. For a i r c r a f t w i t h p i s t o n e n g i n e s , t h i s t u r n a i s l e is a b o u t 4.20,a). 45O; f o r a i r c r a f t w i t h t u r b o j e t or t u r b o p r o p e n g i n e s , i t i s a b o u t /384 30. W i t h a r e s i d u a l t u r n a n g l e o f 45O for a i r c r a f t w i t h p i s t o n engines (30 f o r a i r c r a f t with gas t u r b i n e e n g i n e s ) , i f d e f l e c t i o n o f t h e c o u r s e - z o n e s t r i p d o e s n o t o c c u r , it means t h a t t h e f o u r t h t u r n i s b e i n g made w i t h a l e a d .
404

I n t h i s case, it is d e s i r a b l e t o s i g n i f i c a n t l y reduce t h e b a n k i n g a n g l e d u r i n g t h e t u r n or e v e n t o s t o p t u r n i n g a n d f o l l o w t h e L T S a x i s a t t h e r e s i d u a l t u r n a n g l e u n t i l t h e LSA s t r i p d e f l e c t s .

F i g . 4 . 2 0 . A c q u i s i t i o n o f t h e L a n d i n g P a t h by a n A i r c r a f t : P r o p e r T u r n ; ( b ) With Turn Begun L a t e .

( a ) With

When t h e c o u r s e - z o n e s t r i p d e f l e c t s , t h e t u r n m u s t b e c o n t i n u e d u n t i l the landing course is acquired. When t h e l a n d i n g c o u r s e i s a c q u i r e d , t h e c o u r s e - z o n e s t r i p m u s t b e l o c a t e d n e a r t h e zero marking ( c e n t e r of t h e s c a l e ) . I n c a s e s when t h e f o u r t h t u r n i s made w i t h a d e l a y ( F i g . 4 . 2 0 , b ) , t h e d e f l e c t i o n o f t h e LSA s t r i p t a k e s p l a c e e a r l i e r t h a n 45 or 3 0 b e f o r e a c q u i s i t i o n of t h e l a n d i n g c o u r s e . In t h i s case, t h e t u r n must l a s t u n t i l t h e l a n d i n g c o u r s e and beyond, a t a l a n d i n g a n g l e o p p o s i t e t o t h e LTS a x i s , d e p e n d i n g on t h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e t r a n s i t i o n o f t h e course s t r i p through t h e center of t h e scale. For example, i f t h e d e s c a l i n g occurs a t t h e very beginning /385 of t h e fourth t u r n , i t i s necessary t o increase the banking angle i n t h e t u r n up t o 2 0 , a n d t h e a i r c r a f t w i l l c o n t i n u e t o t u r n t o t h e opposite angle f o r l a n d i n g (20 i n aircraft with p i s t o n engines a n d 30 f o r a i r c r a f t w i t h g a s t u r b i n e e n g i n e s ) . With l e s s d e l a y i n t u r n i n g , t h e o p p o s i t e a n g l e f o r a p p r o a c h can b e w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s o f 5 t o 20. With r e v e r s e d e f l e c t i o n of t h e c o u r s e - z o n e s t r i p , t h e a i r c r a f t makes a reverse turn onto t h e landing course, with a simultaneous After the aircraft has acquired t h e f l a t t u r n onto t h e LTS a x i s .

405

LTS a x i s , t h e f l i g h t c o n t i n u e s f o r a t i m e u n t i l d e f l e c t i o n o f t h e glide-zone s t r i p takes place a t a constant a l t i t u d e . A t t h e moment w h e n t h e g l i d e - z o n e s t r i p m o v e s a w a y f r o m t h e u p p e r s t o p , t h e a i r c r a f t s h i f t s t o a d e s c e n t regime w i t h a smooth a c q u i s i t i o n o f t h e d e s i r e d g l i d e p a t h downward.

D i r e c t i o n a Z P r o p e r t i e s o f t h e Landing S y s t e m A p p a r a t u s
The s e l e c t i o n o f t h e d e s i r e d c o u r s e a n d t h e v e r t i c a l r a t e of d e s c e n t a r e s o u r c e s o f c o n s i d e r a b l e d i f f i c u l t y f o r t h e crew a n d require a c e r t a i n degree of training. However, t h e s e d i f f i c u l t i e s do n o t a r i s e from p r i n c i p l e s o f p i l o t i n g t h e a i r c r a f t a l o n g t h e LSA, b u t r a t h e r f r o m t h e n e c e s s i t y o f s i m u l t a n e o u s l y o b s e r v i n g s e v e r a l d e v i c e s and i n s t r u m e n t s and s e l e c t i n g a f l i g h t regime i n t h e v e r t i c a l and h o r i z o n t a l planes simultaneously. N e v e r t h e l e s s , w i t h a p r o p e r r e a c t i o n o f t h e crew t o a c h a n g e i n t h e p o s i t i o n s o f t h e s t r i p s on t h e LAS, t h e l a n d i n g m a n e u v e r s h o u l d b e s u c c e s s f u l i n a l l cases and n o t v e r y d i f f i c u l t . I n p i l o t i n g t h e a i r c r a f t b y t h e LSA,two o f i t s p r i n c i p a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s must b e employed: ( 1 ) The i n d i c a t i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , ; . e . , the indication of the position of t h e aircraft r e l a t i v e t o a given descent t r a j e c t o r y . ( 2 ) The command c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , ; . e . , the a b i l i t y t o predeter s e l e c t i n g t h e f l i g h t regime. m i n e t h e a c t i o n s o f t h e crew I n a s m u c h a s t h e f i r s t p r o p e r t y o f t h e LSA i s o b v i o u s , examine t h e second. l e t us

The c o u r s e a n d g l i d e z o n e s a r e r a t h e r n a r r o w i n s p a c e , s u f f i c i e n t l y s o t h a t t h e l i m i t s of t h e s e zones can be c o n s i d e r e d p a r a l l e l over s h o r t segments o f t h e t r a j e c t o r y . L e t u s s a y t h a t a n a i r c r a f t a t a g i v e n moment i s l o c a t e d t o t h e s i d e o f t h e LTS a x i s , a n d t h e g r o u n d s p e e d v e c t o r o f t h e a i r craft does n o t coincide w i t h t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h i s a x i s ( F i g . 4 . 2 1 ) . O b v i o u s l y , t h e g r o u n d s p e e d v e c t o r o f t h e a i r c r a f t c a n be d i v i d e d , a n d a l a t e r a l o n e W,. i n t o two c o m p o n e n t s : a l o n g i t u d i n a l one W The l o n g i t u d i n a l c o m p o n e n t W , is not involved i n the selection of t h e c o u r s e t o b e f o l l o w e d . The p r i n c i p a l r o l e i s p l a y e d b y t h e l a t e r a l or t r a n s v e r s e c o m p o n e n t ,

wz

T h e c o m p o n e n t W, d e t e r m i n e s t h e r a t e o f m o t i o n o f a n L S A s t r i p / 3 8 6 along t h e h o r i z o n t a l scale of t h e apparatus. With t h e s t r i p f i x e d a t a n y s c a l e d i v i s i o n , t h e c o m p o n e n t W, i s e q u a l t o z e r o , w h i c h agrees precisely with t h e selected a i r c r a f t course, i . e . , its path i s p r a c t i c a l l y p a r a l l e l t o t h e a x i s LTS.

406

The r e g u l a t i o n o f t h e L S A i s s e t s o t h a t t h e c h a n g e i n t h e c o u r s e o f t h e a i r c r a f t ( 1 . 5 t o 2 0 ) makes t h e m o t i o n o f t h e v e r t i c a l

F i g . 4 . 2 1 . D i v i s i o n o f Ground Speed V e c t o r i n t o L o n g i t u d i n a l and L a t e r a l Components a l o n g t h e L a n d i n g P a t h .

For e x a m p l e , i n a i r c r a f t w i t h p i s t o n s t r i p LSA v i s i b l e t o t h e e y e . e n g i n e s , a change i n t h e c o u r s e by 2 O produces a l a t e r a l s h i f t o f t h e a i r c r a f t o f 2 m/sec. T h i s means t h a t t h e most d a n g e r o u s r e g i o n o f f l i g h t ( 1 2 0 0 t o 1 5 0 0 m t o t h e e n d o f t h e r u n w a y ) , t h e LSA s t r i p crosses each s c a l e d i v i s i o n i n 1 t o 1 2 sec, i .e., a s u f f i c i e n t l y 1 noticeable value equal t o h a l f a s c a l e division a f t e r each 5 t o 6 s e c of f l i g h t . I f a t u r n i s made i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e m o t i o n o f t h e LSA s t r i p b y 2 O , i t s m o t i o n c a n b e h a l t e d a t a n y d i v i s i o n on t h e s c a l e .
On t h i s b a s i s , t h e p r i n c i p l e o f s e l e c t i n g t h e c o u r s e f o r t h e a i r c r a f t b y t h e LSA m u s t b e t h e f o l l o w i n g :
If t h e v e r t i c a l s t r i p i s l o c a t e d a t a t h e c e n t e r of t h e instrument (on t h e t h i r d i s t h e n n e c e s s a r y t h a t t h e r a t e of i t s s h i instrument be s i g n i f i c a n t . To d o t h i s , i t t h e a i r c r a f t i n t h e d i r e c t i o n i n which t h e to 6O.

s i g n i f i c a n t d i s t a n c e from or f o u r t h d i v i s i o n ) , i t f t t o the center of the is sufficient t o turn s t r i p i s moving, by 4

A s t h e s t r i p a p p r o a c h e s t h e c e n t e r of t h e a p p a r a t u s , i t s r a t e of m o t i o n m u s t b e a r r e s t e d b y t u r n i n g t h e a i r c r a f t 1 t o 2 O i n t h e d i r e c t i o n shown b y t h e a r r o w . A t t h e moment when t h e s t r i p r e a c h e s t h e c e n t e r o f t h e i n s t r u m e n t , i t s m o t i o n i s a r r e s t e d by a f i n a l t u r n o f t h e a i r c r a f t b y 1 t o 2 O , a n d t h e a i r c r a f t w i l l b e s e t on t h e LTS a x i s , w i t h t h e c o u r s e a l r e a d y s e l e c t e d .

T h i s method r e q u i r e s a v e r y p r e c i s e n i g h t o f t h e a i r c r a f t along t h e a x i s of t h e course zone, with p e r i o d i c changes i n t h e course within t h e l i m i t s of 1 t o 2 O . An a n a l o g o u s m e t h o d i s e m p l o y e d t o s e t t h e v e r t i c a l r a t e o f descent of t h e a i r c r a f t , w i t h simultaneous a c q u i s i t i o n of t h e d e s i r e d g l i d e plane and subsequent f l i g h t along i t . M a i n t e n a n c e of t h e d e s c e n t r e g i m e o f t h e a i r c r a f t a l o n g a g i v e n t r a j e c t o r y b y t h e r e a d i n g s o f t h e LSA c o n t i n u e s up t o t h e moment when t h e a i r c r a f t e m e r g e s f r o m t h e c l o u d s a n d m a k e s a

407

t r a n s i t i o n t o v i s u a l f l i g h t , a f t e r which a v i s u a l estimate o f a l t i t u d e i s made a n d t h e a i r c r a f t t o u c h e s down o n t h e r u n w a y .

/387

D i r e c t i o n a l D e v i c e s f o r Landing A i r c r a f t
Determination o f t h e rate of s h i f t o f t h e s t r i p s calls f o r in c r e a s e d v i g i l a n c e i n o b s e r v i n g each of them. In addition, local i r r e g u l a r i t i e s i n th.e c o u r s e z o n e a n d g l i d e z o n e a t i n d i v i d u a l p o i n t s d i s t u r b t h e r e g u l a r i t y o f t h e p r o c e s s ; t h i s must b e t a k e n i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n by t h e c r e w and c a r e f u l l y s e p a r a t e d f r o m t h e g e n e r a l l y e s t ab l i s h e d t e n d e n c y .
A l l o f t h i s r e q u i r e s c o n s i d e r a b l e c a u t h n a n d t r a i n i n g on t h e p a r t o f t h e crew f o r m a k i n g a d e s c e n t a l o n g a g i v e n t r a j e c t o r y .

R e c e n t l y , s p e c i a l d i r e c t i o n a l d e v i c e s f o r p i l o t i n g an a i r c r a f t i n t h e c o u r s e and g l i d e zones have begun t o b e employed w i d e l y . Unlike t h e LSA, t h e d i r e c t i o n a l p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e s e d e v i c e s are n o t e x p r e s s e d b y t h e d e r i v a t i v e s o f t h e p o s i t i o n s o f t h e s t r i p s on t h e i n s t r u m e n t w i t h t i m e , b u t d i r e c t l y by t h e p o s i t i o n s o f t h e s e strips. The m o s t w i d e l y e m p l o y e d d i r e c t i o n a l d e v i c e s a t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e a r e t h o s e w h i c h a r e b a s e d on v a r i o u s l a w s o f c o n t r o l , w i t h a n i n d i c a t i o n which i s l i n k e d t o t h e b a n k i n g o f t h e a i r c r a f t d u r i n g a c o o r d i n a t e d s t a b l e t u r n , or t o t h e a n g l e o f p i t c h a t a s e t r a t e o f descent. In pilotage of the aircraft in the horizontal plane, these laws r e p r e s e n t a d e f i n i t e l i n k b e t w e e n t h e c o u r s e a n d t h e b a n k i n g o f t h e a i r c r a f t i n a t u r n , w i t h l a t e r a l d e v i a t i o n from t h e r a d i o s i g n a l p l a n e o f t h e c o u r s e zone a n d t h e f i r s t d e r i v a t i v e of t h i s deviation with time.

w h e r e Ay i s t h e a n g l e o f a p p r o a c h t o t h e l a n d i n g p a t h , B i s t h e banking angle of t h e aircraft i n t h e t u r n , Z i s t h e lateral devi a t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t f r o m t h e z o n e a x i s , V z i s t h e r a t e of l a t e r a l s h i f t o f t h e a i r c r a f t , and K are t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r t h e c o r r e s ponding parameters. A s i m i l a r l a w i s employed f o r p i l o t i n g an a i r c r a f t i n t h e vertical plane:
Kau

+ KyY f K

"Y

v y = 0,

where V i s t h e a n g l e o f p i t c h o f t h e a i r c r a f t , Y i s t h e d e v i a t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t from t h e g l i d e p a t h i n t h e v e r t i c a l p l a n e , and V Y i s t h e rate o f v e r t i c a l motion o f t h e a i r c r a f t .

40 8

S i n c e t h e l i n e a r v a l u e s Z and Y and t h e i r f i r s t d e r i v a t i v e s /388 cannot be measured d i r e c t l y i n p o l a r systems, t h e i r v a l u e s are re p l a c e d by a n g l e v a l u e s ( a a n d A O ) a n d t h e i r d e r i v a t i v e s . The v a l u e s a a n d A 0 a n d t h e i r d e r i v a t i v e s a a n d A0 a r e m e a s u r e d by t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n modulation depths and t h e i r d e r i v a t i v e s i n t h e zones of t h e course and g l i d e beacons. O b v i o u s l y , by s e l e c t i n g t h e p r o p e r b a n k i n g a n g l e a n d p i t c h a n g l e f o r t h e a i r c r a f t , t h e a i r c r a f t can be p o s i t i o n e d s o t h a t b o t h s t r i p s on t h e d i r e c t i o n a l i n d i c a t o r a r e l o c a t e d on z e r o . The c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r t h e c o n v e r t e d p o s i t i o n p a r a m e t e r s f o r t h e aircraft axes are s e l e c t e d s o t h a t whatever deviations t h e aircraft may m a k e f r o m t h e g i v e n t r a j e c t o r y ( i f t h e i n d i c a t o r s t r i p s r e m a i n on z e r o ) , t h e a i r c r a f t w i l l s t i l l t r a v e l a l o n g t h e g i v e n l a n d i n g and g l i d e p a t h w i t h a p r e d e t e r m i n e d t r a j e c t o r y (whose c o u r s e depends upon t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s s e l e c t e d ) . T h i s means t h a t t h e l a n d i n g c o u r s e and v e r t i c a l s p e e d must b e s e l e c t e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , s i n c e they are r e q u i r e d f o r f l y i n g t h e a i r c r a f t along a given t r a j e c t o r y . Hence, i n s t e a d o f a d j u s t i n g t h e r a t e o f motion o f t h e s t r i p s i n accordance with t h e i r motion toward t h e c e n t e r o f t h e instrument as i n a n o r m a l LSA, i n d i r e c t i o n a l i n s t r u m e n t s t h e crew n e e d o n l y b r i n g t h e i n d i c a t o r s t r i p s t o t h e c e n t e r o f t h e i n s t r u m e n t by c h a n g i n g t h e b a n k i n g a n g l e o f t h e a i r c r a f t as w e l l as i t s a n g l e o f p i t c h ; t h i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y f a c i l i t a t e s t h e t a s k o f p i l o t i n g an a i r c r a f t . To f u r t h e r r e d u c e t h e w o r k o f t h e c r e w , d i r e c t i o n a l i n s t r u m e n t s are u s u a l l y combined w i t h a g y r o h o r i z o n i n d i c a t o r . In t h i s case, t h e e n t i r e a t t e n t i o n o f t h e p i l o t i s c o n c e n t r a t e d p r a c t i c a l l y on t h e r e a d i n g s o f o n l y one i n s t r u m e n t . However, d i r e c t i o n a l i n s t r u m e n t s b a s e d on t h e r u l e s s t a t e d a b o v e h a v e s o m e i m p o r t a n t s h o r t comings, which t o a c e r t a i n d e g r e e r e d u c e t h e a c c u r a c y o f p i l o t i n g an a i r c r a f t r e l a t i v e t o p i l o t i n g by t h e i n d i c a t i o n s o f an L S A . 'The p r o p e r s e l e c t i o n o f c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r m a k i n g a t u r n a n d t h e a n g l e o f p i t c h o f t h e a i r c r a f t c a n b e made o n l y a t a c e r t a i n d i s t a n c e o f t h e a i r c r a f t from t h e ground beacons. During measure ment of t h e d i s t a n c e , t h e l i n e a r w i d t h o f t h e c o u r s e and g l i d e z o n e s c h a n g e s , t h u s l e a d i n g t o a f a i l u r e o f t h e s y s t e m r e g u l a t i o n param e t e r s t o a g r e e w i t h t h e dynamic f l i g h t t r a j e c t o r y o f t h e a i r c r a f t . T h i s s h o r t c o m i n g can b e c o m p l e t e l y overcome i f t h e s y s t e m i s r e g u l a t e d n o t o n l y by t h e a n g u l a r d e v i a t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t from t h e r a d i o - s i g n a l a x i s , b u t by c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e d i s t a n c e r e m a i n i n g t o the ground r a d i o beacons:

Z = L,tga; Y = L tg AO, g
where Lc and Lg a r e t h e d i s t a n c e s beacons. t o t h e c0urs.e a n d g l i d e r a d i o

409

Control can t h e n be e f f e c t e d i n a r e c t a n g u l a r system of coord i n a t e s , and t h e r e f o r e with constant agreement of t h e r e g u l a t i o n o f t h e s y s t e m w i t h t h e dynamic t r a j e c t o r y o f t h e a i r c r a f t ' s f l i g h t .

/389

In p o l a r coordinates, shortcomings i n t h e operation o f t h e d i r e c t i o n a l s y s t e m c a n b e e l i m i n a t e d by a s p e c i a l s e l e c t i o n o f converted s i g n a l coefficients (not proportional t o the values of t h e s i g n a l s i n various s e c t i o n s of t h e t r a j e c t o r y ) i n accordance with t h e tactical c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f aircraft o f various types.
It should a l s o be mentioned t h a t i n d i r e c t i o n a l systems, t h e i n d i c a t i o n of t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t r e l a t i v e t o a g i v e n T h i s m e a n s t h a t on b o a r d t h e a i r c r a f t , descent trajectory is l o s t . i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e d i r e c t i o n a l d e v i c e s , t h e r e must s t i l l be a c o n v e n t i o n a l LSA i n d i c a t o r , which i s u s e d as a s t a n d a r d t o c h e c k t h e accuracy of p i l o t a g e according t u t h e d i r e c t i o n a l i n d i c a t o r .
So-called p a r a v i s u a l d i r e c t i o n a l instruments are a l s o beginning t o b e u s e d nowadays ; i n p r i n c i p l e , t h e y r e p r e s e n t a r e i n f o r c e m e n t o f t h e d i r e c t i o n a l p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e LSA. I n t h i s c a s e , t h e u s u a l LSA i n d i c a t o r s a r e l o c a t e d i n t h e c e n t e r of t h e f i e l d o f t h e p i l o t ' s vision, while a t t h e periphery o f h i s v i s i o n t h e r e are i m i t a t o r s o f t h e motion of t h e s t r i p s according t o t h e f i r s t d e r i v a t i v e s c1 a n d A B , w h i c h l i n k t h e i n d i c a t i o n s h o w n with t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l and l a t e r a l r o l l i n g of t h e a i r c r a f t according t o the l a w s of t h e design of directional instruments.
Radar Landing Systems

From t h e t a c t i c a l s t a n d p o i n t , r a d a r l a n d i n g s y s t e m s h a v e n o s p e c i a l a d v a n t a g e s o v e r c o u r s e - g l i d e s y s t e m s ; on t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e i r u s e i s l e s s c o n v e n i e n t , s i n c e t h e r e a r e n o i n s t r u m e n t s a board t h e a i r c r a f t f o r i n d i c a t i n g t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e a i r c r a f t and n o commands f o r p i l o t i n g i t r e l a t i v e t o a g i v e n d e s c e n t t r a j e c t o r y . The a c c u r a c y w i t h w h i c h a n a i r c r a f t c a n b e l a n d e d by means o f r a d a r landing systems is roughly equal t o t h a t o f landing it with course-glide systems. Nevertheless , r a d a r landing systems are widely employed, a l o n g with course-glide systems. The p r i m a r y r e a s o n why r a d a r l a n d i n g s y s t e m s h a v e b e e n e m p l o y e d s o w i d e l y i s t h e n e e d f o r a c o n s t a n t c h e c k on a i r c r a f t making t h e i r l a n d i n g a p p r o a c h e s b y c o u r s e - g l i d e s y s t e m s , for t h e p u r p o s e s o f p o i n t i n g o u t e r r o r s made b y t h e c r e w a n d p r e v e n t i n g t h e v e r y d a n g e r ous c o n s e q u e n c e s o f e r r o r . The s e c o n d r e a s o n i s t h e n e e d t o g i v e t h e c r e w a s s i s t a n c e i n l a n d i n g t h e a i r c r a f t i f t h e y s h o u l d r e q u e s t i t , i f for s o m e r e a s o n t h e course-glide system cannot be used. T h e same r e a s o n i n g a p p l i e s / 3 9 0 i n r e t a i n i n g t h e c o u r s e - g l i d e s y s t e m i n c a s e t h e g r o u n d c o n t r o l is not functioning.

410

- - - . . - . - = l l l - ~ - ~ - 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

I I111 I 111=111 1-.1111 = .

11111111 1 1 1 1 1 1 I111 I I I 11111111 I I I II II I 111111111111I I 11 1 1 1

I l l

Ill

The r a d a r l a n d i n g s y s t e m c o n s i s t s o f a c o m p l e x o f d e v i c e s f o r observing t h e f l i g h t o f approaching aircraft ( r a d a r screen, USW r a d i o d i s t a n c e - f i n d e r ) a n d t h o s e a c t u a l l y making a l a n d i n g (landing radar). I n a d d i t i o n , t h e system i n c l u d e s communication a p p a r a t u s f o r t r a n s m i t t i n g i n f o r m a t i o n a n d n e c e s s a r y commands t o the aircraft. The l a n d i n g r a d a r i s t h e h e a r t o f t h e r a d a r l a n d i n g s y s t e m , s o w e s h a l l pause t o examine t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f i t s o p e r a t i o n . Unlike ground r a d a r i n st a l l a t i o n s with c i r c u l a r s c r e e n s , t h e landing r a d a r s have a s e c t o r s c r e e n , i . e . , t h e r e i s n o r o t a t i n g d i r e c t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e antenna, b u t one which s c a n s (oscillates) in a certain sector. Accordingly, t h e scanning l i n e on t h e r a d a r s c r e e n a l s o o s c i l l a t e s . The l a n d i n g r a d a r h a s t w o a n t e n n a s : ( a ) The c o u r s e - s e c t o r a n t e n n a , w i t h a w i d e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i n t h e v e r t i c a l p l a n e a n d a n a r r o w one i n t h e h o r i z o n t a l . ( b ) The g l i d e - s e c t o r a n t e n n a , w i t h a w i d e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i n t h e h o r i z o n t a l p l a n e and a n a r r o w one i n t h e v e r t i c a l ; t h e s c a n n i n g of the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h i s antenna takes place i n t h e v e r t i c a l plane. The s c a n n i n g o f t h e d i r e c t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e l a n d i n g r a d a r a n t e n n a c a n b e a c h i e v e d e i t h e r by m e c h a n i c a l o s c i l l a t i o n o f t h e a n t e n n a r e f l e c t o r or b y s p e c i a l d e v i c e s w h i c h c h a n g e t h e p h a s e o f t h e wave a l o n g t h e c h o r d o f t h e a n t e n n a r e f l e c t o r , t h u s c a u s i n g t h e p l a n e o f t h e wave f r o n t t o o s c i l l a t e ( s o t h a t a l l t h e wavepropagation c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a l s o o s c i l l a t e ) . The s c a n n i n g s e c t o r s o f t h e d i r e c t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e a n t e n n a a r e made n a r r o w ; ( a > For a c o u r s e s e c t o r o f 15O: t o e i t h e r s i d e o f t h e LTS a x i s . ( b ) For a g l i d e s e c t o r , 9 O w i d e : + 8 O u p w a r d a n d - l o d o w n w a r d from t h e p l a n e o f t h e h o r i z o n .
A peculiar feature of the landing radar i s t h e s p e c i a l design o f t h e s c a n n i n g on t h e c o u r s e a n d g l i d e s c r e e n s . Thus, i n s t e a d of t h e c i r c u l a r d i s t a n c e m a r k s on c o n v e n t i o n a l c i r c u l a r r a d a r s c r e e n s , t h e d i s t a n c e m a r k s on l a n d i n g r a d a r s a r e s t r a i g h t l i n e s , ; . e . , t h e d e l a y i n t h e d i s t a n c e m a r k s i s made p r o p o r t i o n a l n o t t o R , b u t t o R / c o s a , w h e r e c1 i s t h e a n g l e o f d e v i a t i o n o f t h e s c a n n i n g l i n e f r o m Hence, a r e c t a n g u l a r system of t h e a x i s of t h e scanning s e c t o r . c o o r d i n a t e s i s f o r m e d on t h e s c r e e n f r o m t h e p o l a r s y s t e m of coordinates f o r the aircraft. In addition, t h e r a d a r screen has a t r a n s v e r s e scale t h r e e t i m e s l a r g e r t h a n t h e d i s t a n c e scale f o r t h e course s e c t o r and five t i m e s larger than that for the glide sector. T h i s means t h a t t h e r e i s a corresponding r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e i n c r e a s e i n t h e scale i n d i c a t i n g the p o s i t i o n of t h e aircraft r e l a t i v e t o t h e given t r a j e c t o r y f o r t h e same s c r e e n r a d i u s .

411

A g e n e r a l view o f t h e s c r e e n s o f t h e c o u r s e and g l i d e s e c t o r s i s shown i n F i g . 4 . 2 2 .

/391

g l i d e path s e c t o r

course sector

Fig. Fig. 4.22. Sector. F i g . 4.23.

4.22

Fig.

4.23

Landing-Radar Screen:

( a ) Glide S e c t o r ; ( b ) Course

P a t t e r n on C o u r s e S c r e e n o f L a n d i n g R a d a r .

The l a n d i n g r a d a r i s m o u n t e d on t h e t r a v e r s e o f t h e c e n t e r o f t h e LTS, a t a d i s t a n c e o f 1 0 0 t o 1 5 0 m t o t h e s i d e , s o t h a t t h e c o n d i t i o n s for u s i n g i t when l a n d i n g a t e i t h e r e n d o f t h e r u n w a y w i l l b e t h e same. I n t h e immediate v i c i n i t y of t h e l a n d i n g r a d a r , t h e r e is a c i r c u l a r - s c a n r a d a r f o r o b s e r v i n g a i r c r a f t n e a r and f a r from t h e airport

I n s e t t i n g up t h e l a n d i n g m a n e u v e r , i m m e d i a t e l y b e f o r e c o m p l e t i n g t h e f o u r t h t u r n , t h e short-range r a d a r approach system i s used, a l s o I t s s c r e e n can b e u s e d t o show c a l l e d c o n t r o l - t o w e r r a d a r (CTR). l a n d i n g m a n e u v e r s for a i r c r a f t a p p r o a c h i n g f r o m a l l d i r e c t i o n s . A l l t u r n s o f t h e a i r c r a f t a r e made on command f r o m t h e f l i g h t s u p e r v i s o r , as a r e t h e c o u r s e c o r r e c t i o n s on t h e s t r a i g h t - l i n e segments between t h e t u r n s , i f t h e given f l i g h t d i r e c t i o n s a r e n o t maintained s u f f i c i e n t l y accurately. O b s e r v a t i o n o f an a i r c r a f t w i t h t h e l a n d i n g r a d a r b e g i n s w h i l e i t i s making the f o u r t h t u r n , u s i n g o n l y t h e c o u r s e s e c t o r screen

I n o r d e r t o e n s u r e t h a t t h e a i r c r a f t l a n d s p r e c i s e l y on a g i v e n d e s c e n t t r a j e c t o r y , t h e r e q u i r e d p a t t e r n i s s u p e r p o s e d on t h e landing radar screen. T h i s p a t t e r n on t h e s c r e e n s e r v e s t h r e e purposes: (1) T o show t h e g i v e n t r a j e c t o r y f o r t h e a i r c r a f t ' s d e s c e n t .

412

( 2 ) To p r o v i d e a u x i l i a r y l i n e s f o r g i v i n g commands t o t h e c r e w of the aircraft. ( 3 ) To s h o w t h e b o u n d a r y l i n e s for s a f e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e a n d t h e p e r m i s s i b l e zones f o r landing t h e aircraft. S i n c e t h e l a n d i n g r a d a r i s u s u a l l y u s e d for t w o d i r e c t i o n s o f l a n d i n g a n d t a k e o f f , a n d c a n e v e n b e u s e d f o r t h r e e or f o u r i s i f o t h e r runways i n t e r s e c t , t h e p a t t e r n s f o r t h e s c r e e n s are p r i n t e d on r e m o v a b l e c e l l u l o i d s h e e t s w h i c h c a n b e c h a n g e d when s h i f t i n g t h e l a n d i n g r a d a r t o a new l a n d i n g d i r e c t i o n . The s c r e e n f o r t h e c o u r s e s e c t o r o f a l a n d i n g r a d a r ( F i g . u s u a l l y shows t h e f o l l o w i n g : 4.23)

/392

1. T h e g i v e n l a n d i n g p a t h ( a x i s o f L T S ) , b e g i n n i n g a t t h e e n d t h e runway and e x t e n d i n g t o t h e l i m i t o f t h e s c r e e n . The f o l l o w i n g p o i n t s a r e m a r k e d on t h i s l i n e : t h e b e g i n n i n g o f d e s c e n t a l o n g a s e t g l i d e p a t h a n d t h e l o c a t i o n s o f t h e LRMS a n d SRMS l a n d i n g T h e SRMS systems w i t h i n t h e r a n g e o f t h e master r a d i o s t a t i o n s . i s u s u a l l y f i t t e d w i t h a c o r n e r r e f l e c t o r , which p r o d u c e s a b r i g h t s p o t on t h e s c r e e n a n d i s u s e d i n s e t t i n g t h e r a d a r f o r t h e g i v e n l a n d i n g d i r e c t i o n a n d as a c o n t r o l t o c h e c k t h e a c c u r a c y o f t h e s e t t i n g of t h e r a d a r a f t e r i t i s turned around.
of

2 . T h e l i n e s d e l i m i t i n g t h e zone o f T h e s e l i n e s a r e d e f i n e d on t h e b a s i s o f c r a f t , b e i n g on a c o u r s e c l o s e t o t h a t f up w i t h t h e LTS a x i s p r i o r t o t h e s t a r t o n l y i n t h e c a s e when x > 2R sin UT

possible a i r c r a f t landings. t h e assumption t h a t t h e a i r o r landing, can be l i n e d of the landing distance

where

YP = arccos

( -- 3 2
1

where X i s t h e r e m a i n i n g d i s t a n c e t o t h e s t a r t o f t h e l a n d i n g d i s t a n c e , Z i s t h e l a t e r a l d e v i a t i o n from t h e l a n d i n g p a t h , and R i s t h e t u r n i n g r a d i u s w i t h a b a n k i n g a n g l e o f ioo. The o r d e r i n w h i c h t h e s e l i n e s a r e p l o t t e d i s t h e f o l l o w j n g : ( a > S e v e r a l p o i n t s o f d e v i a t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t from t h e l a n d i n g p a t h a r e g i v e n ( e . g . , 30, 1 0 0 , 2 0 0 , 500, 1000, 2000, and 4 0 0 0 m) a n d t h e r e q u i r e d t u r n a n g l e s t o c o r r e c t t h e s e d e v i a t i o n s are determined: Z
COSUT= 1 - -;
2R

/393

( b ) T h e r e q u i r e d c o u r s e f o r l i n i n g up t h e a i r c r a f t w i t h t h e LTS a x i s i s d e t e r m i n e d :
X = 2R sinUT.

413

To t h i s p a t h , w e a d d t h e d i s t a n c e t r a v e l e d b y t h e a i r c r a f t ( i n 4 sec f o r piston-engine aircraft, 7 sec f o r gas turbine a i r c r a f t ) , r e q u i r e d f o r r e c e i v i n g commands a n d c a r r y i n g o u t t h e m a n e u v e r t o l i n e up t h e a i r c r a f t w i t h t h e r u n w a y . ( c ) The p a t h o b t a i n e d f o r t h e a i r c r a f t i s m e a s u r e d f r o m t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t o f t h e l a n d i n g d i s t a n c e ( a s r u l e , f r o m t h e SRMS), a n d w e o b t a i n t h e minimum a t t a i n a b l e d i s t a n c e s o f t h e s e l e c t e d p o i n t s f o r the lateral deviations of the aircraft. By c o n n e c t i n g t h e p o i n t s b y a s m o o t h c u r v e , w e o b t a i n t h e l i m i t o f t h e p o s s i b l e l a n d i n g zone o f an a i r c r a f t , w i t h p e r m i s s i b l e l a t e r a l deviations. I n t h e c o u r s e o f l a n d i n g a n a i r c r a f t , i f i t s h o w s up o u t s i d e t h e i n d i c a t e d l i m i t s , t h e l a n d i n g c a n n o t b e a l l o w e d a n d t h e command i s g i v e n t o make a x o t h e r p a s s a t t h e f i e l d . The b o u n d a r y l i n e s a r e u s u a l l y p l o t t e d f o r t w o t y p i c a l g l i d e speeds of aircraft: for t h o s e w i t h p i s t o n - e n g i n e s , 2 0 0 k m / h r ; for t h o s e w i t h g a s t u r b i n e e n g i n e s , 2 8 0 k m / h r . The t u r n r a d i u s i s c a l c u l a t e d f o r a c o o r d i n a t e d t u r n w i t h a banking a n g l e o f loo, w i t h t h e l i n e s f o r s t a r t i n g t h e t u r n p l o t t e d f o r making a l a n d i n g a t a p p r o a c h a n g l e s o f 1 0 a n d 30.

I f t h e a i r c r a f t h a s a s i g n i f i c a n t d e v i a t i o n f r o m t h e LTS a x i s a f t e r emerging from t h e f o u r t h t u r n , w e can i n p r i n c i p l e use any a n g l e o f a p p r o a c h t o t h e L T S a x i s which makes i t p o s s i b l e t o l i n e up t h e a i r c r a f t w i t h t h e l a n d i n g p a t h b e f o r e t h e l a n d i n g d i s t a n c e is reached.

H o w e v e r , a s e x p e r i e n c e h a s s h o w n , i t i s s i m p l e s t t o l i n e up t h e a i r c r a f t w i t h t h e l a n d i n g p a t h by u s i n g o n l y two v a l u e s f o r t h e approach a n g l e s : l o o i f t h e d e v i a t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t from t h e g i v e n l i n e p a t h i s l e s s t h a n 5 0 0 m y a n d 30 m f o r d e v i a t i o n s e x c e e d Then t h e l a n d i n g - r a d a r s c r e e n c a n b e b o u n d e d b y a i n g 500 m. t o t a l o f two a u x i l i a r y l i n e s f o r b e g i n n i n g t h e t u r n o n t o t h e l a n d i n g path. I n t h i s c a s e , t h e d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e LTS a x i s t o t h e a u x i l i a r y l i n e can b e d e t e r m i n e d by t h e f o r m u l a
2 = R (1

cos UT$

However, e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a show t h a t t h e r e i s a n a p p r e c i a b l e d e l a y i n t h e a i r c r a f t s a c q u i r i n g t h e l a n d i n g p a t h , due t o t h e t i m e i n v o l v e d i n t r a n s m i t t i n g commands a n d d u e t o t h e r e a c t i o n o f Therefore, it is b e t t e r t h e a i r c r a f t a n d crew i n making t h e t u r n . t o p l o t t h e s e l i n e s on t h e b a s i s o f s t a t i s t i c a l d a t a o b t a i n e d f r o m e x p e r i e n c e , as d e t e r m i n e d f r o m a l a r g e n u m b e r o f a i r c r a f t l a n d i n g s .

/394

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According t o t h e s e d a t a , t h e t u r n t o t h e l a n d i n g c o u r s e must begin : ( a ) For a n a p p r o a c h a n g l e o f l o o , i n a i r c r a f t w i t h p i s t o n e n g i n e s , 1 5 0 m f r o m t h e LTS a x i s ( 5 mm on t h e s c r e e n s c a l e ) ; f o r a i r c r a f t w i t h g a s t u r b i n e e n g i n e s , i t i s 2 5 0 m f r o m t h e LTS a x i s ( 8 mm o n t h e s c r e e n s c a l e ) . ( b ) W i t h a n a p p r o a c h a n g l e o f 30, t h e s e d i s t a n c e s a r e 4 5 0 a n d 7 5 0 m , r e s p e c t i v e l y ( 1 5 a n d 2 5 mm on t h e s c r e e n s c a l e ) . T h e m a r k i n g s on t h e g l i d e s c r e e n o f t h e l a n d i n g r a d a r a r e shown i n F i g . 4 . 2 4 . I n t h i s case, t h e d e s c e n t trajectory f o r the glide path is set a t the airport. Above t h i s g l i d e p a t h a r e two b o u n d a r y l i n e s f o r landing the aircraft; f o r aircraft with gas t u r b i n e engines i t i s 4O, a n d f o r a i r c r a f t w i t h p i s t o n engines it i s 5 O .
If t h e b l i p r e p r e s e n t i n g an a i r c r a f t a p p e a r s above t h e boun dary l i n e designated f o r a given type of a i r c r a f t , the landing of t h e aircraft w i l l be complicated. T h e r e f o r e , when c o n t r o l l i n g t h e l a n d i n g o f an a i r c r a f t , it s h o u l d n o t be allowed t o go beyond t h e

F i g . 4 . 2 4 . P a t t e r n on G l i d e Screen o f Landing Radar.

l i m i t s of t h e s e boundary l i n e s .
Below t h e e s t a b l i s h e d g l i d e p a t h , t h e r e a r e b o u n d a r y l i n e s f o r p e r m i s s i b l e d e s c e n t o f t h e a i r c r a f t below t h e g l i d e p a t h , i . e . , t h e l i n e s l i m i t i n g t h e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e a b o v e t h e l o c a l t e r r a i n : 200 m p r i o r t o beginning descent i n a g l i d e , 150 m before passing over t h e LRMS, a n d 5 0 m b e f o r e p a s s i n g o v e r t h e SRMS. In addition, there may a l s o b e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e s f o r c i r c l i n g t h e f i e l d , s e t a t 3 0 0 , 4 0 0 a n d 500m. T h e s e l i n e s a r e u s e d for a i r c r a f t c o m i n g i n f o r a l a n d i n g according t o t h e CGS (course-glide system). I n t h e case w h e r e t h e b l i p m a r k i n g an a i r c r a f t i n t e r s e c t s o n e o f t h e s e l i n e s , f u r t h e r d e s c e n t of t h e a i r c r a f t i s t o b e c o n s i d e r e d d a n g e r o u s and t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n of t h e f l i g h t s u p e r v i s o r o p e r a t i n g the landing radar is required.

B r i n g i n g an A i r c r a f t In f o r a L a n d i n g w i t h L a n d i n g R a d a r
The m e t h o d o f b r i n g i n g a n a i r c r a f t i n f o r a l a n d i n g w i t h a landing r a d a r i s very simple and q u i t e e f f e c t i v e a t t h e p r e s e n t time

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The s e t t i n g up of t h e l a n d i n g m a n e u v e r a n d t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s o f t h e e l e m e n t s o f t h e d e s c e n t i s made b y t h e same r u l e s a s i n u s i n g t h e s i m p l i f i e d or c o u r s e - g l i d e l a n d i n g s y s t e m s . T h e moment f o r s t a r t i n g t h e f o u r t h t u r n i s d e t e r m i n e d o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e b l i p r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e a i r c r a f t on t h e f l i g h t s u p e r No commands a r e g i v e n t o t h e c r e w d u r i n g t h e visor's screen. fourth turn. A f t e r t h e a i r c r a f t emerges from t h e f o u r t h t u r n , t h e c a l c u l a t e d l a n d i n g p a t h m u s t b e f o l l o w e d for 1 0 t o 1 5 s e c . If t h e b l i p o n t h e l a n d i n g - r a d a r s c r e e n i s p a r a l l e l t o t h e LTS a x i s , t h e c a l c u l a t e d course o f t h e a i r c r a f t i s e q u a l t o t h e l a n d i n g course and t h e a i r c r a f t n e e d m e r e l y b e l i n e d up w i t h t h e l a n d i n g p a t h . If t h e b l i p i s a t a n a n g l e t o t h e LTS a x i s , t h e c a l c u l a t e d c o u r s e o f t h e a i r c r a f t i s n o t e q u a l t o t h e l a n d i n g c o u r s e , b u t it i s v e r y e a s y t o d e t e r m i n e t h e d e s i r e d c o u r s e c o r r e c t i o n by v i s u a l i n s p e c t i o n , s i n c e t h e angle of t h e b l i p i s equal t o t h r e e t i m e s t h e angle o f t h e For e x a m p l e , w i t h a b l i p a n g l e o f l o o , t h e c o u r s e course e r r o r . c o r r e c t i o n must be 3 O . Having t h u s d e t e r m i n e d t h e r e q u i r e d c o r r e c t i o n i n t h e c o u r s e t o b e f o l l o w e d , t h e s u p e r v i s o r g i v e s a command t o t h e c r e w , t e l l i n g them t o a c q u i r e t h e d e s i r e d l a n d i n g p a t h a t an a n g l e o f 1 0 o r 3 0 , thus s e t t i n g t h e course t o be followed. A t t h e moment when t h e b l i p c r o s s e s t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g a u x i l i a r y l i n e , a command i s g i v e n t o t u r n t h e a i r c r a f t o n t o t h e l a n d i n g c o u r s e , considering the correction given. I n t h e m a j o r i t y o f c a s e s , when t h e s e t w o commands a r e g i v e n , i t i s s u f f i c i e n t t o l i n e up t h e a i r c r a f t w i t h t h e l a n d i n g p a t h on If a t e n d e n c y i s o b s e r v e d d u r i n g f l i g h t a l o n g the desired course. t h e l a n d i n g p a t h f o r t h e a i r c r a f t t o s h i f t l a t e r a l l y , i t can b e c o r r e c t e d b y commands for s m a l l c h a n g e s i n t h e a i r c r a f t c o u r s e ( b y 2 or 3 O ) , w i t h i n d i c a t i o n e a c h t i m e o f t h e c o u r s e w h i c h m u s t b e followed. When t h e b l i p a p p r o a c h e s t h e p o i n t w h e r e t h e a i r c r a f t i s t o b e g i n i t s d e s c e n t i n a g l i d e , a command i s g i v e n t o d e s c e n d a t a calculated v e r t i c a l speed. If it t h e n develops t h a t t h e a i r c r a f t i s d e v i a t i n g f r o m t h e g i v e n g l i d e p a t h ( e i t h e r u p w a r d or d o w n w a r d ) , t h e f l i g h t s u p e r v i s o r c o r r e c t s t h e v e r t i c a l s p e e d , g i v i n g new v a l u e s f o r it and e n s u r i n g t h a t t h e a i r c r a f t t r a v e l s e x a c t l y a l o n g t h e given path. An a d v a n t a g e o f t h e r a d a r l a n d i n g s y s t e m i s t h e r e l a t i v e s i m p l i c i t y of the supervisor's task i n directing the aircraft t o a landing a n d t h e u n c o m p l i c a t e d a c t i o n s o f t h e crew i n c a r r y i n g o u t t h e s u p e r v i s o r ' s commands, w i t h n o p r e v i o u s t r a i n i n g r e q u i r e d . These advan t a g e s a r e a l s o r e i n f o r c e d by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e f l i g h t s u p e r v i s o r , /396 who c o n s t a n t l y w a t c h e s o v e r s e v e r a l a i r c r a f t c o m i n g i n f o r a l a n d i n g

416

and g i v e s them i n s t r u c t i o n s , a c q u i r e s a v e r y g r e a t amount o f e x p e r i e n c e i n t h e c o u r s e o f h i s work, a g r e a t d e a l more t h a n t h a t which t h e c r e w c a n a c q u i r e f r o m t h e l a n d i n g s o f t h e i r own a i r c r a f t a l o n e . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e s u p e r v i s o r , i n t h e c o u r s e o f h i s work i n g u i d i n g one a i r c r a f t a f t e r a n o t h e r t o a s a f e l a n d i n g , a c q u i r e s a p e c u l i a r " f e e l " f o r e s t i m a t i n g t h e n a v i g a t i o n a l d i f f i c u l t i e s on a g i v e n d a y ( s e l e c t i o n o f t h e r e q u i r e d v e r t i c a l s p e e d a n d l a n d i n g c o u r s e on t h e b a s i s o f h i s experience with aircraft t h a t have landed e a r l i e r ) . T h e r e f o r e , i n p r a c t i c e , t h e a c c u r a c y o f l a n d i n g an a i r c r a f t w i t h a r a d a r system i s no worse t h a n w i t h a c o u r s e - g l i d e system. N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e main s h o r t c o m i n g of t h e s y s t e m ( a l a c k o f i n d i c a t i o n f o r t h e c r e w a s t o t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t on a g i v e n descent t r a j e c t o r y ) creates a c e r t a i n degree of inaccuracy i n making t h e l a n d i n g , a n d i n t h i s r e s p e c t t h e r a d a r l a n d i n g s y s t e m i s i n f e r i o r t o t h e course-glide system.

417

CHAPTER F I V E

AVIATION ASTRONOMY]

1. The C e l e s t i a l S p h e r e

The s k y a p p e a r s t o t h e o b s e r v e r a s a n immense h e m i s p h e r e . The c e Z e s t i a Z s p h e r e i s a n i m a g i n a r y s p h e r e o f a r b i t r a r y r a d i u s , /397 whose c e n t e r i s t h e e y e o f t h e o b s e r v e r ( F i g . 5 . 1 ) . An o b s e r v e r o n t h e E a r t h s s u r f a c e c a n s e e o n l y t h e h a l f o f t h e c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e which i s l o c a t e d above t h e h o r i z o n , s i n c e t h e o t h e r hemisphere i s l o c a t e d below t h e h o r i z o n .

If t h e E a r t h were t r a n s p a r e n t , a n o b s e r v e r l o c a t e d a t a n y p o i n t on i t s s u r f a c e w o u l d s e e n o t o n e b u t t w o domes w h i c h t o g e t h e r f o r m the celestial sphere.
Special Points, Planes, and C i r c l e s i n the Celestial Sphere

If a l i n e i s p l o t t e d p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e Z e n i t h and n a d i r . l o c a t i o n o f t h e o b s e r v e r ( t h r o u g h t h e c e n t e r of t h e c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e ) , it w i l l i n t e r s e c t t h e imaginary l i m i t s o f t h e c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e a t two p o i n t s ( s e e F i g . 5 . 1 ) . The p o i n t w h i c h i s l o c a t e d a b o v e t h e T h e o p p o s i t e p o i n t i s t h e n a d i r (Z). observer is the zenith (Z).

True horizon. If a p l a n e i s d e f i n e d t h r o u g h t h e c e n t e r o f t h e c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e a n d i s p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e v e r t i c a l l i n e Z Z , we /398 c a n c a l l i t t h e p l a n e of t h e h o r i z o n .

The p l a n e o f sects the celesti t h e circumference ( t h e p o i n t s NESW) t h e true horizon.

t h e horizon i n t e r a l sphere along of a g r e a t c i r c l e which i s c a l l e d

Fig.

5.1.

C e l e s t i a l Sphere
~.

World a x i s . The i m a g i n a r y l i n e P P , around which t h e a p p a r e n t r o t a t i o n of t h e c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e t a k e s p l a c e , i s c a l l e d t h e world It passes through the point axis. of t h e observer, located a t t h e c e n t e r of t h e c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e , and i n t e r s e c t s t h e a r b i t r a r y l i m i t s of t h e c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e a t two
__

T h i s c h a p t e r w a s w r i t t e n by M . I . 418

Gurevich.

I'

d i a m e t r i c a l l y opposed p o i n t s PP'. The w o r l d a x i s i s i n c l i n e d t o t h e h o r i z o n a t a n a n g l e w h i c h d e p e n d s on t h e l a t i t u d e of t h e ob server.

Z

Fig. 5.2. V e r t i c a l and Almucantar.

Fig. 5.3. C e l e s t i a l Meridian, Hour C i r c l e , a n d C e l e s t i a l P a r a l l e l .

Celestial poles. The p o i n t s w h e r e t h e i m a g i n a r y w o r l d a x i s i n t e r s e c t s t h e a r b i t r a r y l i m i t of t h e c e l e s t i a l sphere a r e c a l l e d the celestial poles. Point P i s c a l l e d t h e superior (north) celes t i a l p o l e , and t h e o p p o s i t e p o i n t P ' i s c a l l e d t h e i n f e r i o r ( s o u t h ) ceZestiaZ pole. Only t h e n o r t h c e l e s t i a l p o l e i s v i s i b l e i n t h e Northern Hemisphere, and only t h e south c e l e s t i a l p o l e i s v i s i b l e i n t h e Southern Hemisphere. Celestial equator. The p l a n e w h i ch p a s s e s t h r o u g h t h e c e n t e r o f t h e c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e a n d i s p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e w o r l d a x i s is c a l l e d t h e p l a n e of t h e c e l e s t i a l e q u a t o r . The g r e a t c i r c l e QEQ'W, a l o n g which t h e p l a n e of t h e c e l e s t i a l e q u a t o r i n t e r s e c t s t h e c e l e s t i a l sphere, i s c a l l e d t h e ceZestiaZ equator. The c e l e s t i a l e q u a t o r d i v i d e s t h e c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e i n t o n o r t h e r n (QPQ ' 1 a n d s o u t h e r n (Q ' P 'Q) p a r t s . The p l a n e o f t h e c e l e s t i a l e q u a t o r i s i n c l i n e d t o t h e p l a n e of t h e t r u e h o r i z o n a t a n a n g l e which a l s o d e p e n d s on t h e l a t i t u d e of t h e o b s e r v e r . Vertical. The g r e a t c i r c l e on t h e c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e whose plane passes through t h e v e r t i c a l l i n e i s called t h e v e r t i c a l . Every v e r t i c a l p a s s e s t h r o u g h t h e z e n i t h Z and t h e n a d i r Z ' . The p l a n e of t h e v e r t i c a l i s p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e p l a n e of t h e t r u e horizon (Fig. 5.2). The v e r t i c a l w h i c h p a s s e s t h r o u g h t h e e a s t a n d w e s t p o i n t s ( E and W , r e s p e c t i v e l y ) i s c a l l e d t h e primary v e r t i c a Z .

/399

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I t

The g r e a t c i r c l e ZMZ o f t h e c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e , w h i c h p a s s e s t h r o u g h t h e z e n i t h of t h e o b s e r v e r a n d a c e r t a i n s t a r ( P o i n t M , F i g . 5.2), i s c a l l e d t h e v e r t i c a l o f t h a t s t a r .

Almucantar. The s m a l l c i r c l e D M D on t h e c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e , whose p l a n e i s p a r a l l e l t o t h e p l a n e o f t h e t r u e h o r i z o n , i s c a l l e d t h e almucantar.

The a l m u c a n t a r w h i c h p a s s e s t h r o u g h a g i v e n s t a r i s c a l l e d t h e

almucantar o f t h a t s t a r .
Hour c i r c l e . T h e g r e a t c i r c l e PMP o f t h e c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e , w h o s e p l a n e p a s s e s t h r o u g h t h e w o r l d a x i s , i s c a l l e d t h e c i r c l e of declination (Fig. 5.3). Since t h e world a x i s i s perpendicular t o t h e c e l e s t i a l equator, t h e plane of t h e hour circle is a l s o per pendicular t o the equator.
T h e h o u r c i r c l e w h i c h p a s s e s t h r o u g h a g i v e n s t a r i s t h e hour

circZe of that star.

Celestial m e r i d i a n . The v e r t i c a l P Z P Z , w h i c h p a s s e s t h r o u g h t h e celestial poles, i s c a l l e d t h e ceZestiaZ.meridian (since i t s plane coincides with t h e plane of t h e meridian of t h e observer). The c e l e s t i a l m e r i d i a n d i v i d e s t h e c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e i n t o t h e e a s t e r n and w e s t e r n hemispheres. T h e north point N a n d south point S.
c r o s s e s t h e t r u e h o r i z o n a t two p o i n t s , The c e l e s t i a l m e r i d i a n c a l l e d t h e n o r t h and s o u t h

points.
Meridian line. T h e p l a n e of t h e c e l e s t i a l m e r i d i a n c r o s s e s Obviously, t h e plane of t h e t r u e horizon t o form t h e meridian l i n e . t h e e n d s o f t h e m e r i d i a n l i n e c o i n c i d e w i t h t h e n o r t h and s o u t h (N a n d S , r e s p e c t i v e l y ) . T h i s l i n e i s c a l l e d t h e noon points. l i n e i n R u s s i a n b e c a u s e t h e shadows o f v e r t i c a l o b j e c t s f a l l a l o n g t h i s l i n e a t noon. T h e east point E and west point W . If w e p l o t a s t r a i g h t l i n e i n t h e p l a n e of t h e h o r i z o n p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e m e r i d i a n l i n e ( s e e F i g . 5 . 3 ) and f a c e n o r t h , t h e e a s t p o i n t E w i l l l i e on t h e r i g h t a t t h e p o i n t where t h e p l a n e i n t e r s e c t s t h e c i r c u m f e r e n c e of t h e t r u e h o r i z o n , w h i l e t h e w e s t p o i n t w i l l b e l o c a t e d on t h e l e f t .
A s t h e f i g u r e shows, t h e e a s t and w e s t p o i n t s a r e 90 d i s t a n t from t h e n o r t h and s o u t h p o i n t s . T h e same f i g u r e a l s o s h o w s t h a t t h e e a s t a n d w e s t p o i n t s ( E a n d W , r e s p e c t i v e l y ) mark t h e p o i n t s of i n t e r s e c t i o n o f t h e c e l e s t i a l e q u a t o r w i t h t h e t r u e h o r i z o n .

Celestial parallel. The s m a l l c i r c l e on t h e c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e , / 4 o o whose p l a n e i s p a r a l l e l t o t h e p l a n e o f t h e c e l e s t i a l e q u a t o r , i s c a l l e d t h e ceZestiaZ parallel ( s i m i l a r t o t h e t e r r e s t r i a l p a r a l l e l s ) .

420

Diurnal c i r c l e o f a s t a r . The s m a l l c i r c l e o n t h e c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e , drawn t h r o u g h a s t a r p a r a l l e l t o t h e c e l e s t i a l e q u a t o r , i s c a l l e d t h e d i u r n a l c i r c l e of t h e s t a r . Astronomical coordinates. A s w e know, i n o r d e r t o d e t e r m i n e t h e l o c a t i o n o f a n y p o i n t on t h e E a r t h s s u r f a c e , i t i s s u f f i c i e n t t o know t h e t w o a n g u l a r c o o r d i n a t e s o f t h i s p o i n t , t h e l a t i t u d e and l o n g i t u d e . I n a s t r o n o m y , t h e l o c a t i o n o f s t a r s on t h e s p h e r e i s accom p l i s h e d by means o f two a n g u l a r s y s t e m s of c e l e s t i a l c o o r d i n a t e s : t h e a p p a r e n t s y s t e m of c o o r d i n a t e s and t h e e q u a t o r i a l s y s t e m o f coordinates. I n e a c h o f t h e s e s y s t e m s , t h e p o s i t i o n o f a p o i n t ( s t a r ) on t h e c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e i s d e t e r m i n e d by two c e l e s t i a l c o o r d i n a t e s . L e t u s examine t h e s y s t e m s o f c e l e s t i a l c o o r d i n a t e s i n d i v i d u a l l y .

S y s t e m s of

Coordinates

A p p a r e n t S y s t e m of C o o r d i n a t e s
The main c i r c l e s r e l a t i v e t o wh i ch c o o r d i n a t e s a r e d e t e r m i n e d i n t h i s system ( F i g . 5 . 4 ) a r e t h e t r u e h o r i z o n and t h e m e r i d i a n of the observer. The c o o r d i n a t e s t h e m s e l v e s a r e c a l l e d t h e a l t i t u d e o f t h e s t a r (h) a n d t h e a z i m u t h o f t h e s t a r ( A ) .
Altitude of a star. The a n g l e b e t w e e n t h e p l a n e o f t h e t r u e h o r i z o n and a l i n e from t h e c e n t e r of t h e s p h e r e t o t h e s t a r ( a n g l e M O M , F i g . 5 . 4 ) i s c a l l e d t h e a z t i t u d e of t h e s t a r . The a l t i t u d e o f a s t a r c a n a l s o b e m e a s u r e d by t h e a r c o f t h e v e r t i c a l from t h e t r u e h o r i z o n t o t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e g i v e n s t a r (MM).

The a l t i t u d e o f t h e s t a r i s m e a s u r e d f r o m 0 t o 9 0 ( p o s i t i v e v a l u e s toward t h e z e n i t h from t h e h o r i z o n , n e g a t i v e v a l u e s from t h e horizon toward t h e n a d i r ) . Z e n i t h distance. Instead of t h e s t a r , w e can a l s o use t h e soc a l l e d zenith distance of t h e star as a c o o r d i n a t e , measured a l o n g t h e a r c ZM.
A s we c a n s e e f r o m F i g u r e 5 . 4 , t h e z e n i t h d i s t a n c e i s t h e a r c from t h e z e n i t h t o t h e l o c a t i o n of t h e I t i s e a s y t o s e t up given star. a formula t o express t h e r e l a t i o n - /401 shiD between t h e a l t i t u d e and t h e zenith distance of a s t a r , since t h e two add up t o 90: h + Z = 90,

Fig. 5.4. Horizontal of C o o r d i n a t e s .

System

421

h = 9 0 0 - Z, Z = 9 0 - h . Obviously, t h e value of t h e zenith d i s 8' t a n c e w i l l b e s o m e w h e r e b e t w e e n 0 a n d 10.

Azimuth. The s e c o n d c o o r d i n a t e i n t h e a p p a r e n t s y s t e m of c o ordinates i s t h e azimuth of t h e star. T h e a z i m u t h of a s t a r i s t h e s p h e r i c a l a n g l e b e t w e e n t h e p l a n e of t h e m e r i d i a n 3f t h e o b s e r v e r and t h e p l a n e of t h e c i r c l e of t h e v e r t i c a l of t h e g i v e n s t a r .

The a z i m u t h i s c a l c u l a t e d d i f f e r e n t l y i n d i f f e r e n t a r e a s o f astronomy: f r o m t h e s o u t h p o i n t or f r o m t h e n o r t h p o i n t t o w a r d t h e e a s t and w e s t . I n a v i a t i o n astronomy, t h e azimuth i s always calcu l a t e d from t h e n o r t h p o i n t along t h e horizon i n an e a s t e r l y d i r e c t i o n (clockwise) from 0 t o 360'. W can therefore define t h e e azimuth i n a v i a t i o n astronomy as t h e a n g l e measured a l o n g t h e a r c NSM' o f t h e t r u e h o r i z o n from t h e n o r t h p o i n t through t h e e a s t ( t h e e a s t p o i n t ) t o t h e v e r t i c a l o f t h e s t a r ( s e e F i g . 5 . 4 ) , from 0 t o
360'.

Hence, t h e f i r s t system of c o o r d i n a t e s f o r c e l e s t i a l l u m i n a r i e s i s c a l l e d t h e apparent system. The c o o r d i n a t e s o f t h i s s y s t e m a r e t h e a l t i t u d e o f t h e s t a r ( h ) and t h e azimuth o f t h e s t a r ( A ) . The a l t i t u d e a n d a z i m u t h w i l l s u f f i c e c o m p l e t e l y t o d e t e r m i n e For e x a m p l e , t h e t h e l o c a t i o n o f a s t a r on t h e c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e . s t a r M , w i t h h = 60' a n d A = 2 4 0 , i s i n d i c a t e d on t h e s p h e r e ( s e e Fig. 5.4).

E q u a t o r i a l S y s t e m of

Coordinates

T h e e q u a t o r i a l s y s t e m o f c o o r d i n a t e s is t h e s e c o n d s y s t e m o f c o o r d i n a t e s which i s u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e l o c a t i o n o f a s t a r on The m a i n c i r c l e s r e l a t i v e t o w h i c h c a l c u l a t i o n s the celestial sphere. a r e made i n t h i s s y s t e m a r e t h e c e l e s t i a l m e r i d i a n a n d t h e c e l e s t i a l equator. The c o o r d i n a t e s i n t h i s s y s t e m a r e t h e d e c l i n a t i o n o f t h e s t a r ( 6 ) and t h e hour a n g l e of t h e s t a r ( t ) ; s e e F i g u r e 5.5. Declination of t h e s t a r . The a r c o f t h e c i r c l e m a r k i n g t h e d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e e q u a t o r t o t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e g i v e n s t a r , or t h e a n g l e between t h e p l a n e of t h e e q u a t o r znd a l i n e from t h e c e n t e r o f t h e s p h e r e t o t h e s t a r , c a l l e d t h e d e c l i n a t i o n of t h e s t a r . D e c l i n a t i o n i s m e a s u r e d by t h e a r c o f a c i r c l e w h i c h m a r k s t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e e q u a t o r t o t h e l o c a t i o n of t h e g i v e n s t a r , from 0 t o _C 9 0 ' . If t h e s t a r i s l o c a t e d i n t h e N o r t h e r n H e m i s p h e r e , i t s d e c l i n a t i o n i s c o n s i d e r e d p o s i t i v e , w h i l e i f it i s i n t h e S o u t h e r n Hemisphere, it i s considered n e g a t i v e .

I t i s c l e a r f r o m F i g u r e 5 . 5 t h a t i f t h e s t a r i s l o c a t e d on t h e e q u a t o r , i t s d e c l i n a t i o n w i l l be e q u a l t o z e r o , while t h e d e c l i n a t i o n o f t h e n o r t h c e l e s t i a l p o l e i s + 90' a n d t h a t o f t h e s o u t h c e l e s t i a l
422

p o l e i s -goo. Polar distance. O c c a s i o n a l l y , i n s t e a d of t h e d e c l i n a t i o n , t h e p o l a r d i s t a n c e i s u s e d a s a c o o r d i n a t e , m e a s u r e d a l o n g t h e a r c PM. j 4 0 2 The p o Z a r d i s t a n c e i s t h e a r c o f t h e c i r c l e w h i c h m a r k s t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e n o r t h c e l e s t i a l p o l e t o t h e l o c a t i o n of t h e s t a r . The r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e d e c l i n a t i o n a n d t h e p o l a r d i s t a n c e i s e x p r e s s e d by t h e f o r m u l a

or or

+ PM = 90"
= =

PM

90"

-6 ,

B = 90"- P M ,
i . e . , t h e d e c l i n a t i o n and p o l a r d i s t a n c e t o g e t h e r add up t o 90. T h e r e f o r e t h e p o i n t of t h e s o u t h p o l e h a s a p o l a r d i s t a n c e e q u a l t o 180O. Hour a n g l e o f a s t a r . T h e a r c o f t h e c e l e s t i a l e q u a t o r Q'M' ( F i g . 5 . 5 ) b e t w e e n t h e s o u t h p o i n t of t h e e q u a t o r a n d t h e h o u r c i r c l e o f a g i v e n s t a r i s c a l l e d t h e hour a n g l e of a s t a r ( t ) . I n a v i a t i o n astronomy, t h e hour angle i s measured from t h e s o u t h p o i n t o f t h e e q u a t o r a l o n g t h e e q u a t o r i n t h e e a s t e r l y and w e s t e r l y d i r e c t i o n s f r o m 0 t o 180O. The w e s t e r n h o u r a n g l e i s r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e l e t t e r W , f o r e x a m p l e , t = 135' W ; t h e e a s t e r n h o u r a n g l e i s r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e l e t t e r E , for e x a m p l e , t = 6 0 E . I n making c a l c u l a t i o n s , t h e w e s t e r n h o u r a n g l e m u s t s o m e t i m e s b e c a l c u l a t e d f r o m 0 t o 360O. I f t h e w e s t e r n h o u r a n g l e i s f o u n d t o b e g r e a t e r t h a n 180, i t i s r e l a t e d t o 360, b u t i n t h i s case t h e r e s u l t i s given as an e a s t e r n P For e x a m p l e , t = 265O hour angle. W or t = 360' - 265' = 95OE.
R i g h t ascension o f a s t a r . I n s t e a d of t h e hour a n g l e , it i s s o m e t i m e s more c o n v e n i e n t t o u s e another coordinate , t h e r i g h t as c e n s i o n o f t h e s t a r ( a ) . The r i g h t a s c e n s i o n of a s t a r i s t h e a n g l e as measured a l o n g t h e e q u a t o r from t h e p o i n t of t h e v e r n a l equinox ( y ) t o t h e hour c i r c l e of t h e given star (see Fig. 5.5).

P'

P'

Fig. 5.5. E q u a t o r i a l System of Coordinates.

T h e p o i n t of t h e v e r n a l e q u i n o x is t h e imaginary point of t h e

423

i n t e r s e c t i o n o f t h e e c l i p t i c w i t h t h e c e l e s t i a l e q u a t o r , when t h e S u n p a. s s e s f r o m t h e S o u t h e r n H e m i s p h e r e i n t o t h e N o r t h e r n H e m i s p h e r e . T h e o p p o s i t e p o i n t o n t h e e c l i p t i c i s c a l l e d t h e p o i n t of t h e autumn.aZ equinox (a). I n a n c i e n t G r e e c e , t h e s t a r s were u s e d t o r e c k o n t i m e . The /403 c o n s t e l l a t i o n A r i e s w a s l o c a t e d a t t h e p o i n t of t h e v e r n a l e q u i n o x , Due t o t h e p r e c e s s i o n o f t h e and w a s r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e symbol ( y ) . E a r t h , A r i e s h a s now moved a w a y f r o m t h e p o i n t o f t h e v e r n a l e q u i n o x . T h i s p o i n t h a s r e m a i n e d u n m a r k e d , t h o u g h i t s name h a s b e e n r e t a i n e d , a n d i t s p o s i t i o n i n t h e s k y i s d e t e r m i n e d by u s i n g some o t h e r s t a r which i s a f i x e d d i s t a n c e from t h e p o i n t of t h e v e r n a l equinox. Right ascension i s c a l c u l a t e d from t h e p o i n t of t h e v e r n a l e q u i n o x a l o n g t h e e q u a t o r up t o t h e h o u r c i r c l e of a g i v e n s t a r i n a c l o c k w i s e d i r e c t i o n ( a s s e e n f r o m t h e n o r t h c e l e s t i a l p o l e ) , from 0 t o 360O. Like t h e hour angle of a s t a r , t h e r i g h t ascension of a star c a n b e r e c k o n e d i n e i t h e r d e g r e e s or h o u r s , m i n u t e s , a n d s e c o n d s . T h i s i s b e c a u s e b o t h of t h e s e c o o r d i n a t e s ( e s p e c i a l l y t h e h o u r a n g l e ) a r e c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e measurement of t i m e .

T h u s , t h e e q u a t o r i a l s y s t e m of c o o r d i n a t e s c a n b e u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e l o c a t i o n o f a s t a r on t h e c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e .
I f w e know t h e d e c l i n a t i o n a n d t h e h o u r a n g l e or t h e r i g h t a s c e n s i o n , w e c a n d e t e r m i n e t h e l o c a t i o n o f a s t a r on t h e s p h e r e . For e x a m p l e , t h e s t a r M , w i t h 6 = + 5 0 , = 4 5 O , i s shown on t h e sphere (see Fig. 5.5).

G r a p h i c R e p r e s e n t a t i o n of

t h e Celestial

Sphere

I n solving textbook problems i n a v i a t i o n astronomy, it i s o f t e n n e c e s s a r y t o s k e t c h t h e c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e a n d p l o t t h e s t a r s on i t according t o t h e i r coordinates. Let u s u s e a c o n c r e t e example t o s t u d y t h e o r d e r i n which t h e c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e i s s k e t c h e d .

Example. 1. T h e l a t i t u d e o f t h e o b s e r v e r i s 4 = 6 0 N , a l t i t u d e of t h e s t a r h = 7 0 , and i t s azimuth A = 240.

it.

the

D r a w t h e c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e a n d p l o t t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e s t a r on (Fig. 5.6,a).

Solution. ( 1 ) Use a c o m p a s s t o d r a w t h e c e l e s t i a l m e r i d i a n i n t h e form of a c i r c l e of a r b i t r a r y r a d i u s .

(2) D r a w a v e r t i c a l d i a m e t e r ( p e r p e n d i c u l a r l i n e ) and mark t h e z e n i t h and n a d i r ( Z and Z ' , r e s p e c t i v e l y ) a t t h e p o i n t s where it c r o s s e s t h e circumference.
(3)

Perpendicular t o the v e r t i c a l l i n e ,

through t h e c e n t e r of

424

t h e s p h e r e , draw a l a r g e c i r c l e which w i l l b e t h e t r u e h o r i z o n of the observer.

D r a w t h e world (4) plane of the horizon w i l :.e., @ = 6 0 N ; mark t h e circumference ( t h e north pole P').

a x i s s u c h t h a t t h e a n g l e it forms w i t h t h e l be equal t o t h e l a t i t u d e of t h e observer, p o i n t s where t h e world a x i s c r o s s e s t h e c e l e s t i a l p o l e P and t h e s o u t h c e l e s t i a l

( 5 ) A t t h e p o i n t s where t h e t r u e hori.zon i n t e r s e c t s t h e m e r i d i a n of t h e o b s e r v e r , m a r k t h e n o r t h p o i n t N ( c l o s e t o t h e n o r t h c e l e s t i a l p o l e ) and t h e south p o i n t S ( c l o s e t o t h e south c e l e s t i a l pole )

( 6 ) P e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e p o i n t of i n t e r s e c t i o n of t h e c e l e s t i a l e q u a t o r w i t h t h e t r u e h o r i z o n , mark t h e e a s t p o i n t E ( o n t h e r i g h t , a s v i e w e d by s o m e o n e f a c i n g n o r t h ) a n d t h e w e s t p o i n t W ( o n t h e left).

W have e This completes t h e sketching of t h e c e l e s t i a l sphere. y e t t o p l o t t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e s t a r o n t h e s p h e r e on t h e b a s i s o f i t s coordinate d a t a , as follows:

(1) From t h e n o r t h p o i n t N , p l o t t h e a z i m u t h o f t h e s t a r ( e q u a l t o 240) a l o n g t h e c i r c u m f e r e n c e of t h e h o r i z o n , j u d g i n g t h e a n g l e by e y e .

of

/404

(2) Through t h i s p o i n t M ' , the vertical.

draw t h e c i r c l e

(semicircumference)

(3) Along t h e c i r c l e o f t h e v e r t i c a l , from t h e p l a n e o f t h e horizon, p l o t t h e a l t i t u d e of t h e s t a r , equal t o 70, judging t h e d i s t a n c e by e y e .

Fig. 5.6. Examples of G r a p h i c C o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e C e l e s t i a l S p h e r e ; ( a ) A t a L a t i t u d e o f 6 0 ; (b) A t a L a t i t u d e o f 50. 425

The r e s u l t o f t h i s c o n s t r u c t i o n w i l l b e t h e c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e a s s e e n b y a n o b s e r v e r a t 60N a n d t h e p o s i t i o n o f a s t a r o n t h e sphere according t o i t s apparent coordinates.

Example. 2 . The o b s e r v e r i s l o c a t e d a t a l a t i t u d e o f 5 0 . S k e t c h t h e c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e for t h i s o b s e r v e r a n d p l o t o n i t t h e hour position of a star with t h e following equatorial boordinates: a n g l e t = 130, d e c l i n a t i o n 6 = + 4 0 .

Solution. (1) S k e t c h t h e c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e i n t h e same o r d e r o u t l i n e d i n E x a m p l e 1.

(2) From t h e s o u t h p o i n t o n t h e e q u a t o r Q , p r o c e e d i n g a l o n g t h e c i r c u m f e r e n c e of t h e e q u a t o r i n a w e s t e r l y d i r e c t i o n , p l o t a n h o u r a n g l e t = 130 b y e y e ( F i g . 5 . 6 , b ) .

( 3 )

Through t h i s p o i n t

(M),

draw t h e h o u r c i r c l e

(PMP).

From t h e p l a n e o f t h e e q u a t o r , a l o n g t h e h o u r c i r c l e , m e a s u r e o f f t h e d e c l i n a t i o n 6 = +40 a n d mark t h e l o c a t i o n of t h e s t a r on t h e sphere (point M ) . The r e s u l t o f t h i s c o n s t r u c t i o n i s t h e h o u r c i r c l e f o r a n o b s e r v e r l o e a t e d a t a l a t i t u d e of @ = 5 0 N ; t h e s t a r h a s b e e n p l o t t e d on t h e s p h e r e on t h e b a s i s o f i t s e q u a t o r i a l c o o r d i n a t e s .

2.

D i u r n a l Motion o f t h e S t a r s

If one o b s e r v e s t h e h e a v e n l y b o d i e s , e v e n i n t h e c o u r s e o f a s i n g l e n i g h t , he w i l l see t h a t t h e appearance of t h e sky changes S e v e r a l c o n s t e l l a t i o n s which were l o with t h e passage of t i m e . c a t e d n e a r t h e e a s t e r n p o r t i o n of t h e h o r i z o n g r a d u a l l y r i s e h i g h e r a b o v e t h e h o r i z o n , w h i l e o t h e r s , which were l o c a t e d c l o s e r t o t h e Some s t a r s w h i c h w e r e v i s i b l e i n western horizon, gradually set. t h e s k y s e t i n t h e w e s t , w h i l e o t h e r s , which were n o t v i s i b l e be T h e e n t i r e s k y s e e m s t o move c o n s t a n t l y 1405, fore, rise i n the east. during t h e course of t h e n i g h t from e a s t t o west. A t t h e same t i m e , one c a n see t h a t t h e mutual p o s i t i o n s of t h e c o n s t e l l a t i o n s and stars do n o t change i n t h e course of t h e motion of t h e e n t i r e sky ( s e e Supplement 3 ) .
The r e a s o n f o r t h i s a p p a r e n t m o t i o n o f t h e s t a r s (or o f t h e s k y ) i s t h e d i u r n a l r o t a t i o n o f t h e E a r t h on i t s a x i s from w e s t t o east. I n order t o f a c i l i t a t e a study of t h e d i u r n a l r o t a t i o n of t h e s t a r s , we w i l l a s s u m e f o r t h e s a k e o f d i s c u s s i o n t h a t t h e E a r t h i s f i x e d a n d t h e c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e r o t a t e s on t h e w o r l d a x i s a t t h e same r a t e t h a t t h e E a r t h a c t u a l l y r o t a t e s o n i t s a x i s , b u t i n t h e o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n , from e a s t t o w e s t ( i n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e way i t actually looks t o us). Since t h e e n t i r e celestial sphere r o t a t e s on t h e w o r l d a x i s , a l l t h e p o i n t s ( s t a r s ) l o c a t e d on t h e s p h e r e
426

I1 111 I I 111 I1 I I I II 1

1.1

II 1111I I .

111111

I d

w i l l t u r n a l o n g w i t h i t , i . e . , i t is c l e a r t h a t e a c h s t a r d e s c r i b e s a s o r t of circle around t h e world axis.

Diurnal p a r a l l e l of a s t a r . All o f t h e s t a r s r o t a t e t o g e t h e r with t h e celestial sphere around t h e world axis. From t h i s i t i s c l e a r t h a t every s t a r , f i x e d permanently i n t h e sky, d e s c r i b e s a c i r c l e o f s o m e s i z e i n t h e c o u r s e of 24 h o u r s . The c i r c l e d e s c r i b e d b y a s t a r i n 2 4 h o u r s i n t h e c o u r s e o f i t s m o v e m e n t a r o u n d t h e w o r l d a x i s i s c a l l e d t h e d i u r n a l c i r c l e of the star. T h i s c i r c l e i s a l s o c a l l e d t h e c e z e s t i a z paraZZeZ. Since t h e e n t i r e c e l e s t i a l sphere r o t a t e s around t h e world a x i s , it i s e a s y t o see ( a n d i m p o r t a n t t o remember) t h a t t h e d i u r n a l r o t a t i o n of t h e heavenly bodies takes place p a r a l l e l t o t h e c e l e s t i a l e q u a t o r , i . e . , t h e d i u r n a l p a r a l l e l of t h e s t a r ( t h e p a t h o f t h e s t a r a r o u n d t h e w o r l d a x i s i n 24 h o u r s ) i s a l w a y s l o c a t e d parallel t o the celestial equator. The m a g n i t u d e o f t h e d i u r n a l p a r a l l e l o f t h e s t a r d e p e n d s on t h e l o c a t i o n of t h e s t a r i n t h e s k y . O b v i o u s l y , s t a r s which a r e l o c a t e d c l o s e r t o t h e c e l e s t i a l p o l e s (and have h i g h e r d e c l i n a t i o n v a l u e s ) have a small d i u r n a l c i r c l e . The c l o s e r a s t a r i s l o c a t e d relative t o the c e l e s t i a l equator (the smaller its declination), t h e l a r g e r its diurnal circle w i l l be. The l a r g e s t d i u r n a l c i r c l e b e l o n g s t o t h o s e s t a r s w h i c h a r e l o c a t e d on t h e c e l e s t i a l e q u a t o r , and whose d e c l i n a t i o n i s z e r o . Motion o f

t h e Stars a t Different Latitudes

If w e observe t h e d i u r n a l motion of t h e s t a r s a t d i f f e r e n t l a t i t u d e s , w e w i l l see t h a t t h e sky and s t a r s t u r n r e l a t i v e t o t h e observer's horizon at different angles. T h i s phenomenon becomes understandable i f we r e c a l l t h e location of the world a x i s r e l a t i v e t o the horizon at d i ffe re n t latitudes.

The w o r l d a x i s i s l o c a t e d r e l a t i v e t o t h e h o r i z o n a t a n a n g l e 1 4 0 6 which i s e q u a l t o t h e l a t i t u d e o f t h e l o c a t i o n . From t h i s i t f o l lows t h a t t h e h i g h e r t h e l a t i t u d e of a . l o c a t i o n , t h e c l o s e r t h e c e l e s t i a l p o l e s P P ' w i l l be l o c a t e d t o t h e z e n i t h Z and t h e n a d i r Z ' , and t h e s m a l l e r t h e a n g l e w i l l be between t h e t r u e h o r i z o n and the celestial equator. Conversely, t h e lower t h e l a t i t u d e of t h e l o c a t i o n , t h e f u r t h e r t h e c e l e s t i a l p o l e s w i l l be from t h e z e n i t h and n a d i r , and t h e a n g l e between t h e t r u e h o r i z o n and t h e c e l e s t i a l equator w i l l be l a r g e r . F i g u r e 5 . 7 , a shows t h e a n g l e b e t w e e n t h e t r u e h o r i z o n a n d t h e c e l e s t i a l e q u a t o r for a n o b s e r v e r l o c a t e d a t a m i d d l e l a t i t u d e , e . g . 50 ( a n g l e 900 - @ = 4 0 O ). F i g u r e 5 . 7 , b shows t h e a n g l e b e t w e e n t h e t r u e h o r i z o n and t h e c e l e s t i a l e q u a t o r f o r an o b s e r v e r l o c a t e d o n t h e E q u a t o r ( a n g l e 9 0 - @ = g o o ) , w h i l e F i g u r e 5 . 7 , ~s h o w s t h e a n g l e between t h e t r u e h o r i z o n and t h e c e l e s t i a l e q u a t o r f o r an

427

o b s e r v e r l o c a t e d a t t h e N o r t h or S o u t h P o l e . (The a n g l e 90 - 4 = 0 , the t r u e horizon is p a r a l l e l t o the celestial equator, the zenith /407 p o i n t Z c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e n o r t h c e l e s t i a l p o l e P , and t h e n a d i r Z' coincides with the south celestial pole P ' ) .

I t i s clear i n a l l t h r e e f i g u r e s t h a t t h e a n g l e between t h e t r u e h o r i z o n of t h e o b s e r v e r and t h e c e l e s t i a l e q u a t o r i s always e q u a l t o 90 m i n u s t h e l o c a l l a t i t u d e ( 9 0 - $1.

W can draw t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n c l u s i o n from t h e above: e the slope o f t h e d i u r n a l p a r a l l e l of s t a r s r e l a t i v e t o t h e t r u e h o r i z o n o f t h e o b s e r v e r d e p e n d s on t h e l a t i t u d e o f t h e o b s e r v e r . The h i g h e r t h e l a t i t u d e of t h e observer, t h e smaller t h e slope of t h e d i u r n a l p a r a l l e l s of t h e stars r e l a t i v e t o t h e horizon; t h e lower t h e latitude, the greater the slope.

Rising and S e t t i n g , N e v e r - R i s i n g and N e v e r - S e t t i n g S t a r s

If w e know t h a t t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e c e l e s t i a l e q u a t o r ( a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y t h e d i u r n a l p a r a l l e l s of t h e s t a r s ) r e l a t i v e t o t h e t r u e h o r i z o n of t h e o b s e r v e r depends on t h e l a t i t u d e o f t h e o b s e r v e r , i t w i l l b e c l e a r why s o m e s t a r s a t a c e r t a i n l a t i t u d e r i s e a n d s e t

Fig. 5.7. A n g l e s Between t h e T r u e Horizon and t h e Celestial Equator; ( a ) A t a L a t i t u d e o f 5 0 ; ( b ) On t h e Equator; ( c ) A t the Poles.

428

at the horizon,

o t h e r s never set, and s t i l l o t h e r s never r i s e .

A s t a r n e v e r s e t s i f i t s d e c l i n a t i o n i s g r e a t e r t h a n 90 m i n u s t h e l a t i t u d e o f t h e l o c a t i o n , i . e . , i f 6 - 90 - $ . >

For e x a m p l e , s e e F i g u r e 5 . 8 , a . Given t h e l a t i t u d e o f t h e ob s e r v e r $ = 6 0 , t h e d e c l i n a t i o n o f t h e s t a r 6 = +45O. From t h i s i t i s c l e a r t h a t 9 0 - $ = 90 - 6 0 = 3 0 . Since t h e declination 6 = +45O, i . e . , g r e a t e r t h a n 9 0 - $ , i t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e s t a r c a n /408 n o t s e t below t h e h o r i z o n of t h e o b s e r v e r . I n Figure 5.8,a w e have s k e t c h e d t h e c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e for a n o b s e r v e r l o c a t e d a t a l a t i t u d e of 60. W mark o f f t h e d e c l i n a t i o n o f t h e s t a r a l o n g t h e m e r i d i a n e of t h e observer (;.e., t h e h o u r c i r c l e ) S O t h a t 6 = +45O, a n d t h e n l a y out t h e d i u r n a l c i r c l e ( d i u r n a l p a r a l l e l ) of t h e star p a r a l l e l

b)

Fig. 5.8. E x a m p l e s o f N e v e r - S e t t i n g S t a r s ; ( a ) The S t a r N e v e r S e t s Below t h e H o r i z o n ; ( b ) The S t a r T o u c h e s t h e H o r i z o n .

Fig. 5.9. Examples o f S t a r s t h a t ( b ) The S t a r d o e s n o t R i s e .

Set;

( a ) The S t a r R i s e s and S e t s ;

429

t o the celestial equator. A s w e can see from t h e f i g u r e , t h i s c i r c l e i s l o c a t e d above t h e h o r i z o n of t h e o b s e r v e r , and s o a s t a r w h i c h moves a l o n g t h i s c i r c l e i n t h e c o u r s e of 24 h o u r s w i l l n e v e r s e t below t h e o b s e r v e r s horizon. The s t a r t o u c h e s t h e h o r i z o n , b u t d o e s n o t g o b e l o w i t , i n t h e c a s e when i t s d e c l i n a t i o n i s e q u a l t o 9 0 m i n u s t h e l a t i t u d e i f 6 = 90 - 4 . of t h e observer, ;.e., T a k e F i g u r e 5 . 8 , b for e x a m p l e . The t h e d e c l i n a t i o n of t h e s t a r 6 = c l e a r t h a t 9 0 - C$ = 9 0 - 6 0 = 3 0 . In h a v e s a i d , i f 6 = 90 - 4 , t h e s t a r w i l l h o r i z o n b u t w i l l n o t s e t below i t .

4 = 60,

l a t i t u d e of t h e observer t3Oo. From t h i s i t i s a c c o r d a n c e w i t h what w e touch the observers

I n Figure 5.8,b w e have sketched t h e c e l e s t i a l sphere f o r an o b s e r v e r l o c a t e d a t a. l a t i t u d e o f 6 0 . Along t h e m e r i d i a n o f t h e observer ( i . e . , t h e hour c i r c l e ) , we have p l o t t e d t h e declinati.on of a s t a r 6 = t 3 0 , a n d h a v e t h e n d r a w n t h e d i u r n a l p a r a l l e l o f t h i s star parallel t o the c e l e s t i a l equator. A s we c a n s e e , t h e d i u r n a l p a r a l l e l of t h e s t a r t o u c h e s t h e o b s e r v e r s h o r i z o n , b u t d o e s n o t c r o s s i t , ; . e . , a s t a r moving a l o n g i t s d i u r n a l p a r a l l e l i n t h e c o u r s e o f 2 4 h o u r s g o e s down t o t h e h o r i z o n a n d t h e n r i s e s again i n t h e course of its d i u r n a l journey.
A s t a r r i s e s a n d s e t s when i t s d e c l i n a t i o n ( i n t e r m s o f a b s o l u t e v a l u e ) i s l e s s t h a n 90 minus t h e l a t i t u d e o f t h e l o c a t i o n , i . e . , i f 6 < 90 - 4 .

/409

L e t u s c o n s i d e r t h e following example: The l a t i t u d e o f t h e In o b s e r v e r i s C$ = 3 0 , t h e d e c l i n a t i o n o f t h e s t a r i s 6 = t 4 O o . F i g u r e 5 . 9 , a we h a v e s k e t c h e d t h e c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e for a n o b s e r v e r located a t a l a t i t u d e of 30. Along t h e m e r i d i a n ( h o u r c i r c l e ) we h a v e m a r k e d o f f t h e d e c l i n a t i o n o f t h e s t a r 6 = t 4 0 a n d h a v e drawn t h e d i u r n a l p a r a l l e l of t h e s t a r p a r a l l e l t o t h e e q u a t o r ( q q). A s w e c a n s e e f r o m t h e d i a g r a m , a s t a r w h i c h moves i n t h e c o u r s e of 24 h o u r s a l o n g i t s d i u r n a l p a r a l l e l w i l l be l o c a t e d below t h e horizon f o r a c e r t a i n time ( t h e shaded p a r t of t h e d i u r n a l p a r a l l e l ) , and w i l l be above t h e h o r i z o n t h e rest of t h e t i m e .

A star never rises if i t s declina t i o n i s e q u a l t o or g r e a t e r t h a n 9 0 minus t h e l a t i t u d e o f t h e o b s e r v e r and h a s a s i g n which d i f f e r s w i t h l a t i t u d e ( t h e l a t i t u d e i s p o s i t i v e and t h e

Fig. 5.10 Division of t h e C e l e s t i a l Sphere i n t o R e g i o n s w i t h R i s i n g and S e t t i n g , Never-Setting and Never-Rising Stars.

430

d e c l i n a t i o n i s n e g a t i v e , or v i c e v e r s a ) , ; . e . , i f - 6 > 90 - 4 , o r 6 = 4 - 90. For e x a m p l e , t h e l a t i t u d e o f t h e o b s e r v e r 4 = 60N, t h e d e c l i n a t i o n of t h e s t a r 6 = - 3 O O . I n F i g u r e 5 . 9 , b w e h a v e s k e t c h e d t h e c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e for a n o b s e r v e r a t a l a t i t u d e of 4 = 6 0 N . Along t h e m e r i d i a n o f t h e o b s e r v e r ( h o u r c i r c l e ) w e h a v e m a r k e d t h e d e c l i n a t i o n of t h e s t a r 6 = -30 ( b e l o w t h e e q u a t o r ) a n d t h e d i u r n a l p a r a l l e l o f t h e s t a r parallel t o the equator. A s w e can see from t h e diagram, a star which moves a l o n g i t s d i u r n a l p a r a l l e l w i l l a l w a y s b e b e l o w t h e hori,zon and w i l l never r i s e . This is completely understandable, since the declination of the star is negative. If t h e s t a r h a d a negative d e c l i n a t i o n s t i l l g r e a t e r than 90 - 4 , i t s d i u r n a l c i r c l e would b e l o c a t e d s t i l l f u r t h e r below t h e h o r i z o n . Consequently, t h e e n t i r e c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e of an o b s e r v e r l o c a t e d a t a given l a t i t u d e can be d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e p a r t s : (1)
set.
( 2 ) The p o r t i o n o f t h e c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e w i t h s e t t i n g a n d r i s i n g stars.

The p o r t i o n o f t h e c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e w i t h s t a r s t h a t n e v e r

(3)

The p o r t i o n o f t h e c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e w i t h s t a r s t h a t n e v e r

rise.
A l l t h r e e p o r t i o n s o f t h e c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e a r e shown i n F i g u r e

5.10.for a n o b s e r v e r a t a l a t i t u d e o f 6 0 N . The c i r c u m f e r e n c e i s t h e p l a n e o f t h e c e l e s t i a l m e r i d i a n , ZZ' i s t h e v e r t i c a l l i n e o f t h e o b s e r v e r , PP' i s t h e w o r l d a x i s . The s t r a i g h t l i n e B B ' i s t h e

s e c t i o n o f t h e p l a n e o f t h e c e l e s t i a l m e r i d i a n a s c u t by t h e d i u r n a l c i r c l e o f t h e s t a r , t o u c h i n g t h e h o r i z o n of t h e o b s e r v e r b u t n o t /410 p a s s i n g b e l o w i t ( a s t a r w h o s e 6 = 90 - + ) . This i s t h e boundary o f t h e r e g i o n of stars t h a t n e v e r s e t w i t h t h a t o f t h e o n e s w h i c h r i s e a n d s e t for a g i v e n l a t i t u d e of t h e o b s e r v e r . The s t r a i g h t l i n e DD' i s t h e s e c t i o n of t h e plane of t h e c e l e s t i a l meridian as c u t by t h e h o u r c i r c l e o f t h e s t a r i n t h e S o u t h e r n H e m i s p h e r e , t o u c h i n g t h e h o r i z o n b u t n o t g o i n g below i t ( a s t a r whose d e c l i n a t i o n i s - 6 = 90 - 4 ) . T h i s i s t h e b o u n d a r y o f t h e r e g i o n of s t a r s t h a t n e v e r r i s e w i t h t h a t o f t h e o n e s which r i s e and s e t f o r a given l a t i t u d e of t h e observer. Motion o f Stars a t

t h e T e r r e s t r i a l Poles

In order t o g e t a b e t t e r i d e a of t h e nature of t h e d i u r n a l motion of s t a r s a t t h e t e r r e s t r i a l p o l e s , l e t u s c o n s t r u c t a form of c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e f o r a n o b s e r v e r l o c a t e d a t t h e N o r t h P o l e . In t h i s c a s e , t h e a l t i t u d e of t h e P o l e a b o v e t h e h o r i z o n w i l l b e e q u a l t o the l a t i t u d e of the observer. Since t h e observer is located a t t h e N o r t h P o l e , 4 = 90N a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y t h e a l t i t u d e o f t h e P o l e a b o v e t h e h o r i z o n w i l l b e 9 0 ( F i g . 5.11).

431

_-

The w o r l d a x i s c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e v e r t i c a l l i n e , i . e . , t h e n o r t h c e l e s t i a l p o l e P c o i n c i d e s with t h e z e n i t h Z and t h e south celestial pole P' c o i n c i d e s with t h e n a d i r Z ' , while t h e plane of t h e c e l e s t i a l e q u a t o r w i l l c o i n c i d e w i t h t h e p l a n e of t h e h o r i z o n . T h i s means t h a t a l l s t a r s , d e p e n d i n g on t h e i r d i u r n a l r o t a t i o n , w i l l move p a r a l l e l t o t h e h o r i z o n a n d t h e i r a l t i t u d e s w i l l n o t change as t h e c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e r o t a t e s . All s t a r s l o c a t e d i n t h e N o r t h e r n H e m i s p h e r e ( h a v i n g p o s i t i v e d e c l i n a t i o n s ) w i l l move a b o v e t h e h o r i z o n , w h i l e t h e s t a r s which a r e l o c a t e d i n t h e S o u t h e r n H e m i s p h e r e ( a n d h a v e n e g a t i v e d e c l i n a t i o n s ) w i l l move b e l o w t h e horizon, i . e . , a l l stars with 6 > Oo w i l l never s e t and a l l those with 6 < Oo w i l l never r i s e .

M o t i o n of S t a r s at M i d d l e L a t i t u d e s

L e t u s examine t h e n a t u r e o f t h e d i u r n a l m o t i o n of t h e s t a r s a t m i d d l e l a t i t u d e s , when 0 < 4 < 9 0 .

diurnal

Parallel-\

h o r i z o n and.eguato.rs(Ql

P 72 '

F i g u r e 5 . 1 2 shows t h e a p p e a r a n c e of t h e c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e a t a l a t i t u d e c l o s e t o 45O. Due t o t h e i n c l i n a t i o n of t h e world a x i s , a l l s t a r s move a t a n a n g l e t o the horizon (parallel t o the celestial equator). A t middle l a t i t u d e s , a c o n s i d e r a b l e number of s t a r s r i s e and s e t (between /411 t h e p a r a l l e l s NK a n d DS). Stars which are l o c a t e d f a r t h e r t h a n t h e s e p a r a l l e l s from t h e c e l e s t i a l e q u a t o r e i t h e r n e v e r r i s e or never set.

Fig. 5.11. Motion of t h e Stars a t the T e r r e s t i a l Poles. reeioq of

Fig. 5.12. Motion of t h e S t a r s a t Middle L a t i t u d e s . 432

Fig. 5.13. Motion o f t h e S t a r s at t h e Equator.

.-

. .

Motion o f

S t a r s a t t h e Equator

S i n c e t h e l a t i t u d e o f a n o b s e r v e r l o c a t e d on t h e E q u a t o r i s equal t o zero, it i s clear t h a t t h e world axis l i e s i n t h e plane of t h e h o r i z o n and c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e m e r i d i a n l i n e on t h e p l a n e o f t h e horizon, while t h e terrestrial poles PP' coincide with the n o r t h and s o u t h p o i n t s N a n d S , r e s p e c t i v e l y . Hence, t h e p l a n e of t h e c e l e s t i a l e q u a t o r , as w e l l as t h e p l a n e s of t h e c e l e s t i a l p a r a l l e l s , are l o c a t e d p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e p l a n e of t h e observer's horizon. H o w e v e r , s i n c e we know t h a t t h e d i u r n a l motion of t h e s t a r s o c c u r s p a r a l l e l t o t h e c e l e s t i a l e q u a t o r , w e can see from Figure 5.13 t h a t t h e r e a r e no stars v i s i b l e a t t h e All s t a r s a r e l o c a t e d above E q u a t o r w h i c h n e v e r r i s e or n e v e r s e t . t h e h o r i z o n f o r 1 2 h o u r s and below t h e h o r i z o n f o r 1 2 h o u r s , s i n c e a l l t h e p a r a l l e l s o f t h e s t a r s a r e c u t i n h a l f by t h e h o r i z o n . Culmination of Stars

The d i u r n a l p a r a l l e l o f a s t a r c r o s s e s t h e c e l e s t i a l m s r i d i a n a t two p o i n t s ( F i g . 5 . 1 4 , a ) . These p o i n t s a r e c a l l e d t h e c u l m i n a t i o n points. T h e moment o f p a s s a g e o f a g i v e n s t a r t h r o u g h t h e c e l e s t i a l m e r i d i a n i s c a l l e d t h e moment of c u l m i n a t i o n , or i t i s s a i d t h a t the star culminates. The u p p e r c u l m i n a t i o n of a s t a r i s t h e moment when t h e s t a r i s a t i t s g r e a t e s t a l t i t u d e above t h e horizon. The l o w e r c u l m i n a t i o n of a s t a r i s t h e moment when t h e s t a r i s a t i t s l o w e s t a l t i t u d e above t h e h o r i z o n . In t h e case of stars t h a t s e t , t h e lower cul1412 m i n a t i o n t a k e s p l a c e below t h e h o r i z o n . Upper c u l m i n a t i o n o f a s t a r c a n t a k e p l a c e on t h e s o u t h e r n p o r t i o n of a m e r i d i a n (between t h e s c u t h p o i n t and t h e z e n i t h ) , and on t h e s o u t h e r n p o r t i o n of t h e m e r i d i a n ( b e t w e e n t h e z e n i t h a n d t h e n o r t h c e l e s t i a l p o l e ) , d e p e n d i n g on t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e

culmination

Fig. 5.14. Meridian:

C u l m i n a t i o n o f S t a r s on t h e S o u t h e r n S e c t i o n o f t h e ( a ) i n t h e A p p a r e n t System of C o o r d i n a t e s ; ( b ) i n t h e E q u a t o r i a l System. 433

l a t i t u d e of t h e o b s e r v e r and t h e d e c l i n a t i o n of t h e s t a r .

A s t a r c u l m i n a t e s on t h e s o u t h e r n p a r t of t h e m e r i d i a n (between t h e s o u t h p o i n t a n d t h e z e n i t h ) when t h e l a t i t u d e o f t h e o b s e r v e r i s g r e a t e r t h a n t h e d e c l i n a t i o n o f t h e s t a r , ? . e . , i f (9 > 6 .

A s t a r c u l m i n a t e s on t h e n o r t h e r n p a r t of t h e m e r i d i a n ( b e t w e e n t h e z e n i t h a n d t h e n o r t h c e l e s t i a l p o l e ) when t h e l a t i t u d e o f t h e o b s e r v e r i s l e s s t h a n t h e d e c l i n a t i o n o f t h e s t a r , i . e . , i f (9 < 6 . I n Figure 5.14,b t h e c e l e s t i a l sphere has been sketched i n s i m p l i f i e d f a s h i o n , i . e . , t h e c i r c l e s o f t h e h o r i z o n , e q u a t o r , and p a r a l l e l s a r e n o t r e p r e s e n t e d as c i r c l e s b u t as d i a m e t e r s and chords. A s w e c a n s e e f r o m t h e d i a g r a m , t h e l a t i t u d e o f t h e ob
v
v

s e r v e r i s g r e a t e r than t h e declination of t h e star: NP > Q M , i . e . , (9 > 6 , s o t h a t t h e u p p e r c u l m i n a t i o n o f t h e s t a r ( p o i n t M') l i e s on t h e s o u t h e r n p a r t o f t h e m e r i d i a n ( b e t w e e n t h e z e n i t h Z a n d t h e south point S ) . L e t us determine t h e a l t i t u d e of t h e s t a r i n t h i s case. T h e a l t i t u d e o f t h e s t a r ( h ) i s t h e a r c SM',
U

b u t t h e a r c SM'
0

c/

= SQ'

Q'Z

- M'Z,

a n d SQ'

= 90 - ( 9 ;

c/

Q'Z

= $I a n d M ' Z

= $I - 6.

((9

By s u b s t i t u t i n g t h e s e v a l u e s , w e w i l l o b t a i n h = 90 - (9 t (9 - 6 ) or h = 90 - $I t 6 .

1413 I n Figure 5.15,a t h e c e l e s t i a l sphere has a l s o been sketched i n a s i m p l i f i e d form. H e r e t h e l a t i t u d e o f t h e o b s e r v e r (NP) i s l e s s t h a n t h e d e c l i n a t i o n o f t h e s t a r ( Q ' M ' ) , ? . e . , (9 < 6 , s o t h a t t h e u p p e r c u l m i n a t i o n o f t h e s t a r ( p o i n t M ' o c c u r s on t h e n o r t h e r n p a r t of t h e m e r i d i a n ( b e t w e e n t h e z e n i t h a n d t h e p o i n t o f t h e n o r t h celestial pole). L e t u s d e t e r m i n e t h e a l t i t u d e of t h e s t a r i n t h i s

I'

Fig. 5.15. Meridian:

C u l m i n a t i o n o f a S t a r on t h e N o r t h e r n S e c t i o n o f t h e ( a ) C o o r d i n a t e s o f Upper C u l m i n a t i o n ; ( b ) C o o r d i n a t e s o f Lower C u l m i n a t i o n .

434

case.

The a l t i t u d e o f t h e s t a r ( h ) i s N M ' Y b u t
U

NM'
or
i.e.,

= 180"

-M'Q'

LJ

- Q'S
U

h = 180-6-(90-~),
h = 90"- 6

+ 'p.

If t h e s t a r d o e s n o t s e t , w e w i l l s o m e t i m e s b e i n t e r e s t e d i n i t s a l t i t ' u d e a t t h e moment o f l o w e r c u l m i n a t i o n . A s w e s e e from Figure 5.15,b,

'd

MQ = QN

NM,

but MQ = 6;

QN =

90 - $ ;

NM = h .

By s u b s t i t u t i n g t h e v a l u e s o f t h e s e a r c s , w e w i l l o b t a i n 6 = 90 - $ + h , s o t h a t h = $ + 6 - 90, ; . e . , t h e a l t i t u d e of t h e s t a r a t t h e moment o f l o w e r c u l m i n a t i o n i s e q u a l t o t h e l a t i t u d e o f t h e o b s e r v e r p l u s t h e d e c l i n a t i o n o f t h e s t a r minus 90.

ProbZems a n d Exercises
of
1. What m u s t b e t h e d e c l i n a t i o n o f a s t a r i f a t t h e l a t i t u d e Moscow ( 9 = 5 5 O 4 8 ' ) ( a ) i t n e v e r s e t s , ( b ) i t r i s e s a n d s e t s , or ( c ) i t n e v e r r i s e s ?

Solution. ( a ) I n o r d e r f o r a s t a r n e v e r t o s e t , we m u s t h a v e 6 > 90 - $. I f w e s u b s t i t u t e t h e v a l u e o f t h e l a t i t u d e o f Moscow 6 must be g r e a t e r ( 5 S 0 4 8 ' ) , we w i l l o b t a i n 6 > 9 0 - 5 5 O 4 8 ' , ; . e . , t h a n +34O12'. C o n s e q u e n t l y , a l l s t a r s which have a d e c l i n a t i o n g r e a t e r t h a n + 3 4 O 1 2 ' w i l l n e v e r s e t d t t h e l a t i t u d e o f Moscow. T y p i c a l s t a r s i n t h i s c a t e g o r y a r e C a p e l l a , A l i o t h , Vega, Deneb, and P o l a r i s .
( a ) S t a r s r i s e and s e t , a s w e know, i f t h e a b s o l u t e v a l u e o f In t h e i r d e c l i n a t i o n i s l e s s t h a n 90 - $, i . e . , 6 < 90 - $1. o u r e x a m p l e , 6 < 34O12'. Stars i n t h i s category f o r the latitude o f Moscow a r e R e g u l u s , A r c t u r u s , A l t a i r , e t c .
( c ) I n o r d e r f o r a s t a r n e v e r t o r i s e , i t s d e c l i n a t i o n must b e e q u a l t o or g r e a t e r t h a n 9 0 - $ a n d v a r i e s w i t h t h e l a t i t u d e o f t h e observer, i . e . , -6 90 - 9 . I n o u r e x a m p l e , 6 must b e e q u a l t o or g r e a t e r t h a n 3 4 O 1 2 ' . I n a d d i t i o n , i t must a l s o b e n e g a t i v e (inasmuch as w e are t a l k i n g about n o r t h l a t i t u d e ) .

/414

(2) C a l c u l a t e which o f t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a r s : Aldebaran, Alpherants, Capella, S i r i u s , Procyon, Arcturus) w i l l never r i s e , r i s e a n d s e t , and n e v e r s e t a t t h e l a t i t u d e o f L e n i n g r a d ( $ = 59O59'N).

435

., ,

...._.. ....... .._._._ . . ..... _.. . .

...

... .... . . ... . .

... .

a---_-_. .-

I
3. 55O48)

C a l c u l a t e t h e a l t i t u d e o f t h e s t a r D u b k h e a t Moscow ( 4 = a t t h e moment o f u p p e r c u l m i n a t i o n .

4. A t what a l t i t u d e d o e s t h e s t a r S i r i u s c u l m i n a t e . ( u p p e r culmination) a t Leningrad? 5. Show m a t h e m a t i c a l l y t h a t a l l s t a r s w h o s e 6 > 0 d o n o t s e t a t t h e P o l e s , w h i l e t h o s e which have 6 < 0 n e v e r r i s e .

3.

The Motion of the Sun

M o t i o n of the Sun

The A n n u a l

The Sun p a r t i c i p a t e s i n t h e d i u r n a l m o t i o n a l o n g w i t h a l l other stars. The a p p a r e n t d i u r n a l m o t i o n o f t h e Sun i s a l s o r e s u l t o f t h e d i u r n a l m o t i o n o f t h e E a r t h i n r o t a t i n g on i t s H o w e v e r , t h e S u n a l s o h a s i t s own s o - c a l l e d i n t r i n s i c m o t i o n t h e c o u r s e o f a y e a r , c a l l e d t h e annuaz m o t i o n of t h e Sun.

the the axis. in

The a n n u a l m o t i o n o f t h e Sun i s d i f f i c u l t t o o b s e r v e d i r e c t l y . However, i f t h e s t a r s w e r e v i s i b l e i n t h e d a y t i m e , a n d w e w e r e t o o b s e r v e t h e m u t u a l p o s i t i o n s o f t h e Sun a n d s t a r s f o r a c e r t a i n p e r i o d o f t i m e , we w o u l d s e e t h a t t h e m u t u a l p o s i t i o n s o f t h e s e b o d i e s would c h a n g e i n t h e c o u r s e o f t i m e , w h i l e t h e m u t u a l p o s i t i o n s o f t h e s t a r s and c o n s t e l l a t i o n s i n t h e s k y would n o t c h a n g e . The d i r e c t i o n o f t h i s i n t r i n s i c a n n u a l m o t i o n o f t h e Sun i s o p p o s i t e t o t h e d i u r n a l motion of t h e s t a r s , ; . e . , from w e s t t o e a s t . The a n n u a l m o t i o n o f t h e Sun i s a p p a r e n t ( a s i s t h e d i u r n a l motion), and occurs as t h e r e s u l t of t h e annual r o t a t i o n of t h e E a r t h a r o u n d t h e Sun. A s we d i d i n d e s c r i b i n g t h e d i u r n a l m o t i o n o f t h e s k y a n d s t a r s , w e w i l l c o n s i d e r t h a t t h e Sun i s m o v i n g a n d t h e E a r t h s t a n d s
still.

Due t o t h e e x i s t e n c e o f s o - c a l l e d a n n u a l m o t i o n o f t h e S u n , t h e d i u r n a l m o t i o n of t h e Sun h a s some u n u s u a l a s p e c t s , s u c h a s : (a) The i n t e r v a l o f t i m e b e t w e e n t h e r i s i n g a n d s e t t i n g o f Sun v a r i e s c o n t i n u o u s l y i n t h e c o u r s e o f a y e a r . (b) The a z i m u t h o f t h e p o i n t s o f t h e r i s i n g a n d s e t t i n g o f t h e S u n c h a n g e s c o n s t a n t l y d u r i n g t h e y e a r , a n d t h e p o i n t s wher:e t h e S u n r i s e s a n d s e t s move a b o u t , s h i f t i n g f r o m o n e q u a r t e r o f t h e horizon t o another. For e x a m p l e , i n summer t h e S u n r i s e s i n t h e n o r t h e a s t , and s e t s i n t h e n o r t h w e s t . In winter, it r i s e s i n the s o u t h e a s t and s e t s i n t h e southwest. (c) The m e r i d i o n a l a l t i t u d e o f t h e Sun c h a n g e s c o n s t a n t l y i n t h e course of a y e a r .
436

/415

Ecliptic. I n t h e c o u r s e o f i t s i n t r i n s i c m o t i o n , t h e c e n t e r of t h e Sun moves a l o n g a g r e a t c i r c l e of a s p h e r e c a l l e d t h e e c l i p t i c (Fig. 5.16,a). The p l a n e o f t h e e c l i p t i c i n t e r s e c t s t h e p l a n e o f t h e c e l e s t i a l e q u a t o r a t a n a n g l e o f 23O27' a t t w o p o i n t s : at the p o i n t of t h e v e r n a l e q u i n o x ( y ) and t h e p o i n t o f t h e a u t u m n a l e q u i n o x (52). Tropic year. The Sun c o m p l e t e s a j o u r n e y a r o u n d t h e e c l i p t i c ( t h r o u g h 3 6 0 O ) i n 3 6 5 . 2 4 2 2 mean d a y s .

The i n t e r v a l o f t i m e b e t w e e n s u c c e s s i v e p a s s a g e s o f t h e c e n t e r o f t h e Sun t h r o u g h t h e p o i n t of t h e v e r n a l e q u i n o x i s c a l l e d t h e

t r o p i c year.
Sidereal year. I n t h e c o u r s e o f i t s a n n u a l m o t i o n , t h e Sun makes a f u l l r o t a t i o n r e l a t i v e t o t h e s t a r s i n a p e r i o d of t i m e somewhat l o n g e r t h a n t h e t r o p i c y e a r ( i . e . , i n 365.25636 d a y s ) . T h i s t i m e i n t e r v a l , e q u a l t o t h e p e r i o d of t i m e r e q u i r e d f o r t h e A f t e r Earth t o r o t a t e around t h e Sun, i s c a l l e d t h e sidereal year. t h i s i n t e r v a l , t h e Sun w i l l h a v e r e t u r n e d t o i t s o r i g i n a l p o s i t i o n among t h e s t a r s .

Motion o f t h e Sun Along t h e E c Z i p t i c

On M a r c h 2 1 , i n t h e c o u r s e o f i t s a n n u a l m o t i o n , t h e S u n crosses t h e c e l e s t i a l equator a t t h e point of t h e vernal equinox. This d a t e i s c a l l e d t h e date o f t h e vernal equinox. When t h e S u n p a s s e s t h r o u g h t h e p o i n t y , i t s d e c l i n a t i o n and r i g h t a s c e n s i o n a r e A f t e r March 2 1 , t h e Sun c o n t i n u e s i t s m o t i o n a n d equal t o zero. p a s s e s i n t o t h e Northern Hemisphere, and i t s d e c l i n a t i o n b e g i n s t o increase (;.e., becomes p o s i t i v e ) . Thus, a f t e r t h r e e months (on J u n e 2 2 ) t h e Sun i s a t t h e p o i n t K ( s e e F i g . 5 . 1 6 , a ) , w h i c h i s c a l l e d t h e p o i n t of t h e summer s o l s t i c e . A t t h i s p o i n t , t h e Sun i s a t i t s h i g h e s t p o s i t i o n above t h e c e l e s t i a l e q u a t o r . The
a=180'

S e p t 22

a=9 P

June 2 ;

0'

CC=OO

M a r 21

Fig.

5.16.

Annual Motion of t h e Sun:

( a ) Motion a l o n g t h e E c l i p t i c ;

(b) C o o r d i n a t e s o n t h e D a t e s o f t h e E q u i n o x e s a n d S o l s t i c e s .
437

d e c l i n a t i o n o f t h e Sun a t t h i s p o i n t i s +23O27', a n d i t s r i g h t For s e v e r a l d a y s , i t s a l t i t u d e a t a s c e n s i o n i s 90 o r 6 h o u r s . noon r e m a i n s n e a r l y c o n s t a n t , i . e . , +23O27', s o t h a t t h e p o i n t K , w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e c o n s t e l l a t i o n C a p r i c o r n , h a s b e e n named The p o i n t s w h e r e t h e S u n r i s e s t h e d a t e of t h e summer s o t s t i c e . a n d s e t s o n t h i s d a t e w i l l b e a t t h e i r maximum d i s t a n c e s f r o m t h e e a s t a n d w e s t p o i n t s on t h e h o r i z o n . A f t e r t h e d a t e o f t h e summer s o l s t i c e , t h e Sun b e g i n s t o a p p r o a c h t h e c e l e s t i a l e q u a t o r , i t s d e c l i n a t i o n b e g i n s t o d e c r e a s e , a n d by S e p t e m b e r 23 i t a g a i n i n t e r s e c t s t h e c e l e s t i a l e q u a t o r a t t h e p o i n t o f t h e v e r n a l e q u i n o x (&, i n the constellation Libra). When t h e S u n p a s s e s t h r o u g h t h e p o i n t o f t h e v e r n a l e q u i n o x d e c l i n a t i o n becomes e q u a l t o z e r o , w h i l e i t s r i g h t a s c e n s i o n b e c o m e s 180 or 1 2 h o u r s .

( c ) ,i t s

TABLE 5 . 1
I

I'

Date

O c c u r s on

Coordinates Declination (6)IRightAscensbn ( a ) -~

Vernal equinox Summer s o l s t i c e Autumnal e q u i n o x Winter s o l s t i c e

00

+23'27
00

'
'

00

-23O27

or 6 h o u r s 180 or 1 2 h o u r s 2 7 0 or 1 8 h o u r s
90

S e p t e m b e r 2 3 i s c a l l e d t h e d a t e of t h e autumnaZ e q u i n o x . A l l of t h e e v e n t s o f t h e d a t e o f t h e v e r n a l e q u i n o x a r e r e p e a t e d on t h i s date.
A f t e r S e p t e m b e r 2 3 , t h e Sun p a s s e s i n t o t h e S o u t h e r n Hemisphere and i t s d e c l i n a t i o n becomes n e g a t i v e . On D e c e m b e r 2 2 , t h e S u n i s a t i t s lowest p o s i t i o n r e l a t i v e t o t h e c e l e s t i a l e q u a t o r and i s a t /417 t h e point of the winter so l st ic e (the point L, i n the constellation On t h e Leo). T h i s d a t e i s c a l l e d t h e d a t e of t h e w i n t e r s o Z s t i c e . d a t e o f t h e w i n t e r s o l s t i c e , t h e Sun h a s a d e c l i n a t i o n o f - 2 3 O 2 7 ' , The p o i n t s w h e r e w h i l e i t s r i g h t a s c e n s i o n i s 2 7 0 or 1 8 h o u r s . t h e Sun r i s e s a n d s e t s o n t h i s d a t e a r e f a r t h e s t s o u t h f r o m t h e e a s t and w e s t p o i n t s on t h e h o r i z o n .

A f t e r December 2 2 , t h e Sun b e g i n s i t s r i s e a l o n g t h e e c l i p t i c , a n d on March 2 1 i t h a s a g a i n r i s e n t o t h e p o i n t o f t h e v e r n a l e q u i n o x , w h e r e i t s d e c l i n a t i o n a n d r i g h t a s c e n s i o n a r e o n c e more equal t o zero. T h u s , we c a n d r a w u p a s p e c i a l t a b l e f o r t h e a n n u a l m o t i o n o f t h e Sun a l o n g t h e e c l i p t i c , s h o w i n g i t s c o o r d i n a t e s ( T a b l e 5 . 1 ; Fig. 5.16,b).

438

I n t h e c o u r s e o f a y e a r , a s i t moves t h r o u g h t h e s k y (among t h e s t a r s ) , t h e Sun p a s s e s t h r o u g h 1 2 c o n s t e l l a t i o n s , c a l l e d t h e signs of t h e zodiac. T h e y h a v e r e c e i v e d t h i s name b e c a u s e t h e m a j o r i t y o f them b e a r t h e names o f a n i m a l s ( A r i e s , t h e R a m ; T a u r u s , t h e B u l l , e t c . ) , and t h e word z o a n i n Greek means " a n i m a l " . A s the S u n m o v e s among t h e s t a r s i n t h e c o u r s e of a y e a r , i t i s i n t h e following positions: on t h e d a t e o f t h e v e r n a l e q u i n o x (March 211, i n t h e c o n s t e l l a t i o n P i s c e s ( t h e F i s h e s ) ; o n t h e d a t e o f t h e summer s o l s t i c e J u n e 2 2 , i n t h e c o n s t e l l a t i o n Gemini ( t h e T w i n s ) ; on t h e d a t e of t h e a u t u m n a l e q u i n o x (September 231, i n t h e c o n s t e l l a t i o n V i r g o ( t h e V i r g i n ) , a n d on t h e d a t e of t h e w i n t e r s o l s t i c e (December 2 2 1 , i n t'he c o n s t e l l a t i o n S a g i t t a r i u s ( t h e A r c h e r ) .

Diurnal Motion o f the Sun

T h e M o t i o n of t h e S u n at t h e North P o l e
Due t o t h e c o n s t a n t c h a n g e i n t h e d e c l i n a t i o n o f t h e S u n , i t s a l t i t u d e a t t h e t e r r e s t r i a l poles a l s o changes. I t d o e s n o t move p a r a l l e l t o the horizon, but along a s p i r a l path. Since t h e declin a t i o n o f t h e Sun w i l l b e p o s i t i v e f o r s i x mo n t h s ( a n d t h e c e l e s t i a l equator f o r an observer a t t h e North Pole w i l l coincide with t h e h o r i z o n ) , t h e c e n t e r o f t h e Sun w i l l a c t l i k e a s t a r t h a t n e v e r s e t s a t t h e N o r t h P o l e f r o m March 2 1 t o S e p t e m b e r 2 3 , < . e . , i t w i l l remain above t h e h o r i z o n . D u r i n g t h e o t h e r h a l f o f t h e y e a r , when t h e S u n h a s a n e g a t i v e d e c l i n a t i o n , it w i l l be below t h e h o r i z o n as s e e n from t h e North Pole. T h e r e f o r e , t h e r e a r e s i x m o n t h s of d a y a n d s i x m o n t h s o f night at the terrestrial poles. T h e S u n r e a c h e s i t s maximum a l t i t u d e a b o v e t h e h o r i z o n a t t h e N o r t h P o l e o n t h e d a t e o f t h e summer s o l s t i c e , < . e . , o n J u n e 2 2 . The a l t i t u d e o f t h e S u n o n t h a t d a t e i s e q u a l t o i t s maximum d e c l i n a t i o n , i . e . , 23O27'. A t t h e S o u t h P o l e , t h e Sun r e a c h e s i t s m a x i mum a l t i t u d e o n t h e d a t e o f o u r w i n t e r s o l s t i c e , ; . e . , D e c e m b e r 2 2 .

M o t i o n of t h e S u n b e t w e e n t h e N o r t h P o l e a n d t h e A r c t i c CircZe
If an o b s e r v e r i s beyond t h e A r c t i c C i r c l e :.e., f a r t h e r northI41* t h a n t h e l a t i t u d e o f 66O33' ( t h e l a t i t u d e o f t h e A r c t i c C i r c l e ) , t h e S u n d u r i n g i t s d i u r n a l m o t i o n w i l l b e a n e v e r - s e t t i n g s t a r for p a r t of t h e y e a r , a r i s i n g and s e t t i n g s t a r p a r t of t h e y e a r and a never-rising star f o r p a r t of t h e year. In order t o understand t h i s p h e n o m e n o n , l e t U S r e c a l l t h e c o n d i t i o n s or t h e n o n r i s i n g , s e t t i n g , r i s i n g and n o n s e t t i n g o f heavenly b o d i e s .

Heavenly b o d i e s do n o t s e t i f t h e i r d e c l i n a t i o n i s e q u a l t o or m o r e t h a n 9 0 m i n u s t h e l a t i t u d e o f t h e o b s e r v e r , i . e . i f 6 > 9 0 - $ I . T h i s s i t u a t i o n a l s o a p p l i e s t o t h e d i u r n a l m o t i o n o f the Sun. I f , f o r example, t h e observer i s standing a t a l a t i t u d e of 76ON ( b e t w e e n t h e N o r t h P o l e a n d t h e A r c t i c C i r c l e ) , t h e n a c c o r d i n g

439

t o t h e c o n d i t i o n s e t f o r t h above t h e Sun w i l l n o t s e t a f t e r t h e d a t e when i t s d e c l i n a t i o n i s e q u a l t o or more t h a n 9 0 - 4 , i . e . m o r e t h a n 90-76O = + 1 4 O . T h i s phenomenon ( t o c i t e a s p e c i f i c A f t e r A p r i l 26 t h e S u n w i l l r i s e e x a m p l e ) b e g i n s on A p r i l 26. h i g h e r and h i g h e r above t h e horizon. T h e S u n r e a c h e s a maximum a l t i t u d e a b o v e t h e h o r i z o n o n t h e A f t e r J u n e 2 2 , t h e Sun w i l l d i p d a t e o f t h e summer s o l s t i c e . When i t s d e c l i n a t i o n toward t h e horizon b u t w i l l s t i l l not s e t . i s a g a i n e q u a l t o 900 - 4 , t h e Sun w i l l t o u c h t h e h o r i z o n . A f t e r August 1 9 , t h e S u n ' s d e c l i n a t i o n w i l l b e l e s s t h a n 90 i . e . 6 < 90 - $ and f o r a f i x e d t i m e i t w i l l a p p e a r t o a n o b s e r v e r l o c a t e d a t t h i s l a t i t u d e as a r i s i n g and s e t t i n g s t a r .

$,

T h i s phenomenon w i l l c o n t i n u e u n t i l t h e d e c l i n a t i o n o f t h e 6 - 90 - $ and w i l l > S u n i s n o t e q u a l t o or m o r e t h a n 9 0 - 4 , : . e . have a s i g n o p p o s i t e t o t h a t of t h e l a t i t u d e ( i . e . t h e l a t i t u d e i s p o s i t i v e and t h e d e c l i n a t i o n i s n e g a t i v e ) . For a n o b s e r v e r B e g i n n i n g on l o c a t e d a t 76ON t h i s p h e n o m e n o n b e g i n s o n N o v e m b e r 3 . N o v e m b e r 3 , for a n o b s e r v e r l o c a t e d a t a l a t i t u d e o f 7 6 O , t h e S u n w i l l not s e t , s i n c e -6 - 90 - $. > The Sun w i l l n o t r i s e u n t i l i t s n e g a t i v e d e c l i n a t i o n i s e q u a l t o or l e s s t h a n 9 0 - $ ( - 6 < 9 0 - $ 1 , ; . e . , b e g i n n i n g o n t h e d a t e t h e S u n ' s d e c l i n a t i o n h a s a-value o f 14O a n d l e s s . I n our example, t h i s phenomenon s t a r t s on F e b r u a r y 9 . A f t e r t h i s d a t e , t h e Sun w i l l r i s e a n d s e t e v e r y d a y a n d t h e p e r i o d of d a y l i g h t w i l l g r a d u a l l y increase. F i n a l l y , when t h e S u n ' s d e c l i n a t i o n i s e q u a l t o or m o r e b e g i n n i n g on A p r i l 2 6 , ' t h e Sun a g a i n w i l l n o t t h a n 90 - $, ; . e . , set.
TABLE 5 . 2
.~
'
~

/419
-___

Spring

Summer

Autumn

_ _

..

-~

Winter Duration i n d-a - ys

&5 52 70 85 98 111 123 133 r44 I55 165 176

t hae i pu d e t io fn ' B e g . L t t osi o i n degrees ldate

68 70 72 74 76 78 80 82 84 86 88 4.1 17.1 26.1 3.11 9.11 15.11 22.11 27.11 4.111 9.111 14.111 19.111

Dumtim B e g . lDuration]".g. i n . d a y s u d __ s , d a t e a y
143 120 103 88 76 64 51 41 31 2! 11 0 27.V 17.V 9.v 2.v 26.1V 20.IV 14.IV 9.IV 4.lV 30.111 25.111 19.111. 53 72 88 I 02 115 127 139 150 159 169 179 189 -____

j h r a t i o n [Beg. i n d a - -~d a t e ys
144 121 104 90 76 63 52 41 31 21
10

90

19.VII 28.VII 5.VIII 12.v111 I9.VIII 25.VllI 31.VIII 6.IX 1O.IX 15.1X 20.IX 25.1x J -. .

1o:xr I 26.XI 17.XI 1O.XI 3.XI 28.X 22.x 17.X ll.x 5.x 30.IX 25.IX

44 0

T h u s , l e t u s sum u p t h e d i u r n a l m o t i o n o f t h e S u n i n t h e c o u r s e o f a y e a r f o r a n o b s e r v e r l o c a t e d a t a l a t i t u d e o f 76O ( b e t w e e n t h e North P o l e and t h e Arctic C i r c l e ) .

( 1 ) From A p r i l 26 t o A u g u s t 1 9 , i . e . , f o r 1 1 5 d a y s , t h e S u n T h i s p e r i o d o f t i m e i s c a l l e d t h e p o z a r summer. does not set.

(2) From A u g u s t 1 9 t o N o v e m b e r 3 , i . e . , for 76 d a y s , t h e S u n w i l l r i s e and s e t d a i l y a n d t h e p e r i o d o f d a y l i g h t w i l l d i m i n i s h T h i s p e r i o d o f t i m e i s c a l l e d t h e p o l a r autumn. each day. (3) From N o v e m b e r 3 t o F e b r u a r y 9 , i . e . , f o r 9 8 d a y s , t h e This period is c a l l e d t h e Sun w i l l n o t r i s e f o r t h e o b s e r v e r .

p o Zar winter.
(4) From F e b r u a r y 9 t o A p r i l 26 i . e . , f o r 7 6 d a y s t h e S u n w i l l r i s e and s e t d a i l y and t h e p e r i o d o f d a y l i g h t w i l l i n c r e a s e e a c h day. T h i s p e r i o d o f t i m e i s c a l l e d t h e p o l a r spring.

The d a t e s f o r t h e s t a r t o f t h e s e a s o n s d e p e n d on t h e l a t i t u d e of t h e observer. T h e d a t e s g i v e n i n o u r e x a m p l e a r e f o r 76ON. W e have provided a t a b l e f o r t h e seasons as a f u n c t i o n of t h e l a t i t u d e of t h e observer (Table 5.2).

M o t i o n of t h e S u n a b o v e t h e Arctic CircZe

A s w e a l r e a d y know, t h e l a t i t u d e of t h e A r c t i c C i r c l e i s e q u a l t o $ = 6 6 O 3 3 ' , or t h e c o m p l e m e n t o f i t s l a t i t u d e t o 90 i s 2 3 O 2 7 ' .

90 r$ -

T h e r e f o r e , o n t h e d a t e o f t h e summer s o l s t i c e ( J u n e 2 2 ) , 6 = $ , a n d on t h e d a t e o f t h e w i n t e r s o l s t i c e ( D e c e m b e r 2 2 ) , 6 =

/420

900.

On t h e s e d a t e s a t t h e A r c t i c C i r c l e , t h e c e n t e r o f t h e S u n t o u c h e s t h e h o r i z o n o n J u n e 2 2 a t t h e n o r t h p o i n t a t t h e moment o f l o w e r c u l m i n a t i o n ( p o i n t N , F i g . 5 . 1 7 ) , a n d on December 2 2 a t t h e s o u t h p o i n t a t t h e moment o f u p p e r c u l m i n a t i o n ( p o i n t S ) . During t h e r e s t o f t h e y e a r , t h e Sun w i l l r i s e a n d s e t d a i l y . The p e r i o d o f d a y l i g h t w i l l i n c r e a s e d a i l y f r o m December 2 2 t o J u n e 2 2 ; a f t e r June 2 2 , i t w i l l d e c r e a s e . The S u n r e a c h e s i t s maximum a l t i t u d e a b o v e t h e h o r i z o n o n June 2 2 . I t w i l l b e : h = 9 0 - 66O33' + 23O27' f i 4 6 O 5 4 ' .

M o t i o n of t h e S u n a t MiddZe L a t i t u d e s

K n o w i n g t h e maximum d e c l i n a t i o n o f t h e S u n ( e q u a l t o 2 3 O 2 7 ' ) , i t i s n o t d i f f i c u l t t o c a l c u l a t e t h e l a t i t u d e s o f t h e o b s e r v e r on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e w h e r e t h e Sun w i l l b e a r i s i n g a n d a s e t t i n g h e a v e n l y body d u r i n g t h e y e a r . From t h e c o n d i t i o n s f o r t h e r i s i n g a n d s e t t i n g o f h e a v e n l y

b o d i e s , it f o l l o w s t h a t t h e d e c l i n a t i o n must b e l e s s t h a n t h e comple m e n t o f t h e l a t i t u d e t o 9 0 , or t h e c o m p l e m e n t o f t h e l a t i t u d e t o 90 m u s t b e m o r e t h a n t h e d e c l i n a t i o n o f t h e S u n , i . e . , 9 0 - @ > 6 . T h i s m e a n s t h a t b e t w e e n 66O33'N a n d 66O33'SY t h e S u n w i l l r i s e a n d s e t every day of t h e y e a r ( s e e Fig. 5.17).

M o t i o n o f t h e Sun a t t h e T e r r e s t r i a l Equator.
I n o r d e r t o b e t t e r understand t h e n a t u r e of t h e d i u r n a l motion Here w e o f t h e Sun a t t h e E q u a t o r , l e t u s a n a l y z e F i g u r e 5 . 1 8 . have sketched schematically t h e d i u r n a l t r a j e c t o r i e s ( c i r c l e s ) of /421 AS w e see from t h e d r a w i n g , a l l t h e d i u r n a l t h e Sun a t t h e e q u a t o r . c i r c l e s a r e d i v i d e d i n two by t h e h o r i z o n l i n e . This i s under s t a n d a b l e , s i n c e w e a l r e a d y know t h a t t h e t r u e h o r i z o n o f a n o b s e r v e r l o c a t e d a t o n e o f t h e p o l e s i s s i t u a t e d a t a n a n g l e o f 90 t o the equator. S i n c e t h e d a i l y c i r c l e s o f t h e Sun a r e d i v i d e d i n h a l f by t h e h o r i z o n , t h e Sun w i l l b e l o c a t e d a b o v e t h e h o r i z o n h a l f t h e day and below t h e h o r i z o n h a l f t h e d a y , i . e . d u r i n g t h e whole y e a r t h e Sun r i s e s a n d s e t s , a n d t h e d a y s a n d n i g h t s a r e e q u a l i n length.

T w i c e a y e a r , o n t h e d a t e s o f t h e e q u i n o x e s , when t h e S u n m o v e s along t h e c e l e s t i a l equator (the equator itself i s t h e diurnal c i r c l e ) , it p a s s e s t h r o u g h t h e z e n i t h o f t h e o b s e r v e r and i t s h e i g h t i s 90. D u r i n g t h e r e s t o f t h e y e a r , t h e Sun c u l m i n a t e s t o t h e n o r t h or s o u t h o f t h e z e n i t h a n d i s a t i t s g r e a t e s t d i s t a n c e f r o m it (23O27') on t h e d a t e s o f t h e s o l s t i c e s .

4.

M o t i o n o f t h e Moon
t h e Moon

I n t r i n s i c Motion of

T h e Moon, p a r t i c i p a t i n g w i t h a l l t h e h e a v e n l y b o d i e s i n t h e s k y i n t h e d i u r n a l r o t a t i o n o f t h e c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e , h a s i t s own i n t r i n s i c motion.

PN

SP'

2'

Fig. 5.17. D i u r n a l Motion

of t h e S u n A b o v e t h e A r c t i c Circle. 442

Fig. 5.18. D i u r n a l Motion o f

t h e Sun a t t h e E q u a t o r .

If xe o b s e r v e t h e Moon for o n e n i g h t , w e c a n e a s i l y s e e t h a t i t t r a v e l s l i k e t h e Sun i n t h e s k y ( r e l a t i v e t o t h e s t a r s ) . The a p p a r e n t m o t i o n o f t h e S u n i s t h e r e s u l t of t h e E a r t h ' s m o t i o n a r o u n d t h e S u n ; t h e Moon a c t u a l l y m o v e s a r o u n d t h e E a r t h .

D i r e c t i o n and R a t e o f t h e Moon's M o t i o n
T h e Moon m o v e s a l o n g t h e c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e f r o m w e s t t o e a s t , i . e . , i n a d i r e c t i o n o p p o s i t e t h e d i u r n a l motion of t h e c e l e s t i a l sphere. T h e g r e a t c i r c l e a l o n g w h i c h t h e Moon c o m p l e t e s i t s m o t i o n around t h e E a r t h h a s t h e shape of an e l l i p s e and i s c a l l e d t h e Moon's o r b i t . The Moon's o r b i t i s i n t e r s e c t e d b y t h e s o l a r e c l i p t i c a t a n a n g l e o f 5O08' ( F i g . 5 . 1 9 ) . The two d i a m e t r i c a l l y o p p o s e d p o i n t s a t which t h e Moon's o r b i t i s i n t e r s e c t e d by t h e s o l a r e c l i p t i c a r e c a l l e d t h e n o d e s of t h e o r b i t . T h e Moon c o m p l e t e s a f u l l r e v o l u t i o n a l o n g i t s o r b i t t o t h e s t a r s i n 27.32 d a y s . This t i m e i n t e r v a l is c a l l e d s i d e r e a l ( s t e Z Z a r l month. Thus, it i s easy t o c a l c u l a t e t one d a y i t moves 1 3 . 2 O . Its hourly s h i f t relative t o the a p p r o x i m a t e l y 0.5O. relative the h a t during stars is

T h e m o t i o n o f t h e Moon i n i t s o r b i t may b e s t u d i e d i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e S u n ( w h i c h h a s , a s we k n o w , i t s own m o t i o n ) . T h e p e r i o d o f r e v o l u t i o n r e q u i r e d f o r t h e Moon t o r e t u r n t o a p r e v i o u s p o s i t i o n i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e Sun i s c a l l e d t h e s y n o d i c I t i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 9 . 5 mean s o l a r d a y s . month. The Moon, r e v o l v i n g a r o u n d t h e E a r t h , a c c o m p a n i e s i t i n i t s m o t i o n around t h e Sun. T h e Moon i s 3 5 6 , 0 0 0 km f r o m t h e E a r t h a t p e r i g e e ( t h e c l o s e s t p o i n t t o t h e E a r t h ) a n d 407,100 km f r o m t h e E a r t h a t apogee ( t h e most d i s t a n t P p o i n t from t h e E a r t h ) .

/422

P h a s e s of t h e Moon
T h e Moon, l i k e o u r E a r t h , i s a n opaque body which i l l u m i n a t e s the Earth's surface with reflected sunlight. The i l l u m i n a t i o n o f t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e b y t h e Moon, as w e can see, i s not always t h e same. A t different t i m e s the Moon i s v i s i b l e i n t h e f o r m o f a luminous d i s k , i n t h e form o f a l u m i n o u s h a l f - d i s k , or a c r e s cent. T h e r e i s a t i m e when t h e The Moon i s e n t i r e l y i n v i s i b l e . Moon h a s v a r i o u s p h a s e s . The 443

Fig.

5.19.

O r b i t o f t h e Moon.

p e r i o d i c a l l y r e p e a t e d c h a n g e i n t h e s h a p e o f t h e Moon i s c a l l e d t h e

change i n l u n a r p h a s e s .
In order t o explain the Figure 5.20. A t Point 0 (in P o i n t s 1 - 8 w e s h o w t h e Moon i around t h e Earth. Below t h e i n those eight positions f o r surface. cause of l u n a r phases, l e t u s look a t the orbit's center) is our Earth; at n various positions i n its revolution f i g u r e w e s h o w t h e s h a p e o f t h e Moon a n o b s e r v e r l o c a t e d on t h e E a r t h ' s

An o b When t h e Moon i s i n P o s i t i o n 1, i t s p h a s e i s new moon. s e r v e r on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e d u r i n g t h i s p h a s e d o e s n o t s e e t h e Moon, s i n c e i t s n o n i l l u m i n a t e d s i d e i s t u r n e d t o t h e E a r t h a n d i s l o c a t e d a t a n a n g u l a r d i s t a n c e o f n o t m o r e t h a n 5O f r o m t h e S u n . I n P o s i t i o n 2 , t h e Moon i s v i s i b l e on t h e E a r t h i n t h e f o r m o f a narrow c r e s c e n t only during evening hours. When t h e Moon i s i n P o s i t i o n 3 , i t s phase i s c a l l e d t h e f i r s t q u a r t e r and an observer This phase is s e e s it i n t h e s h a p e o f h a l f a n i l l u m i n a t e d d i s k . c a l l e d t h e first q u a r t e r because a t t h i s t i m e a q u a r t e r of t h e entire lunar surface is visible. D u r i n g f i r s t q u a r t e r , t h e Moon i s v i s i b l e i n t h e e a s t a t n o o n , i n t h e s o u t h a b o u t 1 8 0 0 , and i n t h e w e s t a t m i d n i g h t . After first q u a r t e r , t h e i l l u m i n a t e d p a r t of t h e l u n a r d i s k begins t o i n c r e a s e (Position 4); i n Position 5, the entire lunar disk is illuminated. T h i s i s t h e half-moon p h a s e . I n t h i s p h a s e , t h e Moon i s v i s i b l e a l l night. A f t e r h a l f moon, t h e i l l u m i n a t e d p a r t o f t h e l u n a r d i s k b e g i n s / 4 2 3 t o d e c r e a s e from t h e r i g h t s i d e o f t h e d i s k ( i n P o s i t i o n 6 ) , and i n

new moon
Fig. 444

first quarter
5.20.

moon

last quarter

P h a s e s o f t h e Moon.

P o s i t i o n 7 it r e a c h e s t h e p h a s e of l a s t q u a r t e r . In last quarter, t h e Moon i s v i s i b l e i n t h e e a s t a t m i d n i g h t , i n t h e s o u t h a b o u t 0 6 0 0 , and i n t h e w e s t a t noon. A f t e r last quarter, the illuminated p a r t o f t h e l u n a r d i s k d i m i n i s h e s e v e n more and i n P o s i t i o n 8 i t i s a l r e a d y v i s i b l e i n t h e form of a narrow c r e s c e n t (on t h e l e f t s i d e of t h e d i s k ) ; it t h e n becomes i n v i s i b l e a g a i n , i . e . , t h e p h a s e o f new moon a g a i n s e t s i n . Nature o f

t h e M o t i o n o f t h e Moon a r o u n d t h e E a r t h

I n v i e w o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h e Moon, i n i t s m o t i o n a r o u n d t h e E a r t h , i s s o m e t i m e s c l o s e r t o t h e Sun t h a n t h e E a r t h i s a n d some t i m e s f a r t h e r a w a y , i t r e c e i v e s a c c e l e r a t i o n f r o m t h e Sun w h i c h i s sometimes more and s o m e t i m e s l e s s t h a n t h a t o f t h e E a r t h . As a r e s u l t , t h e m o t i o n o f t h e Moon a r o u n d t h e E a r t h i s c o m p l e x , s i n c e t h e above f a c t o r s n o t o n l y change t h e shape and dimensions o f t h e lunar o r b i t , but its position i n space.
A s a r e s u l t of t h e change i n p o s i t i o n of t h e plane of t h e l u n a r o r b i t , t h e angle of i n c l i n a t i o n of t h i s plane t o t h e plane of t h e c e l e s t i a l e q u a t o r c h a n g e s c o n t i n u o u s l y from 28.5 t o 18.5O. Because o f t h i s , t h e d e c l i n a t i o n o f t h e Moon a l s o c h a n g e s i n t h e r a n g e f r o m - 2 8 . 5 t o +28.5O a n d i n t h e r a n g e f r o m -18.5O t o +18.5O. In a l l c a s e s , however, t h e p l a n e of t h e l u n a r o r b i t i s i n c l i n e d t o t h e p l a n e o f t h e e c l i p t i c a t 5O08'. A s a r e s u l t of t h e change i n t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e plane of t h e l u n a r o r b i t , t h e nodes of t h e l u n a r o r b i t a l s o t r a v e l a l o n g t h e e c l i p t i c a g a i n s t t h e annual motion o f Thus, t h e nodes of t h e t h e S u n ( o r Moon) b y 19.3O e v e r y y e a r . l u n a r o r b i t complete one r e v o l u t i o n a l o n g it i n 18.6 y e a r s .

/5 4!

T h e Moon, c o m p l e t i n g o n e r e v o l u t i o n i n i t s o r b i t , i n t e r s e c t s t h e p l a n e o f t h e c e l e s t i a l e q u a t o r t w i c e ; i n t h e c o u r s e o f one s i d e r e a l m o n t h , i t s d e c l i n a t i o n c h a n g e s f r o m a maximum p o s i t i v e v a l u e t o a maximum n e g a t i v e o n e . T h e maximum d e c l i n a t i o n o f t h e Moon i n a p e r i o d o f o n e m o n t h may b e + 2 8 O 2 7 ' a n d t h e minimum may b e - 2 8 2 7 ' . Location o f t h e Moon A b o v e t h e H o r i z o n

T h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e Moon a b o v e t h e h o r i z o n d e p e n d s o n t h e s o c a l l e d w a x i n g o f t h e Moon ( t i m e e l a p s e d a f t e r new m o o n ) a n d t h e season. I n t h e N o r t h e r n H e m i s p h e r e , d u r i n g t h e summer a n d t h e p h a s e o f f u l l m o o n , t h e Moon i s l o c a t e d c o m p a r a t i v e l y l o w a n d f o r a s h o r t t i m e a b o v e t h e h o r i z o n ; i n t h e w i n t e r , d u r i n g t h e f u l l moon, i t i s v i s i b l e a l l n i g h t and r i s e s r a t h e r high above t h e horizon. This d e p e n d s o n t h e d e c l i n a t i o n o f t h e Moon. I n winter i n t h e Northern H e m i s p h e r e , t h e f u l l moons o c c u r w i t h a p o s i t i v e . d e c l i n a t i o n , w h i l e t h e f u l l m o o n s i n summer o c c u r w i t h n e g a t i v e d e c l i n a t i o n .

445

5.

Measurement o f Time

Essence o f Calculating Time

Measurement o f t i m e i s t h e r e s u l t of t h e p r e s e n c e o f m o t i o n i n T i m e a n d m o t i o n a r e synonymous. I'f m o t i o n c e a s e d universal space. i n Nature and i n t h e Universe, t h e r e could be no discussion of t i m e . I t i s e n t i r e l y u n d e r s t a n d a b l e t h a t t o m e a s u r e t i m e , some c o n s t a n t and uniform motion must b e u s e d . T h e r o t a t i o n o f t h e E a r t h o n i t s a x i s (or, a s a r e s u l t o f t h i s , t h e a p p a r e n t r o t a t i o n of t h e c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e around t h e world a x i s ) could be such a motion. S p e c i a l o b s e r v a t i o n s o v e r a v e r y l o n g t i m e i n t e r v a l h a v e shown t h a t t h e duration of t h e E a r t h ' s r o t a t i o n around i t s a x i s has not This characterizes very c h a n g e d e v e n by a f r a c t i o n o f a s e c o n d . w e l l t h e c o n s t a n c y and u n i f o r m i t y of t h e E a r t h ' s r o t a t i o n . I n t h e p r a c t i c e o f a v i a t i o n , t h e f o l l o w i n g k i n d s of t i m e must be s t u d i e d and used: s i d e r e a l , t r u e s o l a r , mean s o l a r , G r e e n w i c h , l o c a l , zone a n d s t a n d a r d t i m e .

Sidereal T i m e

/425

Time m e a s u r e d o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e a p p a r e n t m o t i o n o f h e a v e n l y T h i s t i m e may b e m e a s u r e d bodies ( s t a r s ) is called sidereal time. by t h e h o u r a n g l e o f some h e a v e n l y b o d y w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e m e r i d i a n of t h e observer. However, f o r c o n v e n i e n c e , it i s a d v a n t a g e o u s t o t a k e t h e h o u r a n g l e n o t o f some s t a r b u t o f t h e p o i n t o f t h e v e r n a l equinox from which t h e r i g h t a s c e n s i o n i s r e a d .
T h e w e s t e r n h o u r a n g l e of t h e p o i n t o f t h e v e r n a l e q u i n o x t Y i s c a l l e d s i d e r e a l t i m e a n d i s r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e l e t t e r S (S = t y ) S i d e r e a l t i m e i s e q u a l t o t h e sum of t h e h o u r i n Figure 5.21. angle and t h e r i g h t ascension of a S = a + t. star: The t i m e i n t e r v a l between two s u c c e s s i v e u p p e r c u l m i n a t i o n s of t h e p o i n t o f t h e v e r n a l equinox i s c a l l e d a sidereal day. T h e moment o f t h e u p p e r c u l mination of t h e v e r n a l equinox point w a s t a k e n as t h e beginning of s i d e real days. A t t h i s moment, s i d e r e a l Sidereal time i s e q u a l t o 0O:OO:OO. d a y s a r e d i v i d e d i n t o 24 s i d e r e a l hours, each hour i s divided i n t o 60 s i d e r e a l minutes, and each minute i n t o 60 s i d e r e a l seconds.

Y Sidereal days.

Z'

Fig. 5.21. H o u r A n g l e of t h e Point of t h e Vernal Equinox. 446

S i d e r e a l t i m e does n o t have a d a t e and t h e r e f o r e i n c a l c u l a t i o n s when t h e s i d e r e a l t i m e i s m o r e t h a n 24:00, t h e r e i s o n l y a s u r p l u s o f t i m e a b o v e 24:OO.

Exumple. I n c a l c u l a t i o n s , t h e r e is a s i d e r e a l t i m e of S = 29:20. D i s c a r d i n g 24:00, we o b t a i n a s i d e r e a l t i m e o f 5 : 2 0 .

The practical application of sidereal time. Sidereal t i m e is not used i n everyday l i f e , but as t h e b a s i s of t i m e s i g n a l s . In e v e r y a s t r o n o m i c a l o b s e r v a t o r y , t h e r e a r e s p e c i a l c l o c k s which r u n I n a v i a t i o n , s i d e r e a l t i m e must b e according t o si d e re a l t i m e . used i n observing stars f o r determining t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e aircraft or t h e p o s i t i o n l i n e o f t h e a i r c r a f t .
I n t h e a v i a t i o n astronomical yearbook, t h e s i d e r e a l t i m e i s g i v e n f o r e a c h d a t e a n d e a c h h o u r o f G r e e n w i c h mean t i m e . Therefore, t h e s i d e r e a l t i m e f o r a n y moment a t a n y p o i n t o n E a r t h may b e d e t e r mined by means o f t h e a v i a t i o n a s t r o n o m i c a l y e a r b o o k on t h e b a s i s /426 of Greenwich t i m e . I n everyday l i f e , s o l a r t i m e r a t h e r than side r e a l t i m e i s u s e d , s i n c e on t h e whole man's a c t i v i t y o c c u r s i n t h e daytime hours. True Solar T i m e

True s o l a r t i m e t n i s t h e t i m e measured on t h e b a s i s o f t h e d i u r n a l motion of t h e t r u e Sun.

o T r u e s o l a r t i m e i s m e a s u r e d b y t h e w e s t e r n h o u r a n g l e ( t w >f t h e c e n t e r o f t h e t r u e Sun.

True s o l a r days a r e t h e t i m e i n t e r v a l s b e t w e e n two s u c c e s s i v e T h e moment o f upper c u l m i n a t i o n s of t h e c e n t e r of t h e t r u e Sun. t h e u p p e r c u l m i n a t i o n o f t h e c e n t e r of t h e t r u e Sun i s t a k e n a s t h e beginning of t r u e s o l a r days.

A t t h e moment o f u p p e r c u l m i n a t i o n , when t h e h o u r a n g l e o f t h e Sun i s z e r o , t h e t r u e s o l a r t i m e i s 0 O : O O : O O .

I n p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e d i u r n a l motion of t h e Sun, i n c r e a s e s ; thse t r u e s o l a r t i m e a l s o i n c r e a s e s .

i t s hour angle

A t t h e moment o f t h e l o w e r c u l m i n a t i o n o f t h e S u n , t h e t r u e s o l a r t i m e i s 12:OO; when t h e c e n t e r o f t h e S u n i s a g a i n i n t h e p o s i t i o n o f u p p e r c u l m i n a t i o n , t h e t r u e s o l a r t i m e i s 24:OO. A f t e r t h i s , new d a y s b e g i n .

T h e d u r a t i o n o f t r u e s o l a r days changes i n t h e course o f a year. T h i s o c c u r s b e c a u s e t h e t r u e Sun moves d u r i n g t h e y e a r a l o n g t h e e c l i p t i c , which i s i n c l i n e d t o t h e c e l e s t i a l e q u a t o r a t a n a n g l e o f 23O27' a n d i s n o t a c i r c l e b u t a n e l l i p s e . For t h i s reason, t h e d a i l y s h i f t o f t h e Sun t o t h e e a s t i s d i f f e r e n t on d i f f e r e n t days of t h e year. T h i s s h i f t i s a t a maximum n e a r t h e s o l s t i c e s ,
447

when t h e S u n m o v e s p a r a l l e l t o t h e e q u a t o r . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , near t h e equinoxes t h e s h i f t t o t h e east i s smallest, The S u n l a g s b e h i n d t h e m o t i o n o f t h e s t a r s b y e i t h e r a v e r y g r e a t or a v e r y s m a l l v a l u e ; t h e d u r a t i o n o f t r u e d a y s c h a n g e s a l l the time. I n u s i n g t r u e s o l a r t i m e i n e v e r y d a y l i f e , it would a l m o s t b e n e c e s s a r y (as a r e s u l t of i t s n o n u n i f o r m i t y ) t o r e g u l a t e c l o c k s e v e r y d a y , moving them a h e a d and b a c k . T h i s would be e x t r e m e l y inconvenient. I n view o f t h e i n c o n v e n i e n c e o f c a l c u l a t i n g t i m e on t h e b a s i s o f t h e t r u e S u n , t i m e i n e v e r y d a y l i f e i s c a l c u l a t e d on t h e b a s i s o f t h e s o - c a l l e d mean S u n . T h e mean Sun i s t h e i m a g i n a r y or r e a l S u n m o v i n g u n i f o r m l y a l o n g t h e c e l e s t i a l e q u a t o r i n t h e same d i r e c t i o n t h a t t h e t r u e S u n i n a direction opposite t o the moves a l o n g t h e e c l i p t i c , : . e . , d i u r n a l motion of t h e c e l e s t i a l sphere. Mean S o l a r T i m e

T i m e c a l c u l a t e d o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e d i u r n a l m o t i o n o f t h e mean ( i m a g i n a r y ) Sun i s c a l l e d t h e mean soZar t i m e ( m ) .

Mean s o l a r t i m e i s m e a s u r e d b y t h e w e s t e r n h o u r a n g l e ( t , ) of t h e mean ( i m a g i n a r y ) S u n . Mean s o l a r d a y s a r e t h e b a s i c u n i t o f mean s o l a r t i m e .

Mean s o Z a r d a y s a r e t h e t i m e i n t e r v a l s b e t w e e n t w o s u c c e s s i v e u p p e r c u l m i n a t i o n s o f t h e mean S u n . T h e y a r e d i v i d e d i n t o 2 4 mean h o u r s , each hour i s d i v i d e d i n t o 60 minutes and each minute i n t o 60 seconds. The d u r a t i o n o f mean s o l a r d a y s i s c o n s t a n t .
Mean c i v i l t i m e ( m c ) . S i n c e a t t h e moment o f t h e u p p e r c u l m i n a t i o n o f t h e mean S u n i t s h o u r a n g l e w i l l b e z e r o , t h e mean s o l a r t i m e a t t h i s moment ( m e a n n o o n ) w i l l a l s o b e z e r o . I n e v e r y d a y l i f e , w i t h a 24-hour r e c k o n i n g of t i m e , t h i s i s v e r y i n c o n v e n i e n t s i n c e i n t h i s c a s e t h e b e g i n n i n g o f mean d a y s comes a t n o o n . T h e r e f o r e , i n everyday l i f e , s o - c a l l e d c i v i l time (which i s d i f f e r e n t f r o m mean solar t i m e b y 1 2 h r s . ) i s u s e d a s a v a r i e t y o f mean s o l a r t i m e . Mean m i d n i g h t , i . e . t h e mean t i m e e q u a l t o t h e w e s t e r n h o u r a n g l e o f t h e mean S u n p l u s 1 2 h r s , i s t a k e n a s t h e b e g i n n i n g o f mean c i v i l d a y s :

448

w h e r e mc

i s t h e mean c i v i l t i m e ,

a n d m i s t h e mean s o l a r t i m e .

T h e p l u s s i g n i s u s e d when t h e mean t i m e i s l e s s t h a n 1 2 h r s a n d t h e m i n u s s i g n i s u s e d i f t h e mean t i m e i s more t h a n 1 2 h r s .

ExampZe. D e t e r m i n e t h e mean c i v i l t i m e i f t h e w e s t e r n h o u r a n g l e o f t h e mean S u n ( m e a n t i m e ) i s 6 : O O .

Solution.
mc

= m

12:OO

= 6:OO

12:OO = 1 8 : O O

Local C i v i l T i m e

S i d e r e a l t i m e , t r u e s o l a r a n d mean s o l a r t i m e a r e m e a s u r e d b y t h e h o u r a n g l e o f a h e a v e n l y b o d y or t h e p o i n t o f t h e v e r n a l e q u i n o x . But t h e h o u r a n g l e ( t ) o f a h e a v e n l y body c a l c u l a t e d a t one p h y s i c a l moment f o r o n e h e a v e n l y b o d y f r o m t h e m e r i d i a n s o f v a r i o u s p o i n t s on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e v a r i e s i n v a l u e . F o r some p o i n t s on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e it w i l l b e l a r g e and f o r o t h e r s it w i l l b e s m a l l . I n F i g u r e 5.22 w e s h o w a c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e w h o s e e q u a t o r l i e s i n t h e b e t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e mean plane of t h e drawing. L e t p o i n t Ma, R a d i u s PnA i s t h e m e r i d i a n o f o n e p o i n t /428 Sun a t a c e r t a i n moment: on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e a n d r a d i u s P n B i s t h e m e r i d i a n o f a s e c o n d p o i n t on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e . From t h e f i g u r e , i t i s a p p a r e n t t h a t t h e h o u r a n g l e o f t h e mean S u n for t h e f i r s t p o i n t ( t l ) i s e x p r e s s e d b y t h e a n g l e APnMaV a n d t h e h o u r a n g l e f o r t h e s e c o n d p o i n t ( t 2 ) a t t h i s moment i s e x p r e s s e d b y t h e a n g l e BPnMav. From t h i s f i g u r e i t i s o b v i o u s t h a t t h e a n g l e APnMav i s g r e a t e r t h a n t h e a n g l e BPnMaV. T h e r e f o r e , a t t h e s a m e p h y s i c a l moment t h e t i m e a t d i f f e r e n t meridians w i l l be d i f f e r e n t .
T i m e c a l c u l a t e d r e l a t i v e t o t h e m e r i d i a n o f m i d n i g h t o f some p o i n t o n t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e i s c a l l e d t h e ZocaZ c i v i l t i m e a n d i s L o c a l t i m e may b e s i d e r e a l or s o l a r . r e p r e s e n t e d b y T1. It w i l l b e t h e same f o r a l l p o i n t s l y i n g on ElS) . . one m e r i d i a n ( ; . e . h a v i n g t h e same geographic longitude).

Greenwich Time

Local c i v i l time calculated from t h e Greenwich m e r i d i a n i s c a l l e d Greenwich t i m e and i s r e p r e s e n t e d by T G ~ . In astronomical yearbooks, t h e t i m e s o f some c e l e s t i a l phenomena are g i v e n as w e l l as t h e a s t r o n o m i c a l values necessary f o r practical c a l c u l a t i o n s on t h e b a s i s of Greenwich t i m e .

. .

Determining Fig. 5.22. L o c a l T i m e on t h e Basis o f

t h e Mean S u n .

T h e relation between local

449

civil time a n d Greenwich time. With a knowledge o f the Greenwich time and longitude o f a place expressed in time units, it is simple t o determine the local civil time and vice versa. The local civil time is equal t o the Greenwich time plus or
minus the longitude o f the place, : e
..

Here the plus sign is used if the longitude of the place is east
and the minus sign is used if the longitude is west.
for M O S C O W

Example. (AE

1. Greenwich time is 14:15. = 2:28).

Find the local time

Solution. Substituting the values f o r T G a nd A E in the formu ~ la TI = TGr t A E , we obtain the local time T1 = 14:15 t 2:28 = 16.43.

Example. 2. The Greenwich time is 10:42. time for Washington ( A w = 05:08).

Solution.

Find the local

T~ = T G ~ A W = 10:42 -

5:08 = 5:34. /429

When solving practical problems in astronomy, it is often necessary t o change local time t o Greenwich time.

(Aw)

The plus sign is used i f the longitude of the place is west and minus if the longitude o f the place is east ( A E ) .
= 2:39) is 1430.

Example. 1. The local time in Ryazan ( A , Determine the Greenwich time.

Solution. Substituting the values f o r T 1 and A E into the = formula T G ~ T 1 - A E , we obtain TGr = 14:30 - 2:39 = 11:51.

Example.
is 1520.

2 . The local time in San Francisco ( A w Determine the Greenwich time.

= 8:09:44)

Solution. Substituting the values or Ti and A W into the formula T G = Ti t A w , we obtain T G ~ 1520 t 8:09:44 = 23:09:44. ~ = Time difference on t w o meridians. It is easy to imagine that the difference in local time on any two meridians is equal to the difference in their longitudes.

In Figure 5.23 the diameter EQ is the Greenwich meridian, the

diameter BA is the meridian of a point on the Earth's surface, the

450

d i a m e t e r DC i s t h e m e r i d i a n o f a s e c o n d p o i n t on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e , Ma, i s t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e m e a n S u n a t a c e r t a i n moment a n d t h e d i a m e t e r KMav i s t h e c i r c l e o f t h e S u n ' s d e c l i n a t i o n .

I n F i g u r e 5.23 i t i s e v i d e n t t h a t t h e h o u r a n g l e s o f t h e mean Sun ( t i p a v a n d t 2 0 a v ) m e a s u r e d f r o m b o t h l o c a l m e r i d i a n s a r e d i f f e r e n t f r o m one a n o t h e r by a v a l u e e q u a l t o t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e l o n g i t u d e s o f t h e s e m e r i d i a n s , s i n c e t i - t 2 = A2 - h i .

Hence it f o l l o w s t h a t t h e l o c a l t i m e on t h e s e m e r i d i a n s w i l l d i f f e r by t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e l o n g i t u d e s o f t h e s e two m e r i d i a n s .

Example. L e t t h e l o c a l t i m e b e Ti = 1204 a t a p o i n t h a v i n g a n e a s t l o n g i t u d e o f A E = 2:35. What i s t h e l o c a l t i m e a t t h i s moment a t a p o i n t h a v i n g a n e a s t l o n g i t u d e A E = 4:35?

Solution. L e t us f i n d t h e difference i n t h e longitudes of t h e s e t w o p o i n t s A A = 4:35 - 2:35 = 2:OO.
L e t us f i n d t h e l o c a l t i m e f o r t h e point having an east longi T 1 = 12:04 + 2:OO = 14:04. t u d e XE = 4:35.

I n s o l v i n g s u c h p r o b l e m s , i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o r e m e m b e r t h a t t h e /430 l a r g e r t h e e a s t l o n g i t u d e of t h e p o i n t , t h e l a r g e r w i l l be t h e l o c a l t i m e a t t h i s p o i n t ; t h e smaller t h e east longitude of t h e p o i n t , the smaller the local t i m e .

Zone T i m e

W have a l r e a d y seen t h a t each meridian of t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e e I f we t a k e K h a b a r o v s k , w h o s e l o n g i t u d e i s 135O5' h a s i t s own t i m e . (9:00:20) i t s l o c a l t i m e i s 6:29:48 d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e l o c a l t i m e o f Moscow, w h i c h h a s a l o n g i t u d e o f 37'38' (2:30:32).
E (5)

4 (NJ
F i g . 5.23. Time Difference o n Two M e r i d i a n s

S i n c e e a c h p o i n t on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e h a s i t s own ( l o c a l ) t i m e , it i s t o o inconvenient t o use l o c a l t i m e i n everyday l i f e . For e x a m p l e , when m o v i n g f r o m w e s t t o e a s t , i t would be n e c e s s a r y t o c o n t i n u o u s l y move t h e h o u r h a n d s 4 m i n a h e a d f o r e v e r y d e g r e e o f l o n g i t u d e or 1 h r f o r e v e r y 15O o f l o n g i t u d e . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , in m o v i n g f r o m e a s t t o w e s t , t h e h o u r h a n d s would h a v e t o b e moved b a c k c o n s t a n t l y . Therefore, since t h e middle of t h e last century, t h e countries of Europe have begun t o i n t r o d u c e a single t i m e i n their territories. T h i s t i m e i s measured from t h e meridians of t h e p r i n c i p a l observa

451

. .

t o r i e s of t h e s e c o u n t r i e s . I n France so-called " P a r i s t i m e " , w a s introduced, "Rome t i m e " , and i n England "Greenwich t i m e " , e t c . i n Italy

The i n t r o d u c t i o n o f a s i n g l e c o n v e n t i o n a l t i m e i n t h e s e c o u n t r i e s d i d n o t create great d i f f i c u l t i e s , s i n c e t h e l o c a l t i m e o f any meridian o f t h e s e c o u n t r i e s ( i n view o f t h e i r s m a l l area r e l a t i v e t o t h e m e r i d i a n of t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l t i m e i n t r o d u c e d ) d i f f e r e d i n s i g If w e t a k e E n g l a n d a n d n i f i c a n t l y (only several minutes i n a l l ) . France f o r example, t h e i r outermost populated p o i n t s ( t o t h e east a n d w e s t ) a r e s i t u a t e d i n a r a n g e o f 7-8O f r o m t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e m e r i d i a n s (Greenwich and P a r i s ) : t h e t i m e d i f f e r e n c e amounts t o a t o t a l o f 30 m i n . If we t a k e s u c h a c o u n t r y a s t h e USSR, w e know t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e l o n g i t u d e s of i t s e a s t e r n and w e s t e r n However, i n p r e b o u n d a r i e s a m o u n t s t o more t h a n 1 0 h r s i n t i m e . R e v o l u t i o n a r y R u s s i a , a common P e t e r s b u r g t i m e ( t h e l o c a l t i m e o f t h e Pulkovo Observatory meridian) w a s introduced only f o r r a i l r o a d s . T h i s t i m e w a s 0 0 : 2 8 : 5 8 b e h i n d Moscow l o c a l t i m e ( l o c a l t i m e o f t h e Moscow U n i v e r s i t y O b s e r v a t o r y m e r i d i a n ) . The i n t r o d u c t i o n o f a common t i m e i n i n d i v i d u a l c o u n t r i e s p a r t i a l l y f a c i l i t a t e d i t s c a l c u l a t i o n w i t h i n each country, b u t it d i d n o t s o l v e t h e p r o b l e m on a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l s c a l e . The p r o b l e m o f c a l c u l a t i n g t i m e was s o l v e d m o s t s u c c e s s f u l l y a f t e r t h e i n t r o duction of a zone t i m e system. I n some c o u n t r i e s , t h i s s y s t e m w a s i n t r o d u c e d a t t h e e n d o f t h e / 4 3 1 1 9 t h and beginning of t h e 20th c e n t u r y . I n R u s s i a , t h e zone t i m e s y s t e m w a s i n t r o d u c e d o n l y a f t e r t h e R e v o l u t i o n , o n J u l y 1, 1 9 1 9 b y a s p e c i a l d e c r e e of t h e S o v i e t Government. E s s e n c e o f t h e zone time s y s t e m . The e n t i r e E a r t h i s d i v i d e d i n t o 24 h o u r z o n e s . The o u t e r m e r i d i a n s ( b o u n d a r i e s ) o f e a c h b a n d a r e 15O o f l o n g i t u d e (1 h r i n t i m e ) a p a r t f r o m o n e a n o t h e r . The z o n e s a r e n u m b e r e d f r o m w e s t t o e a s t f r o m t h e z e r o z o n e t o t h e 23rd zone, i n c l u s i v e . The z o n e i n c l u d e d b e t w e e n t h e m e r i d i a n s 7O30'N a n d 7 O 3 0 ' E i s t a k e n a s t h e z e r o z o n e , i . e . t h e i n i t i a l z o n e . T h e G r e e n w i c h m e r i d i a n , w h i c h h a s a l o n g i t u d e o f O o , i s t h e mean meridian of t h i s zone. Obviously, t h e f i r s t zone w i l l be l o c a t e d b e t w e e n t h e m e r i d i a n s A = 7O30'E a n d X = 2 2 O 3 0 ' E a n d t h e mean m e r i d i a n o f t h i s zone h a s a l o n g i t u d e o f 15O; t h e s e c o n d zone i s l o c a t e d b e t w e e n t h e m e r i d i a n s X = 22O30'E a n d X = 37O30'E a n d t h e mean m e r i d i a n o f t h i s z o n e h a s a l o n g i t u d e o f 3 0 , e t c . A t all t h e common t t i m e of t h e ventional t i t h e p o i n t s l o c a t e d w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s o f t h e same z o n e , i m e ( t i m e of t h e g i v e n z o n e ) which r e p r e s e n t s t h e l o c a l mean m e r i d i a n o f t h e g i v e n z o n e i s t a k e n . Such a con m e i s c a l l e d t h e zone t i m e ( T z ) . t h e t i m e i s c a l c u l a t e d on t h e b a s i s of t h e

I n t h e zero zone,
452

l o c a l t i m e of t h e z e r o (Greenwich) meridian. I n t h e first zone, t h e t i m e i s c a l c u l a t e d on t h e b a s i s o f t h e l o c a l t i m e o f t h e m e r i d i a n h a v i n g a l o n g i t u d e o f 15OE. I n t h e second z o n e , it i s c a l c u l a t e d on t h e b a s i s o f t h e l o c a l t i m e of t h e m e r i d i a n h a v i n g a l o n g i t u d e S i n c e t h e mean m e r i d i a n s o f t w o a d j a c e n t z o n e s a r e o f 30E, e t c . 15O o f l o n g i t u d e a p a r t f r o m o n e a n o t h e r , t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e zone t i m e o f a d j a c e n t z o n e s i s one h o u r . T h e n u m b e r o f e a c h z o n e s h o w n b y how many h o u r s t h e t i m e i n For e x a m p l e , i n t h e c a s e o f t h i s zone i s a h e a d of Greenwich t i m e . t h e t i m e o f t h e f o u r t h z o n e , t h i s means t h a t i t s t i m e i s 4 h r s a h e a d o f Greenwich t i m e (Supplement 4 ) . The i n t r o d u c t i o n o f z o n e t i m e g r e a t l y f a c i l i t a t e d t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of t i m e on a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l s c a l e , s i n c e t h e m i n u t e a n d s e c o n d h a n d s i n a l l t h e z o n e s i n d i c a t e t h e s a m e number o f m i n u t e s and seconds. The h o u r h a n d s m u s t b e moved a w h o l e h o u r o n l y when m o v i n g from one zone t o a n o t h e r . When t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e h o u r z o n e s were d e t e r m i n e d , t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f s t a t e s , r e g i o n s and c i t i e s a s w e l l as n a t u r a l b o u n d a r i e s ( e . g . r i v e r s , e t c ) were t a k e n i n t o ac count. If t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e hour zones had been d e t e r m i n e d s t r i c t l y a c c o r d i n g t o t h e m e r i d i a n s , c a l c u l a t i n g t h e zone t i m e ( e . g . i n MOSCOW, which i s l o c a t e d on t h e b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n t h e s e c o n d a n d t h i r d z o n e s ) would h a v e t o b e done on t h e b a s i s o f two z o n e s : in t h e w e s t e r n p a r t o f t h e c i t y on t h e b a s i s o f t h e s e c o n d z o n e , a n d i n t h e e a s t e r n p a r t o f t h e c i t y on t h e b a s i s o f t h e t h i r d z o n e . 1 . e . t h e t i m e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e two p a r t s o f t h e c i t y would b e one h o u r and i n c r o s s i n g t h e b o u n d a r y t h e h o u r h a n d s would have t o b e 1432 moved o n e h o u r . I n view o f t h i s , t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e l o c a l t i m e o f t h e o u t e r p o i n t s o f t h i s z o n e may b e s o m e w h a t m o r e or l e s s t h a n 3 0 m i n r e l a t i v e t o t h e zone t i m e .
Standard Time

I n t h e S o v i e t U n i o n , on t h e b a s i s o f a government d e c r e e , c l o c k s w e r e moved a h e a d o n e h o u r b e g i n n i n g w i t h t h e summer o f 1 9 3 0 . S i n c e t h i s t i m e , t h e e n t i r e USSR r e c k o n s t i m e on t h e b a s i s o f s o called standard time. T h u s , t h e zone t i m e w a s s h i f t e d a h e a d l h r , i . e . e a c h zone l i v e s n o t on t h e b a s i s o f i t s zone t i m e b u t r a t h e r on t h e b a s i s o f t h e t i m e o f t h e a d j a c e n t e a s t e r n z o n e . For e x a m p l e , MOSCOW, which i s l o c a t e d i n t h e s e c o n d z o n e , l i v e s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e t i m e of t h e t h i r d zone. The t i m e r u n n i n g 3 h r s a h e a d o f G r e e n w i c h t i m e 3 r d z o n e ) i s c a l l e d Moscow t i m e . (time of t h e in

All t h e r a i l r o a d , w a t e r , and a i r r o u t e s o f communication t h e S o v i e t U n i o n o p e r a t e a c c o r d i n g t o Moscow t i m e .

453

Relation between G r e e n w i c h , Local and Z o n e ( S t a n d a r d ) T i m e

When s o l v i n g p r a c t i c a l p r o b l e m s o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n o n t h e g r o u n d a n d i n t h e a i r , it is v e r y o f t e n n e c e s s a r y t o c o n v e r t f r o m one form of t i m e t o a n o t h e r . T h e s e p r o b l e m s may b e s o l v e d c o r r e c t l y o n l y i f ' t h e c r e w c o n s c i e n t i o u s l y m a s t e r s t h e e s s e n c e of c a l c u l a t i n g t i m e . To f a c i l i t a t e t h e w o r k o f t h e crew i n s o l v i n g s u c h p r o b l e m s , t h e r e a r e f o r m u l a s f o r c o n v e r t i n g t i m e from one form t o a n o t h e r .

C o n v e r t i n g G r e e n w i c h t i m e t o Mean time.
e q u a l t o Greenwich t i m e

Zone t i m e ( T , ) ( T G ~ )p l u s t h e n u m b e r o f t h e z o n e :
Tz= T

is

GR

+ N.

used,

I n s o l v i n g p r o b l e m s f o r t h e U S S R , t h e number o f t h e zone i s taking i n t o account t h e standard t i m e , ;.e. 1 h r . later. ( s t a n d a r d ) t i m e i n N o v o s i b i r s k when

Example. What i s t h e z o n e c l o c k s i n G r e e n w i c h show 1 2 : 0 0 ?

SOlUtiOn. On t h e b a s i s o f a map of h o u r z o n e s or o n t h e b a s i s of a l i s t o f t h e most i m p o r t a n t p o p u l a t e d points, l e t us find the Taking i n t o number o f t h e zone i n which N o v o s i b i r s k i s l o c a t e d . account t h a t t h e standard hour i n Novosibirsk, t h e clocks run ac c o r d i n g t o t h e t i m e o f t h e 7 t h zone ( 6 t h zone t 1 h r ) , l e t u s f i n d t h e z o n e t i m e on t h e b a s i s o f t h e f o r m u l a

Greenwich t i m e i s e q u a l t o t h e zone ( s t a n d a r d ) t i m e minus t h e number o f t h e zone (taking i n t o account t h e standard time):

Converting Z o n e T i m e t o G r e e n w i c h T i m e .

/433

Example.
i n Krasnoyarsk?

What i s t h e G r e e n w i c h t i m e when t h e c l o c k s s h o w 17:OO

S o l u t i o n . On t h e b a s i s o f a map o f h o u r z o n e s or o n t h e b a s i s o f a l i s t of p o p u l a t e d p o i n t s , l e t u s f i n d t h e n u m b e r o f t h e z o n e Taking i n t o account t h e s t a n d a r d where Krasnoyarsk i s l o c a t e d . t i m e i n K r a s n o y a r s k , t h e c l o c k s r u n o n t h e b a s i s of t h e t i m e o f t h e 7 t h zone ( 6 t h zone t 1 h r ) .

Let us f i n d t h e Greenwich t i m e . T G r = Tz-N

= 17:OO - 7:OO =

1o:oo.
454

. .. .. .

..

..

C o n v e r t i n g Z o n e ( s t a n d a r d t i m e ) t i m e t o local t i m e . Local t i m e i s e q u a l t o t h e z o n e T i m e m i n u s t h e n u m b e r o f t h e z o n e p l u s or m i n u s t h e l o n g i t u d e of t h e p l a c e ( p l u s 5 s u s e d w h e n t h e l o n g i t u d e i s e a s t , m i n u s when t h e l o n g i t u d e i s w e s t ) :

This formula assumes t h a t t h e hour zones are counted from 0 t o 24 e a s t w a r d f r o m G r e e n w i c h .

Example. What i s t h e l o c a l t i m e i n Omsk w h e n t h e z o n e ( s t a n d a r d ) t i m e t h e r e i s 16:00?

S o l u t i o n . U s i n g a map o f h o u r z o n e s or a l i s t o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t p o p u l a t e d p o i n t s , l e t u s f i n d t h e number o f t h e zone ( t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t t h e s t a n d a r d t i m e ) w h e r e Omsk i s l o c a t e d a n d its longitude. Taking i n t o account t h e standard t i m e i n O m s k , t h e c l o c k s r u n a c c o r d i n g t o t h e t i m e of t h e 6 t h z o n e ( 5 t h z o n e t 1 h r ) ; t h e l o n g i t u d e o f Omsk A = 73O24E ( 4 : 5 3 : 3 6 ) .
L e t us f i n d t h e l o c a l t i m e T 1 = Tz 4:53:36 = 14:53:36.
- N

X E = 16:OO

6:OO

C o n v e r t i n g l o c a l t i m e to z o n e t i m e ( s t a n d a r d t i m e ) . Zone ( s t a n d a r d ) t i m e i s e q u a l t o t h e l o c a l t i m e p l u s t h e number o f t h e z o n e ( t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t t h e s t a n d a r d t i m e ) p l u s or m i n u s t h e l o n g i t u d e o f t h e p l a c e ( p l u s i s u s e d when t h e l o n g i t u d e i s w e s t a n d m i n u s when t h e l o n g i t u d e i s e a s t ) .

Example. What i s t h e z o n e l o c a l t i m e t h e r e i s 18:00?

( s t a n d a r d ) t i m e i n I r k u t s k when t h e

Solution. Using a l i s t o f t h e most i m p o r t a n t p o p u l a t e d p o i n t s , l e t u s f i n d t h e number o f t h e zone ( t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t t h e s t a n d a r d t i m e ) and t h e l o n g i t u d e of I r k u t s k .

Taking i n t o account t h e s t a n d a r d t i m e , I r k u t s k i s l o c a t e d i n t h e 8 t h z o n e ( 7 t h z o n e + 1 h r ) ; t h e l o n g i t u d e o f I r k u t s k A = 104O 18E ( 6 : 5 7 : 1 2 ) .
L e t u s f i n d t h e zone s t a n d a r d t i m e Tz - 6:57:12 = 19:02:48.

= TI

t N

- A E = 18:OO

8:OO

Measuring Angles

i n Time Units

for m e a s u r i n g t i m e ,

S i n c e t h e v a l u e s of hour a n g l e s and r i g h t a s c e n s i o n s a r e used i t i s o f t e n more c o n v e n i e n t t o e x p r e s s t h e s e 455

Also i t i s o f t e n values i n t i m e units rather than i n degrees. necessary t o express t h e longitude of a place i n t i m e units.
T o c o n v e r t h o u r a n g l e s a n d r i g h t a s c e n s i o n s as w e l l as l o n g i t u d e from degrees t o hours and back a g a i n , t h e f o l l o w i n g e q u a t i o n s must be used:
/434

1 2 4 h r = 3 6 0 O ; . h r = 15O or lo = 4 m i n ; s e c ; 1 s e c = 1 5 " or 1" = 1 / 1 5 s e c .

1 m i n = 1 5 ' o r 1' = 4

These e q u a t i o n s a r e b a s e d on t h e f a c t t h a t t h e c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e (or t h e E a r t h o n i t s a x i s ) m a k e s a c o m p l e t e r e v o l u t i o n i n 24 h r s , w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d s t o 3 6 0 O .

To convert hour a n g l e s , r i g h t a s c e n s i o n s and t h e l o n g i t u d e of a p l a c e from d e g r e e s t o h o u r s , t h e f o l l o w i n g must b e done:

(1)

D i v i d e t h e number o f d e g r e e s by 1 5 a n d o b t a i n whole h o u r s .

( 2 ) M u l t i p l y t h e r e m a i n d e r f r o m d i v i d i n g t h e d e g r e e s and ob t a i n minutes of t i m e .

(3) D i v i d e t h e number o f m i n u t e s o f a r c by 1 5 t o o b t a i n whole minutes of t i m e , which must be added t o t h e m i n u t e s of t i m e a l r e a d y o b t a i n e d , and o b t a i n t h e t o t a l number o f m i n u t e s o f t i m e . (4) M u l t i p l y t h e r e m a i n d e r f r o m d i v i d i n g t h e m i n u t e s by 4 and obtain seconds of time. (5) D i v i d e t h e s e c o n d s of a r c by 1 5 and o b t a i n a n a d d i t i o n a l number o f s e c o n d s . Add t h e s e s e c o n d s t o t h e p r e c e d i n g o n e s a n d o b t a i n a t o t a l number o f s e c o n d s . (6) D i s c a r d t h e r e m a i n d e r o f s e c o n d s o f a r c when i t i s l e s s t h a n 8 ; i f it i s g r e a t e r t h a n 8 , c o n s i d e r it as 1 s e c of t i m e .

Example.

1.

E x p r e s s t h e h o u r a n g l e 163O57'35"

i n hours.

Solution.

i500= 13O = 45' = 12' = 00'30" =

Total:

10:oo
0:52 0:03 0:00:48
0:00:02

10:55:50

T o c o n v e r t h o u r a n g l e s , r i g h t a s c e n s i o n s a n d l o n g i t u d e from h o u r s t o d e g r e e s , t h e f o l l o w i n g must b e d o n e :

(1)
(2)

M u l t i p l y t h e h o u r s by 1 5 and o b t a i n t h e r a d i i . D i v i d e t h e m i n u t e s by 4 a n d s e p a r a t e o u t t h e whole d e g r e e s .

456

( 3 ) Multiply the remainder of the minutes of time by 15 and

obtain minutes of arc.

(4) Divide the seconds of time by 4 and separate out minutes

of arc.

(5) Multiply the remainder of the seconds of time by 15 and

obtain seconds of arc.

Example.

2.

Express an hour angle of 11:27:15 in degrees.

= 165O

Solution.

11 hr 24 min 3 min 1 2 sec 3 sec Total:

=
= = =

6O 45'
3'

45' 171O48 '45''

Time Signals

/435

Accurate time in astronomical observatories is determined by

means of astronomical observations of the culmination of heavenly
bodies.
Special transit instruments are used for this purpose. A
transit is mounted in such a way that its main part (the terrestrial
telescope) is always located in the plane of the meridian. Such a
location of the terrestrial telescope permits the observation of a
heavenly body only at the moment when it crosses the meridian, i.e.
at the moment of culmination. Since the Sun is at the point of
upper culmination (crosses the southern part of the meridian) at
true noon, it can be observed only when the hour angle of the true
Sun is zero. Therefore, when the Sun passes through the terrestrial
telescope of the transit instrument, the moment of true noon on the
given meridian will be recorded.
Knowing the precise time of the moment of true noon and com
paring it with the actual indication of the clock at the moment of
observation, it is possible to check the clock and determine its
error. In the field of vision of a transit, vertical lines are
drawn which permit more accurate determination of the moment that
stars cross the meridian. In astronomical observatories, the
accurate time is determined on the basis of observing the passage
of stars is based on the fact that at the moment that any star is
at the meridian (we already know), the sidereal time will be equal
t o the right ascension of the star.
Thus, these observations make it possible t o determine the
exact sidereal time. The time obtained is set on special clocks,
which run according t o sidereal time. They differ from normal
clocks in that (by the means of a special cont.ro1) they run 3 min
and 56 sec ahead of normal clocks per day.
457

Once the exact sidereal time is obtained, the mean s o l a r time is calculated at astronomical observatories and set on mean solar astronomical clocks. The time obtained will be the local mean s o l a r time on the meridian of the observatory. When necessary it is always possible t o coqvert this time t o zone and standard time. The necessary accuracy in determining the true time at astronomical observatories is computed in hundredths / 4 3 6 of a second, and therefore the process of determining accurate time
is much more complex than we have described here.

For accurately determining the moments of the passage of the

stars through the meridian, the moments of the culmination o f the
stars are automatically recorded at astronomical observatories.
With these methods, the determination of the true time is accurate
t o 2 or 3 hundredths of a second. At every observatory, there are
accurate astronomical clocks which are manufactured on special
order. Special care is required for these clocks, since the
continuous changes in temperature and atmospheric pressure strongly
affect the steadiness of the oscillation period of the clock balance
wheels. Therefore, astronomical clocks are kept in a special room
where a constant temperature is maintained, and they are placed
under a hermetically sealed bell jar where a constant atmospheric
pressure is maintained.

In order that the astronomical clocks will run smoothly, they

are protected from vibrations and their hands are very rarely moved.
The clock corrections obtained after calculation are recorded in a
special log, but the c3ock's hands are not moved. This makes it
possible t o know the accurate clock correction at any moment of
time. At astronomical observatories, the clocks are kept running
fast or slow t o the same degree, ?.e. uniformities in the operation
of the clocks are obtained. In modern astronomical clocks, the
change in the readings of such clocks amounts t o hundredths of a
second p e r day. On the basis of the precise time data available at
astronomical observatories, radio stations supply special radio
signals for checking the time.

O r g a n i z a t i o n of T i m e S i g n a l s in A v i a t i o n

Time signals in aviation are organized t o ensure accuracy of

aircraft navigation. The basic task of the time signals in aviation
is the systematic checking of clocks and the guarantee of knowing
the accurate time a t any time of day. The presence of accurate
time is especially important when using astronomical means of air
craft navigation. This necessitates knowing the accurate time not
only on the ground, but in flight.
In order for the crew t o know the correct time at any time o f
day there must be master clocks with a constant daily speed. They
are installed in the cockpit, at the weather station, or in other
special places.

458

Master c l o c k s a r e u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e c o r r e c t i o n o f o t h e r c l o c k s i n t h e p e r i o d s between t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n s of a c c u r a t e t i m e signals. Master c l o c k s a r e c h e c k e d a n d s e t a c c o r d i n g t o t h e c o r r e c t t i m e on t h e b a s i s o f a c c u r a t e t i m e r a d i o s i g n a l s t r a n s m i t t e d b y The c o r r e c t i o n o f t h e c l o c k s b r o a d c a s t i n g s t a t i o n s o f t h e USSR. a n d i t s v e r i f i c a t i o n on t h e b a s i s o f s i g n a l s i s r e c o r d e d i n a special log.

A B r i e f History o f T i m e Reckoning.

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S o m e t i m e s we h e a r t h e t e r m s

"Old

S t y l e " and "New

Style".

Systems f o r measuring and c a l c u l a t i n g l a r g e t i m e i n t e r v a l s a r e c a l l e d calendars. The b a s i s f o r t i m e r e c k o n i n g i s t h e t r o p i c a l y e a r , ; . e . , the t i m e i n t e r v a l b e t w e e n t w o s u c c e s s i v e p a s s a g e s o f t h e Sun t h r o u g h t h e point of t h e v e r n a l equinox. The l e n g t h o f t h e t r o p i c a l y e a r i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y e q u a l t o 3 6 5 d a y s , 5 h o u r s , 48 m i n u t e s a n d 46 seconds, but it i s very inconvenient t o use t h e t r o p i c a l y e a r f o r t i m e r e c k o n i n g , s i n c e i t d o e s n o t c o n t a i n a whole number o f d a y s . T h u s , f o r e x a m p l e , i f w e t a k e m i d n i g h t on J a n u a r y 1 a s t h e b e g i n n i n g o f one y e a r , t h e s e c o n d y e a r w i l l b e g i n n o t a t m i d n i g h t o f J a n u a r y 1 b u t on J a n u a r y 1 a t 5 : 4 8 : 4 6 A M , t h e t h i r d y e a r a t 1 1 : 3 7 : 3 2 AM, e t c . W may c o n c l u d e t h a t e a c h y e a r t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e new e y e a r would b e s h i f t e d by 5 : 4 8 : 4 6 .
Old S t y l e (Julian) Calendar. F o r Romans, t h e y e a r w a s o r i g i n a l The l e n g t h o f t h e l u n a r l y l u n a r and c o n s i s t e d o f 1 2 l u n a r months. y e a r w a s 355 d a y s , i . e . , t h e i r y e a r w a s 1 0 d a y s s h o r t e r t h a n t h e accepted year a t t h e present time. With s u c h a t i m e r e c k o n i n g , t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e new y e a r s h i f t e d r a t h e r q u i c k l y f r o m o n e m o n t h t o another. I f , f o r e x a m p l e , we t a k e a t i m e i n t e r v a l o f 1 0 y e a r s , t h e n 1 0 0 d a y s were a c c u m u l a t e d d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d , ; . e . , t h e begin n i n g o f t h e new y e a r s h i f t e d b y m o r e t h a n t h r e e m o n t h s .

To e l i m i n a t e t h e s e i n c o n v e n i e n c e s , a p p r o x i m a t e l y e v e r y t h r e e y e a r s t h e y e a r w a s l e n g t h e n e d by one month, : . e . , t h i s y e a r had 13 r a t h e r t h a n 1 2 months. The Roman d i c t a t o r , J u l i u s C a e s a r , i n t r o d u c e d a c a l e n d a r r e f o r m i n 46 B . C . This c a l e n d a r w a s c a l l e d t h e J u l i a n c a l e n d a r and The e s s e n c e o f i t w a s t h a t t h e we now c a l l i t t h e " O l d S t y l e " . d u r a t i o n o f o n e y e a r w a s c o n s i d e r e d t o b e 365 d a y s r a t h e r t h a n 355 days. I n a d d i t i o n , i n e b r u a r y (which w a s t h e n c o n s i d e r e d t h e l a s t month) an e x t r a day w a s included every f o u r t h y e a r , i . e . , t h a t y e a r h a d 366 d a y s . The a d d i t i o n o f t h e e x t r a d a y o n c e e v e r y 4 y e a r s n e a r l y compensated f o r t h e d i f f e r e n c e accumulated i n 4 y e a r s (about 6 h r p e r y e a r ) and t h u s t h e constancy of t h e d a t e of t h e v e r n a l 459

e q u i n o x (March 2 1 ) w a s p r e s e r v e d . u n t i l the present t i m e .

This p r i n c i p l e has been r e t a i n e d

T h e e x t r a d a y a s w e k n o w , i s now a d d e d i n F e b r u a r y : instead o f 28 d a y s t h e r e a r e 2 9 d a y s i n a l l t h e y e a r s w h i c h a r e d i v i s i b l e by 4 , e . g . 1 9 5 6 , 1 9 6 0 , 1 9 6 4 , e t c . These y e a r s have been c a l l e d Zeap y e a r s u p u n t i l t h e p r e s e n t t i m e .

New S t y l e ( G r e g o r i a n ) C a l e n d a r . The l e n g t h o f t h e s o - c a l l e d t r o p i c a l y e a r i s , a s w e know, 365 d a y s , 5 h o u r s , 48 m i n u t e s a n d Q6 seconds. The J u l i a n y e a r ( o n t h e a v e r a g e ) i s e q u a l t o 365 d a y s an d 1 6 hours. T h u s , t h e J u l i a n y e a r i s 1 min a n d 1 4 s e c l o n g e r t h a n the tropical year. Although t h i s d i f f e r e n c e i s small, over a l a r g e i n t e r v a l o f t i m e i t may a l s o c a u s e t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e y e a r t o It is not d i f f i c u l t t o calculate that i n order t o s h i f t the shift. d a t e o f t h e v e r n a l e q u i n o x one c a l e n d a r d a t e (one d a y ) , a l m o s t 128 y e a r s ( 2 4 h r or 1 4 4 0 m i n , ' d i v i d e d b y 11 m i n 1 4 s e c ) a r e r e q u i r e d . The g r a d u a l l y a c c u m u l a t i n g d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f t h e A s a r e s u l t , t h e d a t e of t h e 1 6 t h c e n t u r y amounted t o 1 0 d a y s . v e r n a l e q u i n o x came ( a c c o r d i n g t o t h e c a l e n d a r ) n o t o n t h e 2 1 s t , b u t on t h e 1 1 t h o f March.

A s a r e s u l t of t h e s h i f t of t h e b e g i n n i n g of s p r i n g from 2 1 t o 1 March, t h e h o l i d a y o f E a s t e r (which must be c l o s e t o s p r i n g ) 1 g r a d u a l l l y moved t o w a r d t h e s u m m e r . This g r e a t l y disturbed t h e c l e r y , who d i d n o t w a n t t o d e p a r t f r o m t h e i r r u l e s .

T h e Roman P o p e G r e g o r y X I 1 1 i n t r o d u c e d a new c a l e n d a r r e f o r m i n 1 5 8 2 by d e c r e e . The e s s e n c e o f t h i s r e f o r m , ; . e . , t h e t r a n s f e r t o a new s t y l e o f c a l e n d a r , w a s t h e f o l l o w i n g : a f t e r October 4 , 1582, he ordered everyone t o c o n s i d e r t h e d a t e t o be October 1 5 , r a t h e r t h a n October 5 , i . e . , he o r d e r e d t h e 1 0 days accumulated o v e r 1 2 0 0 /438 y e a r s t o be dropped s o as t o r e t u r n t h e d a t e of t h e v e r n a l equinox t o March 2 1 . I n o r d e r t o avoid t h e accumulation of an e r r o r i n f u t u r e , i t w a s d e c i d e d t h a t e v e r y 400 y e a r s t h o s e t h r e e d a y s which d i f f e r e n t i a t e t h e J u l i a n y e a r from t h e t r o p i c a l y e a r be dropped. To d o t h i s , i t w a s d e c i d e d t h a t t h r e e l e a p y e a r s i n e v e r y 4 0 0 y e a r s b e c o n s i d e r e d r e g u l a r y e a r s , ; . e , n o t o n t h e b a s i s o f 366 d a y s b u t r a t h e r on t h e b a s i s o f 365 d a y s . I n o r d e r t o remember t h i s more e a s i l y , t h e c e n t u r i a l y e a r s i n which t h e numbers o f t h e c e n t u r y were d i v i s i b l e by 4 were t a k e n a s l e a p y e a r s ( f o r e x a m p l e , o f t h e c e n t u r i a l y e a r s 1 6 0 0 , 1 7 0 0 , 1800 and 1 9 0 0 , o n l y t h e y e a r 1600 r e m a i n e d a l e a p year. The o t h e r s became r e g u l a r y e a r s , s i n c e o n l y 1 6 i s d i v i s i b l e by 4 ) . O f t h e c e n t u r i a l y e a r s , t h e next l e a p y e a r w i l l be t h e year 2000.

A s regards the other years (besides the centurial years), the c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e l e a p y e a r s r e m a i n e d t h e same a s i n t h e J u l i a n calendar.
The G r e g o r i a n c a l e n d a r w a s g r a d u a l l y i n t r o d u c e d i n a l l c i v i l i z e d countries. I n T s a r i s t R u s s i a , t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e new c a l e n d a r

460

..

_.

I I I I

..,-..

(New S t y l e ) m e t w i t h g r e a t o p p o s i t i o n . Only a f t e r t h e Great O c t o b e r S o c i a l i s t R e v o l u t i o n o n F e b r u a r y 1, 1 9 1 8 w a s t h e new s t y l e quickly introduced. Then t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e Old a n d N e w Styles has already 13 days. N e i t h e r t h e Old n o r t h e N e w S t y l e i s a b s o l u t e l y a c c u r a t e , b u t t h e G r e g o r i a n (New S t y l e ) c a l e n d a r h a s l e s s e r r o r (1 day i n 3000 y e a r s ) .

6.

Use o f A s t r o n o m i c a l D e v i c e s

A s t r o n o m i c a l means o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n p e r m i t t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of f l i g h t d i r e c t i o n and t h e p o s i t i o n l i n e of t h e a i r c r a f t on t h e b a s i s of t h e s t a r s . The a d v a n t . a g e o f a s t r o n o m i c a l d e v i c e s i s t h e i r autonomy. T h e i r u s e i n f l i g h t i s n o t r e l a t e d t o any ground equipment and t h e i r accuracy i s not a f u n c t i o n of f l i g h t distance. The u s e o f a s t r o n o m i c a l d e v i c e s i s b a s e d o n t h e p r i n c i p l e o f m e a s u r i n g t h e a z i m u t h s or t h e a l t i t u d e s o f h e a v e n l y b o d i e s . The p o s i t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t i s d e t e r m i n e d by a s t r o n o m i c a l i n s t r u m e n t s from t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n o f two a s t r o n o m i c a l p o s i t i o n l i n e s ( A P L ) or ( a s t h e y a r e s t i l l c a l l e d ) l i n e s of e q u a l a l t i t u d e .

The a s t r o n o m i c a l p o s i t i o n l i n e ( l i n e o f e q u a l a 1 t i t u d e ) i s t h e s t r a i g h t e n e d a r c o f t h e c i r c l e o f e q u a l a l t i t u d e whose c e n t e r i s t h e geographic p o s i t i o n of t h e star.

The g e o g r a p h i c p o s i t i o n of a s t a r ( G P S ) i s t h e p o i n t o n t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e a t which t h e g i v e n s t a r i s observed a t t h e z e n i t h , or t h e p r o j e c t i o n o f t h e s t a r o n t o t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e E a r t h . The c o o r d i n a t e s of t h e g e o g r a p h i c p o s i t i o n of t h e s t a r r e p r e s e n t t h e equatorial coordinates of t h e given star, ? . e . , t h e l a t i t u d e is equal t o t h e d e c l i n a t i o n of t h e s t a r ( 4 = 6 ) and t h e longitude i s e q u a l t o t h e Greenwich hour a n g l e of t h e s t a r ( A = t G r ) . This is evident i n Figure 5.24.

C i r c l e of e q u a l a l t i t u d e . L e t a n o b s e r v e r a t p o i n t A on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e ( F i g . 5 . 2 5 ) a t a n y moment o f t i m e m e a s u r e t h e a l t i tude of t h e star M . On t h e c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e , i f we d r a w a c i r c l e from p o i n t M w i t h a s p h e r i c a l r a d i u s e q u a l t o t h e z e n i t h d i s t a n c e , i t w i l l b e c a l l e d t h e c i r c l e of e q u a l z e n i t h d i s t a n c e s , s i n c e t h e d i s t a n c e from a n y p o i n t on t h i s c i r c l e t o t h e s t a r M i s e q u a l t o the zenith distance (radius).
The p r o j e c t i o n o f t h e c i r c l e o f e q u a l z e n i t h d i s t a n c e s ( e a c h p o i n t o n t h e c i r c l e ) o n t o t h e E a r t h i s c a l l e d t h e c i r c l e of e q u a l a l t i t u d e (AA') a n d t h e c e n t e r o f t h i s c i r c l e i s t h e g e o g r a p h i c p o s i t i o n of t h e s t a r M on t h e E a r t h (GPS). It is called the circle o f e q u a l a l t i t u d e b e c a u s e a t any p o i n t on t h i s c i r c l e , t h e s t a r M w i l l h a v e t h e same a l t i t u d e , i . e . i t i s o b s e r v e d a t a n a n g l e f o r t h e same a l t i t u d e o f t h e s t a r . T h i s may b e p r o v e d r a t h e r s i m p l y i f w e r e c a l l t h e r e l a t i o n between t h e a l t i t u d e of a s t a r ( h ) and i t s zenith distance (Z): h = 9 0 - Z. B u t s i n c e t h e z e n i t h d i s t a n c e f o r a n y o b s e r v e r l o c a t e d o n t h e c i r c l e o f e q u a l ' a l t i t u d e i s t h e same

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(R of the circle = Z) t h e same.

then t h e h e i g h t ( h ) f o r a l l observers w i l l be

K n o w i n g t h i s p r i n c i p l e , w e may m a k e t h e r e v e r s e c o n c l u s i o n : i f a n o b s e r v e r , by m e a s u r i n g , d e t e r m i n e s t h e a l t i t u d e o f a s t a r a t a c e r t a i n moment o f t i m e , t h e n b y p l o t t i n g t h e g e o g r a p h i c p o s i t i o n of t h e star (GPS) w i t h a r a d i u s e q u a l t o t h e z e n i t h d i s t a n c e of t h e s t a r ( Z = 90 - h ) , t h e c i r c l e o f e q u a l a l t i t u d e may b e d r a w n . Ob v i o u s l y , a t t h e moment o f m e a s u r i n g t h e a l t i t u d e o f t h e s t a r t h e o b s e r v e r ( a i r c r a f t ) i s l o c a t e d on t h e c i r c u m f e r e n c e of t h e c i r c l e of equal altitude. Therefore, the c i r c l e of equal a l t i t u d e is the circle of t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e aircraft. I n p r a c t i c e , t h e a l t i t u d e ( h ) a n d a z i m u t h (A) o f a s t a r a r e d e t e r m i n e d o n t h e b a s i s o f t a b l e s a t a moment o f t i m e p l a n n e d b e f o r e h a n d f o r t h e p o i n t b e i n g c a l c u l a t e d whose c o o r d i n a t e s a p p r o x i /4 mately coincide with t h e location of t h e aircraft a t t h e given -9 u moment. On t h e m a p , a s t r a i g h t - l i n e s e g m e n t e q u a l t o Ah i s d r a w n from t h e p o i n t being c a l c u l a t e d i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e azimuth of the star. The s e g m e n t APL i s drawn p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e s t r a i g h t l i n e s through i t s end.
A t t h e moment f o r w h i c h t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e A P L o f t h e p o i n t b e i n g c a l c u l a t e d w a s made, t h e a l t i t u d e o f t h e s t a r h i s measured I n g e n e r a l , t h e measured a l t i t u d e does n o t by means o f a s e x t a n t . coincide with t h e a l t i t u d e of t h e star a t t h e point being calcu lated. The d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n these altitudes is equal t o the zenith d i f f e r e n c e between t h e r a d i i z distance of t h e circles of equal a l t i tude of t h e c a l c u l a t e d and a c t u a l p o i n t s of t h e aircraft's posi tion. Since a l l t h e circles of

D'

Fig. 5.24. of a S t a r . 462

Geographic P o s i t i o n

Fig. 5.25. Altitude.

C i r c l e of Equal

e q u a l a l t i t u d e o f t h e same s t a r a t t h e same moment o f t i m e a r e c o n c e n t r i c , t h e APL r e p r e s e n t i n g v a r i o u s a l t i t u d e s o f t h e s t a r a r e p a r a l l e l t o one a n o t h e r . A s t r o n o m i c a l p o s i t i o n l i n e s which r e p r e s e n t h i g h a l t i t u d e s are s i t u a t e d c l o s e r t o t h e geographic p o s i t i o n of t h e s t a r , and vice versa. T h e r e f o r e , if t h e m e a s u r e d a l t i t u d e (hm) i s g r e a t e r t h a n t h e c a l c u l a t e d a l t i t u d e ( h c ) , t h i s means t h a t . t h e a i r c r a f t a t t h e moment o f m e a s u r i n g w a s l o c a t e d n o t o n t h e A P L o f t h e p o i n t b e i n g c a l c u l a t e d b u t o n t h e A P L p a r a l l e l t o i t moved i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e s t a r b y a v a l u e Ah = hm - h c . If t h e m e a s u r e d a l t i t u d e i s l e s s t h a n t h e c a l c u l a t e d a l t i t u d e , t h e A P L i s moved i n a d i r e c t i o n o p p o s i t e t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e s t a r . To c o n s t r u c t t h e A P L o n a m a p ,

i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o know:

(a) The a p p r o x i m a t e c o o r d i n a t e s o f t h e a i r c r a f t ' s p o s i t i o n ( t h e point being c a l c u l a t e d ) $, A . (b) The a z i m u t h o f t h e s t a r ( A ) f o r t h e p o i n t b e i n g c a l c u l a t e d :

(c) The d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n t h e m e a s u r e d a n d c a l c u l a t e d a l t i t u d e s of t h e star (Ah).

Determining t h e astronomical p o s i t i o n l i n e s . Before beginning t h e measurements, t h e e l e c t r i c a l supply and t h e s e x t a n t l i g h t are s w i t c h e d o n , t h e a v e r a g i n g m e c h a n i s m i s wound u p , a n d t h e r e p e a t e r s of t h e c h r o n o m e t e r a r e m a t c h e d w i t h t h e i n d i c a t o r o f t h e c u r r e n t time.
On t h e b a s i s o f a map o f t h e s t e l l a r s k y or t a b l e s o f a l t i t u d e s and a z i m u t h s , t h e azimuth and t h e n t h e c o u r s e a n g l e of t h e s t a r a r e determined roughly. By r o t a t i n g t h e c o u r s e - a n g l e d r u m , t h e s e x t a n t i s s e t t o t h e c o u r s e a n g l e of t h e s t a r . By r o t a t i n g t h e a l t i t u d e d r u m , we b r i n g t h e s t a r i n t o t h e s e x t a n t ' s f i e l d of v i s i o n . The s e x t a n t i s s e t o n a l e v e l b a s e ; by r o t a t i n g t h e c o u r s e - a n g l e drum, t h e s t a r i s l i n e d up w i t h t h e b u b b l e level. By r o t a t i n g t h e a l t i t u d e d r u m , t h e s t a r i s made t o c o i n c i d e w i t h t h e b u b b l e l e v e l and t h e a v e r a g i n g mechanism i s c o n n e c t e d . Once t h e p i l o t h a s b e e n n o t i f i e d b e f o r e h a n d a b o u t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f m e a s u r e m e n t , a n d t h e s t a r h a s b e e n a c c u r a t e l y s u p e r p o s e d on t h e b u b b l e l e v e l , t h e a v e r a g i n g mechanism i s s w i t c h e d o n . When t h e a v e r a g e r h a s completed i t s work, a r e a d i n g i s t a k e n . On t h e b a s i s o f t h e m e a s u r e d a l t i t u d e s o f t h e s t a r s , p r o b l e m s i n determining t h e following are solved: (a) One a s t r o n o m i c a l p o s i t i o n l i n e o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e S u n t o check t h e p a t h with r e s p e c t t o d i s t a n c e and d i r e c t i o n .

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(b) Two p o s i t i o n l i n e s o n t h e b a s i s o f t w o n a v i g a t i o n a l s t a r s or o n t h e b a s i s o f o n e n a v i g a t i o n a l s t a r a n d P o l a r i s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e a i r c r a f t To c h e c k t h e p a t h w i t h r e s p e c t t o d i s t a n c e b y m e a n s o f o n e A P L , s t a r s a r e u s e d whose d i r e c t i o n s a r e s i m i l a r t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e l i n e of t h e given path. To c h e c k t h e p a t h w i t h r e s p e c t t o d i r e c t i o n , s t a r s a r e used which a r e s i t u a t e d a t r i g h t a n g l e s t o t h e l i n e of the given path. I n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e p o s i t i o n of a n a i r c r a f t o n t h e b a s i s o f t w o APL's, s t a r s must b e c h o s e n s o t h a t t h e d i r e c t i o n s t o them d i f f e r b y a n a n g l e c l o s e t o 90. In calculating the astronomical position l i n e s , the following auxiliary t a b l e s a r e used: (a) Detached pages from an a v i a t i o n astronomical yearbook (AAY) for t h e f l i g h t d a t e ; (b) T a b l e s o f t h e a l t i t u d e s a n d a z i m u t h s o f t h e S u n , Moon a n d planets (TAA): (c) Tables of t h e a l t i t u d e s and azimuths of t h e stars (TAAS).

The a s t r o n o m i c a l p o s i t i o n l i n e i s c a l c u l a t e d o n a f o r m l i k e t h e following:
- .. -. -_
-.

C a l c u l a t i .n. g t h e .~A P L .W_ _ _ -

Order of Ooeration

Date GPA,
2

__
____

Name of the star

-

Name o f
_ _t h e

1 1

5 6
9
4

star 4

-~

tl(S1)
$ J

10
3 7

13
2 8

6 FB hnl P
S

14 15
16

-r
0

17 11 18 19 12
464

h hC Ah A

ah^^

Calculation of t h e astronomical p o s i t i o n l i n e with r e s p e c t t o t h e S u n , Moon or s o m e p l a n e t i s d o n e i n t h e o r d e r i n d i c a t e d i n t h e l e f t - h a n d column o f t h e f o r m : (1) recorded (2) T h e Moscow t i m e o f m e a s u r i n g t h e a l t i t u d e o f t h e s t a r i s (TMOSCOW). The m e a s u r e d a l t i t u d e o f t h e s t a r i s r e c o r d e d (hm).

/442

point

( 3 ) and ( 4 ) . The l a t i t u d e a n d l o n g i t u d e o f t h e c a l c u l a t e d (r$ and A ) a r e r e c o r d e d .

(5) The G r e e n w i c h t i m e o f m e a s u r i n g i s d e t e r m i n e d on t h e b a s i s of t h e formula

w h e r e (N, + 1 ) i s t h e n u m b e r o f t h e h o u r z o n e p l u s t h e s t a n d a r d h o u r a n d i s r e c o r d e d on t h e f o r m . ( 6 ) a n a ( 7 ) The d e c l i n a t i o n o f t h e s t a r ( 6 ) a n d i t s h o u r a n g l e ( t G r ) for t h e w h o l e h o u r c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e t i m e o f m e a s u r e m e n t are copied out of t h e AAY. (When u s i n g t h e Moon, t h e t G r i s w r i t t e n f o r whole t e n s o f m i n u t e s . )
( 8 ) I n m e a s u r i n g t h e a l t i t u d e of t h e Moon, i s copied from t h e AAY.

the parallax (P)

(9). On t h e b a s i s o f t h e i n t e r p o l a t i o n t a b l e a v a i l a b l e i n ~ t h e T A A or t h e A A Y , t h e c o r r e c t i o n ( A t G r ) f o r T G i n m i n u t e s a n d s e c o n d s i s found and r e c o r d e d .

(10) The l o c a l h o u r a n g l e o f t h e s t a r ( t i ) i s d e t e r m i n e d by adding t G r , h t a n d A~ ~ . I n c r e a s i n g or d e c r e a s i n g X , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t h a t t l b e e x p r e s s e d by a whole e v e n number o f d e g r e e s . If t h e w e s t e r n h o u r a n g l e i s m o r e t h a n 180, i t s c o m p l e m e n t t o 3 6 0 is taken. The v a l u e f o u n d f o r t l i s c o n s i d e r e d t h e e a s t e r n h o u r a n g l e and i s r e c o r d e d i n t h e form.
The v a l u e f o r t h e l o n g i t u d e o f t h e c a l c u l a t e d p o i n t X , w r i t t e n e a r l i e r on t h e f o r m , i s r e f i n e d i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e c h a n g e introduced with t h e s e l e c t i o n of tl.
(11) a n d ( 1 2 ) From t h e T A A , t h e v a l u e f o r t h e a l t i t u d e o f t h e s t a r a t t h e c a l c u l a t e d p o i n t (h,) i s w r i t t e n , t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t t h e c o r r e c t i o n f o r m i n u t e s of d e c l i n a t i o n , and t h e azimuth A i s recorded. If t h e h o u r a n g l e i s w e s t e r n , t h e n t h e complement o f i t s t a b u l a r v a l u e up t o 360 i s t a k e n a s t h e a z i m u t h .

(13) The p a t h b e a r i n g ( P B ) o f t h e s t a r ( p a t h a n g l e ) i s d e t e r m i n e d o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e f o r m u l a PB = A - GPA a n d i s w r i t t e n o n

465

t h e form.

(14) ( 1 5 ) a n d (16) C o r r e c t i o n s a r e w r i t t e n o n t h e f o r m f r o m s e x t a n t (SI, f o r t h e r e f r a c t i o n ( - r ) a n d t h e pertinent tables: f o r the Earth's rotation ( 6 ) .

(17) The m e a s u r e d a l t i t u d e o f t h e s t a r ( h ) i s a d j u s t e d f o r c o r r e c t i o n s N o s . 8 , 14, 15, 16.
(18) The d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e c o r r e c t e d v a l u e o f t h e measured a l t i t u d e (hm) and t h e a l t i t u d e of t h e s t a r a t t h e c a l c u l a t e d p o i n t (h,) i s c a l c u l a t e d on t h e b a s i s o f t h e f o r m u l a Ah = h m
hC'

(19) A n o t h e r v a l u e f o r Ah i s r e c a l c u l a t e d i n k i l o m e t e r s . A f t e r t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s , A P L i s p l o t t e d on t h e c h a r t a s shown a b o v e .
The A P L o n t h e b a s i s o f s t a r s i s c a l c u l a t e d i n t h e s a m e o r d e r a s o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e S u n , Moon a n d p l a n e t s . T a b l e s o f t h e TAAS and AAY a r e u s e d . I n a d d i t i o n , i n s t e a d o f t h e Greenwich and l o c a l hour a n g l e s , t h e Greenwich and l o c a l s i d e r e a l t i m e a r e determined. The s i d e r e a l G r e e n w i c h t i m e ( S G ~ i s t a k e n f r o m t h e t a b l e ) e n t i t l e d " S t a r s " i n t h e A A Y f o r t h e moment T G ~ . T h e l o c a l s i d e r e a l t i m e i s d e t e r m i n e d on t h e b a s i s o f t h e f o r m u l a

/443

where X i s t h e l o n g i t u d e of t h e c a l c u l a t e d p o i n t r e f i n e d w i t h t h i s c a l c u l a t i o n s o t h a t S 1 i s e q u a l t o a whole number o f d e g r e e s . When d e t e r m i n i n g t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n o f t h e APL from two n a v i g a t i o n a l s t a r s , t h e meas u r i n g and r e c o r d i n g o f t h e t i m e o f t h e r e a d i n g s a r e done s u c c e s s i v e l y with t h e s h o r t e s t possible time i n t e r v a l . When p l o t t i n g o n t h e c h a r t , t h e f i r s t APL i s s h i f t e d p a r a l l e l t o i t s e l f i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e vector of t h e f l i g h t speed f o r t h e distance traversed i n t h i s interval of t i m e . The c o r r e c t i o n f o r t h e movement o f t h e a i r c r a f t b e t w e e n t h e moments o f t h e f i r s t a n d s e c o n d m e a s u r e m e n t s i s a l s o d e t e r m i n e d b y means o f a s p e c i a l t a b l e a p p l i e d t o t h e t a b l e s o f t h e a l t i t u d e s and azimuths o f s t a r s . The c o r r e c t i o n f o r t h e r o t a t i o n o f t h e E a r t h ( 0 ) i s i n t r o d u c e d It i s not necessary i n t h e a l t i t u d e o f t h e s t a r measured f i r s t . t o s h i f t t h e f i r s t APL d e t e r m i n e d , t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t t h e c o r r e c t i o n o f 6 by t h e movement o f t h e a i r c r a f t i n t h i s c a s e . When d e t e r m i n i n g t h e p o s i t i o n o f a n a i r c r a f t o n t h e b a s i s o f s t a r s i n t h e N o r t h e r n Hemisphere, P o l a r i s a n d one o f t h e n a v i g a t i o n a l

466

.e--;,

s t a r s s i t u a t e d i n a w e s t e r l y or e a s t e r l y d i r e c t i o n a r e u s e d . Polaris i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y lo f r o m t h e n o r t h c e l e s t i a l p o l e a n d t h e r e f o r e i t s h e i g h t above t h e horizon i s always roughly e q u a l t o t h e l a t i t u d e of t h e p o s i t i o n . This s i m p l i f i e s t h e c a l c u l a t i n g and p l o t t i n g of

APL's.

The a c c u r a t e l a t i t u d e o f t h e p o s i t i o n o f a n a i r c r a f t on t h e b a s i s o f P o l a r i s i s d e t e r m i n e d by s i m p l e a d d i t i o n :
I t s measured a l t i t u d e hm; t h e c o r r e c t i o n of c o r r e c t i o n f o r r e f r a c t i o n -r; t h e c o r r e c t i o n f o r o and t h e c o r r e c t i o n f o r t h e a l t i t u d e of P o l a r i s A + i s g i v e n i n TAAS o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e v a l u e o f t i m e S1.

the sextant S; the the Earth's rotation A+. The c o r r e c t i o n the local sidereal
/444

The a l t i t u d e o f P o l a r i s i s m e a s u r e d l a t e r t h a n t h e a l t i t u d e of t h e n a v i g a t i o n a l s t a r and t h e r e f o r e t h e p a r a l l e l corresponding t o t h e l a t i t u d e found i s s h i f t e d i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e f l i g h t speed v e c t o r f o r t h e segment of t h e p a t h t r a v e r s e d during t h e time i n t e r v a l between t h e f i r s t and s e c o n d m e a s u r e m e n t s . The c o r r e c t i o n d u e t o t h e t r a v e l o f t h e a i r c r a f t i s a l s o i n t r o d u c e d d i r e c t l y i n t h e c a l c u l a t e d l a t i t u d e by means o f a t a b l e o f c o r r e c t i o n s I c D " i n t h e TAAS.

Astronomical

Compasses

Modern a s t r o n o m i c a l c o m p a s s e s a r e a u t o m a t i c d e v i c e s f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e t r u e c o u r s e o f t h e a i r c r a f t by t h e d i r e c t i o n - f i n d i n g o f t h e S u n or o t h e r s t a r s . Astronomical compasses of t h e t y p e DAK-DB a r e u s e d on a i r c r a f t .

T h e s e a s t r o c o m p a s s e s a r e m a i n l y i n t e n d e d for: (a) I n c i d e n t a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e t r u e c o u r s e on t h e b a s i s of t h e Sun; (b) Continuous measurement of t h e c o u r s e i n f l i g h t a l o n g t h e o r t h o d r o m e on t h e b a s i s o f t h e Sun . Astrocompasses o f t h e DAK-DB t y p e c a n t r a n s m i t t h e v a l u e s o f t h e t r u e c o u r s e t o c o u r s e system i n d i c a t o r s , and t h e y can a l s o p e r m i t t h e t r u e c o u r s e t o b e d e t e r m i n e d on t h e b a s i s o f s t a r s a t n i g h t by means o f a p e r i s c o p e s e x t a n t . A s t r o c o m p a s s e s o f D A K - D B t y p e may b e u s e d i n t h e r a n g e o f l a t i t u d e s from t h e North P o l e t o 10S. Astrocompasses of a s p e c i a l t y p e are i n t e n d e d f o r u s e i n t h e Southern Hemisphere as w e l l . They c a n o p e r a t e when t h e S u n i s n o t m o r e t h a n 7 0 a b o v e t h e h o r i z o n . Here t h e p e r m i s s i b l e e r r o r i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e t r u e c o u r s e must n o t exceed +2O.
467

An astrocompass automatically solves problems o f determining

the true course of an aircraft according t o the equation:

TC

A - CA

where A is the azimuth o f the heavenly body and CA is the course

angle of the heavenly body.
The course angle of the Sun is determined automatically by
means of a course-angle data transmitter (CAD).
The photoelectric head is situated in a transparent case in
the fuselage of the aircraft; by means of an electronic system,
it is automatically oriented in the direction of the Sun and sup
plies an electrical signal representing the course angle (CA) t o
a computer device.
The azimuth of the star is determined by a special computer /445 whose basis is a spatial computer mechanism (spherant). When es
tablishing the equatorial coordinates on computers, the hour angle
and declination of the star as well as the latitude and longitude
of the position, the azimuth of the star, i.e. the horizontal co
ordinate, is given at the output in the form of electrical signals.
The table for the Greenwich hour angles of the Sun is given in
Supplement 5 .
star

L
T

1x

\ \ \

A signal representing the dif

ference in the azimuth and course
angle, ?.e. the value of the true
course, is fed t o the indicator
of the astrocompass.

When using the astrocompass

t o determine and retain the ortho
drome course, coordinates pertaining
t o the initial point of the ortho
drome path line are fed into the
astrocompass. During flight along
the orthodrome, the course angles
at the initial point of the route.
To preserve a constant value of
the true course relative t o the
reference meridian of the beginning
of the path, a correction on the
basis of the flight correction
method is automatically fed in.
This method entails the following:
The axis of rotation of the head
of the CAD is vertical at the be
ginning of the path. Later with
movement o f the aircraft along the

the horizon

4
mz3
I I

3 -

I
I

I I

63
light
source

Fig. 5.26. Optical Diagram

o f an Aviational Sextant.

468

o r t h o d r o m e , it s l o p e s back t o w a r d t h e t a i l o f t h e a i r c r a f t by a n angle e q u a l t o t h e arc o f t h e t r a v e r s e d p a r t of t h e orthodrome a t t h e s a m e t i m e remaining p a r a l l e l t o t h e o r i g i n a l position. The automatic c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e angle proportional t o t h e arc of t h e t r a v e r s e d segment of t h e o r t h o d r o m e i s p e r f o r m e d by t h e f l i g h t c o r r e c t o r , w i t h a manual s e t t i n g of t h e a i r s p e e d o f t h e a i r c r a f t .
Astronomical Sextants

A v i a t i o n a l a s t r o n o m i c a l s e x t a n t s a r e i n t e n d e d for m e a s u r i n g t h e a l t i t u d e s of stars t o determine t h e astronomical p o s i t i o n l i n e s and t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e a i r c r a f t , as w e l l as f o r measuring t h e c o u r s e angles of stars.

A t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e , p e r i s c o p e s e x t a n t s ( P S ) which are a d a p t e d f o r m o u n t i n g on a i r c r a f t w i t h h e r m e t i c f u s e l a g e s a r e t h e most common v a r i e t y .

The o p t i c a l s y s t e m o f t h e P S s e x t a n t ( F i g . 5 . 2 6 ) i n c l u d e s a c u b i c p r i s m 1 for s i g h t i n g s t a r s . The c u b i c p r i s m t u r n s i n a v e r t i c a l p l a n e f r o m 0 t o 8 5 O , w i t h a g o n i o m e t e r drum t o i n d i c a t e a l t i tude of a star. I n t h e h o r i z o n t a l p l a n e , i t t u r n s t h r o u g h 360 w i t h t h e g o n i o m e t e r drum f o r c o u r s e a n g l e s . The c u b i c p r i s m p r o j e c t s a n i m a g e o f Between t h e n o d e s t h e s t a r a l o n g t h e o p t i c a l a x i s of t h e s e x t a n t . o f t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s y s t e m , a s p e c i a l p r i s m 2 i s s i t u a t e d on t h e optical axis. I n t h i s p r i s m , t h e image of t h e s t a r i s matched w i t h t h e bubble l e v e l . T h e i m a g e o f t h e b u b b l e i s p r o j e c t e d o n t o p r i s m /446; 2 by means o f r o t a t i n g p r i s m 4 . The combined i m a g e s o f t h e s t a r a n d t h e b u b b l e , by means o f r o t a t i n g p r i s m 5 , a r e d i r e c t e d t o t h e o c u l a r 6 , where t h e y a r e o b s e r v e d by t h e e y e . The s e x t a n t h a s a c h r o n o m e t e r w i t h t w o i n d e p e n d e n t r e p e a t e r s , t h e c l o c k mechanism of t h e a v e r a g e r o f t h e r e a d i n g s a n d t h e c o u r s e angle transmitting selsyn.

469

CHAPTER S I X A C C U R A C Y I N AIRCRAFT N A V I G A T I O N

1. A c c u r a c y i n M e a s u r i n g N a v i g a t i o n a l E l e m e n t s a n d i n A i r c r a f t N a v i g a t i o n as a Whole
The p r o c e s s o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n i s d i r e c t e d t o w a r d a c r e w ' s m a i n t a i n i n g g i v e n t r a j e c t o r i e s o f a i r c r a f t movement w i t h r e s p e c t t o d i r e c t i o n , a l t i t u d e , d i s t a n c e , and t i m e . S i n c e t h e c o o r d i n a t e s of a n a i r c r a f t and t h e p a r a m e t e r s o f i t s s p e e d a l o n g t h e a x e s o f c o o r d i n a t e s o f a c h o s e n frame o f r e f e r e n c e a r e measured w i t h d e f i n i t e e r r o r s , i t i s n a t u r a l t h a t a g i v e n t r a j e c t o r y o f a i r c r a f t movement w i l l l i k e w i s e b e m a i n t a i n e d w i t h some e r r o r s . By a c c u r a c y of a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n i s m e a n t t h e l i m i t s w i t h i n which t h e e r r o r s o f a n y f l i g h t - t r a j e c t o r y p a r a m e t e r a r e i n c l u d e d with a definite probability. I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e a c c u r a c y o f n a v i g a t i o n a l d e v i c e s , which c h a r a c t e r i z e s ( i n t h e majority of c a s e s ) t h e e r r o r s i n measuring o n e c o o r d i n a t e or t w o a i r c r a f t c o o r d i n a t e s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , t h e a c c u r a c y of a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n d e p e n d s o n t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f i m p l e m e n t i n g i n d i c a t e d m e a s u r e m e n t s a n d , i n some c a s e s , o n t h e d y n a m i c s of a i r c r a f t f l i g h t . L e t u s assume t h a t a n a i r c r a f t i s moving i n a f i e l d o f c o n s t a n t The d i r e c t i o n o f f l i g h t i s m a i n w i n d or u n d e r c o n d i t i o n s o f c a l m . t a i n e d on t h e b a s i s o f r e s u l t s o f m e a s u r i n g t h e l a t e r a l d e v i a t i o n of t h e a i r c r a f t ( 2 ) f r o m t h e l i n e o f t h e g i v e n p a t h a t d e s i g n a t e d points (Fig. 6.1). P o i n t s A and B i n t h e f i g u r e correspond t o t h e a c t u a l coordi n a t e s of t h e a i r c r a f t , w h i l e p o i n t s A 1 a n d B 1 c o r r e s p o n d t o m e a s u r e d coordinates.
/447

I t i s o b v i o u s t h a t on t h e b a s i s o f r e s u l t s o f m e a s u r e m e n t s ( A 1 a n d B l ) , t h e a i r c r a f t crew d o e s n o t o b t a i n a n a c c u r a t e n o t i o n c o n c e r n i n g t h e d i r e c t i o n of movement, i . e . t h e r e i s a n e r r o r i n determining t h e actual angle of f l i g h t A$.

470

I n g e n e r a l , e r r o r s i n measuring t h e Z-coordinate (and, t h e r e f o r e , $ > w i l l e x e r t t h e same i n f l u e n c e o n t h e a c c u r a c y o f a i r c r a f t navigation with r e s p e c t t o d i r e c t i o n , independently of whether t h e a c t u a l t r a j e c t o r y o f a i r c r a f t movement w i l l c o i n c i d e w i t h t h e g i v e n t r a j e c t o r y or w h e t h e r i t i s s i t u a t e d a t s o m e s l i g h t a n g l e t o i t .

/448(

Fig.

6.1

D i a g r a m o f t h e O c c u r r e n c e o f Errors i n A i r c r a f t N a v i g a t i o n with Respect t o Direction.

However, f o r s i m p l i c i t y o f a r g u m e n t , w e w i l l c o n s i d e r t h a t on segment AB t h e a c t u a l p a t h l i n e of t h e a i r c r a f t a c c i d e n t a l l y t u r n e d out t o correspond s t r i c t l y with t h e given l i n e . In t h i s case, angle A$ a n d c o o r d i n a t e B 1 w i l l b e m a g n i t u d e s o f m i s i n f o r m a t i o n f o r t h e c r e w which, i n t h e i r graphic form, determine e r r o r s i n t h e crews a c t i o n s i n t h e f l i g h t s e g m e n t BC. A c t u a l l y , a crew l o c a t e d a t p o i n t B p r e c i s e l y on t h e g i v e n p a t h w i l l assume t h a t t h e a i r c r a f t i s l o c a t e d a t p o i n t B 1 . There f o r e , f o r a n a p p r o a c h t o p o i n t C i t w i l l b e o b l i g e d t o make a n a d vance i n t h e c o u r s e :
A: = arctg __

BB,

BC

I n a d d i t i o n , t h e crew w i l l assume t h a t a n a i r c r a f t on segment A B d i d no? t r a v e l p a r a l l e l t o t h e g i v e n p a t h l i n e , b u t a t a n a n g l e A$, e q u a l t o

A+i - nrctg

An,
--,--

B.5, AB.

Therefore,

t h e t o t a l i n c o r r e c t advance i n t h e course A y t o t a l =L+~=A+,+I;.

T h e r e f o r e , i f t h e d i s t a n c e BC i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y e q u a l t o A B , t h e a i r c r a f t must g o n o t t o p o i n t C b u t t o p o i n t C2, s i t u a t e d t h e f o l l o w i n g d i s t a n c e from p o i n t C:

where AA1

= A Z l ; BB1 = A Z 2 .

Under a c t u a l f l i g h t c o n d i t i o n s , it i s d i f f i c u l t t o e x p e c t t h a t There t h e w i n d i n s e g m e n t BC w i l l b e t h e s a m e a s i n s e g m e n t AB. f o r e , i f a f l i g h t i s made o v e r BC b y m a i n t a i n i n g t h e c o n d i t i o n s e l e c t e d i n s e g m e n t AB, t h e a i r c r a f t w i l l n o t a p p e a r a t p o i n t C2, b u t a t p o i n t C3, d i s p l a c e d f r o m p o i n t C2 b y t h e v a l u e o f t h e c h a n g e i n t h e w i n d v e c t o r i n s e g m e n t BC w i t h r e s p e c t t o s e g m e n t AB r e l a t i v e t o t h e f l y i n g t i m e BC. For a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n with r e s p e c t t o d i r e c t i o n , only t h e l a t e r a l c o m p o n e n t o f t h e w i n d c h a n g e v e c t o r ATz w i l l h a v e a n y s i g Thus, t h e general e r r o r i n a i r c r a f t navigation with nificance. r e s p e c t t o d i r e c t i o n i n s e g m e n t BC i s :
(6.1)

/449

I t i s p o s s i b l e t o come t o a n a n a l o g o u s c o n c l u s i o n b y e x a m i n i n g t h e accuracy of aircraft navigation with r e s p e c t t o distance i f t h e c o n d i t i o n of s p e e d i s c h o s e n on t h e b a s i s o f r e s u l t s o f m e a s u r i n g t h e X - c o o r d i n a t e a t p o i n t s A and B:

A x ~ = AX1 c

+ 2AX2 + AITxt.

(6.2)

F o r m u l a s (6.1) a n d ( 6 . 2 ) d e t e r m i n e t h e a b s o l u t e e r r o r s i n a i r craft n a v i g a t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t i o n t o d i r e c t i o n a n d d i s t a n c e . In t h e s e f o r m u l a s , o n l y t h e t h i r d t e r m on t h e r i g h t - h a n d s i d e a n d A v ) i s a v a l u e w h i c h d e p e n d s o n t h e l e n g t h 'of t h e s t a g e o f t h e p a t h a n d t h e r e f o r e , on f l i g h t t i m e . Therefore, the absolute error grows smoothly w i t h an i n c r e a s e i n t h e l e n g t h of t h e s t a g e i n t h e p a t h between t h e c o n t r o l p o i n t s . The r a t i o o f t h e a b s o l u t e e r r o r o f a g i v e n length of t h e stage i n t h e path of t h e a i r c r a f t a r i s e s i s c a l l e d t h e r e l a t i v e e r r o r of a i r c r a f t f o r e , t h e r e l a t i v e e r r o r e x e r t s a n i n f l u e n c e on t h e f l i g h t c o n d i t i o n s of t h e a i r c r a f t . Let us i a s p e c i f i c example. parameter t o the i n which t h i s e r r o r navigation. There t h e s t a b i l i t y of llustrate this with

(m A

L e t u s assume t h a t a t t h e c o n t r o l s t a g e i n t h e p a t h of an a i r c r a f t , w i t h a l e n g t h o f 2 0 0 km, a n e r r o r o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n o f 5 km i n d i s t a n c e a n d 4 km i n d i r e c t i o n h a s a c c u m u l a t e d . The r e l a t i v e e r r o r i n a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o d i s t a n c e and d i r e c t i o n w i l l be:

AX

X
A2

5 200

40

- 2,596;

200

4 .-

50

-2%.

472

The r e l a t i v e e r r o r w i t h r e s p e c t t o d i r e c t i o n c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e conditional errors of aircraft navigation:

A+ = arctg'

-. X

A2

I n t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a g e o f f l i g h t o f e q u a l l e n g t h ( 2 0 0 km) i n o r d e r t o b a l a n c e t h e e r r o r s o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n which were accumu l a t e d i n t h e preceding s t a g e , it is necessary: t o introduce a c o r r e c t i o n i n 'the aircraft course equal t o (a) t h e e r r o r A $ , i n o u r case a r c t g 1 / 5 0 lo, a n d (b) t o change t h e a i r s p e e d , i n our e x a m p l e b y 2 . 5 % . /450)

L e t u s a s s u m e now t h a t t h e s a m e e r r o r i n a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n a r o s e a t a s t a g e i n t h e p a t h a b o u t 5 0 km l o n g . Then

AX

s. a

-1096;

I n t h i s case it would b e n e c e s s a r y f o r u s t o change t h e a i r c r a f t c o u r s e b y 4 O a n d t h e a i r s p e e d b y 1 0 % f o r e v e r y 5 0 km o f t h e p a t h , i . e . i n modern a i r c r a f t , e v e r y 3 - 4 min o f f l i g h t . Considering t h a t t h e e r r o r i n a i r c r a f t navigation increases w i t h r e s p e c t t o t i m e o n l y a s a r e s u l t of a c h a n g e i n t h e wind v e c t o r , it becomes e n t i r e l y o b v i o u s t h a t i t i s a d v a n t a g e o u s t o c h o o s e c o n t r o l s t a g e s o f f l i g h t which a r e v e r y l o n g , b o t h from t h e p o i n t of view of t h e f r e q u e n c y o f i n t r o d u c i n g c o r r e c t i o n s i n t h e a i r c r a f t f l i g h t c o n d i t i o n and i n t h e v a l u e s of t h e c o r r e c t i o n s b e i n g i n t r o duced. However, w i t h e x c e s s i v e l y l o n g f l i g h t s t a g e s b e t w e e n c o n t r o l p o i n t s , an a b s o l u t e e r r o r can be accumulated i n a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n , b i t h r e s p e c t t o b o t h d i s t a n c e and d i r e c t i o n ) which exceeds t h e p e r m i s s i b l e l i m i t as a r e s u l t of t h e t h i r d t e r m s of ( 6 . 1 ) and ( 6 . 2 ) . T h e r e f o r e t h e r e a r e c o n d i t i o n s f o r c h o o s i n g a n optimum l e n g t h o f t h e c o n t r o l f l i g h t s t a g e a t which t h e r e s u l t s of a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n a r e optimum, b o t h f r o m t h e p o i n t o f v i e w of m a i n t a i n i n g a g i v e n t r a j e c t o r y with allowable l i m i t s of d e v i a t i o n and s t a b i l i t y of a i r craft f l i g h t conditions. The n e c e s s a r y a c c u r a c y o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o d i r e c t i o n o f t h e f l i g h t p a t h i s d e t e r m i n e d by t h e s e t w i d t h o f a i r r o u t e s and approach p a t h s t o a i r p o r t s , as w e l l as n a t i o n a l 473

boundaries.
However, it is necessary t o consider that at turning points on
the paths, with significant turn angles for the route, the errors
of aircraft navigation with respect t o distance become errors with
respect t o direction, and vice versa.
The accuracy of aircraft navigation during the approach of an
aircraft landing on instruments acquires a special significance.
The necessary length of the path of an aircraft's approach to a
given trajectory, after changing t o visual flight, depends on the
magnitude of the aircraft's deviation from the given descent trajec
tory during an instrument approach for landing, and therefore on
/451
the weather conditions during which a landing can be made. With automatic or semiautomatic approach t o landing by air
craft up to low altitudes (for example, up t o leveling off.or landing)
the accuracy of aircraft navigation must be such that the landing
of the aircraft in all cases will be ensured with the execution of
safe deviation norms with respect to the landing position and
direction of the aircraft vector in the path.

2.

Methods of

E v a l u a t i n g t h e Accuracy o f A i r c r a f t Navigation

In special books on the study of the accuracy of aircraft n.avi

gation with the application of navigational systems, the methods of
probability theory (Laws of the distribution of random variables)
are used.
To evaluate the accuracy of aircraft navigation under practical
conditions, it is sufficient to use only the basic conclusions of
probability theory. Since the study of probability theory as a
science is not the purpose of this textbook, in the majority of
cases these conclusions will be given without proofs.
In probability theory, variables which cannot be determined
in advance by classical methods of mathematics, or are determined
by methods so complex that they cannot be used for practical pur
poses, are considered t o be random variables.
In connection with problems of gation or the accuracy of measuring of navigational systems, the errors some of the navigational parameters the accuracy of aircraft navi
aircraft coordinates by means
in measuring or maintaining
will be random variables.

Let us assume that the value of some navigational flight param

eter (on the basis of some especially precise control device) is
known exactly. However, in carrying out a number of measurements
by the usual means, we always obtain new values for the parameter
which differ from its precise value.
The precise value of a measured parameter will be called its

474

mathematical expectation. If a series of measurements is suffi ciently great, then in all probability we will obtain many values for the measured parameter, with both positive and negative errors. Here the mean arithmetic value of all the measurements will ap proach (depending on the increase in their number) the mathematical expectation of the measured value. Therefore, t o raise the accuracy of aircraft navigation, in many cases measurements are carried out repeatedly and the arithmetic mean of the series of measurements is found

The arithmetic mean of a measured parameter cannot characterize / 4 5 2 the probable accuracy of carrying out individual measurements. Therefore, probability theory includes a concept of mean square deviation from the precise value.

a , and its measured values by x i , where i = 1,

Let us designate the precise value of a measured quantity by 2, 3

...

Let us call the value ( x i - a ) the m e a s u r e m e n t e r r o r . The value obtained by extracting the square root from the sum
of the squares of the errors divided by the number of measurements
is considered the mean square error of measurement:

(6.3)

According to (6.31, the mean square error of measurement is determined when the precise value of magnitude a is known.

If the value of the measured magnitude is determined as an arithmetic mean from a series of observations, it is considered that one of the measured magnitudes coincides with or very closely approaches the arithmetic mean. The error of this measurement is considered t o be zero, resulting in an increase in the sum in the numerator under the root of (6.3) equal t o zero. Therefore, in order to avoid decreasing the value of the mean square error, especially with a short series of measurements, the denominator of (6.3) reduces t o 1. Then this formula assumes the form:

The mean square error characterizes the accuracy of the meas

urements in a rather definite way. With the raising of each of the
errors to a square, its sign always becomes positive. Therefore,

475

in determining mean square errors, only the absolute value of each

plays a role.
It is considered that the mean square e r r o r does not have a sign.

If we examine only one of a series of measurements, with a probability equal t o 1 (complete probability), it is possible t o say that the magnitude being measured will undoubtedly have some value. However the probability that the magnitude being measured will have a strict and absolutely precise value is practically equal t o zero, except in cases when it can assume only a,discrete value. Therefore, in determining the probability of an error of measurement it is not the precise value of the error, but the limits / 4 5 5 in which it must be found, which are given (for example, the proba bility of error in the range from 500-600 m or from 2 t o 2.5 k m , etc. 1.
All the measured navigational magnitudes are (to a certain
degree) calibrated magnitudes, ;.e., they have errors limited by
certain boundaries. These boundaries depend on the allowances in
the regulation of the measuring apparatus and on the maximum pos
sible distortions of the measured magnitudes as a result of the in
fluence of external factors (electromagnetic wave propagation, the
physical composition of the airspace, variations in the Earth's
magnetic field, etc.).
Allowances in the regulation o f measuring apparatus are known
quantities. Century-old observations permit the .determination of
the limit of change in the parameters of the environment. There
are ways of evaluating the maximum influence and other factors on
the accuracy of measurements. Therefore, it is always possible to
predetermine the maximum errors of some kind of measurements.
The quantitative characteristics of the distribution of errors
from their zero t o maximum values, in the majority of cases, are
subject to the normal law of random variable distribution.
If in some cases the law of e.rror distribution is not normal,
it will be close in any case.
Considering that devices of probability theory are used not in calculating measurement errors, but only in evaluating limits and the probability of possible measurement errors within these limits, it is considered permissible in a l l cases to use the normal law of distribution of random variables. The normal law of random variable distribution (Gauss formula) characterizes the probability density of a random variable, in our case of the measurement errors ( X - a ) , depending on its value:

476

.- .- . .._.._ . . . . .

p ( x -a ) =
1
~

(X-LZ)'

29

(6.5)

G e

w h e r e @(x - a ) i s t h e p r o b a b i l i t y d e n s i t y o f e r r o r s o f a g i v e n m a g n i t u d e , (T i s t h e m e a n s q u a r e e r r o r o f a s e r i e s o f mea u r e m e t s , e i s a N a p i e r number e q u a l t o 2 . 7 1 8 2 8 , and a i s t h e p r e c i s e v a l u e of t h e magnitude being measured.

I t i s o b v i o u s t h a t t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of f i n d i n g t h e r e s u l t o f m e a s u r i n g (x) i n t h e r a n g e o f v a l u e s f r o m a t o x c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d b y i n t e g r a t i n g ( 6 . 5 ) o v e r x:

(6.6)

The g r a p h o f t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f r a n d o m v a r i a b l e s s u b o r d i n a t e t o t h e n o r m a l d i s t r i b u t i o n l a w i s shown i n F i g u r e 6 . 2 . The variable values. negative c u r v e on t h e g r a p h shows t h e p r o b a b i l i t y d e n s i t y o f random d e v i a t i o n s f r o m z e r o t o maximum p o s i t i v e a n d n e g a t i v e The l e f t s i d e o f t h e g r a p h c o r r e s p o n d s t o e r r o r s w i t h a sign, the r i g h t t o errors with a positive sign.

/454

Since t h e absolute p r o b a b i l i t y of obtaining any value of t h e measured magnitude i s e q u a l t o one, t h e p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t t h e v a l u e o f t h e m a g n i t u d e w i l l b e n e g a t i v e or p o s i t i v e i s 0 . 5 .

L e t u s n o t e t h a t on t h e a b c i s s a o f t h e g r a p h t h e r e a r e two v a l u e s o f a r a n d o m v a r i a b l e , xi a n d x , . The a r e a bounded by t h e s e g m e n t ~ 1 x 2 , y t h e o r d i n a t e s P,,, P,,, a n d b y t h e c u r v e i s t h e b p r o b a b i l i t y of f i n d i n g t h e r e s u l t of measurement i n t h e l i m i t s be t w e e n xi a n d x2.

@(z2-u)-@[x,-a)

(W-o)<O

A
5
i~

With t h e c o n v e r g e n c e o f p o i n t s xi a n d x2 a t o n e p o i n t , t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of f i n d i n g an e r r o r of measurement between t h e s e p o i n t s w i l l d i m i n i s h and converge t o zero. T h e a n a l o g o u s p r o b l e m for determining p r o b a b i l i t y can be s o l v e d on t h e b a s i s of t h e r i g h t s i d e of t h e g r a p h f o r e r r o r s of measurement which have a p o s i t i v e s i g n .

..

xz

x1

(x-a);

Fig. 6.2 Graph of t h e Probab i l i t y of Random V a r i a b l e s U n d e r t h e Normal L a w o f D i s t r i b u t i o n .

47 7

>

Without s t o p p i n g a t t h e methods of s o l v i n g a n i n t e g r a l ( 6 . 6 ) ,

l e t us indicate t h a t the overall probability of finding positive and n e g a t i v e e r r o r s of measurements is 68.3% i n t h e range from 0 t o 0 , 95% from 0 t o 2 0 , and 99.7% from 0 t o 30. A table of values of t h e f u n c t i o n @(x - a ) f o r ( z - a ) f r o m 0 t o 5 0 i s g i v e n i n S u p p l e ment 6 .

For e x a m p l e , i f t h e mean s q u a r e e r r o r o f m e a s u r i n g t h e d r i f t a n g l e w i t h a Doppler meter i s e q u a l t o 1 5 ' , t h e n w i t h a p r o b a b i l i t y o f 95% i t i s p o s s i b l e t o e x p e c t t h a t t h e measurement e r r o r w i l l n o t exceed 3 0 ' , and w i t h a p r a c t i c a l l y complete p r o b a b i l i t y ( 9 9 . 7 % ) , 45'.
T h e v a l u e o f t h e mean s q u a r e e r r o r o f m e a s u r i n g a g i v e n k i n d of parameter permits evaluation of t h e accuracy of o t h e r parameters which h a v e a f u n c t i o n a l d e p e n d e n c e on t h e f i r s t .

Example: T h e mean s q u a r e e r r o r o f t h e d i r e c t i o n - f i n d i n g o f a n a i r c r a f t by means o f a g r o u n d d i r e c t i o n f i n d e r 0 = lo. D e t e r m i n e t h e l i m i t s of l i n e a r e r r o r i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e l a t e r a l d e v i a t i o n o f a n a i r c r a f t f r o m t h e l i n e o f a g i v e n p a t h w i t h a p r o b a b i l i t y o f 95% i f t h e a i r c r a f t i s l o c a t e d a t a d i s t a n c e o f 3 0 0 km f r o m t h e d i r e c tion finder.

Solution: With a p r o b a b i l i t y o f 9 5 % , t h e a n g u l a r e r r o r o f a d i r e c t i o n f i n d e r i n measuring does not exceed 2 O .

T h e r e f o r e , AZ(P = 9 5 % ) = 3 0 0 t g 2 O w 1 0 km. S o l v i n g t h e same /455 p r o b l e m f o r a p r a c t i c a l p r o b a b i l i t y o f 1 0 0 % (more p r e c i s e l y , 9 9 . 7 % ) , AZ(P = 1 0 0 % ) = 3 0 0 t g 3O = 1 5 k m . L e t u s now a s s u m e t h a t w e m u s t s o l v e t h e r e v e r s e p r o b l e m , ; . e . d e t e r m i n e t h e n e c e s s a r y a c c u r a c y o f a d i r e c t i o n f i n d e r which en s u r e s t h e given accuracy of measurements of l a t e r a l d e v i a t i o n s .

Example: AZma,(P = 1 0 0 % ) = 1 0 km. Determine t h e necessary a c c u r a c y o f a d i r e c t i o n f i n d e r f o r d i s t a n c e s u p t o 3 0 0 km.

Solution:
3.

30d = a r c t g 300

10

20.

Therefore,

ad = 0 . 7 0 .

Linear a n d Two-Dimensional Problems o f Probability Theory

The n o r m a l l a w o f r a n d o m v a r i a b l e d i s t r i b u t i o n e x a m i n e d i n t h e preceding paragraph i n c l u d e s t h e l i n e a r (one-dimensional) problem o f p r o b a b i l i t y t h e o r y f o r one p a r a m e t e r o f measurement. I n aircraft navigation, it i s o f t e n necessary t o d e a l with For e x a m p l e , i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e s e v e r a l measurement p a r a m e t e r s . p a t h o f a n a i r c r a f t w i t h r e s p e c t t o d i r e c t i o n by a u t o m a t i c n a v i g a t i o n a l d e v i c e s , on t h e b a s i s o f r e s u l t s o f m e a s u r i n g t h e d r i f t a n g l e and groundspeed of t h e a i r c r a f t w i t h a Doppler meter, t h e f o l l o w i n g e r r o r s e x e r t a n i n f l u e n c e on t h e a c c u r a c y o f c a l c u l a t i n g t h i s parameter: errors i n calculating the given f l i g h t angle; 478

e r r o r s i n measuring t h e c o u r s e , d r i f t a n g l e , and groundspeed; e r r o r s i n t h e operation of an i n t e g r a t i n g device, Each o f t h e s e f a c t o r s s e p a r a t e l y w i l l c r e a t e t h e f o l l o w i n g e r r o r components i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e p a t h w i t h r e s p e c t t o d i r e c t i o n :

A Z + = x sin A+ = Wt sin Arb; AZ1 = Wtsin Ay;
AZn =. Wt sin Aa;

AZw = AlVt sin (++ - +3);

If t h e i n d i c a t e d c o m p o n e n t s h a d t h e same s i g n a n d h a d a m a x i mum v a l u e w i t h i n t h e c a l i b r a t i o n l i m i t s o f e a c h o f t h e p a r a m e t e r s , t h e g e n e r a l e r r o r w o u l d b e e q u a l t o t h e a r i t h m e t i c sum o f t h e s e components. However, a c c o r d i n g t o t h e l a w o f n o r m a l random v a r i a b l e d i s t r i b u t i o n , e v e n when m e a s u r i n g o n e p a r a m e t e r , t h e maximum e r r o r i s encountered r a t h e r r a r e l y . The p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t a l l t h e e r r o r s /456 w i l l t a k e o n a maximum v a l u e , a n d e v e n o n e s i g n , w i l l b e e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y low.

I n s p i t e o f t h e f a c t t h a t we m u s t d e a l s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h many m e a s u r e d p a r a m e t e r s , t h e s o l u t i o n o f t h e a b o v e e x a m p l e i n c l u d e s a l i n e a r p r o b l e m o f p r o b a b i l i t y t h e o r y , s i n c e t h e random v a r i a b l e s a r e summed a l o n g o n e a x i s o f t h e c h o s e n f r a m e o f r e f e r e n c e o f t h e i r coordinates. To s o l v e s i m i l a r p r o b l e m s , t h e c o n c e p t o f t h e d i s p e r s i o n o f random v a r i a b l e s cr2 i s i n t r o d u c e d i n t o p r o b a b i l i t y t h e o r y .

I t i s known t h a t t h e l a w o f r a n d o m v a r i a b l e d i s t r i b u t i o n , o b t a i n e d by a d d i n g o t h e r random v a r i a b l e s which a r e s u b j e c t t o t h e Here, normal d i s t r i b u t i o n l a w , i s a l s o a normal d i s t r i b u t i o n l a w . t h e s c a t t e r o f a n o v e r a l l r a n d o m v a r i a b l e i s t h e sum o f t h e s c a t t e r s of t h e values being added.

I n o u r example o f c a l c u l a t i n g t h e p a t h o f a n a i r c r a f t by means of a u t o m a t i c n a v i g a t i o n a l d e v i c e s , t h e v a l u e u 2 i s t h e s c a t t e r o f 2 t h e sum.

(6.7)

The mean s q u a r e e r r o r o f t h e m e a s u r e m e n t i s e q u a l t o t h e s q u a r e r o o t of t h e scatter: u = T h e r e f o r e , t h e mean s q u a r e e r r o r o f t h e t o t a l v a l u e w i l l e q u a l t h e s q u a r e r o o t o f t h e sum o f t h e s c a t ters. For o u r e x a m p l e ,

479

The v a l u e a 2

zw

i n (6.8)

i s a small second-order value:

A, = A W s i n A+. z t

Therefore,

it i s n e c e s s a r y t o d i s r e g a r d t h i s v a l u e .

L e t u s assume t h a t t h e r e m a i n i n g v a l u e s i n c l u d e d i n ( 6 . 8 ) have b e e n mean s q u a r e e r r o r s a s f o l l o w s :

(+ i ,

= 20;

( i

= 20;

(ia

= 15;

as,

=0,5%of

x.

Since t h e first t h r e e values are s m a l l , t h e i r s i n c e s can be r e p l a c e d by a n g l e v a l u e s . T h e n , c o n s i d e r i n g lo e q u a l t o 0 . 0 1 7 b y 1 . 7 % X, t h e i r v a l u e c a n be e x p r e s s e d i n p e r c e n t o f t h e d i s t a n c e traversed:

a+, = 0,56%X;

aT = 0,56%X;

aa = 0,42%X;

Jz

-O , ~ % X ,

where

X = Wt.
/457

T h e r e f o r e , t h e mean s q u a r e e r r o r i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e p a t h w i t h respect t o direction is

H e n c e , it i s p o s s i b l e t o c o n s i d e r t h a t t h e mean s q u a r e e r r o r 1% i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e p a t h w i t h r e s p e c t t o d i r e c t i o n amounts t o of t h e distance traversed.

L e t u s assume t h a t w e h a v e s e t o u r s e l v e s t h e g o a l o f m a i n t a i n i n g a n a i r c r a f t w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s o f a n a i r r o u t e w i t h a w i d t h o f 2 0 km ( u p t o 1 0 km f r o m LGP) w i t h a p r o b a b i l i t y o f 9 5 % . Here t h e mean square e r r o r i n determining t h e i n i t i a l coordinates of t h e aircraft e q u a l s 2 km.

For a p r o b a b i l i t y o f 9 5 % , t h e e r r o r i n t h e i n i t i a l f o r m u l a t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t s c o o r d i n a t e s m u s t b e t a k e n a s 4 km, w h i l e t h e a c c u r a c y o f c a l c u l a t i n g t h e p a t h w i t h r e s p e c t t o d i r e c t i o n must be t a k e n a s 2 % . T h e maximum e r r o r i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e p a t h w i t h r e s p e c t t o d i s t a n c e must n o t e x c e e d

T h e v a l u e 9 km m u s t a m o u n t t o 2 % o f t h e d i s t a n c e c o v e r e d .
480

Therefore, the allowable length of the stage of the path between

the control points (5') must be not more than

If we set ourselves the goal of maintaining an aircraft within the limits of a route with a probability of 9 9 . 7 % , the accuracy of the initial display of coordinates and the calculation of the path of the aircraft would have to be t a k e n , a s 3 0 or a reading accuracy equal to 6 k m and an accuracy for calculating the path equal t o 3% X. Then

If we take the limits o f calibrating each parameter as 30,

then by adding the errors on the basis of the calibration rules we
would obtain the value

or, in our example,

AZmax:--;. 1,7+ 1 , 7 + 1,5+ 1 , 2 = 6 , 1 % ,

i.e., in the case when all errors have a maximum value and the same sign, the error of calculating the path can reach 6%. Since it reaches 2% with a probability of 9 5 % , with a practically complete probability of 99.7% it reaches 3%. The probability that calculating the path will occur with errors within the range of an overall calibration of the system is expressed by in hundred millionths of a percent. Therefore, when there is no threat of disturbing the safety of a flight, it is not necessary for practical purposes to take the limits of overall calibration into consideration.
/458

ai

e .

Fig. 6.3. Diagram of the Occurrence of E r r o r s in Determining the Position of an Aircraft: (a) with Multilateral. E r r o r s in Rearings; (b) With Unilateral E r r o r s .
481

I n t h e m a j o r i t y of cases, t h e r e i s s u f f i c i e n t e r r o r i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e p a t h t o c a l c u l a t e w i t h a p r o b a b i l i t y o f 95%, and o n l y i n e s p e c i a l l y r e s p o n s i b l e cases, w i t h 99.7%. The m a j o r i t y o f p r o b l e m s i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e a c c u r a c y o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n or m e a s u r i n g i t s s e p a r a t e p a r a m e t e r s w i t h t h e u s e o f some m e t h o d r e d u c e s d i r e c t l y t o l i n e a r p r o b l e m s p f p r o b a b i l i t y theory. The f i n a l r e s u l t o f s o l v i n g a l l t h e p r o b l e m s o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n must be one-dimensional, s i n c e t h e g o a l s and r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r accuracy of aircraft navigation with respect t o distance, d i r e c t i o n , and f l i g h t a l t i t u d e are d i f f e r e n t .

A t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e , t h e r e a r e no n a v i g a t i o n a l systems which determine t h e p o s i t i o n of an aircraft i n three-dimensional space. Therefore, t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r s o l v i n g v o l u m e t r i c problems i n proba b i l i t y theory is superfluous. However, a number o f n a v i g a t i o n a l s y s t e m s s u c h a s a h y p e r b o l i c , t w o - p o l e g o n i o m e t e r , or g o n i o m e t r i c r a n g e f i n d e r ( i f o n l y t h e l o c a t i o n o f a g r o u n d b e a c o n i s known f o r t h e LGP o f a g i v e n s e g m e n t ) , p e r m i t t h e s o l u t i o n o f a p r o b l e m i n determining an a i r c r a f t ' s coordinates i n two-dimensional space.
An e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e a c c u r a c y o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n a l o n g each of t h e axes of t h e c o o r d i n a t e system chosen f o r a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n , i n t h i s case, can be c a r r i e d o u t o n l y a f t e r s o l v i n g a onedimensional' problem i n p r o b a b i l i t y t h e o r y .

L e t u s assume t h a t w e have an o b l i q u e - a n g l e d s u r f a c e system of a i r c r a f t p o s i t i o n l i n e s , e a c h of w h i c h d o e s n o t c o i n c i d e w i t h t h e given f l i g h t path (Fig. 6.3, a,b).

The l i n e a r e r r o r i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e f i r s t ( r l ) a n d s e c o n d ( r 2 ) a i r c r a f t p o s i t i o n l i n e s d e p e n d s on b o t h t h e a c c u r a c y o f m e a s u r i n g t h e n a v i g a t i o n a l p a r a m e t e r and i t s g r a d i e n t .

The g r a d i e n t of a n a v i g a t i o n a 2 p a r a m e t e r i s t h e r a t i o o f i t s /455 i n c r e a s e t o t h e movement o f a n a i r c r a f t i n a d i r e c t i o n p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e p o s i t i o n l i n e s of t h e operating region of t h e system

g =
da -dr

'

(6.9)

where g i s t h e g r a d i e n t o f t h e n a v i g a t i o n a l p a r a m e t e r , and a i s t h e n a v i g a t i o n a l parameter being measured.

For e x a m p l e , i f t h e n a v i g a t i o n a l s y s t e m i s a g o n i o m e t e r , t h e n
g = d r . - d- S ' =- r

dU

dA

where A i s t h e a z i m u t h o f t h e a i r c r a f t and S i s t h e d i s t a n c e from

482

t h e ground beacon t o p o i n t PA.

I n t h i s case,

With t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e c o n c e p t of t h e g r a d i e n t of a navigational parameter, a l l t h e e x i s t i n g coordinate systems reduce t o a g e n e r a l i z e d s y s t e m , i . e . , t h e p r o b l e m s of d e t e r m i n i n g t h e a c c u r a c y o f n a v i g a t i o n a l m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e s o l v e d on t h e b a s i s o f a g e n e r a l scheme, i n d e p e n d e n t of t h e geometry o f a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e navigational device. I n F i g . 6 . 3 a , b two p o s s i b l e c a s e s of t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f e r r o r s i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e p o s i t i o n o f a n a i r c r a f t on t h e b a s i s o f t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n o f p o s i t i o n l i n e s a r e shown: ! a > E r r o r s i n r l a n d r2 h a v e d i f f e r e n t s i g n s ; i n t h i s c a s e , t h e measured p o s i t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t l i e s i n an a c u t e a n g l e between the actual position lines. This leads t o l a r g e r e r r o r s of deter mination.

Errors i n r l a n d 2-2 h a v e i d e n t i c a l s i g n s ; t h e m e a s u r e d (b) p o s i t i o n of t h e a i r c r a f t l i e s i n an obtuse angle between t h e p o s i t i o n lines. The e r r o r s i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t i n t h i s c a s e a r e c l o s e t o t h e l i n e a r e r r o r s o f one b e a r i n g .

I t i s necessary t o n o t e t h a t t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of e r r o r s i n rl a n d r 2 w i t h t h e same s i g n i n t h e m a j o r i t y o f c a s e s i s more t h a n t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of e r r o r s with d i f f e r e n t signs. For e x a m p l e , i n t a k i n g b e a r i n g s w i t h a r a d i o c o m p a s s , t h e e r r o r component as a r e s u l t o f an e r r o r i n m e a s u r i n g t h e a i r c r a f t c o u r s e w i l l be g e n e r a l f o r two If t h e a n g l e b e t w e e n t h e b e a r i n g s i s s u f f i c i e n t l y measurements. a c u t e , t h e r a d i o d e v i a t i o n w i l l h a v e e i t h e r o n e s i g n or d i f f e r e n t s i g n s , b u t a s m a l l v a l u e i n any c a s e .
A s i m i l a r r e l a t i o n s h i p between measurement e r r o r s i n p r o b a b i l i t y theory i s c a l l e d correzation ( p ) .

The g e n e r a l e r r o r i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t i n our c a s e w i l l be ( F i g . 6 . 4 ) :

or

(6.10) Formula (6.10) c h a r a c t e r i z e s only t h e magnitude of e r r o r i n 483 /460 -

determining the position of an aircraft on the basis of two position lines with known errors in measurement f o r each of them. However, it does not give us an idea of the nature o f the distribution of the indicated errors around the point of the actual position of the aircraft (center of scatter). In contrast t o a linear problem, where the probability of an
overall error in several measurements is examined, in a two-dimen
sional problem it is. necessary t o examine the products of the
probabilities of these errors.
For simplicity of argument, let u s assume that we have a
rectangular coordinate system (Fig. 6.5); let us set ourselves the
goal of limiting the area within which the aircraft is located with
a probability of 95%. Here, the mean square errors of measuring
the two position lines will be considered identical.
Let us examine a certain large number of measurements (e.g.,
10,000) and let us see what will be the probability that the

measured position of the aircraft will be i n an exterior angle at a distance from the center of the area of scatter which exceeds the diagonal of a square constructed with errors 20, and 2 a 2 . Since the probability of an error in the first measurement exceeding 2 0 equals 5 % , then 500 of 10,000 measurements must be be yond the limits o f a side of the indicated square. The remaining 9,500 measurements lie in the range from zero to 2 0 , and there is no need to calculate them during common measurements with the second position line. It is obvious that of the 500 remaining measurements, where an aircraft will be located a distance more than 2 0 , from the first position line, the errors in the second bearing will exceed the value 202 only in 5% of the cases, and thus there will be only 25 cases (or 0.25%) simultaneously exceeding the errors of the values /461 2 0 , and 202.

\
' \

Fig. 6.4. Total E r r o r in Determining the Position of an Aircraft.

484

Fig. 6.5. Probability of the Simultaneous Yield of E r r o r s Be yond the Limits of the Given Values.

The e x a m p l e e x a m i n e d shows c l e a r l y t h a t t h e p r o b a b i l i t y d e n s i t y of e r r o r s d i r e c t e d toward t h e i n d i c a t e d angle diminishes sharply. I t i s p r a c t i c a l l y p o s s i b l e t o c o n s i d e r t h a t a l a r g e number o f t h e common m e a s u r e m e n t s o f t h e f i r s t a n d s e c o n d p o s i t i o n l i n e s l i e i n a c i r c l e , t h e r a d i u s o f w h i c h e q u a l s 2al = 202, w h i l e t h e l i m i t o f equal p r o b a b i l i t y of d e v i a t i o n s from t h e c e n t e r of s c a t t e r i n g w i l l be a c i r c l e . I n g e n e r a l , when t h e e r r o r s i n t h e f i r s t b e a r i n g a r e n o t e q u a l t o t h e e r r o r s i n t h e second b e a r i n g , t h i s boundary has t h e shape of an e l l i p s e .
If w e examine a number o f c a s e s i n , w h i c h a n a i r c r a f t i s w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s o f a n e l l i p s e w i t h a x e s e q u a l t o 2a, i t t u r n s o u t t o b e s i g n i f i c a n t l y l e s s t h a n 95%, s i n c e e v e n i n r e c t a n g l e s c o n s t r u c t e d w i t h s i d e s e q u a l t o 2 a t h e r e w i l l b e 95% o f 95%, or 90.025%.

H o w e v e r , t h i s i s o f v a l u e o n l y when t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f a n a i r c r a f t ' s e n t e r i n g a g i v e n area i s examined. From t h e p o i n t o f view o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n , it i s n o t t h e l o c a t i o n of an a i r c r a f t i n a g i v e n a r e a , b u t t h e d e v i a t i o n from t h e g i v e n p a t h t r a j e c t o r y and t h e r e t a i n i n g of f l i g h t d i s t a n c e w i t h r e s p e c t t o t i m e which Therefore, t h e r e s u l t s of adding t h e p r o b a b i l i t i e s play a role. are again d i s t r i b u t e d according t o d i r e c t i o n . This again raises t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f e a c h o f t h e m t o 95% ( F i g . 6.6). I n t h e f i g u r e , an e l l i p s e of measurement e r r o r s , l o c a t e d i n a c e r t a i n p o s i t i o n r e l a t i v e t o t h e path l i n e of an aircraft, i s shown. I n t h e above case, t h e p o s s i b l e e r r o r s i n measuring t h e coordinates of an aircraft with a given p r o b a b i l i t y are determined by t a n g e n t s , p a r a l l e l s , and p e r p e n d i c u l a r s t o t h e l i n e o f t h e g i v e n The d i s t a n c e p a t h ( t h e orthodrome c o o r d i n a t e s are k e p t i n mind). o f t h e t a n g e n t s from p o i n t PA, as w e l l as t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o f c o r r e l a t i o n dependence between t h e e r r o r s i n t h e maintenance of t h e p a t h w i t h r e s p e c t t o d i s t a n c e and d i r e c t i o n , w i l l depend on t h e s h a p e d i m e n s i o n s , and o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e e l l i p s e o f e r r o r s . The c o r r e l a t i o n dependence p l a y s a r o l e only a t t u r n i n g p o i n t s i n t h e r o u t e , when e r r o r s o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o d i s t a n c e d e f i n i t e l y become e r r o r s o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o d i r e c t i o n , and v i c e v e r s a .

I@
t
' J

F i g . 6.6. E l l i p s e o f E r r o r s i n t h e Aircraft P o s i t i o n .

The p h y s i c a l s e n s e o f t h e above a r g u m e n t s becomes c l e a r i f w e assume t h a t t h e e l l i p s e o f e r rors c o n s t r u c t e d f r o m mean s q u a r e measurement e r r o r s can be a r r a n g e d with t h e major a x i s both i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e p a t h l i n e and /462
perpendicular t o it. Then t h e accuracy of aircraft navigation w i t h re.spect t o d i s t a n c e and d i r e c t i o n c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d by mean s q u a r e v a l . u e s o f t h e a x i s o f the ellipse. Obviously t h e

o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e a x i s o f t h e e l l i p s e a t a n a n g l e t o t h e l i n e of t h e given p a t h occupies an i n t e r m e d i a t e p o s i t i o n between t h o s e i n the figures. The a c c u r a c y o f m a i n t e n a n c e o f t h e p a t h a l o n g t h e a x e s o f t h e c o o r d i n a t e s i n t h i s c a s e i s d e t e r m i n e d i n t h e same way as f o r t h e case shown i n ( F i g . 6 . 7 a , b ) . However, a c o r r e l a t i o n dependence between t h e s e measurements w i l l be seen. I n t h e above examples of a c i r c l e and e l l i p s e of e r r o r s , w e assumed t h a t t h e a i r c r a f t p o s i t i o n l i n e s were s i t u a t e d a t r i g h t a n g l e s t o one a n o t h e r , a l t h o u g h a n a n g l e t o t h e g i v e n p a t h l i n e i s p o s s i b l e , and t h a t t h e c o r r e l a t i o n dependence between t h e measure ments of t h e p o s i t i o n l i n e s i s a b s e n t . L e t u s now p r e s e n t , w i t h o u t d e r i v a t i o n , t h e f o r m u l a s w h i c h c a n be used as a b a s i s f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e dimensions and o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e a x e s o f a n e l l i p s e f o r a s i t u a t i o n when t h e p o s i t i o n l i n e s are s i t u a t e d a t an angle (not a r i g h t a n g l e ) with an independent a c c u r a c y o f m e a s u r c m e n t f o r e a c h of t h e m ( c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t equal t o zero):

(6.11)

tg 2.1 =
,c ;

sin 20

$ ., 26) ;cos

'

(6.12)

where a i s t h e m a j o r s e m i a x i s o f t h e e l l i p s e ; b i s t h e minor semia x i s of t h e e l l i p s e ; w i s t h e angle between t h e p o s i t i o n l i n e s ; e i s t h e p a r a m e t e r o f t h e e l l i p s e chosen f o r a g i v e n p r o b a b i l i t y ; and c1 i s t h e a n g l e b e t w e e n t h e b i s e c t o r o f t h e a n g l e o f i n t e r s e c t i o n o f t h e p o s i t i o n l i n e s and t h e m a j o r a x i s o f t h e e l l i p s e ( i t i s p l o t t e d i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e p o s i t i o n l i n e with t h e smallest e r r o r ) . These f o r m u l a s a r e used i n t h e m a j o r i t y of cases, s i n c e t h e a c c u r a c y o f d e t e r m i n i n g p o s i t i o n l i n e s i s u s u a l l y i n d e p e n d e n t or t h e c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t i s unknown. Only i n i n d i v i d u a l c a s e s , e . g . , i n d e t e r m i n i n g p o s i t i o n l i n e s with an a i r c r a f t r a d i o compass, i s t h e c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t d e t e r m i n e d r a t h e r s i m p l y , s i n c e p a r t o f t h e e r r o r of m e a s u r i n g t h e For b e a r i n g ( d e p e n d i n g on t h e a i r c r a f t c o u r s e ) w i l l be g e n e r a l . example: (scoUL1se 3 O ; 0 = = 2O.

The g e n e r a l mean s q u a r e e r r o r i n m e a s u r i n g a b e a r i n g w i l l b e :

48 6

G A=

I n m e a s u r i n g two b e a r i n g s on one a i r c r a f t c o u r s e , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o e x p e c t t h a t b o t h e r r o r s w i l l b e s h i f t e d i n one d i r e c t i o n by t h e mean s q u a r e e r r o r o f m e a s u r i n g t h e a i r c r a f t c o u r s e , i n o u r c a s e by 2 O , which amounts t o 0.55 o f t h e t o t a l e r r o r . Therefore, the c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t P = 0.55. A s shown a b o v e ( s e e F i g . 6 . 3 1 , t h e p r e s e n c e o f a t o t a l compo n e n t in t h e e r r o r s o f m e a s u r i n g p o s i t i o n l i n e s r a i s e s t h e a c c u r a c y of determining t h e p o s i t i o n of an aircraft. According t o (6.10), s i n c e t h e t h i r d t e r m under t h e r a d i c a l i n t h e numerator can be given both p o s i t i v e and n e g a t i v e v a l u e s , f o r independent measure ments it i s p o s s i b l e t o w r i t e

/463

ar

= --

sin w

(6.13)

With d e p e n d e n t m e a s u r e m e n t s , t h e t h i r d t e r m u n d e r t h e r a d i c a l must b e m u l t i p l i e d by t h e c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t p and ( 6 . 1 3 ) t a k e s t h e form:

(6.14)

w equal t o

With a c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t e q u a l t o z e r o , g o o , (6.14) is transformed i n t o (6.13).

or w i t h a n g l e

I n t h e p r e s e n c e o f c o r r e l a t i o n , t h e d i m e n s i o n s and o r i e n t a t i o n of t h e a x e s of t h e e l l i p s e are determined a c c o r d i n g t o t h e f o r m u l a s :

(6.15)

(6.16)

The l e n g t h o f t h e m i n o r a x i s o f a n e l l i p s e i s a l s o d e t e r m i n e d on t h e b a s i s o f ( 6 . 1 6 ) , w i t h r e p l a c e m e n t o f t h e p o s i t i v e s i g n i n f r o n t of t h e r a d i c a l by a n e g a t i v e s i g n .

487

I n p r o b a b i l i t y t h e o r y , t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of l o c a t i n g a n o b j e c t within t h e l i m i t s of t h e indicated e l l i p s e of e r r o r s (given d e f i n i t e v a l u e s of t h e m a g n i t u d e e ) i s e x a m i n e d . Since w e have a g r e e d t o examine t h e a c c u r a c y o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n s e p a r a t e l y w i t h r e s p e c t t o d i s t a n c e and d i r e c t i o n , t h i s prob l e m w i l l not interest us. W a r e u s i n g t h e e l l i p s e for a n e v a l u a e t i o n of t h e accuracy.of a i r c r a f t navigation with r e s p e c t t o both d i s t a n c e and d i r e c t i o n .
L e t U S a s s u m e t h a t w e know t h e o r i e n t a t i o n o f a n a i r c r a f t ' s p o s i t i o n l i n e s a n d a g i v e n p a t h l i n e on a map, a n d h a v e d e t e r m i n e d , o n t h e b a s i s o f ( 6 . 1 1 ) a n d ( 6 . 1 2 ) or ( 6 . 1 5 ) a n d ( 6 . 1 6 ) , t h e l e n g t h s o f t h e a x e s o f t h e e l l i p s e 2a a n d 2 b , a s w e l l a s t h e o r i e n t a t i o n of t h e m a j o r a x i s of t h e e l l i p s e w i t h p a r a m e t e r e = 1 (mean s q u a r e e l l i p s e 1.

I n t h i s c a s e , t h e mean s q u a r e e r r o r i n t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o f t h e p a t h w i t h r e s p e c t t o d i s t a n c e and d i r e c t i o n i s d e t e r m i n e d by t a n g e n t s t o t h e e l l i p s e a t p o i n t s Xo and Z o , p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e p a t h l i n e , a n d a t p o i n t s Xi a n d Z 1 , p a r a l l e l t o i t ( F i g . 6 . 7 ) .

I t i s p o s s i b l e t o show t h a t t h e mean s q u a r e e r r o r s i n m a i n in t a i n i n g t h e p a t h ( w i t h r e s p e c t t o d i s t a n c e ox a n d d i r e c t i o n 0 , ) t h i s case a r e

(6.17)

w h e r e c1 i s t h e a n g l e b e t w e e n t h e l i n e o f t h e g i v e n p a t h a n d t h e major a x i s of t h e e l l i p s e . I n F i g . 6 . 7 , i t i s o b v i o u s t h a t i n a g e n e r a l c a s e , when t h e /464 major a x i s of an e l l i p s e does n o t c o i n c i d e w i t h t h e g i v e n p a t h l i n e or t h e l i n e p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o i t , t h e r e i s a c o r r e l a t i o n d e p e n d e n c e between t h e e r r o r s i n t h e maintenance of t h e p a t h w i t h r e s p e c t t o d i s t a n c e and d i r e c t i o n . A c t u a l l y , i f w e have a p o s i t i v e e r r o r i n determining t h e X c o o r d i n a t e , t h e measured p o s i t i o n of t h e a i r c r a f t i s l o c a t e d i n t h e The m a t h e m a t i c a l e x p e c t a t i o n o f r i g h t - h a n d s i d e of t h e e l l i p s e . t h e v a l u e of t h e Z - c o o r d i n a t e i n t h i s case w i l l be found i n t h e m i d d l e of t h e c h o r d of t h e e l l i p s e , p a r a l l e l t o O Z a n d i n t e r s e c t i n g t h e X-axis a t a p o i n t c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o A X . The d i a m e t e r o f t h e e l l i p s e , d i v i d i n g i t s c h o r d s (which are

48 8

p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o some o t h e r d i a m e t e r ) i n h a l f ,

is called the

conjugate diameter.

-2

The d i r e c t i o n o f t h e c o n j u g a t e d i a m e t e r i s d e t e r m i n e d ac cording t o t h e formula

bz a (tg90-u)'

tgp =
X

(6.18 )

Fig. 6.7. C o r r e l a t i o n Depende n c e o f t h e Errors i n t h e Cont r o l Path with Respect t o D i s t a n c e and D i r e c t i o n .

I n p r o b a b i l i t y theory , l i n eS which d e t e r m i n e t h e dependence b e t w e e n random v a r i a b l e s a r e s i m i l a r t o t h e c o n j u g a t e diameters of an e l l i p s e of e r r o r s . In the case d e s c r i b e d by u s , t h e y a r e c a l l e d r e g r e s s i o n lines, w h i l e t h e a n g u l a r c o e f f i c i e n t s o f t h e se l i n e s (tangents of t h e angles t o t h e a x e s o f t h e frame o f r e f e r e n c e ) a r e c a l l e d angular c o e f

ficients of regression.
I n our c a s e , t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e c o n j u g a t e d i a m e t e r c o n n e c t i n g t h e e r r o r s o f m e a s u r e m e n t o f t h e Z - c o o r d i n a t e w i t h e r r o r s for t h e X - c o o r d i n a t e i s d e t e r m i n e d o n t h e b a s i s o f (6.18), w h e r e a i s t h e r o t a t i o n a n g l e o f t h e m a j o r a x i s o f t h e e l l i p s e r e l a t i v e t o t h e Xaxis. The d i r e c t i o n o f t h e s e c o n d c o n j u g a t e d i a m e t e r , w h i c h c o n n e c t s t h e measurement e r r o r s of t h e X-coordinate w i t h t h e e r r o r s of t h e Z-coordinate, i s determined according t o t h e formula
tg
62
=-

a tg a 2

(6.19)

Here,

t h e angular c o e f f i c i e n t s of regression w i l l be:

(6.20)

489

4.

C o m b i n a t i o n o f M e t h o d s o f M a t h e m a t i c a l A n a l y s i s and M a t h e m a t i c a l S t a t i s t i c s in E v a l u a t i n g t h e A c c u r a c y o f Navigational Measurements

/465

In the preceding paragraphs, we examined methods of mathematical

statistics (probability theory) used t o evaluate the' accuracy of
navigational measurements. As a group, these devices permit the
solution of any two-dimensional or linear problem encountered in
aircraft navigation.
However, in examining the methods of probability theory, we
assumed that the accuracy (in general, mean square error) of
measurements of separate parameters was known.
Actually, the accuracy of measurements of navigational parame
ters has a functional dependence on other physical or geometric
values connected with the principles of measuring or determining a
navigational parameter.
Since this functional dependence is always known, the simplest
(and presently most universal) method of determining the accuracy
of a navigational parameter is that of the variation of independent
variables included in the equations of formulas which determine a
navigational parameter within the limits in which the indicated
variations are encountered in the practice of aircraft navigation.

F o r example, the basic equation for an orthodrome which deter mines its shift in a geographic coordinate system has the form: c t g hoi = tg Y Z c t g y1 cosec Ak - c t g ~ h .

Let U S determine the accuracy of solving the above equation, assuming that the measurement accuracy of each of the parameters included in the equation is known. The dependence of the accuracy of the solution of the equation
on the accuracy of measuring the coordinates of $2 is expressed by
the equation:
(6.21)

The final result of solving (6.21) would have t o be viewed as

an arc tangent of the right-hand side. However, from the point of
view of a mathematical solution, this would lead to a significant
complication of the given problem. It is advisable to use the
following method:

dctgA -=-.- 0 ,
4 2

dctgho,
diol

diol
dF2

490

II I

or

cosec2 Aol.

Therefore,

(6.22)

T h u s , i f t h e mean s q u a r e e r r o r i n m e a s u r i n g t h e @ 2 c o o r d i n a t e e q u a l s ~ $ 2 ,i t c a u s e s a n e r r o r i n d e t e r m i n i n g 1 0 1 :
ahOlp, =

-a
91

ctg ' p ~ cosec Ah sec2 y z cosecz Lol

(6.23)

The d e p e n d e n c e o f t h e a c c u r a c y i n d e t e r m i n g A 0 1 on t h e a c c u r a c y / 4 6 6 of coordinate $1 can be obtained analogously:

tg y2 cosec A L cosec2 'p1 cosecz hol For t h e p a r a m e t e r A A
a b p , = GP1

. ,

(6.24)

ahOlAA GAL =

t g v z c.t g pl c t g Ahcosec Ah-coseczdh . cosecz h,l

(6.25)

The t o t a l e r r o r i n s o l v i n g t h e e q u a t i o n w i l l b e :

S i n c e we h a v e e x a m i n e d a s a n e x a m p l e t h e a c c u r a c y o f s o l v i n g t h e b a s i c e q u a t i o n f o r an orthodrome, it i s a p p r o p r i a t e t o examine t h e a c c u r a c y o f s o l v i n g a l l t h e s p e c i a l e q u a t i o n s which d e t e r m i n e i t s parameters: (a) I n i t i a l azimuth of an orthodrome:

Using t h i s method o f t r a n s i t i o n from t h e a r c t a n g e n t of t h e a n g l e t o i t s v a l u e , as i n t h e preceding example, w e o b t a i n :

491

(6.26)

The moving azimuth of an orthodrome:

t g a i = - . t g hoi s i n yi '
aai
=- ( c t g 'pi cosec y i t g Aoi cos2 a i )a'pi;
'pi

(6.27)

= ( s e d hoi cosec yi cos2 ai)d 0 i ;

aai = 1/.zaiYi

aa.
(A01

+ a2aiioi :

Coordinates of intermediate points:

(6.28)

Distance along the orthodrome from its source:

cos

si = cos k0i cos pi;

SiohOi;

0s.

Qoi
'pi

= sin hoi cos ' p i cosec

asi

= COS bi sin y i cosec S i ~ y i ;

(6.29)

above formulas (6.23) t o (6.29) have the following practi

cal significance.
Let us assume that in solving the basic and special equations
of an orthodrome, we use trigonometric tables to five decimal
places or a computer with 18 binary digit bits (which are also
492

equivalent t o 5 decimal places). In the first case, the error in the vaiue of each independent variable wili have a magnitude of from 0 - 5 units of the sixth sign, and (in the second case) from 0 - 10 units of the sixth sign. Substituting the values of the possible errors of each independent variable into these formulas, we will obtain the possible errors in the solution of the equations Thus, it is possible t o determine the necessary accuracy of the tables (number of signs) o r the computers (number of orders) for obtaining a satisfactory result in solving equations within the given value limits of the independent variables. Calculations show that for geographic latitudes from 0 t o 8 0 , while solving equations f o r an orthodrome, it is necessary t o use tables with 6 decimal points or computers with 21-22 binary digit bits.

5 . I n f l u e n c e o f t h e Geometry o f a N a v i g a t i o n a l System on t h e Accuracy o f Determining A i r c r a f t C o o r d i n a t e s

The accuracy of determining the coordinates of an aircraft by
means of navigational systems depends both on the accuracy of
measuring a navigational parameter and on the geometry of the navi
gational system being used.
Means of solving one-dimensional problems of probability
theory for a generalized oblique-angled coordinate system were
examined above. The azimuth coordinate system was given as an
example for determining the gradient of a navigational parameter.
Since it is necessary to know the value and direction of the gradient vector ( g ) of the navigational parameter to solve problems in a generalized coordinate system, only the reduction of different coordinate systems t o a generalized system is examined in this section. Two-pole goniometric, two-pole circular and one-pole range-
finding are most simply reduced t o a generalized coordinate system.

As has already been indicated, for an azimuthal system at

distances on the order of up to 3,000 k m , we can consider

g =' S
1 -.

(6.30)

where S is the distance from the aircraft t o the ground radio beacon.

F o r greater distances, we must consider the convergence of the /468, position lines as a result of the spher'icity of the Earth's surface, and ( 6 . 3 0 ) assumes the form:

493

g = RsinS

'

(6.31)

where R i s t h e r a d i u s of t h e E a r t h and
dr = dAR s i n S ;

where d r i s t h e i n c r e a s e i n l i n e a r e r r o r ; d A i s t h e i n c r e a s e i n azimuth. The d i r e c t i o n s o f t h e p o s i t i o n l i n e s i n t h i s c a s e c a n b e d e t e r mined a s t h e moving a z i m u t h s of t h e o r t h o d r o m e s a t a g i v e n p o i n t M , which i n t e r s e c t f o c i o f t h e s y s t e m s A 1 and A 2 .

W must t a k e p o i n t e i n t h i s case,

M as t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t of b o t h orthodromes;

T h e p r o b l e m o f f i n d i n g a z i m u t h s o f t h e p o s i t i o n l i n e s for a t w' 0 - p o l e c i r c u l a r s y s t e m i s s o l v e d a n a l o g o u s l y , w i t h t h e s o l e d i f f er e n c e b e i n g t h a t t h e v e c t o r - g r a d i e n t w i l l n o t be d i r e c t e d p e r P en d i c u l a r t o t h e a z i m u t h s o f t h e o r t h o d r o m e s , b u t a l o n g t h e s e o rthodromes; a c c o r d i n g l y , t h e f o r m u l a s f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e a z i m u t h s of t h e p o s i t i o n l i n e s t a k e t h e f o r m :

S i n c e t h e d e n s i t y o f c i r c u l a r p o s i t i o n l i n e s l/g d o e s n o t d e pend on d i s t a n c e ,
g = 1: dr = d R u Ar = h R ,

w h e r e AR i s t h e e r r o r i n m e a s u r i n g d i s t a n c e .
494

In goniometric range-finding systems, the task of finding the

density and position of the azimuthal position lines is solved in
the same way as for goniometric systems. In the case of circular
position lines at point M , their direction will differ from the
azimuthal lines by 90.
The axes of the ellipses of errors in this case will coincide
with the position lines. Here, at short distances from the focus
of the system (without taking into account the convergence of the
azimuthal position lines), the minor axis of the ellipse coincides
with the position line which is determined most accurately (usually
the circular line). At great distances, we must also consider the
convergence of the azimuthal position lines according to (6.31).
The problem of conversion to the generalized coordinate system from the hyperbolic or hyperbolic-elliptical system is somewhat more complicated. Let us use (1.74) f o r this purpose:
cos h , =
cos

/469

S cos 2c - cos ( I- 2a) I S sin SIs i n 2c

Developing cos(S1 - 2 a ) , we can present this formula in the form (Fig. 6.8a):
cos A1

--

cos SI cos 2c - cos SI cos 2a

- s i n SIs i n 2a

Sin s1s i h c

Fig. 6.8.

Determining Hyperbolic Position Lines: (b) Distance.

(a) Direction;

The direction of the position lines at point M can be deter

mined after differentiating (1.74) on the basis of s:

dh, --

- cos SI s i n 2c (cos SI cos 2c - s i n SIcos 2a s i n SIs i n 2a) sin2 S sin2 2c s i n 11 I dS1 cos - s i n S1 s i n 2c (sin SIcos 2 ~ - sin SI 2a - cos SI sin 2a) sin2 SIsin22c s i n A,

(6.32)

495

The h y p e r b o l i c p o s i t i o n l i n e i n t e r s e c t s t h e a z i m u t h l i n e o f p o i n t M, drawn f r o m t h e f o c u s F 1 , a t a n a n g l e
a = arctg-

dS

s.

(6.33)

L e t u s determine t h e density of t h e hyperbolic p o s i t i o n l i n e s a f t e r d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g ( 1 . 7 4 ) on t h e b a s i s o f t h e p a r a m e t e r and w i t h a constant S (Fig. 6.8, b):

- dhl _
da

sin S sin 2c (sin S cos 2a - cos S sin 2a) I I I * sin2 SI sin2 2c sin A, dh --da da
dr

(6.34) (6.35)

Then,

s cos a .

For c o n v e r s i o n a g e n e r a l i z e d c o o r d i n a t e s y s t e m f r o m a h y p e r b o l i c - e l l i p t i c a l s y s t e m , i t i s s u f f i c i e n t t o s o l v e t h e p r o b l e m for hyperbolic position l i n e s.

The d i r e c t i o n s o f t h e e l l i p t i c a l p o s i t i o n l i n e s a r e t h e n e a s i l y The d e n s i t y o f determined as b e i n g normal t o t h e h y p e r b o l i c ones. t h e e l l i p t i c a l l i n e s i s c o n s t a n t f o r t h e whole a r e a of t h e a c t i v i t y /470 of t h e s y s t e m , s i n c e t h e s e l i n e s do n o t d i v e r g e . The r e d u c t i o n o f s p e c i a l c o o r d i n a t e s y s t e m s o f r a d i o - e n g i n e e r i n g devices t o a generalized system permits t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of e l l i p s e s of e r r o r s i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e c o o r d i n a t e s o f an a i r c r a f t by means o f t h e s e d e v i c e s and t h e e s t i m a t i o n o f t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o f t h e a i r c r a f t p a t h w i t h r e s p e c t t o d i s t a n c e and d i r e c t i o n . I n some c a s e s , t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e o p e r a t i o n a l a r e a o f t h e system a r e d e s i g n a t e d , w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s of which t h e dimensions of t h e a x e s of t h e e l l i p s e s of e r r o r s do n o t exceed t h e g i v e n v a l u e s . The o p e r a t i o n a l a r e a s o f t h e s y s t e m c a n b e c o n s t r u c t e d on t h e b a s i s o f o t h e r f a c t o r s ( f o r e x a m p l e , on t h e b a s i s o f t h e a c c e p t e d a c c u r a c y o f t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o f t h e p a t h w i t h r e s p e c t t o d i r e c t i o n a l o n e or with respect t o distance alone. The e x a m i n e d m e a n s o f e v a l u a t i n g t h e a c c u r a c y o f t h e n a v i g a t i o n a l m e a s u r e m e n t s i n c l u d e , on t h e w h o l e , r a d i o - e n g i n e e r i n g devices. However, t h e a c c u r a c y o f t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f a n a i r c r a f t p a t h by means o f g e o t e c h n i c a l means o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n c a n b e The a c c u r a c y of examined w i t h an a z i m u t h a l r a n g e - f i n d i n g system. d e t e r m i n i n g a i r c r a f t c o o r d i n a t e s by a s t r o n o m i c a l means c a n b e examined by a c i r c u l a r s y s t e m .

496

6.

Evaluation of t h e Accuracy o f Measuring a Navigational Parameter

In the preceding paragraph, the effect of the geometry of a

navigational system on the accuracy of determining aircraft coordi
nates (assuming that the accuracy of measuring a navigational param
eter is known) was examined.
By measured navigational parameter of a system, we mean the
value being measured at the output of a navigational device: azi
muth, course angle, distance, difference in distances, or sum of
distances t o objects on the ground.
In addition t o measured navigational parameters, there are
parameters which are determined by calculating the path of an air
craft on the basis of its speed and time components; for example,
the orthodrome or geographic coordinates of the aircraft.
Let us examine briefly the reasons for errors and the methods
of evaluating the accuracy of measurements or determinations of the
indicated parameters.
During visual aircraft navigation with the use of geotechnical
devices and with the use of astronomical and nonautonomous radio
devices, the calculation of the aircraft path at each succeeding
stage is carried out on the basis of the results of measuring the
parameters of aircraft movement in the preceding stage. In this
case, two factors will influence the accuracy of aircraft naviga
tion:
(a) The accuracy of juncture (determination of the location
of the aircraft) at the beginning and end of the control stage of
the path.

(b)

Wind variation at flight altitude from stage t o stage.

The accuracy of visual junctures depends on flight altitude

and on methods of measuring both the vertical and course angles o f
reference points.
Visual methods of aircraft navigation are usually used at low
flight altitudes, in conjunction with closely spaced reference
points. Therefore, the errors of juncture are very small, and do /471
not have values comparable t o the wind variation at flight altitude.
The accuracy of measuring a navigational parameter with a radio-navigational system depends on the principle of operation, the frequency range used, the distance of the measurements, the effect of a relief or the ionizing layers of the atmosphere,and also (partially) on the physical state of the atmosphere (optical density). In a number of cases, the accuracy of measuring a navi gational parameter of a radio-navigational system is evaluated statistically on the basis of the results of tests of the system
497

_-

u'nder d i f f e r e n t o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s . The a c c u r a c y o f n a v i g a t i o n a l j u n c t u r e s o f a n a i r c r a f t b y means o f n a v i g a t i o n a l s y s t e m s i s e v a l u a t e d by t h e means s e t f o r t h i n t h e p r e c e d i n g s e c t i o n , p r o c e e d i n g f r o m t h e mean s q u a r e e r r o r i n m e a s u r i n g a n a v i g a t i o n a l p a r a m e t e r , c o n s i d e r i n g t h e g e o m e t r y 05 t h e s y s t e m i n t h i s area of a p p l i c a t i o n . The a c c u r a c y o f m e a s u r i n g a n a v i g a t i o n a l p a r a m e t e r b y a s t r o n o m i c a l means ( a s a r u l e , t h e a l t i t u d e o f a s t a r ) i s d e t e r m i n e d , i n t h e f i r s t p l a c e , by t h e a c c u r a c y o f t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n a t t h e l e v e l from which t h e measurements are c a r r i e d o u t . The b u b b l e l e v e l s o f a v i a t i o n s e x t a n t s , w h i c h a r e s u b j e c t t o c o n s t a n t a c c e l e r a t i o n under t h e e f f e c t o f C o r i o l i s f o r c e s , which c a n b e t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t i n f l i g h t if t h e g r o u n d s p e e d i s known, t o a s t i l l g r e a t e r d e g r e e , t h e y can be s u b j e c t e d t o varying acceler a t i o n s by u n s t a b l e f l i g h t c o n d i t i o n s . Gyroscopic l e v e l s are a l s o s u b j e c t t o C o r i o l i s a c c e l e r a t i o n s and a l s o t o l o n g - p e r i o d f l u c t u a t i o n s i n t h e shape of a p r e c e s s i o n cone, connected w i t h t h e e r r o r s o f b a l a n c i n g a gyroscope, where calculation is practically impossible. However, g y r o s c o p i c l e v e l s a r e f r e e f r o m t h e s h o r t - p e r i o d i n t e r f e r e n c e s which a r e connected w i t h d i s t u r b a n c e of t h e a i r c r a f t ' s f l i g h t condition. I f , as a r e s u l t o f t h e a s t r o n o m i c a l o b s e r v a t i o n s , w e i n t r o d u c e c o r r e c t i o n s f o r t h e i n s t r u m e n t e r r o r of t h e s e x t a n t , t h e r e f r a c t i o n of t h e atmosphere and t h e C o r i o l i s a c c e l e r a t i o n s of t h e l e v e l , t h e n t h e e r r o r s as a r e s u l t of s h o r t - p e r i o d f l u c t u a t i o n s of t h e bubble l e v e l o r long-period ( g y r o s c o p i c ) f l u c t u a t i o n s w i l l be predominant. The m a g n i t u d e o f t h e e r r o r s i n b u b b l e l e v e l s d e p e n d s on t h e s t a t e of t h e atmosphere and t h e f l i g h t speed w h i l e t h e e r r o r s i n t h e g y r o s c o p i c l e v e l s d e p e n d on t h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g a c c u r a c y o f t h e level (precession cone). The a c c u r a c y o f a s t r o n o m i c a l m e a s u r e m e n t s i s d e t e r m i n e d b y s t a t i s t i c a l methods. The e r r o r o f m e a s u r e m e n t s w i t h b u b b l e l e v e l s ( 2 0 ) i s w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s o f 5 - 6 ' i n a clam a t m o s p h e r e a t a low f l i g h t s p e e d ( u p t o 1 5 - 2 0 l f o r h i g h - s p e e d a i r c r a f t ) , a n d a t low f l i g h t speeds with t h e presence of an atmospheric disturbance. The a c c u r a c y o f g y r o s c o p i c l e v e l s i s w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s o f 1 0 15'.

498

7 . C a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e Wind w i t h an E v a l u a t i o n o f t h e A c c u r a c y

of A i r c r a f t Navigation

/4722)

I n a l l c a s e s when t h e p a r a m e t e r s o f a i r c r a f t movement a r e d e t e r m i n e d o n t h e b a s i s o f s u c c e s s i v e i n d i c a t i o n s o f PA or b y t h e s i g h t i n g o f g r o u n d r e f e r e n c e p o i n t s a t s e p a r a t e p o i n t s , t h e wind variation a t f l i g h t a l t i t u d e with respect t o the distance traversed e x e r t s t h e g r e a t e s t i n f l u e n c e on t h e a c c u r a c y of a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n .

It i s only with t h e use of Doppler o r i n e r t i a l guidance d e v i c e s t h a t t h e wind v a r i a t i o n d o e s n o t e x e r t a d i r e c t i n f l u e n c e on t h e a c c u r a c y o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f c a s e s when t h e r a n g e o f c r u i s i n g s p e e d s o f t h e a i r c r a f t d o e s n o t make i t p o s s i b l e t o compensate completely f o r t h e changes of t h e groundspeed during f l i g h t with r e s p e c t t o a given groundspeed.
The a c c u r a c y o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n a t a n y s t a g e i n f l i g h t , w i t h r e s p e c t t o d i s t a n c e and d i r e c t i o n , c a n b e e x p r e s s e d by t h e formulas :
(6.36)
(6.37)

where ux

a n d crz

a r e t h e e r r o r s i n m e a s u r i n g t h e X- a n d Z - c o o r d i
0

n a t e s of an a i r c r a f t a t t h e beginning of a s t a g e ;

and u
w1 $1

are

t h e e r r o r s i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e groundspeed and f l i g h t a n g l e i n a p r e c e d i n g s t a g e ; a n d uu a n d uu a r e t h e v a r i a t i o n s of t h e longit u d i n a l and l a t e r a l components of path t o the next.

XS
ZS

t h e wind f r o m one s t a g e o f t h e

A s has a l r e a d y been s a i d , t h e accuracy of measuring t h e ground s p e e d and t h e a c t u a l f l i g h t a n g l e d e p e n d s on t h e a c c u r a c y o f t h e i n i t i a l and f i n a l " j u n c t u r e s " of t h e a i r c r a f t t o t h e preceding s t a g e ; i f t h e length of t h e chosen c o n t r o l f l i g h t s t a g e s i s t h e same, t h e n w i t h t h e same a c c u r a c y o f t h e i n i t i a l a n d f i n a l " j u n c t u r e s " o f t h e a i r c r a f t it c a n b e e x p r e s s e d by t h e f o r m u l a s :

(6.38)

To e v a l u a t e t h e w i n d v a r i a t i o n a t f l i g h t a l t i t u d e w i t h r e s p e c t t o d i s t a n c e , t h e following formula i s used:

499

The c o e f f i c i e n t o f wind v a r i a t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o d i s t a n c e K 3 d e p e n d s on t h e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e a n d t h e t i m e o f y e a r ( F i g . 6 . 9 a ) . The c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e w i n d v a r i a t i o n v e c t o r , o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e c o o r d i n a t e a x e s , a r e c o n s i d e r e d e q u a l t o i t s m o d u l u s d i v i d e d by t h e r o o t of t h e two:

(6.40)

To c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e p o s s i b l e e r r o r s i n a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n f o r a f o l l o w i n g a i r c r a f t on t h e b a s i s o f r e s u l t s o f wind m e a s u r e ments f o r t h e a i r c r a f t ahead, t h e f o l l o w i n g formula i s used:

UUf

/473

=K f

vr.

(6.41)

where

Kt i s t h e c o e f f i c i e n t o f wind v a r i a t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o t i m e .

The d e p e n d e n c e o f t h e c o e f f i c i e n t shown i n F i g . 6 . 9 , b .
a)

Kt on t h e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e i s

b)
H.

12

9
6

Fig.

6.9. D e p e n d e n c e o f Wind V a r i a t i o n o n F l i g h t A l t i t u d e : With R e s p e c t t o D i s t a n c e ; ( b ) With R e s p e c t t o Time.

(a)

F o r t h e c a s e o f wind v a r i a t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o d i s t a n c e , t h e c o m p o n e n t s of wind v a r i a t i o n a l o n g t h e c o o r d i n a t e a x e s a r e c o n s i d e r e d equal:

(6.42)

500

8.

Consideration o f t h e Polar Flattening o f t h e E a r t h in the Determination o f D i r e c t i o n s a n d D i s t a n c e s on t h e E a r t h s Surface

The p o l a r f l a t t e n i n g o f t h e E a r t h i s e x p l a i n e d b y i t s d i u r n a l r o tation. In fact, each point of t h e Earths surface i s subject t o t h e a c t i o n o f two f o r c e s : (a) Earth.
A f o r c e of g r a v i t a t i o n , direc,ted toward t h e c e n t e r of t h e

A c e n t r i f u g a l force, directed along t h e radius of t h e (b) p a r a l l e l of t h e p o i n t . I n F i g . 6 . 1 0 , 0 i s t h e p o i n t o f s u s p e n s i o n o f a p e n d u l u m ; OD i s t h e v e c t o r of t h e f o r c e of g r a v i t a t i o n , and DFc i s t h e v e c t o r of the centrifugal force.
A s a r e s u l t , t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e p e n d u l u m c o r d (or, i n o t h e r words, t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e v e r t i c a l of t h e l o c u s ) coincides with It is n a t u r a l t h a t t h e plane of t h e t h e r e s u l t a n t of t h e s e f o r c e s . t r u e h o r i z o n must be p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e v e r t i c a l o f t h e l o c u s , e s p e c i a l l y s i n c e t h e m a j o r i t y of t h e E a r t h s s u r f a c e i s covered w i t h w a t e r , w h i l e t h e l e v e l of t h e d r y l a n d d i f f e r s from sea l e v e l s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n o n l y a few p l a c e s .

T h e r e f o r e , t h e E a r t h h a s assumed a s h a p e c l o s e t o a n e l l i p s o i d of r o t a t i o n . The a n g l e b e t w e e n t h e p l a n e o f t h e e q u a t o r a n d t h e v e r t i c a l o f t h e l o c u s i s c o n s i d e r e d t h e g e o g r a p h i c l a t i t u d e of t h e l o c u s . The a n g l e b e t w e e n t h e p l a n e of t h e e q u a t o r and t h e g e o c e n t r i c v e r t i c a l o f t h e l o c u s ( l i n e con necting a point at the Earths center with t h e c e n t e r of t h e Earth) i s c a l l e d t h e geocentric
/474

l a t i t u d e of t h e Zocus ( $ 1 1 .
The a n g l e b e t w e e n t h e p l a n e of t h e e q u a t o r and t h e g e o c e n t r i c v e r t i c a l o f s u c h a p o i n t on t h e E a r t h s s u r f a c e ( t a k e n as a s p h e r e ) , t h e r a d i u s of whose p a r a l l e l i s e q u a l t o t h e r a d i u s of t h e p a r a l l e l

G e o g r a p h i c a n d Geo Fig. 6.10. centric Verticals.

501

I..

o f our point on the ellipsoid of rotation, is called the c o r r e c t e d

Z a t i t u d e ( u1.
The indicated latitudes are connected by the following relationships:
5

or
9 s

tg u =

tg Y1

vCi2 '

(6.45)

where e is a parameter equal to Geographic, GeoFig. 6.11. centric and Reduced Latitudes.
e - c is a parameter equal t o a' Ja2 - b 2 , and a is the large

semiaxis of the ellipse.

From Fig. 6.11, it is obvious that the ratio of the Earth's

radius at any point t o the major semiaxis of the ellipse can be
expressed by the formula

tg 'p1 cos arc tg r

where R is the radius of the Earth. Since

.arc tg

VG2

tg

= arc cos

fi+(

QYl

VIThen,

j
(6.46)

/475

e2

F o r the Earth's surface, the polar flattening is

a--6 --- - 1 a 298

'

502

where b i s t h e minor semiaxis o f t h e e l l i p s e .

I f we t a k e t h e m a j o r s e m i a x i s a s e q u a l t o 1, t h e n t h e m i n o r semiaxis w i l l be:
6
1 1-i 298 = 0,99665.

Therefore, t h e parameter e has t h e value:

e=

l/ac2--bz ..= 0,006689.

a

$1

The l e n g t h o f t h e a r c o f t h e E a r t h ' s m e r i d i a n f r o m l a t i t u d e t o $2 w i l l equal:

(6.47)

I n p r a c t i c e , t h e maximum d i f f e r e n c e $ - $ 1 c a n n o t e x c e e d 12', t h e r e f o r e , t h e c o s i n e i n t h e denominator of ( 6 . 4 7 ) can be t a k e n as one ( f i r s t a p p r o x i m a t i o n ) . Then ( 6 . 4 7 ) h a s t h e f o r m :

(6.47a)
Y1

However,

a c c o r d i n g t o (6.461,

--

Therefore,

( 6 . 4 7 a ) can be reduced t o t h e form:

(6.47b)

T h e i n t e g r a l ( 6 . 4 7 b ) i s n o t s o l v e d i n f i n a l f o r m or i s s o l v e d H o w e v e r , c o n s i d e r i n g t h a t t h e v a l u e e' c o s 2 $ 1 < < 1, very complexly. with a very s m a l l e r r o r w e can consider (second approximation) t h a t

I-

/476

503

Then t h e i n t e g r a l ( 6 . 4 7 b )

t a k e s t h e form:

(6.47~)

The i n t e g r a l ( 6 . 4 7 ~ )c a n b e f u r t h e r s i m p l i f i e d i f w e t a k e 1

e* as X and t h e v a l u e e 2 cos2$1 as

Since E <<X, it i s p o s s i b l e t o consider approximately approximat i o n ) :

(third

or i n o u r e x a m p l e

VI - e2 + e2 cos2 VI

e2cos2y1 2

+V G 2 .

(6.48)

Taking t h e t h i r d approximation i n t o a c c o u n t , t h e i n t e g r a l ( 6 . 4 7 ~ )t a k e s t h e f o r m :

dpl + a
'p1

e2 2

'PI

cos2 yldyl.

(6.47d)

The i n t e g r a l

(6.47d) has t h e simple solution:

'PI

Considering t h a t

a 1/G2=b,

or

(6.49)

504

. ...

Formula ( 6 . 4 9 ) i s t h e s i m p l e s t one f o r f i n d i n g t h e d i s t a n c e s a l o n g t h e a r c of t h e m e r i d i a n a f t e r r e d u c i n g t h e g e o g r a p h i c l a t i t u d e s t o geocentric ones. S i n c e t h e f o r m u l a i s o b t a i n e d by t h r e e s u c c e s s i v e a p p r o x i m a t i o n s , w e must i n d i c a t e t h e d e g r e e of i t s a c c u r a c y .

I n t h e f i r s t a p p r o x i m a t i o n , w e s u b s t i t u t e d 1 f o r COS ( 4 - 4 1 ) . On t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e , t h e d i f f e r e n c e $ 1 - $ 2 c h a n g e s f r o m z e r o a t t h e p o l e or e q u a t o r t o 12' a t m i d d l e l a t i t u d e s . Therefore, cos 41 - 4 1 c a n n o t b e l e s s t h a n 0 . 9 , 9 9 9 , 9 3 9 , w h i l e i t s m e a n v a l u e i s 0.9,999,985.

T h e maximum e r r o r a s a r e s u l t o f t h e f i r s t a p p r o x i m a t i o n i s e q u a l t o 0 . 0 0 0 , 0 0 6 o f t h e m e a s u r e d v a l u e , w h i l e i t s mean e r r o r i s 0.0,030,015 of i t s value. T h i s g i v e s a t o t a l o f 30 m f o r t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e North t o t h e South Pole. The s e c o n d a p p r o x i m a t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e p a r a m e t e r o f t h e f l a t t e n i n g of t h e E a r t h a l s o r e s u l t s i n an underestimation of t h e c a l c u l a t e d v a l u e a t a maximum o f 0 . 0 0 0 , 0 0 2 o f i t s v a l u e . T h e t h i r d a p p r o x i m a t i o n , a t a maximum o f u p t o 0.000,Oll o f t h e measured v a l u e , causes t h e g r e a t e s t e r r o r . However, t h i s e r r o r ( a s opposed t o t h e f i r s t two a p p r o x i m a t i o n s ) t e n d s toward a n o v e r e s t i mation of t h e value being c a l c u l a t e d . T h u s , t h e maximum e r r o r o f t h e t h r e e a p p r o x i m a t i o n s d o e s n o t e x c e e d 0.000,OOl o t t h e c a l c u l a t e d v a l u e , w h i l e t h e mean e r r o r i s 0.000,005 of i t s v a l u e (around 1 0 0 m f o r t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e North t o t h e South P o l e ) .
L e t u s now e x a m i n e t h e m e a n s o f c a l c u l a t i n g t h e f l a t t e n i n g o f t h e E a r t h w i t h m e a s u r e m e n t s o f d i s t a n c e s a l o n g t h e o r t h o d r o m e for any f l i g h t d i r e c t i o n .

O b v i o u s l y , j u s t as t h e E a r t h ' s m e r i d i a n , a n o r t h o d r o m e drawn i n any d i r e c t i o n i s a n e l l i p s e , t h e d e g r e e o f f l a t t e n i n g o f which d e p e n d s on t h e d i p a n g l e o f t h e p l a n e o f t h e o r t h o d r o m e t o t h e plane of t h e equator ( l a t i t u d e of t h e vertex).

I n a s p e c i a l c a s e , when t h e l a t i t u d e o f t h e v e r t e x i s 9 0 , t h e o r t h o d r o m e c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e m e r i d i a n a n d i t s m i n o r a x i s is e q u a l t o t h e minor a x i s o f t h e e l l i p s o i d of r o t a t i o n of t h e E a r t h . When t h e l a t i t u d e of t h e v e r t e x i s O o , t h e orthodrome c o i n c i d e s with t h e e q u a t o r and i s c o n v e r t e d t o a c i r c l e .

I n t h e g e n e r a l case, t h e minor semiaxis of t h e e l l i p s e of t h e orthodrome i s e q u a l t o t h e r a d i u s o f t h e E a r t h a t t h e p o i n t of i t s v e r t e x , ?.e., according t o 16.48):

505

(6.50)
where a = 6,378,245; b = 6,356, 863; and e * = 0.00669. Having thus determined the parameter b for the orthodrome, the distance along its arc can be determined according t o (6.49), by substitution as follows: (a) parameter b for

berth;

(b) geocentric latitudes for distances along the orthodrome from the point of intersection with the equator expressed in angular measurement ; (c) parameter e for the value

Since the flattening of the ellipse of an orthodrome is always

less than the flattening of an ellipse of a meridian, except when
they coincide, the calculation errors resulting from the three
approximations introduced by us for the arc of an ellipse will be
significantly less in the general case than for the arc of the
meridian.

To determine directions on the Earth's surface, taking into

account the flattening of the Earth, it is sufficient t o convert
the geographic longitudes of the starting and end points of the
orthodrome segment o f the path into geocentric longitudes on the
basis of (6.43). The azimuth of the orthodrome at any point is
then determined on the basis of those formulas, just as for the
spherical shape of the Earth.

506

CHAPTER S E V E N F L I G H T PREPARATION
1.

Goals a n d P r o b l e m s o f F l i g h t P r e p a r a t i o n
/478

Flight preparation plays an exceptionally important r o l e i n e n s u r i n g a c c u r a c y and r e l i a b i l i t y i n a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n . The i m provement o f n a v i g a t i o n a l equipment f o r a i r c r a f t i s making h i g h e r demands on f l i g h t p r e p a r a t i o n and i s a l s o c h a n g i n g i t s n a t u r e . D u r i n g p r e p a r a t i o n f o r v i s u a l f l i g h t a t low a l t i t u d e s and f o r s h o r t d i s t a n c e s , a t t e n t i o n must be p a i d t o t h e n a t u r e of t h e l o c a l r e l i e f , b o t h from t h e p o i n t of view of t h e o r i e n t a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s and t h e p o i n t o f view o f f l i g h t s a f e t y . I n t h i s case it i s permis s i b l e t o measure t h e n e c e s s a r y n a v i g a t i o n a l magnitudes ( a n g l e s and d i s t a n c e s ) d i r e c t l y on a f l i g h t c h a r t w i t h a s c a l e and p r o t r a c t o r . Detailed study of t h e r e l i e f plays a s i g n i f i c a n t l y smaller r o l e i n a u t o m a t i c or s e m i a u t o m a t i c n a v i g a t i o n a t h i g h a l t i t u d e s a n d airspeeds. However, t h e a c c u r a t e c a l c u l a t i o n of n a v i g a t i o n a l c o u r s e m a g n i t u d e s , e s p e c i a l l y f l i g h t a n g l e s and d i s t a n c e s , becomes more i m p o r t a n t . More a t t e n t i o n m u s t b e p a i d t o p r o b l e m s o f f u e l consumption during f l i g h t , maneuvering i n a i r p o r t landing areas, etc. F l i g h t p r e p a r a t i o n i s u s u a l l y d i v i d e d i n t o two s t a g e s : l i m i n a r y and p r e - f l i g h t . pre

All t h e b a s i c and t i m e - c o n s u m i n g p r o b l e m s a r e s o l v e d i n t h e p r e l i m i n a r y p r e p a r a t i o n which can be e x e c u t e d b e f o r e h a n d , t h e day For e x a m p l e : b e f o r e f l i g h t or e a r l i e r .

(a) S e l e c t i n g and p r e p a r i n g f l i g h t c h a r t s , p l o t t i n g t h e r o u t e , c a l c u l a t i n g t h e p a t h a n g l e s and d i s t a n c e s , marking t h e c h a r t s . (b) Studying t h e r o u t e , c a l c u l a t i n g a safe f l i g h t a l t i t u d e .

(c) S p e c i a l p r e p a r a t i o n of c h a r t s and a i d s f o r t h e u s e of r a d i o - e n g i n e e r i n g and a s t r o n o m i c a l d e v i c e s d u r i n g f l i g h t . (d) S e l e c t i n g , studying and r e f i n i n g t h e maneuvering diagrams

507

i n a i r p o r t areas and t h e o p e r a t i n g r u l e s f o r r a d i o - e n g i n e e r i n g vices. (e) flight. P r e l i m i n a r i l y c a l c u l a t i n g t h e f u e l consumption during

de

/479

(f) Checking n a v i g a t i o n a l equipment and e l i m i n a t i n g compass deviations, etc. I f t h e c r e w h a s made r e p e a t e d f l i g h t s a l o n g t h e same r o u t e , most and p e r h a p s a l l o f t h e problems o f p r e l i m i n a r y p r e p a r a t i o n I n a d d i t i o n , each pre have been solved d u r i n g a previous f l i g h t . ceding f l i g h t is t h e b e s t preparation f o r t h e subsequent one. There f o r e , i n c a s e s o f r e p e a t e d f l i g h t s t h e volume o f p r e l i m i n a r y p r e p a r a t i o n c a n b e s u b s t a n t i a l l y r e d u c e d or e x c l u d e d e n t i r e l y i f o n l y a s h o r t t i m e has e l a p s e d s i n c e completing t h e previous f l i g h t and i f t h e r e h a v e b e e n n o s u b s t a n t i a l c h a n g e s i n r o u t e s or f l i g h t c o n d i t i o n s and r a d i o - e n g i n e e r i n g e q u i p m e n t , e t c . , a l o n g t h e r o u t e . During p r e - f l i g h t p r e p a r a t i o n , only t h o s e problems a r e solved which c o u l d n o t be s o l v e d b e f o r e h a n d , : . e . : (a) Studying t h e meteorological s i t u a t i o n and compiling a navigational f l i g h t plan. (b) Refining t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of f u e l consumption during f l i g h t and t h e p o i n t s of c l o s e s t approach t o r e s e r v e a i r p o r t s . (c) Introducing changes i n t h e operating r u l e s f o r radioe n g i n e e r i n g d e v i c e s a n d i n t h e m a n e u v e r i n g d i a g r a m s , w h i c h may o c cur directly before f l i g h t . (d) Surveying and i n s p e c t i n g t h e o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n of t h e aircrafts n a v i g a t i o n a l equipment.

2.

Preparing F l i g h t Charts and Marking t h e Route

The s e l e c t i o n o f a s c a l e a n d t h e met h o d f o r p r e p a r i n g f l i g h t c h a r t s d e p e n d on t h e t a c t i c a l d a t a o f t h e a i r c r a f t ( a l t i t u d e , s p e e d , type of n a v i g a t i o n a l equipment).

or 1:1,000,000 may b e u s e d o n C h a r t s w i t h a scale of 1:500,000 a i r c r a f t w i t h l o w s p e e d s and f l i g h t a l t i t u d e s ( s p e e d up t o 1 5 0 - 2 5 0 k m / h r , a l t i t u d e up t o 2 0 0 0 - 3 0 0 0 m).

A s c a l e o f 1 : 1 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 i s m o s t s u i t a b l e for f l i g h t s p e e d s o f 3 0 0 - 6 0 0 km/hr a n d i n a number o f c a s e s i s d e s i r a b l e f o r s p e e d s o f 800 - 1000 km/hr. However, c h a r t s w i t h a s c a l e o f 1 : 2 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 are u s e d m a i n l y a t f l i g h t s p e e d s of m o r e t h a n 6 0 0 k m / h r , e s p e c i a l l y f o r g r e a t f l i g h t d i s t a n c e s , s i n c e a s c a l e o f 1:1,000,000 b e c o m e s v e r y unwieldy f o r long-distance f l i g h t s .

508

C h a r t s must b e s e l e c t e d on t h e b a s i s of s p e c i a l c o m p o s i t e tables. C h a r t s w i t h s c a l e s o f 1:1,000,000, 1 : 5 0 0 , 0 0 0 a n d l a r g e r w h i c h h a v e c o n v e n t i o n a l s t a n d a r d i n t e r n a t i o n a l , s y m b o l s may a l s o b e s e l e c t e d on t h e b a s i s of t h e c o o r d i n a t e s o f t h e i n i t i a l , f i n a l a n d i n t e r m e d i a t e p o i n t s o f t h e p a t h and a c c o r d i n g t o t h e s t r u c t u r a l p r i n c i p l e of t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l symbols and t h e d i v i s i o n o f c h a r t sheets.

/480 A c c u r a t e c u t t i n g of t h e s h e e t s must be done from t h e b o t t o m and r i g h t o f t h e s h e e t ( s o u t h and e a s t ) w i t h a l l o w a n c e of s p a c e f o r s p l i c i n g from t h e t o p and l e f t . T h i s makes i t p o s s i b l e t o draw l i n e s on t h e c h a r t , e s p e c i a l l y w i t h I n d i a i n k . If t h e s h e e t s a r e s p l i c e d t h e o t h e r way r o u n d , e a c h o f t h e seams w i l l p o s e a n o b s t a c l e t o a p e n c i l or d r a w i n g p e n .

C h a r t s o f l a r g e a r e a s must f i r s t be s p l i c e d by columns and n o t A f t e r t h i s , t h e a r r a n g e d columns a r e s p l i c e d . by r o w s . A f t e r t h e s h e e t s a r e s p l i c e d on f l i g h t c h a r t s , t h e r o u t e o f t h e f o r t h c o m i n g f l i g h t i s c o n s t r u c t e d , p a t h a n g l e s and d i s t a n c e s a r e c a l c u l a t e d or c h a n g e d , a n d t h e f l i g h t p a t h i s d r a w n .

A s we a l r e a d y know ( C h a p t e r T w o ) , t h e r e f e r e n c e s y s t e m o f t h e p a t h a n g l e s d e p e n d s on t h e f l i g h t d i s t a n c e and t h e n a v i g a t i o n a l equipment used.

For s h o r t - d i s t a n c e f l i g h t s , p a t h a n g l e s a n d d i s t a n c e s may b e m e a s u r e d d i r e c t l y on a f l i g h t c h a r t w i t h t h e u s e o f m a g n e t i c compasses.

I n a d d i t i o n , t h e p a t h a n g l e s and d i s t a n c e s f o r f l i g h t s o v e r a g r e a t e r d i s t a n c e may b e m e a s u r e d v i a g i v e n p o i n t s o n a c h a r t w i t h t h e use of course instruments of average accuracy, without automatic c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e p a t h . However, i f t h e m a g n e t i c l a t i t u d e c h a n g e s t o a s i g n i f i c a n t degree, during f l i g h t preparation t h e deviation of t h e m a g n e t i c compass must be c a l c u l a t e d f o r e a c h s t r a i g h t segment of t h e p a t h , t a k i n g i n t o account t h e change i n t h e h o r i z o n t a l If t h e s t r a i g h t s e g m e n t component o f t h e E a r t h ' s m a g n e t i c f i e l d . o f t h e p a t h i s v e r y l o n g , i t must be d i v i d e d i n t o s e v e r a l s e g m e n t s n o t m o r e t h a n 1 0 0 0 - 1 2 0 0 km i n l e n g t n . The m o s t t i m e - c o n s u m i n g a n d c o m p l i c a t e d p r o c e s s i s c a l c u l a t i n g t h e p a t h a n g l e s , d i s t a n c e s , i n t e r m e d i a t e p o i n t s of t h e p a t h and o r t h o d r o m e a z i m u t h s f o r l o n g - d i s t a n c e f l i g h t s by means o f a c c u r a t e c o u r s e d e v i c e s and a u t o m a t i c means o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n . Below w e g i v e a s e r i e s o f t h e mo s t c o m p r e h e n s i v e s y s t e m a t i c c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e orthodrome elements f o r a f l i g h t with t h e use of t h e above means.

I t i s advantageous t o c a l c u l a t e t h e orthodrome e l e m e n t s i n two s t a g e s w i t h t h e u s e of one t a b l e which s y s t e m a t i z e s t h e c a l c u l a t i o n

509

sequence a t each s t a g e . I n t h e first stage, t h e s h i f t of t h e orthodrome r e l a t i v e t o t h e Greenwich m e r i d i a n and t h e a z i m u t h o f t h e o r i g i n a t i t s s o u r c e are determined, u s i n g t h e following formulas and t h e form of Table 7.1.
ctgAo1 = tg 92 ctg yl cosec AA - ctg A k

where $ 1 and $ 2 r e p r e s e n t t h e g e o g r a p h i c l a t i t u d e s o f t h e i n i t i a l and f i n a l p o i n t s ; AI i s t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n l o n g i t u d e s o f t h e i n i t i a l and f i n a l p o i n t s ; A 0 1 i s t h e l o n g i t u d e o f t h e i n i t i a l p o i n t measured from t h e p o i n t of i n t e r s e c t i o n of t h e orthodrome with t h e Equator; Xcm i s t h e s h i f t o f t h e o r t h o d r o m e f r o m t h e G.reenwich m e r i d i a n ( d i f f e r e n c e i n g e o g r a p h i c a n d o r t h o d r o m i c l o n g i t u d e ) ; a n d a0 i s t h e azimuth of t h e orthodrome a t i t s o r i g i n . TABLE 7 . 1 V a l u e of t h e arguement function __
1

/481,

Argui e n t o r
91
92

or

Ah

Angular magnitude
sin
cos

rg
ctg
cosec

Columns 1 t h r o u g h 4 o f T a b l e 7 . 1 . a r e f i l l e d d i r e c t l y on t h e b a s i s of t h e v a l u e s o f t h e t r i g o n o m e t r i c f u n c t i o n s o f t h e c o o r d i n a t e s of t h e i n i t i a l and f i n a l p o i n t s of t h e orthodrome, w i t h a c c u r a c y t o t h e s i x t h decimal place. Then t h e f i g u r e s from t h e t a b l e a r e t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e f o r m u l a The r e s u l t o f t h e s o l u t i o n i s g i v e n i n Column 5 . t o determine X01.

A f t e r t h i s , t h e f o r m u l a f o r d e t e r m i n i n g a0 i s s o l v e d and t h e r e s u l t o f t h e s o l u t i o n i s g i v e n i n Column 6 .
F i n a l l y t h e v a l u e o f A,,

i s d e t e r m i n e d a n d w r i t t e n i n Column 7 .

510

I t i s c o n v e n i e n t t o a p p l y t h e a b o v e o r d e r o f s o l u t i o n when u s i n g a computer w i t h a keyboard.

When u s i n g t a b l e s i n s t e a d o f t r i g o n o m e t r i c f u n c t i o n s , i t i s more c o n v e n i e n t t o r e c o r d t h e i r l o g a r i t h m s w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f t h e m a g n i t u d e s c t g AA and c t g A 0 1 which ( w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e s o l u t i o n ) must b e r e p r e s e n t e d by t r i g o n o m e t r i c v a l u e s . I n t h e second s t a g e , a l l t h e o t h e r s p e c i a l values of t h e ortho drome e l e m e n t s a r e d e t e r m i n e d on t h e b a s i s o f t h e f o r m u l a s :

tg 'Ti =

s i n hoi -, tgao

o t g at . = t g lor , cos s l = cos h,i cos 'pi; . , sin pi

A

where + i , o i , S o i a r e t h e c o o r d i n a t e s o f any p o i n t on t h e o r t h o A d r o m e ( A o i a n d So< a r e m e a s u r e d f r o m t h e p o i n t o f i n t e r s e c t i o n o f t h e orthodrome with t h e Equator). /482

COS

__
-00' 7'0 -60'00' -51"OO'

A,,

tgloi

tgyi

Pi

99 '' 4 1 9"49'
28"49'

0,17049 0,33901 0,48201

0,98536 0,94078 0,87617

0,17303 0,36035 0,55013

0,37057 0,73653 1,04764

20"20' 3G023' 4'0 62'

The i n i t i a l d a t a f o r s o l v i n g t h e s e p r o b l e m s a n d t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e s o l u t i o n a r e w r i t t e n i n Table 7 . 2 ( s e e t h e example of t h e s o l u t i o n ) using d a t a from Table 7 . 1

ExampZe. Determine t h e orthodrome parameters f o r a f l i g h t $ 1 = 2 0 2 0 ' t o p o i n t A2 = - 5 1 O ; + 2 = 4 6 O 2 0 ' . from p o i n t s A 1 = - 7 0 0 0 ' ; C a l c u l a t e t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e p o i n t of t h e orthodrome f o r t h e given longitude 60.
Solution. P r o c e e d i n g from c o o r d i n a t e s of t h e i n i t i a l and f i n a l p o i n t s o f t h e o r t h o d r o m e , l e t u s f i l l i n Columns 1 - 4 i n Table 7.1.
S u b s t i t u t i n g t h e a b o v e v a l u e s i n t h e f o r m u l a f o r A 0 1 a n d cxo, l e t u s f i n d t h e v a l u e s t o f i l l Columns 5 - 7 . Using t h e d a t a from Table 7 . 1 and t h e f o r m u l a s f o r Table 7 . 2 , t h i s table i n succession.

l e t u s f i l l i n t h e columns o f

After f i l l i n g i n Table 7 . 2 , l e t u s w r i t e o u t t h e r e s u l t s from it which a r e n e c e s s a r y f o r e x e c u t i n g t h e f l i g h t .

511

Knowing t h e e l e m e n t s o f t h e o r t h o d r o m e i s n e c e s s a r y w i t h a n y frame o f r e f e r e n c e o f p a t h a n g l e s a n d a i r c r a f t c o u r s e s . If c o u r s e i n s t r u m e n t s o f h i g h a c c u r a c y a r e u s e d , t h e m o s t a d v a n t a g e o u s frame o f r e f e r e n c e f o r f l i g h t a n g l e s i s t h e s y s t e m o f t h e summation o f t h e t u r n a n g l e s of t h e p a t h l i n e . I n t h i s case, t h e path angle of t h e f i r s t s e c t i o n i s assumed t o be e q u a l t o t h e azimuth o f t h e orthodrome of t h e i n i t i a l p o i n t of t h e r o u t e ( f o r example, a t t h e point of t h e aircraft's take-off). The p a t h a n g l e o f e a c h s u c c e s s i v e segment w i l l be

The t u r n a n g l e s o f t h e r o u t e a r e d e t e r m i n e d a s t h e d i f f e r e n c e of t h e azimuths of t h e i n t e r s e c t i n g orthodromes a t t h e intermediate points of t h e r o u t e . The i n t e r m e d i a t e p o i n t s o f t h e o r t h o d r o m e s a r e d r a w n o n t h e flight chart. On t h e b a s i s o f t h e s e p o i n t s , t h e o r t h o d r o m e l i n e s o f a p a t h o f g r e a t l e n g t h a r e d r a w n on t h e f l i g h t c h a r t .

All t h e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e o r t h o d r o m e r o u t e m u s t b e t a b u l a t e d i n a s p e c i a l t a b l e (Table 7.3). Some o f t h e i n f o r m a t i o n m u s t b e drawn d i r e c t l y on t h e f l i g h t c h a r t . In addition t o information a b o u t t h e o r t h o d r o m e , T a b l e 7 . 3 must i n c l u d e d a t a on t h e c o n t r o l r e f e r e n c e p o i n t s or o t h e r c o r r e c t i n g p o i n t s (CP) a l o n g t h e s e g m e n t s of t h e r o u t e .

0,34748 0,59318 0,72337

0,9376s 0,80507 0,69046

0,49796 0,60749 0,76050

26'25' 31"17' 37'15'

0,92395 0,75739 0,60496

22'29' 46'46' 52"46'

2032 1333

512

T h e o r t h o d r o m e c o o r d i n a t e s o f t h e c o r r e c t i n g p o i n t s may b e determined a c c u r a t e l y on t h e b a s i s of (1.64 and 1 . 6 5 ) . However, taking i n t o account t h e fact t h a t t h e aircraftls coordinates with r e s p e c t t o t h e s e p o i n t s a r e c o r r e c t e d a t d i s t a n c e s o f n o t more t h a n 3 0 0 - 4 0 0 km, t h e o r t h o d r o m e c o o r d i n a t e s o f t h e c o r r e c t i n g p o i n t s may a l s o b e m e a s u r e d on t h e f l i g h t c h a r t . To d o t h i s , t h e c o r r e c t i n g p o i n t must b e p r o j e c t e d a c c u r a t e l y t o t h e p a t h l i n e by means o f a protractor (Fig. 7.1).
It i s p r a c t i c a l l y always p e r m i s s i b l e t o measure t h e Z C a p . o r d i n a t e o n t h e map b y m e a n s o f a s c a l e . A s f o r t h e Xc.p. c o o r d i n. a t e , i t c a n b e m e a s u r e d o n l y w h e n i + , i s s i t u a t e d n o t f a r f r o m t h e turning point of t h e r o u t e . I n o t h e r c a s e s , it must be c a l c u l a t e d on t h e b a s i s o f t h e f o r m u l a a s t h e d i s t a n c e a l o n g t h e o r t h o d r o m e t o the traverse of the correcting point.
Co

The a z i m u t h o f t h e o r t h o d r o m e r e l a t i v e t o t h e m e r i d i a n o f t h e c o r r e c t i n g p o i n t i s d e t e r m i n e d when t h i s p o i n t i s a g o n i o m e t r i c o r goniometric-rangefinding device and t h e azimuth of t h e a i r c r a f t i s measured from i t . The a b o v e a n g l e i s c a l c u l a t e d on t h e b a s i s o f t h e c o o r d i n a t e s of t h e p o i n t of i n t e r s e c t i o n of t h e orthodrome with t h e meridian of If t h e f l i g h t i s e x e c u t e d p a r a l l e l t o t h e the correcting point. m e r i d i a n o f t h e c o r r e c t i n g p o i n t or a t a s m a l l a n g l e t o t h e m e r i d i a n , t h e a z i m u t h o f t h e o r t h o d r o m e i s f i r s t d e t e r m i n e d on t h e b a s i s o f t h e c o o r d i n a t e s o f t h e p o i n t o f t h e o r t h o d r o m e on t h e t r a v e r s e o f /484 t h e c o r r e c t i n g p o i n t , and t h e convergence of t h e meridians between t h e p o i n t of t h e orthodrome and t h e c o r r e c t i n g p o i n t i s taken i n t o account. W i t h l o n g o r t h o d r o m e s e c t i o n s o f t h e r o u t e , i t may b e n e c e s s a r y t o c o r r e c t t h e a i r c r a f t ' s c o o r d i n a t e s w i t h r e s p e c t t o more t h a n one correcting point. I n t h i s case, t h e s e c t i o n of t h e r o u t e i s divided i n t o t w o or t h r e e a n d s o m e t i m e s m o r e s e c t i o n s , o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e p o i n t s of t h e orthodrome being calculated; a separate l i n e of Table 7.3 i s f i l l e d f o r each section. Therefore, the turning angle of the path l i n e a t t h e beginning of these LGF' Q s e c t i o n s w i l l be z e r o and t h e f l i g h t a n g l e i s common for a l l t h e s e c t i o n s . From t h e i n f o r m a t i o n i n T a b l e 7 . 3 , i t i s a d v i s a b l e t o draw on t h e c h a r t t h e numbers o f t h e s e c t i o n s o f t h e r o u t e , and t h e orthodrome f l i g h t a n g l e s and d i s t a n c e s . I n a d d i t i o n , it i s d e s i r a b l e t o draw on t h e c h a r t t h e loxodromic magnetic f l i g h t angles w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e s e c t i o n s of t h e r o u t e and t o mark.the p a t h l i n e with 513

Fig. 7.1. Orthodromic C o o r d i n a t e s o f t h e Correcting Point

dashes: 5 0 km.

n o r m a l o n e s w i t h n u m b e r i n g e v e r y 1 0 0 km a n d s h o r t o n e s e v e r y

S i n c e r e a d i n g c o o r d i n a t e s i n f l i g h t i s done from t h e i n i t i a l p o i n t of e a c h s t r a i g h t s e c t i o n of t h e p a t h , t h e m a r k i n g w i t h r e s p e c t t o d i s t a n c e m u s t a l s o b e g i n f r o m t h e t u r n i n g p o i n t of t h e r o u t e i n d e p e n d e n t l y f o r each s e c t i o n of t h e p a t h i n t h e forward and r e verse directions.

3.

S t u d y i n g t h e Route a n d C a l c u l a t i n g a S a f e F l i g h t A l t i t u d e

J u s t as i n t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of f l i g h t c h a r t s , t h e procedure f o r s t u d y i n g t h e f l i g h t r o u t e d e p e n d s on t h e n a t u r e o f t h e f l i g h t t o be e x e c u t e d a n d t h e a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n means b e i n g u s e d .

For s h o r t - d i s t a n c e v i s u a l f l i g h t s , t h e f o l l o w i n g m u s t b e c a r e fully studied: t h e r e l i e f , t h e presence of l i n e a r and areal r e f e r ence p o i n t s and t h e i r a d d i t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , t h e procedure f o r r e - e s t a b l i s h i n g o r i e n t a t i o n when i t i s l o s t , t h e e q u i p m e n t a n d c o n d i t i o n s f o r a p p r o a c h i n g t h e a i r p o r t s and l a n d i n g a r e a s , and s i t e s w h i c h a r e s u i t a b l e for a f o r c e d l a n d i n g o u t s i d e a n a i r p o r t .
The s a f e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e i n t h i s c a s e i s c a l c u l a t e d r e l a t i v e t o t h e l e v e l of t h e take-off a i r p o r t , separately f o r each s e c t i o n of t h e r o u t e . I n a d d i t i o n , s a f e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e s must be c a l c u l a t e d a l o n g t h e s e c t i o n s o f t h e r o u t e f o r c a s e s when d e v i a t i o n f r o m t h e route is necessary i n order t o re-establish orientation. I n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e safe f l i g h t a l t i t u d e , temperature c o r r e c t i o n s f o r a l t i m e t e r r e s p o n s e s and t h e n e c e s s a r y a l t i t u d e a l l o w a n c e s above o b s t a c l e s ( e s t a b l i s h e d f o r a g i v e n t y p e o f r e l i e f by t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s on e x e c u t i n g f l i g h t s ) a r e t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t . I n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e s a f e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e on t h e b a s i s o f a n i n s t r u m e n t , t h e f o l l o w i n g f o r m u l a may b e u s e d

/48E

Hs i n s t r = Hr

Hi

- H a i r + AHt

w h e r e Hs i n s t r i s t h e s a f e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e o n t h e b a s i s o f a n i n s t r u m e n t ; Hr i s t h e maximum h e i g h t o f a r e l i e f o n t h e f l i g h t p a t h ; H i i s t h e p e r m i s s i b l e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e above t h e r e l i e f i n accordance with the requirement of t h e instructions f o r executing f l i g h t s ; H a i r i s t h e a l t i t u d e o f t h e t a k e - o f f a i r p o r t above sea l e v e l ; and AH$ r e p r e s e n t s t h e m e t h o d o l o g i c a l e r r o r i n m e a s u r i n g t h e a l t i t u d e as a r e s u l t of t h e d i s c r e p a n c y between t h e a c t u a l a i r t e m p e r a t u r e and t h e s t a n d a r d c o n d i t i o n s . The r e d u c e d a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e a l o n g t h e s e c t i o n s o f t h e r o u t e is not taken i n t o account i n t h i s case since v i s u a l f l i g h t s a t low a l t i t u d e s a r e u s u a l l y e x e c u t e d o v e r a s m a l l d i s t a n c e and t h e A s regards t h e reduced pres pressure changes w i t h i n small l i m i t s . s u r e i n t h e v i c i n i t y of t h e t a k e - o f f a i r p o r t , it i s a u t o m a t i c a l l y
514

taken into account by setting the pointers of the altimeters t o

zero before the aircraft's take-off.
The methodological errors in measuring altitude as a result o f the discrepancy between the actual air temperature and the stand ard conditions are taken into account by means of a navigational slide rule, for example, the N S - 1 O M .

ExampZe. The height o f the take-off airport above sea level is 270 m. The air kmperature at the airport is + 1 8 O ; the maximum height of the relief on the flight path is 680 m ; the permissible flight altitude above the relief is 300 m and the temperature at flight altitude is +12O. Determine the safe flight altitude on the basis of an instrument.

Solution.
airport is

The safe flight altitude relative t o the take-off

= 680

Hs instr

300 - 2 7 0

+ AHt
tH = 1 8

= 710 m

+ AHt

The total air temperature to

+ 12

= 30.

On the N S - 1 O M ruler let us find the safe flight altitude on = 660 m. the basis of an instrument (Fig. 7.2). Answer: H s instr The nature of studying the flight path for aircraft navigation with instruments at average flight altitudes changes significantly. In this case, most of the attention i s devoted t o the use of air craft navigational devices on the path and also for the aircraft's approach to the airport region and the approach for landing. The relief and the visual reference point conditions on the flight path are a l s o studied in great detail. /486
The safe flight altitude in this case is calculated with reference to standard conditions with an atmospheric pressure of
760 mm H g , taking into account the reduced atmospheric pressure and
the air temperature along sections of the path:

H
s760

Hi + Hr

(760 - p

min

1-11 + AHt,

where H
s760

is the safe flight altitude on the basis of an instru

ment, established for a pressure of 760 mm Hg; Hi is the permissible

Pig. 7.2. Determining the Safe Flight Altitude by Instrument on the N S - 1 O M .

Fig. 7.3. Determining the Safe Flight Echelon on the

NS-1OM.

515

safe f l i g h t a l t i t u d e with instruments i n accordance with t h e require m e n t s o f t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s f o r e x e c u t i n g f l i g h t s ; a n d Hmin i s t h e minimum a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e o n a s e c t i o n o f t h e f l i g h t p a t h .

I n t h i s case, moreover, t h e a l t i t u d e of t h e lowest safe f l i g h t echelon i s determined, t a k i n g i n t o account t h e e s t a b l i s h e d system of f l i g h t echeloning with respect t o a l t i t u d e s , ?.e., the reverse problem i s solved.

Example. T h e minimum a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e r e d u c e d t o s e a l e v e l o n t h e f l i g h t p a t h is 7 5 0 mm Hg. The h e i g h t o f t h e r e l i e f o n t h e p a t h i s 1 3 0 0 m ; t h e a i r t e m p e r a t u r e o n t h e g r o u n d i s 35O, a n d t h e a i r t e m p e r a t u r e a t f l i g h t a l t i t u d e i s 45O.

Determine whether an a l t i t u d e of 2100 m i s a safe a l t i t u d e f o r t h e lowest f l i g h t e c h e l o n i f t h e t r u e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e above t h e r e l i e f must be n o t l e s s t h a n 6 0 0 m .

Solution. 1. L e t u s d e t e r m i n e o n t h e n a v i g a t i o n a l s l i d e r u l e , t h e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e r e l a t i v e t o t h e s t a n d a r d l e v e l o f 7 6 0 mm Hg a t H i n s t r = 2100 m y t a k i n g i n t o account t h e a i r temperature (Fig. 7.3). Answer: 1750 m.

2. L e t u s d e t e r m i n e t h e t r u e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e above t h e r e l i e f t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t t h e minimum r e d u c e d a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e ( p m i n - 7 6 0 ) - 1 1 = -110 m and t h e h e i g h t of t h e r e l i e f a l o n g t h e p a t h .

Htr

= 1750 - 1 1 0 - 1 3 0 0 = 340 m .

Thus, Hinstr = 2100 m w i l l n o t be a safe a l t i t u d e f o r t h e lowest f l i g h t e c h e l o n , s i n c e t h e t r u e a l t i t u d e above t h e r e l i e f i s e q u a l t o o n l y 340 m . The s a f e a l t i t u d e of t h e l o w e s t f l i g h t e c h e l o n = 2400 m. i n t h i s c a s e w i l l be H i n s t r The s t u d y o f t h e r o u t e s f o r f l i g h t s o n h i g h - s p e e d i s of an e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t n a t u r e . j e t aircraft

I n t h i s case, t h e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e i s chosen e x c l u s i v e l y f o r r e a s o n s o f f l i g h t economy a n d t h e r e l a t i v e l o c a t i o n o f a i r c r a f t /48i moving i n t h e o t h e r d i r e c t i o n , t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t t h e m e t e o r o l o g i c a l situation with respect t o a l t i t u d e . The s a f e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e a b o v e t h e r e l i e f i s s i g n i f i c a n t o n l y u n d e r c o n d i t i o n s of t h e a i r c r a f t ' s c l i m b a n d d e s c e n t .

For example, t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of overcoming o b s t a c l e s d u r i n g climb i s determined, t a k i n g i n t o account t h e a i r s p e e d , t h e climbing r a t e o f t h e a i r c r a f t , a n d t h e c o u n t e r or i n c i d e n t a l c o m p o n e n t o f t h e wind s p e e d . If t h e r e s e r v e a l t i t u d e a b o v e t h e r e l i e f i s i n s u f f i c i e n t , p a r t o f t h e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e must be g a i n e d a f t e r t a k e o f f by c i r c l i n g above t h e a i r p o r t .

516

The distance and vertical speed of descent from the given flight
echelon are determined analogously, taking into account the obstacles
on the approaches t o the landing airport. When the vertical rate
of descent is more than is permissible, the approach t o the airport
is executed at a certain safe altitude which is later lost in the
landing approach maneuver.
In studying the flight path f o r jet aircraft, special attention
must be focused on the possibility of using radio-engineering de
vices for aircraft navigation, the typical radar reference points,
conditions for take-off and climb along the path, conditions of the
approaches t o the landing airports and.maneuvering before landing.

4. S p e c i a l P r e p a r a t i o n o f C h a r t s and Aids f o r U s i n g V a r i o u s N a v i g a t i o n a l Devices i n F l i g h t .

The special preparation of charts and aids depends on the nature
of the navigational devices which are supposed t o be used in the
flight.
In using goniometric and goniometric-rangefinding devices, it
is sufficient t o note on the chart the points where these devices
are located, and the calculated directions and distances from them
t o the most typical points on the flight path (turning points of
the path, control reference points, points of the beginning of the
descent, and points of the entrance and exit corridors, etc.).
In using hyperbolic navigational systems, it is necessary to
have special charts with hyperbolic position lines plotted on them.
Before flight, the path of the forthcoming flight is drawn.
In using autonomous Doppler aircraft navigational systems with
automatic navigational devices, several things must be prepared
carefully: the flight angles and distances, as well as the ortho
drome coordinates of the visual and radar reference points, the
azimuth-rangefinding devices and the azimuths of the orthodromes
relative to the meridians of the locations of the orthodromes.
If astronomical devices are supposed t o be used in flight, special astronomical tables must be prepared: detached sheets from the astronomical yearbook for the flight date, tables of azimuths
and altitudes of stars, special calculating tables for recording
and calculating astronomical parameters.
The navigational equipment of the aircraft must be prepared
and checked accordingly.
During the inspection of this equipment, attention is focused
on its general condition, efficiency, regulating parameters of
currents and voltage potentials, as well as the calibration of
measured parameters according t o instructions on the use of specific
types of equipment.

517

/488

I n u s i n g a s t r o n o m i c a l d e v i c e s , s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n must a l s o be f o c u s e d on i n s p e c t i n g t h e a i r c r a f t ' s c l o c k s a n d s p e c i a l c h r o n o m e t e r s .

5.

C a l c u l a t i n g t h e D i s t a n c e and D u r a t i o n o f F l i g h t

The d i s t a n c e a n d d u r a t i o n o f t h e f l i g h t a r e ' c a l c u l a t e d i n o r d e r t o determine t h e n e c e s s a r y f u e l s u p p l y , as w e l l as monitoring i t s c o n s u m p t i o n i n f l i g h t a n d d e t e r m i n i n g t h e maximum d i s t a n c e o f t h e p o i n t o f p o s s i b l e r e t u r n t o t h e t a k e - o f f a i r p o r t or t h e a l t e r n a t e a i r p o r t s when t h e w e a t h e r i s c h a n g i n g a t t h e l a n d i n g a i r p o r t . Depending on t h e t y p e s of a i r c r a f t , a n d p r i m a r i l y on t h e t y p e o f p r o p u l s i o n and a l t i t u d e o f t h e a i r c r a f t , one of t h r e e methods f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e d i s t a n c e and d u r a t i o n of f l i g h t i s used: (a) For a i r c r a f t with low-altitude p i s t o n engines, with re s p e c t t o t h e hourly f u e l consumption a t c r u i s i n g speed. (b) For aircraft with high-altitude p i s t o n engines (with s u p e r c h a r g e r s ) , with r e s p e c t t o t h e hourly f u e l consumption under t h e m o s t a d v a n t a g e o u s s e l e c t e d c o n d i t j . o n s o f s u p e r c h a r g i n g a n d rpm of t h e e n g i n e s a t a g i v e n a l t i t u d e and a i r s p e e d . (c) For a i r c r a f t w i t h j e t and t u r b o p r o p e n g i n e s , w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e c o n s u m p t i o n o f f u e l p e r km a t d i f f e r e n t v a l u e s o f t h e f l y i n g weight of t h e a i r c r a f t and t h e a l t i t u d e and speed of f l i g h t . C a l c u l a t i n g t h e F u e l S u p p l y f o r F l i g h t on A i r c r a f t w i t h Low-Altitude P i s t o n E n g i n e s On a i r c r a f t w i t h l o w - a l t i t u d e p i s t o n e n g i n e s a n d f i x e d p i t c h of t h e p r o p e l l e r i n f l i g h t , t h e c o n t r o l o f t h e e n g i n e s i s e x e c u t e d o n l y by t h e f u e l - c o n t r o l l e v e r . F l i g h t s on t h e s e a i r c r a f t a r e e x e c u t e d a t low a l t i t u d e s , which makes i t p o s s i b l e i n c a l c u l a t i o n not t o t a k e i n t o account t h e change i n f u e l consumption with t h e /489 flight altitude. The h o u r l y f u e l c o n s u m p t i o n ( Q , k g / h r ) i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e c u b e of t h e a i r s p e e d ; t h e f u e l consump t i o n p e r k i l o m e t e r o f a i r s p e e d ( 9 , kg/km) i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o the square o f the airspeed. S i n c e t h e f u e l c o n s u m p t i o n p e r km s h a r p l y d e p e n d i n g on a i r s p e e d , t a k i n g i o f t h e wind s p e e d t o t h e a i r s p e e d , t h e customarily calculated with respect t o given airspeed. I n t h i s case, on t h e s e a i r c r a f t c h a n g e s n t o account t h e large r a t i o necessary f u e l supply is t h e hourly consumption a t a

w
G

vtr +

uz;

t = w
Gn,r

req

= Q*t

518

where W i s t h e g r o u n d s p e e d of t h e a i r c r a f t ; Vtr is the airspeed ( a s a r u l e i t i s assumed t o b e e q u a l t o t h e s p e e d on t h e b a s i s o f an i n s t r u m e n t ) ; ux i s t h e i n c i d e n t a l (encountered w i t h a minus s i g n ) component of t h e wind s p e e d ; S i s t h e d i s t a n c e a l o n g t h e r o u t e ; t i s t h e f l y i n g t i m e ; Greq i s t h e necessary f u e l supply; and G n . r . is the e s t a b l i s h e d n a v i g a t i o n a l supply ( r e s e r v e over t h e c a l c u l a t e d amount). Combining t h e above f o r m u l a s , w e o b t a i n :

ExampZe. The a i r s p e e d i s 1 5 0 k m / h r ; t h e d i s t a n c e a l o n g t h e r o u t e i s 4 8 0 km; t h e i n c i d e n t a l w i n d c o m p o n e n t o n t h e r o u t e i s 3 0 km/hr; t h e h o u r l y f u e l consumption i s 30 k g / h r which i s t h e e s t a b l i s h e d n a v i g a t i o n a l s u p p l y for 1 h r o f f l i g h t .

D e t e r m i n e t h e r e q u i r e d amount o f f u e l t o e x e c u t e t h e f l i g h t .

Solution.

It i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f o r aircraft of t h i s type t h a t t h e addi t i o n a l f u e l consumption due t o climb i s n o t t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t .

Obviously, proceeding from t h e energy e q u a t i o n s , f u e l c o n s u m p t i o n a s a r e s u l t o f c l i m b GH must b e :

the additional

GH = q K H
where q i s t h e f u e l c o n s u m p t i o n p e r k i l o m e t e r of t h e p a t h i n h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t ; K i s t h e aerodynamic q u a l i t y of t h e a i r c r a f t under c o n d i t i o n s o f c l i m b K = cy/cx, w h e r e c y i s t h e c o e f f i c i e n t o f l i f t and cxis t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of d r a g ) ; and H i s t h e g i v e n f l i g h t altitude.

For e x a m p l e , i n o u r c a s e , i f t h e g i v e n f l i g h t a l t i t u d e i s 3 0 0 m a n d t h e q u a l i t y of t h e a i r c r a f t i s 1 5 , w e w i l l h a v e :

/490

w h i c h r e p r e s e n t s t h e f u e l c o n s u m p t i o n for 4 . 5 i n our case, 0.6% of t h e t o t a l f u e l supply.

km o f t h e a i r p a t h ,

or

However, t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t t h e f a c t t h a t t h e a i r c r a f t s d e s c e n t i n v o l v e s a s a v i n g o f f u e l , t h o u g h somewhat l e s s t h a n t h e

519

Ln

10
0

760

m T
0
1000
I

7000

3000

4000

5000

6000u

E n g l n e r Ash-82FN

Fig. 7.4.

Graph f o r Determining t h e Operating Conditions of Engines w h e n Cruising.

loss during climb ( a s a r e s u l t of t h e lower q u a l i t y of t h e aircraft under descent c o n d i t i o n s ) , t h e t o t a l overexpenditure of f u e l under c l i m b and d e s c e n t c o n d i t i o n s i s i n s i g n i f i c a n t on t h e whole and i s disregarded.
Calculating

t h e Fuel Supply for Flight i n Aircraft w i t h High-Altitude Piston Engines

The means o f c a l c u l a t i n g t h e n e c e s s a r y f u e l s u p p l y f o r f l i g h t s on a i r c r a f t w i t h h i g h - a l t i t u d e p i s t o n e n g i n e s c o i n c i d e s i n p r i n c i p l e w i t h t h e means f o r c a l c u l a t i n g i t f o r a i r c r a f t w i t h l o w - a l t i t u d e engines. The d i s t i n g u i s h i n g f e a t u r e of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n i s t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r a p r e l i m i n a r y estimate o f t h e most advantageous oper a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e e n g i n e s a t a g i v e n a l t i t u d e and f l i g h t speed ( s u p e r c h a r g i n g , t u r n s ) and a l s o a d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e h o u r l y f u e l consumption under t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s . I n F i g u r e 7 . 4 , we h a v e p r o v i d e d a g r a p h f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e optimum o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s f o r e n g i n e s on t h e 1 1 - 1 2 a i r c r a f t . Usually, i n a d d i t i o n t o graphs f o r each type of a i r c r a f t , t a b u l a r d a t a f o r t h e optimum o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s o f e n g i n e s and f o r f u e l consumption a t v a r i o u s a l t i t u d e s and f l i g h t s p e e d s a r e g i v e n . A f t e r determining t h e hourly f u e l consumption f o r a given a l t i t u d e a n d s p e e d on t h e b a s i s o f t h e g r a p h , t h e f u e l s u p p l y i s c a l c u l a t e d ( j u s t as f o r a i r c r a f t with low-altitude engines). The a d d i t i o n a l t o t a l overconsumption of f u e l due t o climb and d e s c e n t conditions i s disregarded, s i n c e it i s i n s i g n i f i c a n t i n t h i s case. Calculating

t h e F u e l S u p p l y f o r F l i g h t on A i r c r a f t w i t h Gas T u r b i n e E n g i n e s

The m e a n s f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e n e c e s s a r y f u e l s u p p l y f o r f l i g h t s on a i r c r a f t w i t h g a s t u r b i n e e n g i n e s d i f f e r somewhat f r o m t h e means used f o r a i r c r a f t with p i s t o n engines. With an i n c r e a s e i n t h e a i r s p e e d i n a i r c r a f t w i t h g a s t u r b i n e e n g i n e s , t h e i r o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s a r e improved ( t h e v o l u m e t r i c efficiency increases). I n a d d i t i o n , an increase i n t h e f l i g h t s p e e d i s d u e t o t h e d e c r e a s e i n t h e a n g l e of a t t a c k o f t h e wing ( a n d t h e r e f o r e t h e c o e f f i c i e n t o f d r a g ex). T h e s e f a c t o r s a r e o f g r e a t s i g n i f i c a n c e on a i r c r a f t w i t h g a s t u r b i n e e n g i n e s ; up t o c e r t a i n l i m i t s , t h e y n o t o n l y c o m p e n s a t e f o r t h e n a t u r a l i n c r e a s e i n t h e f u e l c o n s u m p t i o n on t h e b a s i s o f t h e square of t h e a i r s p e e d , but exceed i t . A S a r e s u l t , on t h e s e a i r c r a f t ( w i t h a c o n s t a n t f l y i n g w e i g h t ) t h e f u e l c o n s u m p t i o n p e r km over t h e e n t i r e range of c r u i s i n g speeds remains p r a c t i c a l l y constant (with an accuracy of 2 t o 3%). Beyond t h e l i m i t s o f t h e r a n g e o f c r u i s i n g s p e e d s , e s p e c i a l l y i f t h e maximum s p e e d o f t h e a i r c r a f t i s c l o s e t o t h e s p e e d o f

/492

521

s o u n d , t h e f u e l c o n s u m p t i o n p e r km i n c r e a s e s s h a r p l y . T h e minimum f u e l c o n s u m p t i o n p e r km o n a i r c r a f t w i t h g a s t u r b i n e e n g i n e s c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e mean c r u i s i n g s p e e d a n d i n c r e a s e s s l o w l y w i t h a change i n t h e f l i g h t c o n d i t i o n s , b o t h i n t h e d i r e c t i o n s of an i n c r e a s e and a decrease of speed ( w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s of t h e c r u i s ing speed).

If w e a s s u m e t h a t t h e f u e l c o n s u m p t i o n p e r km w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s of t h e r a n g e o f c r u i s i n g s p e e d s of t h e a i r c r a f t i s p r a c t i c a l l y c o n s t a n t , t h e n t h e h o u r l y f u e l consumption w i l l change i n p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e f l i g h t speed.

The c o m p a r a t i v e l y c l e a r l y e x p r e s s e d s t e a d i n e s s o f t h e f u e l c o n s u m p t i o n p e r km o n a i r c r a f t w i t h g a s t u r b i n e e n g i n e s , o v e r t h e e n t i r e r a n g e o f c r u i s i n g s p e e d s w i t h a v a r i a b l e h o u r l y f u e l con s u m p t i o n , makes i t n e c e s s a r y t o c a l c u l a t e t h e f u e l s u p p l y on t h e b a s i s of t h e consumption p e r hour r a t h e r than p e r kilometer. This m u s t b e d o n e on t h e b a s i s o f o t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . In contrast t o aircraft with piston engines, t h e f u e l supply on g a s t u r b i n e a i r c r a f t r e p r e s e n t s a l a r g e p a r t o f t h e f l y i n g w e i g h t o f t h e a i r c r a f t ( o n i n d i v i d u a l t y p e s o f a i r c r a f t , i t may b e c l o s e t o half t h e flying weight). This causes g r e a t changes i n t h e f l y i n g weight and t h e r e f o r e i n t h e f u e l consumption w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e aircraft's flying t i m e . While i t i s c o m p a r a t i v e l y s i m p l e t o c a l c u l a t e t h e f u e l on t h e b a s i s o f t h e v a r i a b l e ( d e p e n d i n g on f l y i n g w e i g h t ) f u e l c o n s u m p t i o n p e r km, i t i s v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o c a l c u l a t e it on t h e b a s i s o f t h e h o u r l y e x p e n d i t u r e , which v a r i e s b o t h on t h e b a s i s o f t h e f l y i n g weight and t h e a i r s p e e d . I n c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e g r a p h o f t h e f u e l c o n s u m p t i o n p e r km o n a i r c r a f t w i t h g a s t u r b i n e e n g i n e s as a f u n c t i o n o f t h e a l t i t u d e and a i r s p e e d , t h e r e d u c e d w e i g h t of a n a i r c r a f t (Gre+) which h a s t h e following p h y s i c a l s t r u c t u r e i s s e l e c t e d as t h e i n i t i a l argument.
L e t u s assume t h a t t h e f l i g h t i s e x e c u t e d a t s p e e d s a t which t h e aerodynamic d r a g of t h e a i r c r a f t s a t i s f i e s t h e Bernoulli l a w , then
P v* x=c,s---. ' 2

/493

Y = c y S - - - T2, PV 2

w h e r e X i s t h e a i r c r a f t ' s d r a g ; Y i s t h e l i f t o f t h e w i n g ; ex a n d cy a r e t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s o f d r a g a n d l i f t ; S r e p r e s e n t s t h e c r o s s

522

I111111II

I 1

s e c t i o n a l areas of t h e a i r c r a f t which r e p r e s e n t p l a n e s ; and p i s t h e d e n s i t y of t h e a i r a t f l i g h t a l t i t u d e . Obviously, t h e h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t of t h e aircraft a t various a l t i t u d e s , w i t h t h e same v a l u e s o f f l i g h t s p e e d a n d a n g l e o f a t t a c k o f t h e a i r c r a f t ( e = c o n s t and V = c o n s t ) w i l l be p o s s i b l e o n l y when t h e f l y i n g w e i g h t o f t h e a i r c r a f t a n d t h e a i r d e n s i t y a r e changed i n e q u a l p r o p o r t i o n .

For e x a m p l e , w i t h t h e g i v e n v a l u e s o f t h e s p e e d a n d a t t a c k , if h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t n e a r t h e ground i s p o s s i b l e f l y i ' n g w e i g h t o f 6 0 t o n s , t h e n a t a n a l t i t u d e w h e r e p~ = h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t i s p o s s i b l e w i t h a f l y i n g w e i g h t o f 30

angle of with a
0 . 5 ~ 0 ,

tons.

H o w e v e r , a t t h e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e i n our e x a m p l e , t h e d r a g i s 2 times less t h a n near t h e ground because t h e f u e l consumption f o r each t o n of f l y i n g weight remains constant. Thus, i n o r d e r t o reduce t h e f l y i n g weight of t h e a i r c r a f t t o standard atmospheric conditions i n order t o determine t h e f u e l consumption p e r k i l o m e t e r f o r each t o n of f l y i n g weight ( a c t u a l , n o t r e d u c e d ) it i s s u f f i c i e n t t o m u l t i p l y t h e a c t u a l f l y i n g weight by t h e p r o p o r t i o n p o / p H' I n o u r example, t h e a c t u a l weight of t h e a i r c r a f t a t an a l t i t u d e i s 30 t o n s ; t h e r a t i o p 0 / p H = 2 ; t h e r e f o r e , Gred = 3 0 . 2 = 6 0 tons.
I f , w i t h a w e i g h t o f 6 0 t o n s t h e f u e l c o n s u m p t i o n a t a mean c r u i s i n g s p e e d i s 0 . 2 kg p e r t o n o f a c t u a l f l y i n g w e i g h t , t h i s means t h a t n e a r t h e g r o u n d t h e c o n s u m p t i o n p e r km i s 0 . 2 0 6 0 = 1 2 k g / k m , a n d a t a n a l t i t u d e w h e r e p~ = 0 . 5 p o i t w i l l b e 6 k g / k m . Therefore, f o r a n g l e s o f a t t a c k o f a n a i r c r a f t which a r e s m a l l e r t h a n t h e angle of t h e g r e a t e s t q u a l i t y , i . e . , over t h e e n t i r e range of t h e a i r c r a f t ' s c r u i s i n g speed with an i n c r e a s e i n t h e reduced weight, t h e f u e l consumption p e r t o n of a c t u a l weight w i l l d e c r e a s e .

A c t u a l l y , t h e c o e f f i c i e n t Cy, with an i n c r e a s e i n t h e a n g l e of a t t a c k w i t h i n t h e a b o v e l i m i t s , w i l l g r o w much m o r e r a p i d l y t h a n Cx a n d t h e s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e i n t h e w e i g h t o f t h e a i r c r a f t l e a d s t o a r e l a t i v e l y smaller increase i n t h e drag and, t h e r e f o r e , i n t h e f u e l consumption p e r k i l o m e t e r . Therefore, with an increase i n f l i g h t a l t i t u d e , when t h e r e d u c e d w e i g h t g r o w s w i t h o u t a n i n c r e a s e /494 i n t h e a c t u a l w e i g h t o f t h e a i r c r a f t , t h e f u e l c o n s u m p t i o n p e r km decreases significantly. I n a d d i t i o n , t h e Mach n u m b e r i s u s e d i n c o n s t r u c t i n g g r a p h s o f t h e f u e l c o n s u m p t i o n p e r km o n a i r c r a f t w i t h g a s t u r b i n e e n g i n e s . The method f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e f u e l c o n s u m p t i o n on t h e b a s i s o f t h e r e d u c e d f l y i n g w e i g h t a n d t h e Mach n u m b e r i s v e r y a d v a n t a g e o u s , s i n c e it p e r m i t s a l l t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f f u e l consumption a l o n g

523

t h e a i r p a t h over t h e e n t i r e range of speeds, a l t i t u d e s , and f l y i n g w e i g h t s o f t h e a i r c r a f t t o b e r e p r e s e n t e d on a t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l g r a p h or t a b l e . W i t h o u t t h e r e d u c e d w e i g h t , a t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l g r a p h or t a b l e w o u l d h a v e b e e n t h e minimum r e q u i r e m e n t f o r t h i s . Since such a g r a p h must b e v o l u m e t r i c r a t h e r t h a n f l a t , it c a n n o t b e r e p r e s e n t e d on p a p e r a n d i t must b e r e p l a c e d by a s e r i e s o f g r a p h s wh i ch h a v e been c a l c u l a t e d , f o r example, f o r each constant value of f l i g h t a l t i t u d e w i t h v a r i a b l e f l y i n g w e i g h t s a n d s p e e d s or o n t h e b a s i s o f any o t h e r c o n s t a n t v a l u e w i t h two o t h e r v a r i a b l e m a g n i t u d e s . T h i s i s e x a c t l y what i s done i n c o m p i l i n g o p e r a t i n g t a b l e s f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e d i s t a n c e a n d d u r a t i o n o f f l i g h t on a i r c r a f t w i t h gas turbine engines. Using t h e g e n e r a l g r a p h c o n s t r u c t e d on t h e b a s i s o f t h e r e d u c e d f l y i n g w e i g h t a n d t h e Mach n u m b e r a s t h e i n i t i a l g e n e r a l i z e d s o u r c e / 4 9 5 t a b l e s o f t h e f u e l consumption as a f u n c t i o n of t h e f l y i n g weight and t h e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e with a given a i r speed are compiled. Here it i s consumption f o r consumption p e r a l m o s t t h e same often s u f f i c i e n t t o c a l c u l a t e t h e t a b l e of f u e l one (mean) f l i g h t s p e e d , b e a r i n g i n mind t h a t t h e km o v e r t h e e n t i r e r a n g e o f c r u i s i n g s p e e d s i s a s t h e f u e l c o n s u m p t i o n a t t h e mean s p e e d .

I n any case, f o r a i r c r a f t w i t h g a s t u r b i n e e n g i n e s and w i t h g r e a t r a n g e , it i s s u f f i c i e n t t o compile t a b l e s of f u e l consumption F.or t h e o t h e r f o r n o t more t h a n t h r e e f l i g h t c r u i s i n g s p e e d s ,

G instr

Fig.

7.5.

Graph o f t h e F u e l Consumption/km

on a J e t A i r c r a f t

524

s p e e d s , t h e f u e l c o n s u m p t i o n may b e i n t e r p o l a t e d when n e c e s s a r y . The f u e l c o n s u m p t i o n f o r t h e g i v e n a i r s p e e d i s d e t e r m i n e d i n c o m p i l i n g t h e t a b l e s o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e Mach n u m b e r f o r t h i s s p e e d , which c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e s t a n d a r d t e m p e r a t u r e a t f l i g h t a l t i t u d e . In practice, a t high f l i g h t a l t i t u d e s t h e a c t u a l a i r temperature d i f f e r s s h a r p l y from t h e s t a n d a r d t e m p e r a t u r e ( b y more t h a n 10-15O). I n t h e above r a n g e s o f t e m p e r a t u r e c h a n g e , t h e h o u r l y f u e l consump t i o n c h a n g e s somewhat ( w i t h a n i n c r e a s e i n t e m p e r a t u r e , i t i n c r e a s e s ; with a decrease i n temperature, it decreases). However, t h e t r u e a i r s p e e d o f f l i g h t a t a c o n s t a n t Mach n u m b e r c h a n g e s i n a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e same p r o p o r t i o n . This causes a r e l a t i v e steadiness i n the f u e l consumption p e r k i l o m e t e r . In Figure 7.5, w e have p l o t t e d a g e n e r a l graph of t h e f u e l consumption p e r k i l o m e t e r of a c i v i l a i r c r a f t . Tables 7.4 and 7.5 r e p r e s e n t t h e t o t a l f u e l c o n s u m p t i o n p e r f l i g h t f o r t h e same a i r c r a f t and t h e f u e l consumption w i t h r e s p e c t t o s t a g e s of t h e f l i g h t . W c o m p i l e d t h e s e t a b l e s f o r a mean c r u i s i n g s p e e d o f 8 0 0 k m / h r a n d e a mean f l y i n g w e i g h t o f 6 2 t o n s , b e a r i n g i n m i n d t h a t t h e f u e l c o n s u m p t i o n p e r km f o r a n a i r c r a f t o v e r t h e e n t i r e r a n g e o f c r u i s i n g s p e e d s d i f f e r s b y n o t m o r e t h a n 2 % f r o m t h e mean a n d t h e f l y i n g w e i g h t a t d i f f e r e n t s t a g e s o f h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t d o e s n o t d i f f e r by n o t more t h a n 5 t o n s .

Example. T h e d i s t a n c e a l o n g t h e p a t h i s 2 2 0 0 km; the flight a l t i t u d e is 10,000 m ; t h e adjusted navigational f u e l supply is 5.4 t o n s , and t h e wind component a t t h e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e i s minus 6 0 km/hr.
D e t e r m i n e t h e amount o f f u e l n e c e s s a r y t o e x e c u t e t h e f l i g h t and t h e c a l c u l a t e d f u e l s u r p l u s a t t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a g e s of f l i g h t : a t t h e end o f t h e c l i m b , a t d i s t a n c e s from t h e t a k e - o f f p o i n t o f 8 0 0 a n d 1 6 0 0 km, a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f d e s c e n t , a n d d u r i n g t h e l a n d i n g of t h e a i r c r a f t .
SOlUtiOn. On t h e b a s i s o f T a b l e 7 . 4 , f o r a d i s t a n c e o f 2 2 0 0 km, a f l i g h t a l t i t u d e of 1 0 , 0 0 0 m and a head wind, l e t u s f i n d t h e amount o f f u e l r e q u i r e d (Greq) t o e x e c u t e t h e f l i g h t , a d d i n g t o i t t h e adjusted navigational supply of 5.4 t o n s : 15.5 t (0.62.2) t 5 . 4 = 22.14 t o n s .

On t h e b a s i s o f T a b l e 7 . 5 f o r t h e same c o n d i t i o n s , l e t u s f i n d : (a) 253 km). (b) The a i r c r a f t ' s p a t h d u r i n g t h e c l i m b ( S

cl

= 275 - 22 =

The f u e l c o n s u m p t i o n d u r i n g t h e c l i m b ( &

cl

= 3.95 t o n s ) .

525

path lengtl

_ . ,7000

TABLE 7.4 F l i g h t altitude, m

SO00

/496
~

9000

10000

1
?re
1

11000
- --

k $

F u e l c nsumption for t h e e x e c u t i n g f l i g h t
T

Grec A, T T i
so0
900 1000 1100 1200 1300
1300

A, 7

A, T
.

7, z
8.E 9,: 10,c

10.7
11.4

1500 1GOO 1700 1so0 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500 2G00 2700 2soo 2900 3000

12.1 12,s 13.5 14.2

14,s

0.2; 0,3C 0.34 0.37 0.41 0.44 0.47 0.51 3.34 3.55
3.61

15.5 1G.2 16.9 17,G 1s.3 19.0 19.7 20.4 21.1 21.7 22.4 23.1

3, G4 1G , S 1.71 1.75 ). 7s ),S1 ),S5 ),SS ), 92 ) 95 .

),98

0.2: 0.28 0.31 0.34 0.37 0.41 0.44 12.2 0.47 12,s 0.50 13.5 0.53 14.1 0.57 14-7 0. GO 15.4 0.63
8.2 9 C . 9, E 10.3 10.9 11.5
16.0

7.5

- 9.3 9.9 10.5

11.1

s 17

7, E 5.1

16.7 17.3 7.9

8.6

0,GG O.G9

9.2
9.9 !O, 5 !1,1

.02

!I , S

0.73 0.76 0.79 3.s2 3.85 3,SO 3.92 3.95

11.7 12.3 12.9 13.5 14,l 14.7 15.3 15.9 16.5 17.1 17.7 1s.3 1S.9 19.5 20.1 20.7

0: . 2 0.26 0.29 0.32 0.35 0.38 0.41 0.4.1 0.47

0.50
0.53 0,5G 0.59 0.62
O,G5 0.GS si71

05 .0 13,s 0,53
14.3
4.9

7,: 8. C 8.6 9.2 9,s 10.3 10.9 11.5 12.0 12.6 13.2

0.21 0.24 0.2i 0.30 0.33 0.33 0.39 0,42 0,45 0.45

7.4
8.0

0.20 0,23
0.26 0.29

8.5
9.1 9.6

10.2 10.7 11.3 11.8 12.4 12.9 13.5

14.0 466 5.1

3.74 3.77

3.so
1,SD

5,5 6.0 6.6 7.2 7,s 5.3

8.9

0.5G 0.59 0.62

0.32 0.34 0.37 0.40 0,43 0,4G 0.45 0,51 0.54

05 .7
0,g0 3.G2

06 .5
3,GS 3.71 3.74 3.77 3,79 1.82 1.85

3.83 3,SG

9,'5 0.0

5.7 6.2 6.8 7.3 7.9 8.4 9.0 9*5

3-65 3. GS 3.71 1.74 ),76 1.79 1.52

Note. I n t h e T a b l e , A i s t h e i n d i c a t e d c o r r e c t i o n for t h e t o t a l f u e l c o n s u m p t i o n f o r e v e r y 30 km/hr o f t h e wind component: f a v o r a b l e w i t h a minus s i g n and c o n t r a r y w i t h a p l u s s i g n .

(c) P a t h o f t h e a i r c r a f t d u r i n g d e s c e n t S d e s = 2 2 0 - 20 = 2 0 0 F u e l consumption f o r d e s c e n t &des = 0.8 tons.

km;
(d) The f u e l c o n s u m p t i o n on t h e s e c t i o n s o f h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t i s :
(a)

From 2 5 3 t o 8 0 0 k m , & = 5 5 3 ( 5 . 7 2

0.58)
t

= 3.44

tons. tons;
t

(b)

From 8 0 0 t o

1600 k m , Q = 8 0 0 ( 5 . 7 2

0.58)

= 5.04

0.58)

(c) From 1 6 0 0 t o t h e b e g i n n i n g o f d e s c e n t Q = 4 0 0 ( 5 . 7 2 = 2.52 t o n s . The f u e l c o n s u m p t i o n f o r t h e l a n d i n g a p p r o a c h m a n e u v e r Q

= 1 ton.

a PP

L e t u s t a b u l a t e t h e r e s u l t of t h e s o l u t i o n i n T a b l e 7 . 6 .

The a b o v e c a l c u l a t i o n p r o c e d u r e i s a c c e p t a b l e f o r a i r c r a f t w i t h a f l i g h t d u r a t i o n o f 3 - 3 . 5 h r when t h e f u e l c o n s u m p t i o n i n h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t does n o t exceed 1 0 - 1 2 t o n s .

Note. I n t h e Table, N i s t h e i n d i c a t e d f u e l consumption, path /497 t r a v e r s e d and f l i g h t t i m e f o r a s t a g e . I n t h e Table, A is t h e in c r e a s e i n t h e p a t h a n d t h e f u e l c o n s u m p t i o n p e r km f o r e v e r y 30 km/ h r o f a . h e a d o r t a i l rrind.

T a k e - o f f and c l i m b f u e l consump tion, tons t i m e , min p a t h , km

..................... ...................... .......................

2.7 14 145

-. lso 3.0 16.5 0.32

I

3.4 19 220

4.5 3.95 30 23 10 275 11 375

12

Horizontal f l i g h t
f u e l c o n s u m p t i o n kg/km Descent f u e l consumption, t o n s t i m e , min p a t h , km

.........

6.9 0.346.4
I I

G
I I

0,35,720.295.5
I I

0,2&

...................... .......................

.........
.........

0,42 - 0.55 - 0.6s - 0.S 11 - 14 - 17 - 20 110 5 140 G 180 s 220

1 -

0.95 -
93 -
10 250 12

I'

Landing approach maneuver f u e l consumption, t o n s

TABLE 7 . 6

Sections of t h e r o u t e

Before t a k e - o f f . . . . . . . . . . . . . T a k e - o f f a n d Climb 2 5 3 - 8 0 0 km 8 0 0 - 1 6 0 0 km 1 6 0 0 - b e g i n n i n g of d e s c e n t . Descent Landing

......... .............. .............

- -~ 253 547
so0 400 200

3.95 3.44 5.032.52

.................... ....................

0s .o
1 .oo

22.14
IS. 19
14.75
9.71
7.19 6.39 5.39

527

PILOT NAVIGATOR GRAPH

Flight Route Moscow-Khabarovsk, 196 g
Aircraft No: Navigator
Crew Commander Aircraft Engineer

Fig. 7.6.

Pilot-Navigator Graph

For aircraft operating over long distances, calculating the

fuel consumption on the basis o f one mean flying weight of the air
craft becomes entirely insufficient.
For such aircraft, it is advantageous t o compile a pilot-navi- / 4 9 9 gator table for checking the fuel consumption in flight. To do this, a form of Table 7.7 is used. Data for the fuel consumption at various altitudes and airspeeds as a function of the aircraft's flying weight are entered into the table. TABLE 7.7

_ .

Flight
Limits of
Vtr 750 km/hr altitude
flying
, km
.weights, T

3
G
!GO-150

Vtr 800 km/hr

Vtr 850 km/hr

1-

1-

_L__

i-G -.__I__ I-

-7- .--_8 .

:50-140 140-130 130-120 120-1 10

I -.

I__._

-.--_

lG0-150 150-140 140-1 30 130- 1 20 120-110

etc

Usually it is sufficient t o have a table with the altitude indicated for every 1 k m , and the flying weight is indicated for every 10 tons for the mean and for two other cruising speeds of the flight. This is given in the table when the weight of the aircraft changes in horizontal flight within the limits from 160 t o 110 tons and the cruising speed changes from 750 - 850 km/hr. In addition t o Table 7.7, to compile a pilot-navigator table,
data for the aircraft's path and the fuel consumption at stages of
the climb, descent and pre-landing maneuvering are necessary.
The most convenient form of the pilot-navigator table for
compilation and usage is given in Figure 7.6.
First, the curve of the change in flying weight of the air
craft along the flight path is plotted on the graph:
(a) During climb.

529

(b) From t h e moment o f a p p r o a c h i n g t h e g i v e n a l t i t u d e t o t h e c l o s e s t f l y i n g w e i g h t g i v e n i n Column 2 o f T a b l e 7 . 7 . (c) Later, after every 10 t o n s of f l y i n g weight along t h e d i s t a n c e t r a v e r s e d , w i t h t h e i r development i n aFcordance with Columns 4 , 6 a n d 8 i n T a b l e 7 . 7 ; (d) During t h e t i m e of descent and pre-landing maneuvering.

After t h i s , a c u r v e p a r a l l e l t o t h e c u r v e of t h e change i n f l y i n g w e i g h t a l o n g t h e f l i g h t p a t h i s p l o t t e d o n t h e g r a p h i n s u c h /500 a way t h a t t h e f u e l s u r p l u s ( i n m u l t i p l e s o f 1 0 t o n s ) c o i n c i d e s with t h e thickened h o r i z o n t a l l i n e s of t h e graph g r i d . This creates conditions f o r conveniently measuring t h e f u e l s u r p l u s , with i t s measurement a t 1 0 t o n i n t e r v a l s d i r e c t l y on t h e b a s i s o f t h e c u r v e .
For example. i f t h e f l y i n g weight of t h e a i r c r a f t of 1 4 0 t o n s c o r r e s p o n d s t o a f u e l s u r p l u s e q u a l t o 36 t o n s , i t i s c o n v e n i e n t t o p l a c e t h e c u r v e o f f u e l c o n s u m p t i o n 6 t o n s h i g h e r or 4 t o n s lower t h a n t h e f l y i n g weight curve. I n t h i s case, a l l t h e p o i n t s f o r t h e f u e l surplus i n multiples of 1 0 t o n s , coincide with t h e t h i c k e n e d l i n e s on t h e g r a p h g i v e n e v e r y 5 o t 1 0 t o n s . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e c u r v e s o f t h e change i n f l y i n g w e i g h t and f u e l consumption along t h e f l i g h t p a t h of t h e a i r c r a f t , t h e f o l l o w i n g h a v e b e e n p l o t t e d on t h e g r a p h : t h e p r o f i l e of t h e f l i g h t a n d t h e s l o p i n g g r i d of t h e wind a t f l i g h t a l t i t u d e f o r t r a n s f e r r i n g t h e a i r p a t h o f t h e a i r c r a f t t o t h e a c t u a l p a t h , a s w e h a v e shown i n Figure 7.6. F o r c h e c k i n g t h e f u e l c o n s u m p t i o n i n f l i g h t , P o i n t 1 i s marked on t h e t i m e s c a l e ; s i g h t i n g u p w a r d , t h e f o l l o w i n g c a n b e o b t a i n e d i n succession: t h e a i r p a t h t r a v e r s e d (2), t h e c a l c u l a t e d f u e l surplus ( 3 1 , t h e c a l c u l a t e d w e i g h t o f t h e a i r c r a f t ( 4 ) a n d t h e p o i n t o f i n t e r s e c t i o n w i t h t h e s l o p e l i n e o f t h e mean w i n d ( 5 ) . T h i s p o i n t may b e s i g h t e d a l o n g t h e h o r i z o n t a l t o t h e l e f t t o p o i n t 6 , showing t h e c a l c u l a t e d p a t h of t h e a i r c r a f t r e l a t i v e t o t h e ground. The a b o v e c a l c u l a t e d d a t a a r e c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e a c t u a l d a t a Checking t h e f o r t h e a i r c r a f t ' s p a t h and f o r t h e f u e l s u r p l u s . f u e l consumption i n f l i g h t p r o p e r l y i n c l u d e s t h i s procedure. Calculating t h e Greatest Distance o f the A i r c r a f t ' s Point o f C l o s e s t Approach t o a R e s e r v e A i r p o r t I n order t o guarantee t h e r e g u l a r i t y of f l i g h t s , sometimes p e r m i t t e d t o f l y w i t h o u t complete a s s u r a n c e w i l l land at t h e designated a i r p o r t . However, s u c h a accepted only with t h e f u l l guarantee t h a t (depending weather conditions) t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of t h e a i r c r a f t ' s one o f t h e a l t e r n a t e a i r p o r t s ( i n c l u d i n g t h e t a k e - o f f
530

aircraft are t h a t they decision is on t h e landing a t airport) is

r e l i a b l y ensured. In these instances, the distance of the f l i g h t t o a point w h e r e i t i s s t i l l p o s s i b l e t o make a f i n a l d e c i s i o n t o l a n d a t t h e d e s i g n a t e d a i r p o r t or t o r e t u r n t o a n a l t e r n a t e a i r p o r t i s c a l c u lated. T h i s p o i n t i s c a l l e d t h e p o i n t of c Z o s e s t a p p r o a c h . The p o i n t o f c l o s e s t a p p r o a c h mu s t b e l o c a t e d a t t h e t a k e o f f a i r p o r t , a t such a d i s t a n c e from it t h a t t h e a i r p a t h of t h e a i r c r a f t t o , t h i s p o i n t and back t o t h e t a k e o f f a i r p o r t does n o t exceed t h e maximum f l i g h t d i s t a n c e d u r i n g a c a l m w i t h t h e s u r p l u s a d j u s t e d n a v i g a t i o n a l f u e l s u p p l y on b o a r d .
L e t u s r e p r e s e n t t h e maximum a i r p a t h o f t h e a i r c r a f t b y S a p , and l e t u s assume t h a t t h e a i r c r a f t w i l l t r a v e l t o t h e p o i n t o f c l o s e s t approach w i t h a t a i l wind, and back a g a i n w i t h a head wind. Without t a k i n g i n t o account t h e a i r c r a f t s p a t h during a t u r n t o t h e r e v e r s e c o u r s e , or c a l m f l i g h t c o n d i t i o n s t h e f o l l o w i n g e q u a t i o n w i l l hold:

/501

aP

where V i s t h e a i r s p e e d , t i i s t h e f l i g h t t i m e up t o t h e p o i n t o f c l o s e s t a p p r o a c h , and t 2 i s t h e f l i g h t t i m e i n t h e r e v e r s e d i r e c tion. Since

where S p . c . a . i s t h e d i s t a n c e o f t h e p o i n t o f c l o s e s t a p p r o a c h ;
a n d uz i s t h e w i n d c o m p o n e n t a l o n g t h e p a t h l i n e .
W can w r i t e t h e formula f o r S e i n t h e form:
aP

s a p =Ispca ( \
= Spca

v 4 v-ux )= I/ v*- u x V t v2 $- u,v

V f U ,

v2 - u;

2 v2

= S C () P a-

whence

Taking i n t o account t h e p a t h of t h e a i r c r a f t i n t h e t u r n t o t h e reverse course ( L r ) , we f i n a l l y obtain:

531

Obviously, t h e c o e f f i c i e n t 1

U2X V2

- and, t h e r e f o r e , t h e distance

o f t h e p o i n t o f c l o s e s t a p p r o a c h w i l l b e maximum a t ux = 0 a n d w i l l d i m i n i s h w i t h a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e wind component a l o n g t h e p a t h l i n e , independent of i t s s i g n .

It i s important t o note t h a t t h e distance of t h e point of c l o s e s t approach f o r aircraft with gas t u r b i n e engines depends l i t t l e on t h e a i r s p e e d w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s o f t h e r a n g e o f c r u i s i n g s p e e d s o f t h e a i r c r a f t , s i n c e t h e d i s t a n c e o f t h e f l i g h t i n a calm c h a n g e s insignificantly. I n a d d i t i o n , w i t h a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e a i r s p e e d and w i t h some i n c r e a s e i n t h e f u e l c o n s u m p t i o n p e r k i l o m e t e r of a i r

path,

the coefficient 1 -

5
TI

i n c r e a s e s somewhat.

This a l s o

s t a b i l i z e s t h e d i s t a n c e of t h e p o i n t of c l o s e s t approach.

For a s p e c i f i c a i r s p e e d , t h e c o e f f i c i e n t 1 pressed i n percent.

may b e e x V2 This simplifies t h e calculations s i g n i f i c a n t l y .

ULX

/ 5 0~. 2

ux, k m/hr

.; 1
100,o 99. G 9s.5 96.5 94.0 91 .o

Multiplication

8 0 0 km/hr

it w i l l be:

f o r an a l t e r n a t e a i r p o r t s i t u a t e d on t h e f l i g h t p a t h , t h e c a l c u l a t i o n i s performed 0.940 o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e same f o r m u 0,910 la. Instead of a completely calm d i s t a n c e , i n t h i s case t h e calm d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e a l t e r n a t e a i r p o r t i s t a k e n , t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t t h e amount of f u e l remaining u n t i l t h e a l t e r n a t e a i r p o r t is reached,
0.996 0,983 0,965
I

0 50 100 150 200 250

6.

P r e - f l i g h t P r e p a r a t i o n and F l i g h t C a l c u l a t i o n

P r e - f l i g h t p r e p a r a t i o n i n p r a c t i c e i s always necessary. How e v e r , i t s volume w i l l b e l e s s a s more p r o b l e m s a r e s o l v e d i n t h e preliminary preparation. Pre-flight (a) p r e p a r a t i o n i s c a u s e d by t h e n e e d t o :

Analyze t h e meteorological s i t u a t i o n p r i o r t o t a k e o f f ;

532

~. .. .. . .

. . . -.

..

(b) Introduce p o s s i b l e changes i n t h e operating r u l e s f o r radio-engineering devices or f l i g h t conditions along t h e a i r route and i n t h e v i c i n i t y of a i r p o r t s . I n a d d i t i o n , b e f o r e t a k e - o f f t h e n a v i g a t i o n a l e q u i p m e n t on b o a r d t h e a i r c r a f t m u s t b e s w i t c h e d on a n d i n s p e c t e d . In studying t h e meteorological s i t u a t i o n along t h e f l i g h t path a n d a t t h e l a n d i n g a i r p o r t , a t t e n t i o n must b e f o c u s e d on t h e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e o f t h e a c t u a l or p r e d i c t e d w e a t h e r w i t h t h e e s t a b l i s h e d minimum, t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e w i n d s a t f l i g h t a l t i t u d e , t h e l o c a t i o n o f z o n e s w i t h d a n g e r o u s w e a t h e r phenomena and c o n d i t i o n s f o r avoiding them, as w e l l as t h e s t a t e of t h e weather a t t h e a l t e r nate airports. Calculating t h e f l i g h t consists of taking i n t o account t h e wind d i s t r i b u t i o n a t f l i g h t a l t i t u d e , t h e l o c a t i o n o f z o n e s w i t h d a n g e r o u s m e t e o r o l o g i c a l phenomena, a s w e l l a s t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t t h e s i t u a t i o n of t h e a i r on t h a t d a y . In c a l c u l a t i n g t h e f l i g h t , it i s necessary t o average t h e e q u i v a l e n t wind i n o r d e r t o d e t e r m i n e t h e n e c e s s a r y a i r s p e e d t o maintain the f l i g h t according t o schedule. T h e p r e c i s e v a l u e o f t h e e q u i v a l e n t w i n d ( u e > may b e d e t e r m i n e d / 5 0 3 on t h e b a s i s o f t h e f o r m u l a

or, o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e r o u g h f o r m u l a ,
u3 = 1i C O S

Y B - - - sin:! Y B 21.1

u:!'

I n p r a c t i c e , however, with a s u f f i c i e n t degree of accuracy, t h e h e a d - w i n d or t a i l - w i n d c o m p o n e n t o f t h e e q u i v a l e n t w i n d may b e t a k e n as t h e e q u i v a l e n t wind:

u e z u c o s WA
Averaging t h e e q u i v a l e n t wind a l o n g t h e e n t i r e r o u t e i s done on t h e b a s i s o f t h e f o r m u l a :

533

The n e c e s s a r y c o n s t a n t a i r s p e e d f o r t r a v e l i n g a c c o r d i n g t o schedule is then e a s i l y determined: 'sched

- 'sched

- 2 4

e. av.

After t h e n e c e s s a r y a i r s p e e d f o r f l i g h t a l o n g $ t h e p a t h h a s been obtained tentatively, the elements of the f l i g h t along sections of t h e f l i g h t p a t h are i n c l u d e d i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n .

For e a c h s e c t i o n o f t h e p a t h , t h e f o l l o w i n g m u s t b e d e t e r m i n e d :
(a) The p a t h o f t r a v e l a n d t h e a i r s p e e d , p r o c e e d i n g f r o m t h e f l i g h t a n g l e o f a s e c t i o n of t h e p a t h , t h e a i r s p e e d d e t e r m i n e d f o r t h e f l i g h t a c c o r d i n g t o t h e s c h e d u l e , and t h e wind a t f l i g h t a l t i tude. (b) The f l y i n g t i m e p r o c e e d i n g f r o m t h e l e n g t h o f t h e s e c t i o n and t h e f l i g h t s p e e d . (c) The f u e l s u r p l u s a t t h e e n d o f t h e s e c t i o n .

The r e s u l t s o f t h e c a l c u l a t i o n a r e e n t e r e d i n a p r e l i m i n a r y f l i g h t c a l c u l a t i o n t a b l e i n a l o g on t h e a i r c r a f t , w h i c h h a s t h e following form:

the route

beginningc
fhn
c n c f i n .

The f l i g h t a n g l e s a n d c a l c u l a t e d t r a v e l p a t h s a r e d e t e r m i n e d a n d r e c o r d e d i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h a s e l e c t e d frame o f r e f e r e n c e ( o r t h o d r o m i c , t r u e or m a g n e t i c ) . I n some c a s e s , d u r i n g f l i g h t p r e p a r a t i o n t h e t i m e a n d p l a c e o f t h e a i r c r a f t ' s e n c o u n t e r i n g d a r k n e s s must be determined, as w e l l a s t h e l o c a t i o n f o r e n c o u n t e r i n g or o v e r t a k i n g o t h e r a i r c r a f t . In solving t h i s problem, t h e p o s i t i o n of a given a i r c r a f t a t t h e moment when d a r k n e s s or a n o t h e r a i r c r a f t p a s s e s a d e t e r m i n e d p o i n t on t h e r o u t e ( f o r e x a m p l e , t h e t e r m i n a l a i r p o r t ) i s d e t e r m i n e d . T h e s p e e d o f t h e a p p r o a c h ( a s t h e sum or d i f f e r e n c e o f t h e s p e e d s ) and t h e l o c a t i o n of t h e e n c o u n t e r are t h e n determined.

/SO4

Example. An a i r c r a f t i s f l y i n g f r o m p o i n t A t o p o i n t B a t 2 0 1 5 Moscow t i m e . The mean a i r s p e e d i s 3 5 0 k m / h r . The d i s t a n c e Determine t h e t i m e of t h e encounter b e t w e e n t h e p o i n t s i s 1 1 0 0 km. o f t h e a i r c r a f t w i t h d a r k n e s s i f d a r k n e s s r e a c h e s p o i n t B a t 2103 and p o i n t A a t 2218.
534

Solution.
B

(a)

The rate of movement of darkness from point

t o point A is

d'

1100 - 1 hr 1 5 min = 880 km/hr.

(b) At the moment of the arrival of darkness at point B y the aircraft will be at the following distance from point A : 'instr
= Wa

(2103

2015) = 35000.8 = 280 k m

and the following distance from point B : 'e rm (c)

= 1 1 0 0 - 280 = 820 k m ;

The speed of the approach of the aircraft to darkness is

W
(d)

aPP

= 350

880 = 1 2 3 0 km/hr

The aircraft's encounter with darkness occurs at:

820 k m = 2143 = 2103 + 1230 km/hr

'n ec

at a distance from point A 'n ec

= 280

350 km/hr*0040 = 5 1 4 k m

Pre-flight preparation is completed on board the aircraft,

where the following events occur: a general survey of the equip
ment, switching on the equipment and displaying the aircraft course,
adjusting and inspecting the radio-engineering equipment, reading
the pressure on the altimeters, and other operations in accordance
with the manual on flight operation and the instructions on air
craft navigation for a given type of aircraft.

535

C H A P T E R EIGHT
G E N E R A L P R O C E D U R E F O R AIRCRAFT NAVIGATION
1.

G e n e r a l Methods o f A i r c r a f t N a v i g a t i o n a l o n g Air R o u t e s
/505

The a c c u r a c y a n d r e l i a b i l i t y o f a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n a l o n g a i r r o u t e s may b e e n s u r e d o n l y when t h e c r e w c o r r e c t l y u s e s e a c h i n d i v i d u a l type of a i r c r a f t n a v a g a t i o n a l equipment and s k i l l f u l l y c o m b i n e s t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e e n t i r e c o m p l e x of t h i s e q u i p m e n t . By t o t a l u t i l i z a t i o n o f n a v i g a t i o n a l e q u i p m e n t , w e mean t h e c o r r e c t combination of operating t h e n a v i g a t i o n a l means'at t h e d i s p o s a l o f t h e crew i n o r d e r t o

(1) S o l v e t h e n a v i g a t i o n a l p r o b l e m s w h o s e e l e m e n t s , m e a s u r e d by v a r i o u s n a v i g a t i o n a l means, a r e t h e p a r e n t e l e m e n t s ;
(2) Compensate f o r t h e o p e r a t i o n of i n d i v i d u a l t y p e s o f n a v i g a t i o n a l e q u i p m e n t by means o f o t h e r t y p e s o f e q u i p m e n t ;
(3) S e l e c t t h e most s u i t a b l e means, u n d e r t h e g i v e n c o n d i t i o n s , and d u p l i c a t e them by o t h e r means.

When s e v e r a l n a v i g a t i o n a l e l e m e n t s m u s t b e m e a s u r e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y ( f o r e x a m p l e , when t h e a i r c r a f t ' s b e a r i n g i s d e t e r m i n e d o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e r e s p o n s e s of a c o u r s e i n s t r u m e n t a n d a r a d i o c o m p a s s , a n d t h e d i r e c t i o n - f i n d i n g t i m e i s r e a d on t h e b a s i s o f a c l o c k on b o a r d ) t h e p r o c e d u r e f o r t a k i n g r e a d i n g s must b e s u c h a s t o e n s u r e t h e r a p i d r e c o r d i n g of t h e most u n s t a b l e e l e m e n t s . In addition, t h e moments o f r e c o r d i n g s i m u l t a n e o u s l y c h a n g i n g i n d i c a t i o n s mu s t be as c l o s e t o g e t h e r as p o s s i b l e . I n our e x a m p l e , t h e a i r c r a f t ' s c o u r s e m u s t f i r s t b e r e c o r d e d ; t h e n it i s d e s i r a b l e t o r e c o r d t h e c o u r s e a n g l e o f t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n w i t h t h e s m a l l e s t l a p s e o f t i m e , s i n c e t h e s e e l e m e n t s may change q u i c k l y and s i m u l t a n e o u s l y due t o t h e f l u c t u a t i o n s i n t h e longitudinal a x i s of t h e aircraft. A s r e g a r d s t h e d i r e c t i o n - f i n d i n g t i m e , i t may b e r e c o r d e d a f t e r t h e f i r s t t w o e l e m e n t s by t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t t h e a p p r o x i m a t e c o r r e c t i o n for t i m e e x p e n d e d o n t h e r e a d i n g a n d r e c o r d i n g o f t h e

536

first elements.
If t h e r a d i o c o m p a s s h a s a n i n d i c a t o r combined w i t h t h e c o u r s e instrument, t h e b e a r i n g r e a d i n g s do n o t change with f l u c t u a t i o n s i n the aircrafts longitudinal axis. I n such c a s e s , only t h e accuracy o f m e a s u r i n g t h e t i m e i n t e r v a l s b e t w e e n t h e moments o f r e c o r d i n g t h e bearings r a t h e r t h a n t h e sequence of recording t h e elements i s important.

/506

A d d i t i o n a l v a l u e s o b t a i n e d by c a l c u l a t i o n s o r on t h e b a s i s o f t a b l e s ( t h e c o n v e r g e n c e o f m e r i d i a n s , d e v i a t i o n s o f t h e compass and radiocompass) are recorded l a t e r , since t h e i r values f o r t h e b a s i c recorded elements remain unchanged. I n a l l c a s e s when p r e c a l c u l a t e d or d i s c r e t e r e a d i n g s a r e r e c o r d e d ( e . g . , a p r e c a l c u l a t e d b e a r i n g , t h e moment when a s e l e c t e d l a n d m a r k p a s s e s a c i r c u l a r d i s t a n c e mark on a r a d a r s c r e e n , e t c . ) , t h e moment o f t i m e o f t h e r e a d i n g i s r e c o r d e d f i r s t a n d t h e m e a s u r e d e l e m e n t s e c o n d , s i n c e t h e p i l o t remembers i t . Recordings of measured e l e m e n t s are a r r a n g e d i n a sequence which i s most c o n v e n i e n t f o r a d d i n g i n n a v i g a t i o n a l c a l c u l a t i o n s , u s u a l l y on t h e b a s i s o f a f o r m o f a i r c r a f t l o g e s t a b l i s h e d f o r a i r c r a f t t y p e d a t a or o n t h e b a s i s o f a s p e c i a l c a l c u l a t i n g f o r m .
If one o f t h e t y p e s o f n a v i g a t i o n a l e q u i p m e n t i s u s e d t o c o r r e c t r e a d i n g s by a n a v i g a t i o n a l d e v i c e o f a n o t h e r t y p e ( e . g . , t o c o r r e c t t h e a i r c r a f t s c o o r d i n a t e s ) w h i c h a r e c a l c u l a t e d by a n a u t o m a t i c n a v i g a t i o n a l d e v i c e or b y m e a n s o f a i r c r a f t r a d a r , a t t e n t i o n must b e f o c u s e d on t h e a c c u r a c y o f s e l e c t i n g t h e c o r r e c t i o n l o c a t i o n where t h e g e o m e t r y o f t h e s o l u t i o n t o t h e problem w i l l b e most a d v a n t a g e o u s .

I n our example, it i s advantageous t o c o r r e c t t h e X-coordinate o f t h e a i r c r a f t when t h e l a n d m a r k m a r k l o c a t e d o n t h e l i n e o f t h e g i v e n p a t h p a s s e s t h r o u g h t h e c i r c u l a r d i s t a n c e m a r k on t h e r a d a r s c r e e n , a n d t o c o r r e c t t h e Z - c o o r d i n a t e on t h e b a s i s o f d i s t a n c e m a r k s with p a t h b e a r i n g s of landmarks 90 o r 2 7 0 O . D u p l i c a t i n g t h e n a v i g a t i o n a l measurements by d i f f e r e n t n a v i g a t i o n a l means i s o b l i g a t o r y i n o r d e r t o a v o i d g r o s s e r r o r s i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t or t o r e s o l v e a m b i g u i t y i n t h e instrument readings. I n i n d i v i d u a l c a s e s when t h e a c c u r a c y o f m e a s u r i n g n a v i g a t i o n a l e l e m e n t s by d i f f e r e n t means i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e same, t h e d u p l i c a t i o n o f m e a s u r e m e n t s may b e u s e f u l f o r r a i s i n g t h e i r a c c u r a c y . I n t h e s e c a s e s t h e mean v a l u e o f t h e r e s u l t s o f t w o m e a s u r e m e n t s b y two d i f f e r e n t means i s assumed t o b e t h e measured v a l u e . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e d u p l i c a t i o n o f n a v i g a t i o n a l measurements by d i f f e r e n t means i s a n emergency a r r a n g e m e n t i n c a s e o f breakdowns

537

in the operation of individual elements o f the equipment on board

the aircraft.

Examples. 1. In determining the location of an aircraft visually or by means of aircraft radar, the crew may commit an error in identifying a landmark. Even if the locat'ion of an air craft is determined approximately by means of a n electronic navi gational indicator or by astronomical means, the probability of a gross error in determining the aircraft's position is practically excluded.
2. In determining the bearing of an aircraft on the basis of
a fan-type beacon or a hyperbolic position line by phase measure
ments, the readings are ambiguous. The ambiguity is resolved by
an additional determination of the sector or phase path by less
accurate means.

3. The accuracy in determining the aircraft's location by means of the goniometric rangefinding system and by means of air craft radar is the same under normal conditions. Duplicating the measurements permits an increase in the accuracy of determining the aircraft's location as a mean based on the results of two measure ments.

/507

The above examples are characteristic only of the general

principles of the total utilization of aircraft navigational equip
ment in executing a flight.
The great variety of flight conditions, navigational equipment
on air routes, and aircraft equipment has determined the various
methods of their total utilization.
Specific recommendations for the total utilization of navi
gational means over individual sections of air routes are usually
given in descriptions and instructions on executing flights along
air routes.
On flights not along air routes, the procedure for using navi
gational devices is determined during the flight preparation after
studying the navigational situation along the flight route.

2.

S t a g e s in E x e c u t i n g t h e F l i g h t

Executing flight with the use of any aircraft navigational

device may be divided into stages with the following characteristic
features: ( a > take-off and climb; (b) flight along the route;
(c) descent and approach t o the airport; and (d) maneuvering and
landing approach.
The stages of climb, descent and maneuvering are executed at
varying altitudes and airspeeds, and flight along the route is
executed under more stable conditions.

The m o s t c o m p l e x s t a g e f o r t h e a i r c r a f t crew i s u s u a l l y t h e maneuvering s t a g e n e a r t h e a i r p o r t , combined w i t h t h e l a n d i n g ap p r o a c h , e s p e c i a l l y under complex m e t e o r o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s . Despite t h e general f e a t u r e s of each f l i g h t s t a g e , t h e airc r a f t n a v i g a t i o n a l p r o c e d u r e i n them i s n e v e r t h e l e s s v e r y d i f f e r e n ? i f v a r i o u s a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n a l d e v i c e s are employed. The p r i n c i p a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n a l m e t h o d s o c c u r when a n y n a v i g a t i o n a l d e v i c e ( g e o t e c h n i c a l , r a d i o - e n g i n e e r i n g and a s t r o n o m i c a l ) i s used w i t h o u t a u t o m a t i c measurement o f t h e a i r s p e e d 'components a l o n g t h e c o o r d i n a t e a x e s , w i t h o u t c a l c u l a t i n g t h e a i r c r a f t ' s p a t h , a n d i n o t h e r c a s e s when t h e r e a r e d e v i c e s o n board f o r solving t h e s e problems. T h e r e f o r e , i n d e s c r i b i n g -the general procedure of aircraft navigation a t d i f f e r e n t f l i g h t s t a g e s , w e s h a l l discuss i t s f e a t u r e s with t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of automatic n a v i g a t i o n a l d e v i c e s and w i t h o u t them.
Take-Off
and Climb
./ 5 0 8 -

During f l i g h t p r e p a r a t i o n , t h e s e c t i o n of t h e p a t h from t h e t a k e o f f a i r p o r t t o t h e f i r s t c o n t r o l landmark on t h e r o u t e i s p l o t t e d on t h e map b y a s t r a i g h t l i n e a n d t h e d i s t a n c e a n d d i r e c t i o n t o t h e landmark from t h e c e n t e r o f t h e a i r p o r t i s i n d i c a t e d . However, i n p r a c t i c e t h e c o u r s e o f t h e t a k e o f f a l m o s t n e v e r coincides with t h e indicated f l i g h t direction. In addition, the t a k e o f f d i r e c t i o n c h a n g e s d e p e n d i n g on t h e wind d i r e c t i o n , a n d t h e i n i t i a l p o i n t o f t h e f i r s t t u r n a f t e r t a k e o f f may c h a n g e t h e d i s t a n c e , d e p e n d i n g on t h e t a k e o f f c o n d i t i o n s ( p r e s s u r e , t e m p e r a t u r e , Therefore, the s p e e d , wind d i r e c t i o n and a i r c r a f t f l i g h t w e i g h t ) . a i r c r a f t ' s a p p r o a c h t o t h e f i r s t c o n t r o l l a n d m a r k may n o t b e e x e c u t e d on t h e b a s i s o f t h o s e r u l e s wh i ch a r e u s e d on t h e f l i g h t chart. Without u s i n g a u t o m a t i c d e v i c e s , t h e crew a t t h i s s t a g e of f l i g h t i s obliged t o perform continuous v i s u a l o r i e n t a t i o n or t o c a l c u l a t e t h e path of t h e aircraft i n accordance with t h e d i r e c t i o n s of t h e s t r a i g h t l i n e s between t u r n s and t h e t r a j e c t o r i e s of t h e t u r n s made t o g a i n a l t i t u d e a b o v e t h e a i r p o r t , r e f i n i n g t h e a i r c r a f t ' s p o s i t i o n by r a d i o - e n g i n e e r i n g means.
After t h e maneuvering i s completed, t h e a i r c r a f t ' s course t o t h e f i r s t landmark of t h e f l i g h t r o u t e i s t a k e n i n accordance w i t h the a i r c r a f t ' s position before acquiring t h i s course. The c o u r s e i s t h e n c o r r e c t e d , depending on t h e a i r c r a f t ' s f l i g h t a l o n g t h e indicated arrival trajectory.

Before a r r i v a l a t t h e landmark, i n t h e case o f a i r c r a f t w i t h gas turbine engines, t h e necessary value of t h e l i n e a r lead f o r t h e t u r n w h i c h m u s t b e made t o a c q u i r e t h e g i v e n r o u t e i s d e t e r m i n e d .

539

For f u r t h e r f l i g h t a l o n g t h e r o u t e w i t h c l i m b , t h e c a l c u l a t e d This course, p r i o r t o a r r i v a l a t the course i s followed first. g i v e n f l i g h t e c h e l o n , i s r e f i n e d t w o or t h r e e t i m e s b y m e a s u r i n g t h e a i r c r a f t s d r i f t a n g l e o r on t h e b a s i s o f s u c c e s s i v e r e c o r d i n g s /509 of t h e LA.

The a i r c r a f t s a p p r o a c h t o t h e f i r s t l a n d m a r k i s s i m p l i f i e d c o n s i d e r a b l y when a u t o m a t i c a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n a l d e v i c e s a r e u s e d . I n t h i s case, t h e automatic device i s a d j u s t e d f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e p a t h i n a c o o r d i n a t e system f o r t h e s e c t i o n o f t h e p a t h from t h e c e n t e r of t h e a i r p o r t t o t h e f i r s t landmark. After t a k e o f f a t any p o i n t , t h e a i r c r a f t s c o o r d i n a t e s are g i v e n i n t h i s system whenever possible. After maneuvering i s completed, t h e course t o t h e f i r s t land mark i s f o l l o w e d i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e f l i g h t a n g l e o f t h e a r r i v a l c o o r d i n a t e system and i n accordance with t h e a n g l e of d e p a r t u r e f o r t h e f i n a l point of t h e stage.

where y i s t h e a i r c r a f t s c o u r s e i n t h e s e l e c t e d frame o f r e f e r e n c e ; $ i s t h e f l i g h t a n g l e o f t h e s t a g e i n t h e same f r a m e o f r e f e r e n c e ; a n d c1 i s t h e a n g l e o f d e p a r t u r e d e t e r m i n e d o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e formula

where Z i s t h e l a t e r a l c o o r d i n a t e a t t h e end o f m a n e u v e r i n g ; X i s t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l c o o r d i n a t e a t t h e end of maneuvering; and S i s t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e c e n t e r of t h e a i r c r a f t t o t h e landmark.

After t h i s , t h e aircrafts course i s r e f i n e d i n accordance with t h e d r i f t angle of t h e aircraft.

B e f o r e a r r i v a l a t t h e l a n d m a r k , t h e Z - c o o r d i n a t e must g r a d u a l l y d e c r e a s e t o z e r o and t h e X - c o o r d i n a t e must a p p r o a c h S. The t u r n f o r m o v i n g a l o n g t h e r o u t e i s e x e c u t e d , t a k i n g i n t o account t h e l i n e a r lead. Further f l i g h t along t h e route is executed with t h e given f l i g h t path angle, taking i n t o account t h e d r i f t a n g l e on t h e b a s i s o f t h e r e a d i n g s o f t h e D o p p l e r m e t e r .

Executing

.J

F l i g h t A l o n g a Route

The g e n e r a l a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n a l p r o c e d u r e a l o n g a r o u t e w i t h o u t t h e u s e o f a u t o m a t i c d e v i c e s i s g o v e r n e d by t h e p r e s e n c e of navigational devices of aircraft navigation. I n t h e beginning of t h e first s t a g e of h o r i z o n t a l fligh-t; t h e calculated course is followed. I t i s l a t e r r e f i n e d on t h e b a s i s o f
540

t h e r e s u l t s o f m e a s u r i n g t h e d r i f t a n g l e or o n t h e b a s i s o f s u b s e quent r e c o r d i n g s o f t h e LA.
If t h e l a n d m a r k s a l o n g t h e r o u t e a r e m a r k e d b y r a d i o b e a c o n s , In t h e ab t h e a r r i v a l of t h e aircraft a t t h e s e p o i n t s i s noted. s e n c e o f s u c h r a d i o d e v i c e s , t h e moment o f p a s s i n g a l a n d m a r k i s d e t e r m i n e d v i s u a l l y o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e f l i g h t t i m e or b y m e a n s o f aircraft radar.

The a i r s p e e d i s d e t e r m i n e d a n d c h e c k e d o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e moments o f p a s s i n g t h e l a n d m a r k s . When n e c e s s a r y , t h e a i r s p e e d f o r maintaining t h e f l i g h t t i m e along t h e given p a t h i s changed. On t h e b a s i s o f t h e m e a s u r e d v a l u e s o f t h e d r i f t a n g l e a n d t h e a i r s p e e d , t h e s p e e d and d i r e c t i o n o f t h e wind a r e d e t e r m i n e d and t h e d i r e c t i o n o f movement f o r t h e f l i g h t i n t h e n e x t s e c t i o n o f t h e r o u t e i s c a l c u l a t e d on t h i s b a s i s . Turrsalong t h e f l i g h t route ( i n aircraft with gas turbine e n g i n e s ) a r e e x e c u t e d t a k i n g t h e l i n e a r l e a d i n t o a c c o u n t (LLT).
A t t h e c o n t r o l p o i n t s o f t h e r o u t e where it h a s been s p e c i f i e d by p l a n , t h e f u e l c o n s u m p t i o n i s c h e c k e d by c o m p a r i n g t h e a c t u a l fuel surplus t o the calculated surplus.

/510

With a p i l o t - n a v i g a t o r c h a r t , c h e c k i n g o f t h e f u e l c o n s u m p t i o n may b e e x e c u t e d a t a n y p o i n t o n t h e r o u t e w h e r e i t i s c o n v e n i e n t or after equal intervals of f l i g h t .

If a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n i s e x e c u t e d by means o f a u t o m a t i c n a v i g a t i o n a l d e v i c e s , t h e d i r e c t i o n o f movement i n a l l c a s e s i s d e t e r mined by m e a s u r i n g t h e d r i f t a n g l e on t h e b a s i s o f t h e D o p p l e r m e t e r r e a d i n g s ; t h e a i r s p e e d i s s e l e c t e d i n s u c h a way a s t o m a i n t a i n a given f l i g h t speed along t h e r o u t e .

When t h e l a n d m a r k s a r e p a s s e d , t h e a i r c r a f t ' s c o o r d i n a t e s a r e r e f i n e d and t h e r e a d i n g s of t h e c o o r d i n a t e m e t e r s are c o r r e c t e d . A t t h e same t i m e , s y s t e m a t i c e r r o r s i n t h e e n t i r e c o m p l e x o f n a v i g a t i o n a l equipment occur. They a r e e l i m i n a t e d by i n t r o d u c i n g p e r t i n e n t corrections i n t o t h e readings of t h e course device. A t t h e t u r n i n g p o i n t s on t h e r o u t e , t h e frame o f r e f e r e n c e o f t h e a i r c r a f t ' s c o o r d i n a t e s i s c h a n g e d b y e s t a b l i s h i n g a new v a l u e f o r t h e f l i g h t p a t h a n g l e o n t h e a n g l e s e t t e r o f t h e map a n d r e c a l c u l a t i n g t h e a i r c r a f t ' s c o o r d i n a t e s i n a new f r a m e o f r e f e r e n c e . Checking t h e f u e l consumption i n f l i g h t , u s i n g automatic navi g a t i o n a l d e v i c e s , i s d o n e o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e same r u l e s a s a r e employed w i t h o u t s u c h d e v i c e s . I n h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t along t h e r o u t e , j u s t . a s under conditions of climb and de.scent, t h e c r e w i s o b l i g e d t o f o l l o w t h e meteoro

541

I111 - . 1

1 1 111 11

I111

111 111 I 11111111 1 111.111.111111. 1

I111 I I 1 1 1 1 1 1111.11111..

1111111.111

I1

l o g i c a l s i t u a t i o n c o n t i n u o u s l y and t o t a k e measures t o circumvent d a n g e r o u s w e a t h e r p h e n o m e n a w h i c h a r e o b s e r v e d v i s u a l l y or b y m e a n s of aircraft radar. When p a s s i n g l a n d m a r k s or a t o t h e r p o i n t s o f t h e r o u t e , t h e crew t r a n s m i t s d a t a on t h e f l i g h t c o n d i t i o n s t o t h e g r o u n d p e r s o n nel: t h e measured v a l u e of t h e wind p a r a m e t e r s , t h e a i r t e m p e r a t u r e , c l o u d i n e s s , m e t e o r o l o g i c a l v i s i b i l i t y , bumpy a i r , i c e d e p o s i t s , e t c . These d a t a are necessary f o r s u p e r v i s i n g t h e f l i g h t s , planning /511 t h e t a k e o f f s o f o t h e r a i r c r a f t , and r e f i n i n g t h e s i t u a t i o n f o r forecasting t h e weather along t h e a i r r o u t e s a t later times. I n approaching t h e calculated points f o r t h e closest possible a p p r o a c h of t h e a i r c r a f t t o a l t e r n a t e a i r p o r t s , t h e crew must ob t a i n d a t a on t h e s t a t e o f t h e w e a t h e r a t t h e l a n d i n g a i r p o r t a n d m u s t make t h e f i n a l d e c i s i o n o n w h e t h e r t o c o n t i n u e t h e f l i g h t or return t o the alternate airport.
A t t h e e n d o f t h e f l i g h t r o u t e , t h e crew m u s t o b t a i n f r o m t h e d i s p a t c h i n g p e r s o n n e l o f t h e l a n d i n g a i r p o r t , d a t a on t h e c o n d i t i o n s of t h e approach t o t h e a i r p o r t and t h e p a t t e r n of t h e l a n d i n g approach maneuver. They must t h e n c a l c u l a t e t h e i n i t i a l p o i n t o f descent from t h e a l t i t u d e of t h e given f l i g h t echelon, proceeding f r o m t h e g i v e n v e r t i c a l s p e e d a n d mean a i r s p e e d a t t h e d e s c e n t stage. The c r e w m u s t a l s o a s k p e r m i s s i o n o f t h e d i s p a t c h e r ( f l i g h t supervisor) for the aircraft's descent.
Descent and Entrance t o t h e Region o f Landing A i r p o r t by an A i r c r a f t

the

The d i s t a n c e o f t h e i n i t i a l p o i n t o f d e s c e n t b e f o r e a r r i v a l i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f t h e a i r p o r t i s u s u a l l y d e t e r m i n e d on t h e b a s i s o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e a l t i t u d e of t h e f l i g h t e c h e l o n a l o n g t h e r o u t e and t h e given a l t i t u d e f o r approaching t h e landing a i r p o r t . Here t h e d e s c e n t t i m e

where Hech i s t h e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e a l o n g t h e r o u t e ; is the g i v e n a l t i t u d e o f t h e a p p r o a c h t o t h e a i r p o r t ; a n d Fzp?s t h e g i v e n v e r t i c a l rate of the aircraft's descent. T h e mean a i r s p e e d f o r t h e a i r c r a f t ' s d e s c e n t i s d e t e r m i n e d w i t h s u f f i c i e n t a c c u r a c y i f t h e t a i l - w i n d c o m p o n e n t i s known a t t h e beginning and end of t h e a i r c r a f t ' s descent s t a g e : UXech 'av
542

Uxapp
Y

= 'av

w h e r e Vav i s t h e m e a n a i r s p e e d i n t h e d e s c e n t s t a g e o f t h e a i r c r a f t a n d ux i s t h e t a i l - w i n d c o m p o n e n t a t t h e b e g i n n i n g a n d e n d o f t h e descent.
If t h e t a i l - w i n d component a t t h e end o f t h e d e s c e n t i s n o t known b y t h e c r e w , t h e c a l c u l a t i o n i s p e r f o r m e d o n t h e b a s i s of h a l f t h e v a l u e of t h e w i n d v e c t o r a t f l i g h t a l t i t u d e , t a k i n g i n t o account t h e aircrafts f l i g h t d i r e c t i o n under descent conditions.

When t h e a p p r o a c h e s t o t h e a i r p o r t a r e n o t l i m i t e d b y t h e l o c a u 5 1 2 , t e r r a i n , it i s a d v a n t a g e o u s t o b e g i n t h e a i r c r a f t s d e s c e n t 1 - 1 . 5 min p r i o r t o p a s s i n g t h e c a l c u l a t e d p o i n t i n o r d e r t h a t t h e g i v e n approach a l t i t u d e t o t h e a i r p o r t be a c h i e v e d b e f o r e h a n d and h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t be e x e c u t e d a t t h i s altj.:clde f o r a s h o r t l e n g t h o f time. Otherwise, t h e aircraft approaches t h e a i r p o r t a t an a l t i t u d e above t h a t g i v e n . This s l i g h t l y complicated t h e maneuvering before landing.

I n t h e d e s c e n t s t a g e ( j u s t a s d u r i n g c l i m b ) i n a i r c r a f t which do not have automatic n a v i g a t i o n a l d e v i c e s , t h e d r i f t a n g l e of t h e a i r c r a f t m u s t b e d e t e r m i n e d more o f t e n a n d t h e c o u r s e o f movement must b e r e f i n e d . With a u t o m a t i c d e v i c e s , a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n i n t h e d e s c e n t s t a g e i s p r a c t i c a l l y t h e same a s a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n i n horizontal flight.
W must b e a r i n mind t h a t on j e t a n d t u r b o p r o p a i r c r a f t , e d a n g e r o u s m e t e o r o l o g i c a l phenomena ( t h u n d e r s t o r m s , i c e d e p o s i t s , a n d v i o l e n t b u m p s ) a r e more o f t e n e n c o u n t e r e d u n d e r c l i m b a n d descent conditions than i n given echelons of horizontal f l i g h t . T h i s r e q u i r e s more a t t e n t i o n by t h e a i r c r a f t c r e w t o d e t e c t i n g and c i r c u m v e n t i n g t h e s e m e t e o r o l o g i c a l phenomena.

Maneuvering

i n t h e V i c i n i t y o f t h e A i r p o r t and t h e Landing Approach

The l a n d i n g a p p r o a c h i s t h e m o s t c o m p l e x a n d i m p o r t a n t f l i g h t s t a g e , e s p e c i a l l y a t a i r p o r t s w i t h a m o u n t a i n o u s r e l i e f , u n d e r com plex meteorological conditions. I n t h i s stage of f l i g h t , t h e air craft approaches t h e ground; f l i g h t i s executed with a changing a l t i t u d e and a i r s p e e d , w i t h a n u n s t e a d y wind. Under complex m e t e o r o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s , i n t e r f e r e n c e i n r a d i o r e c e p t i o n i s most probable. This complicates t h e use of radiocompasses. In addi t i o n , t h e landing approach i s t h e f i n a l s t a g e of f l i g h t and t h e All t h i s r e q u i r e s c a r e f u l p r e p a r a t i o n by crew i s most f a t i g u e d . t h e crew i n e x e c u t i n g t h e a i r c r a f t s l a n d i n g a p p r o a c h maneuver. B e f o r e a p p r o a c h i n g t h e a i r p o r t , t h e crew must o b t a i n t h e n e c e s s a r y d a t a f o r t h e c o n d i t i o n s of maneuvering and t h e Landing approach. The c r e w m u s t e s t a b l i s h a l t i m e t e r p r e s s u r e s c a l e s on t h e b a s i s of t h e p r e s s u r e a t t h e l a n d i n g a i r p o r t l e v e l and must

543

r e f r e s h i n t h e i r memory t h e a p p r o a c h s c h e m e s p e c i f i e d f o r t h e g i v e n a i r p o r t i n accordance with t h e landing directions. T h e crew m u s t also p e r f o r m p r e l i m i n a r y c a l c u l a t i o n s f o r t h e a p p r o a c h . I n e x e c u t i n g t h e m a n e u v e r , t h e crew m u s t c o n t r o l t h e m o t i o n p a r a m e t e r s o f t h e a i r c r a f t by a l l a v a i l a b l e m e a n s a n d m u s t f o l l o w t h e commands o f t h e g r o u n d p e r s o n n e l who a r e c o n t r o l l i n g t h e e x e cution o f t h e landing approach. The a i r c r a f t ' s d e s c e n t a l o n g t h e g i v e n t r a j e c t o r y on t h e l a n d i n g p a t h when t h e g r o u n d i s n o t v i s i b l e m u s t b e e x e c u t e d o n l y u p t o t h e d e t e r m i n e d minimum a l t i t u d e f o r t h e g i v e n a i r p o r t . If t h e w e a t h e r i s l o w e r t h a n t h e e s t a b l i s h e d minimum a n d t h e a i r c r a f t does not t r a n s f e r t o v i s u a l f l i g h t a t t h e e s t a b l i s h e d a l t i t u d e , t h e crew must c e a s e f u r t h e r d e s c e n t and must a c t a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s of t h e d i s p a t c h e r ( f l i g h t s u p e r v i s o r ) . I n t r a n s f e r r i n g t o v i s u a l f l i g h t , t h e crew must e v a l u a t e t h e a v a i l a b l e d e v i a t i o n s from t h e g i v e n f l i g h t t r a j e c t o r y ; i f t h e y do n o t exceed t h e p e r m i s s i b l e l i m i t s , t h e crew must v i s u a l l y d i r e c t t h e a i r c r a f t t o t h e g i v e n t r a j e c t o r y and e x e c u t e t h e l a n d i n g . Otherwise, t h e crew must c i r c l e a g a i n and a c t a c c o r d i n g t o t h e d i r e c t i o n s of t h e d i s p a t c h e r ( f l i g h t s u p e r v i s o r ) .

/513

544

I I I111

Supplement 1
Composite C h a r t o f Topographical Ma p s

/514

545

Composite C h a r t of

Topographical

Maps

(con't)

/515

Supplement 2
Spherical Trigonometry Formulas
/516

In solving special navigational problems, especially problems

of aviational astronomy, formulas of spherical trigonometry are used.
Spherical trigonometry formulas establish the interdependence
between the sides and angles of a spherical triangle.
The sides of a spherical triangle a , b , C central angles of a sphere a ; the angles A , B y spherical angles whose sides are the verticals B and C. Therefore, both the sides and angles expressed in the same way (by angular degrees). are the arcs of the C are the surface from the points A , of the triangle are

Formulas known as the law of cosines (the first group of formulas

for spherical trigonometry) are the most widely used in navigation:

cos a = cos b cos c + s i n b s i n c cos A ; c o s d = cos B cos C

+s i n B sin Ccos a.

These formulas may be written in three ways (for sides a , b y c and angles A , B y C). The second formula of spherical trigonometry is the law of
sines:

i a in 6 -s_n_ _ _s_ _ sind sinB sinc sinC

The third group of formulas is used much less often:

s i n a cos 6 = cos a sin 6 cos C s i n c cos B; sin a ctg 6 = ctg B s i n C cos a cos C;

sin A cos B = cos 6 s i n c - cos c s i n B cos A;

s i n d c t g B= ctg 6 s i n c - cos c cos A .

547

E a c h o f t h e s e f o r m u l a s may b e w r i t t e n i n s i x w a y s ( i n t w o w a y s f o r s i n e s of t h e s i d e s a , b , e and a n g l e s A , B , C>.

I f o n e o f t h e s u r f a c e a n g l e s (for e x a m p l e , C ) t h e Napier r u l e i s used t o solve t h e t r i a n g l e .

is a s t r a i g h t l i n e ,

Five elements of t h e t r i a n g l e (excluding t h e r i g h t angle C) a r e a r r a n g e d i n a c i r c l e , a s shown i n t h e F i g u r e , t h u s d e s i g n a t i n g t h e a d j a c e n t and n o n a d j a c e n t e l e m e n t s of t h e t r i a n g l e .

F i r s t Principle. The c o s i n e o f a n y e l e m e n t o f a r i g h t t r i a n g l e i s e q u a l t o t h e p r o d u c t of t h e c o t a n g e n t s of t h e a d j a c e n t e l e m e n t s .
For e x a m p l e :
cosC=ctgActgB.

F i v e s u c h f o r m u l a s may b e w r i t t e n f o r e l e m e n t s A , B a n d e.

90-b,

90-a,

/517

S e c o n d Principle. T h e c o s i n e o f e a c h e l e m e n t is e q u a l t o t h e p r o d u c t of t h e s i n e s of t h e n o n a d j a c e n t e l e m e n t s .
For example:
cos A =: s i n (90 - a) sin B.

F i v e o f t h e s e f o r m u l a s may b e w r i t t e n ,

o n e for e a c h e l e m e n t .

548

Supplement 3
Map of t h e H e a v e n s

549

Supplement 4

-..................
0

_c

.....
....

.......
-z
0

.................................
IOf.Zl.1

............... .......
.......

. -,I l

-2

v)

a
c

.......

0 N
E .-

I
ll

0
Q

l
C

L c

Supplement 5
-

T a b l e of G r e e n w i c h Hour A n g l e s of the Sun a n d Chart o f T h e i r C o r r e c t i o n s for the F1igh.t D a t e

Hour Angle, deg
135 138 141 144 147 150 153 156 159 162 165 168 171 174 177 180 183 186 189 192 195 198 20 1 204 207 210 213 216 219 222

/5 19

Moscow Time

hr, m i n
0.00 12 24 36 48 1 .oo 12 24 36 48 2.00 12 24 36 48 3.00 12 24 36 48 4.00 12 24 36 48 5,OO 12 24 36 4y

Moscow Time h r , min

- ._

Hour Angle, deg

_.

Hour Moscow Angle Time, h r , min deg

12.00 12 24 ?6 48 13.00 12 24 36 48 14.00 12 24 36 48 15.00 12 . 24 36 48 16.00 12 24 36 4s 17.00 12 24 36 48 315 318 321 324 327 330 333 336 339 342 345 348 35 1 354 337 360 03 06 09 12 15 18 21 21 27 30 33 36 39 42

Moscow Time , h r , min

18.00 12 24 36 48 19.00 12 24 36 48 20.00 12 24 36 48 21 -00 12 24 36 48 22.00 12 24 36 48 23.00 12 24 36
48

6.00
12 24 36 48 7.00 12 24 36 48 8.00 12 24 36 A8 9.00 12 24 36 48 10.00 12 24 36 48 11.00 12 24 36 48

II

225 228 231 234 237 240 243 246 249 252 255 258 261 264 267 270 273 276 279 282 285 288 29 1 294 297 300 303 306 309 312

45 48 51 54 57

GO
63 GG 69 72 75 78 81 84 87 90 93 96 99 102 105 108
111 114 117 120 123 126 129 132

551

Supplement 6

x-a

T a b l e of

Values of
x-a

0, 66 0,67 0,GS 0,69 0'70 0,71 0172 0,73 0- 74 0'75 0.76 0.77
0,75 Oa79 0.80 08 ,1 0,82 0,83 06 84 08 .5
0&6

t h e F u n c t i o n CP (x
~

a)
U(X-Q)

/521

@(x-a

x-a

0. 4r

-a

x-a

J9 ,6 le97

0,oo
01 0 .

O,,bOOO 0,0040

0,02 0,03
O"O4

o;ooso
0,0199

010120 0,0160 0,0239 0,0279 0,0319 0,0359 009 ,35 0,0435 0,0478 0,0517 0,0557 Oc059G 0 p636 0,0675 0,0714 0,0753 0,0793 0,0532 08871 0,09 10 0,0945 0,0987 0,1026 0 IO64 , 0,1103 0,1141 0,1179 0,1217 0, I255 0,1293 0,1331 0,1368 0,1406 0,1443 0,1480 0,1517 Oil554

0,05
0.06

0.07 0.0s 0.09 0,lO

0'1 1 0.12 0.13 0'14 0,15 Oar6 0.17

0s . 1
o 19 b

0.20 0.2 1 0,22 0'23 0,24 0,25 0.26 0.27 0.25 0.29 0,30 0,31 0,32 0,33 0.34 0,35 0-36 0,37 0.38 0.39
0.40

0,87

08 ,8 09 . 8 0490 0.91 0,92 0.93

0,94 0,95 0*96 0.97 0'98 0*99 1z o o 1 col I ,2 0 1a03

10 ,4
1.05

0,2454 0,2456 42517 Os2549 0,2550 0,2611 0,2642 0,2673 0,2703 0,2734 0,2764 0,2794 0,2823 0,2852 0,2551 0,29 10 0,2?39 0,2967 012995 0,3023 0,3051 0.3078 0,3 106 02133 0,3 159 0,3156 0,3212 0,3238 0,3264 0,3259 0,3315 0,3340 0,3365 0,3389 0,3413 0,3438 0,346 1 033485 0,3508 0,353 1

1'31 1,32 1-33 1,34 1.35 1.36 1,37 1338 1,39 1.40 1041 1,42 1,43 1.44 1,45 1.46 10.47 1,'48 I, 49 L50 1A1 1.52 I, 53 1-54 1.55 136 Is 57 19.58 169
1O G ,

1661 1962 1,63 1,64 1,65 1,66 1.67 18 , 6 1,6 ,9 1e70

0,4049 0,4066 0,4082 014099 0,4115 0,4131 0,4147 0,4 162 0,4177 0,4192 0,4207 0,4222 0,4236 094251 0,4265 0,4279 0,4292 0,4306 0,4319 0.4332 0,4345 0,4357 014370 014352 094394 0,4406 0,4418 0,4429 0,4441 0,4452 Ob4463 0,4474 0,4484 0.4495 0.4505 014515 0.4525 0,4535 0.4545 014554

19 ,8
1,99 2,OO 2d02 2,04 2,OG 2. os

5 10
2,12 2,14 29 16 25 1s 22.0 2.22 2,24

22 ,G
2*2s 2.30 2*32 2.34 2,36 2,35 2.40 2'42 2,44 2,4G. 2.48 2,50 2,52 2,54 2.56 2.58 2,60 2.62 2.64 2.66 2'68 2.70

0,4750 0,4756 0,476 1 0,4767 0,4772 0,4733 004793 0,4803 0,4S 12 0,4821 094530 0,4838 004S46 004854 0.4561 0,4SGS 0,4875 0.4S5'1 0,4557 0,4593 0,4898 0,4904 0,4909 0,49!3 0,4915 0,4922 0,4927 0,493 I 0,4934 0,4935 0,494 I 0,4945 0,4945 0,4951 0,4953 0,4956 0,4959 0,4961 0,4963 0,4965

552

T a b l e o f Values o f the Function @ ( x - a ) , ( c o n l t )

.
-. .

/521

_ _

X - U

(x - a )

x-a

0.41 0,42 0.43 0,44 0.45 0.46 0,47 0148 0 #49 0.50 0,51 0452 0,53 0.54 0.55 Om56 0157 0.58 0-59 os60 0,61 0662 0863 0064 0.65

0,1591 0,1628 0, b664 0,1700 0,1736 0,1772 0,1808 0,1844 0,1879 0,1915 0,1950 0 985 1 . 0.20 19 0,2054 0,2088 0,2123 042 157 Oa2190 0,2224 0,2257 0,229 1 042324 0,2357 0,2389 0,2422

1.06 1,07 1.08 1609 1.10 1,11 1,12 1613 1,14 1,15 I, 16 1.17 1,18 1.19 1.20 1.21 1.22 1a23 1.24 1,25 1626 1,27 1 &8 1'29 1.30

0,3554 0,3577 0,3599 0,3621 0,3643 0,3665 0,3686 0,3708 0,3729 0,3749 0,3770 0,3790 0,3810 0,3830 02849 0,3869 0,3SSS 0,3907 Od925 0.3944 0,3962 08980 03997 0,40 15 0,4032

1.71 1.72 1.73 1,74 1 *75 1,'76 1,77 la78 1.79 1S ,O 1.81 1.82 I,S3 1,84 1 $85 1,86 1.87
18 8 ,

0,4564 0,4573 0,4582 0,4591 Oe4599

0,4608

1.89 1.90 1.91 1,92 1,93 1094 1*95

0,4616 0.4625 0,4633 014641 0,4649 0,4656 0,4664 0,4671 0,4678 0,4686 0,4693 0,4699 0,4706 0.4713 0,4719 0,4726 0,4732 0,4738 0#4744

2, i 2 2,74 2,76 2.78 2,80 2.82 2,84 2,86 2,88 2-90 2,92 2,94 2E96 26 98 3,OO 3.20 3u40 3,60 3-80 4.00 4.50 5.00

0,4967 0,4969 0,497 1 0,4973 0,4974 0,4976 0.4977 0,4979 Oa4980 0,498 1 Oa 4982 0,4954 0,4935 0,4986 0149SG5 0,49931 06499G6 01499841 0,499928 0,499968 0,499997 0,49999997

553

Supplement 7
U n i t s o f t e n E n c o u n t e r e d in A i r c r a f t N a v i g a t i o n
and Thei r Va 1 ues

-- - .

-.

n
Radian

R a t i o o f t h e c i r c u m f e r e n c e of a c i r c l e t o i t s diameter L e n g t h of a n a r c o f a c i r c l e , r a d i u s of t h e c i r c l e equal t o the

3.1416

57.30 0.01U53 r a d 1/60 0.030291 rd

10

1'

1 I'

A n g u l a r u n i t or l e n g t h o f a r c

11

I'

It

11

It

I1

1/60
O.OOOoc6

',

rad

10

The mean v a l u e o f t h e l e n g t h o f t h e a r c o f a
g r e a t c i r c l e on t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e a t lo L e n g t h of t h e a r c o f a g r e a t c i r c l e ( n a u t i
cal mile) Length o f t h e a r c o f a g r e a t c i r c l e T e m p e r a t u r e on t h e C e l s i u s s c a l e Absolute temperature (Kelvin s c a l e )

111.1 km

1'

1' I
tC

1.8523km 30.9 m

/522

to(? + 273O
6 3 7 1 km 6378.245 km

TK

a
b e

Radius of t h e E a r t h ' s e l l i p s o i d reduced t o a sphere Semimajor a x i s of t h e E a r t h ' s e l l i p s o i d

Semiminor a x i s of t h e E a r t h ' s e l l i p s o i d E c c e n t r i c i t y o f t h e e l l i p s e formed by t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n of t h e E a r t h by a p l a n e o f t h e meridian N a p i e r number ( f o u n d a t i o n of n a t u r a l logarithms) Modulus o f t h e t r a n s f e r f r o m n a t u r a l l o g a r i t h m s t o common l o g a r i t h m s

6356.863 km

0.006689

2.718282

0.43429

554

Symbol of the

I I

'

Geometric or Physical Meaning Modulus of the transfer from common logarithms t o natural logarithms Characteristic gas constant for air Specific heat ratio for air Cp/Cv Mass density o f the air near the ground under standard atmospheric conditions Weight density of the air near the ground under standard atmospheric conditions Temperature gradient to an altitude of 11,000 m (standard atmospheric conditions)

Numerical Value and

MI =
B
K

1 w

2.30259 29.27 d d e g
1.4

0.125 k sec2/m

E'

1.226 w m 3 6.5 deg/km

340.2 m/sec

Speed of sound near the ground under standard atmospheric conditions Acceleration of gravity

9.81 & e c 2

1 mm Hg
~

1
-

Unit of measurement of atmospheric pressure

.

~-

-~

_-

I
~

1.36 g/cm
__

-.

~~T

CONVERSION FROM ENGLISH AND AMERICAN UNITS TO METRIC UNITS

Statue mile Foot Inch, Hg Millibar Gallon (Imperial) Gallon (American)_ .

1.609 k m 0.3048 m 254 mm Hg 0.7501 mm Hg 4.546 1 3.785 1

__

_ _

T r a n s l a t e d f o r t h e N a t i o n a l A e r o n a u t i c s a n d S p a c e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n by:
Aztec School of Languages, Inc.
Research Translation Division (152)
Acton, Massachusetts.
NASW-1692

NASA-Langley, 1967

-2 1

555

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS SPACE ADMINISTRATION AND WASHINGTON, C. 20546 D.

OFFICIAL BUSINESS

FIRST CLASS MAIL

SPACE ADMINISTRATION

.
I

I
POSTMASTER: If Undeliverable (Section 158 Postal Manual) D o N o t Returi

' T h e aeronautical and space activities of the United States shall be coadacted so as t o contribute . . . t o the expansion of human knowl edge of phenoiiiena in the ntmosphere and space. T h e Administration shall provide folr the widest practicable aizd appropriate disseminatjon of inf oriiiation concerning its activities and the resdts thereof."

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