Function Generator

INDEX OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1:
PAGE.NO
Introduction Function generator Uses of function generator Different wave forms produced by function generator
CHAPTER 2: Circuit diagram Circuit description
Chapter 3:
List of components Resistors Capacitors Variable resistors Diodes Transistors Transformer Switches ICs
CHAPTER 4:
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, PVPSIT Page 1
Applications Result Conclusion
FUNCTION GENERATOR
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, PVPSIT
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INTRODUCTION: Function generators are also known variously as signal generators, RF and microwave signal generators, pitch generators, arbitrary waveform generators, digital pattern generators or frequency generators are electronic devices that generate repeating or nonrepeating electronic signals (in either the analog or digital domains). Traditionally, signal generators have been embedded hardware units, but since the age of multimedia-PCs, flexible, programmable software tone generators have also been available.
Function generator is a device which produces simple repetitive waveforms. Such devices contain an electronic oscillator, a circuit that is capable of creating a repetitive waveform. The most common waveform is a sine wave, but sawtooth, step (pulse), square, and triangular waveform oscillators are commonly available as are arbitrary waveform generators (AWGs).
If the oscillator operates above the audio frequency range (>20 kHz), the generator will often include some sort of modulation function such as amplitude
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modulation (AM),frequency modulation (FM), or phase modulation (PM) as well as a second oscillator that provides an audio frequency modulation waveform. Analog function generators usually generate a triangle waveform as the basis for all of its other outputs. The triangle is generated by repeatedly charging and discharging a capacitor from a constant current source. This produces a linearly ascending or descending voltage ramp. As the output voltage reaches upper and lower limits, the charging and discharging is reversed using a comparator, producing the linear triangle wave. By varying the current and the size of the capacitor, different frequencies may be obtained. Sawtooth waves can be produced by charging the capacitor slowly, using a current, but using a diode over the current source to discharge quickly - the polarity of the diode changes the polarity of the resulting sawtooth, i.e. slow rise and fast fall, or fast rise and slow fall. A 50% duty cycle square wave is easily obtained by noting whether the capacitor is being charged or discharged, which is reflected in the current switching comparator's output. Other duty cycles (theoretically from 0% to 100%) can be obtained by using a comparator and the sawtooth or triangle signal. Most function generators also contain a nonlinear diode shaping circuit that can convert the triangle wave into a reasonably accurate sine wave. It does so by rounding off the hard corners of the triangle wave in a process similar to clipping in audio systems. A typical function generator can provide frequencies up to 20 MHz. RF generators for higher frequencies are not function generators in the strict sense since they typically produce pure or modulated sine signals only. Function generators, like most signal generators, may also contain an attenuator, various means of modulating the output waveform, and often the ability to automatically and repetitively "sweep" the frequency of the output waveform (by means of a voltage-controlled oscillator) between two operator-determined limits. This capability makes it very easy to evaluate the frequency response of a given electronic circuit.
Some function generators can also generate white or pink noise. More advanced function generators use Direct Digital Synthesis (DDS) to generate waveforms. Arbitrary waveform generators use DDS to generate any waveform that can be described by a table of amplitudes Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, PVPSIT Page 4
USES OF SIGNAL GENERATOR: A signal generator generates either audio or RF frequencies (depending on the capabilities and designed purpose of the generator) for testing other electronics equipment. A function generator supplies TTL (transistor to transistor) square wave pulses, sine and sawtooth wave forms for various testing purposes. It's a lot easier to work on something on the work bench and being able to remove a circuit board and just supply power and a signal saves having to take a whole piece of equipment into the shop. Then again, we also can use an oscilloscope for troubleshooting when you jave a good, known signal to work with. DIFFERENT WAVE FORMS PRODUCED BY THE FUNCTION GENERATOR:
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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
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CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION:
A conventional power supply comprising a central tapped transformer, bridge rectifier and filters provides approximately 12volts unregulated. Fixed voltage 3 terminal regulators,IC3 and IC4,provide the regulated positive and negative 8 volts rails which power the wave form generator and amplifier. The wave form generation features the 8083. The previous detailed description of this device shows it to be a complete waveform generator. However, from the users point of view, it is a little incomplete. To start with, the three waveforms are at different voltage levels and these are sourced from a medium (triangular and square) to high (sine) output impedance. Further, there is no way of adjusting the amplitude of the three outputs. The necessity for an additional amplifier is hence obvious. Preset VR4 is necessary to compensate for tolerances in the constant current determining resistors and the small imbalances in the current sources and the current converting circuits within the IC. Switch S1 provides coarse frequency control by switching in decade timing capacitors while VR2 provides a fine frequency control by adjusting the control voltage Vc at pin8 of the IC and hence controlling the charge /discharge current. Presets VR1 and VR3 are calibration resets and are used for adjusting the maximum and minimum frequency respectively in the range switched by S1.presets VR5 and VR6 are for adjusting the purity of the synthesized wave form. Presets VR7 and VR8 set the initial levels of the square and triangular outputs respectively so that they equal the amplitude of the sine wave output. The required wave form is selected by the means of function generator switch S2 and passes via the final level control VR9 to the decade attenuator. Switch S3 is the coarse level selector.
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The amplifier is built around LM318 IC op-amp and transistors T1 and T2.the opamp used in the non inverting mode. Transistors T1 and T2 are connected as complementary symmetry followers and provide the necessary current boasting. Diodes D1 and D2, along with the resistors R11, bias the output transistors in class AB. The emitter follower T1 and T2 thus remain turned on at the zero crossover, avoiding crossover distortion. DC feedback to the op-amp non inverting terminal is via resistors R15 and R17 and is derived from the amplifier output rather than the op-amp output. Output transistors T1 and T2 are thus included in the feedback loop of the op-amp. Thos is not only results in a low output impedance, but also precisely sets the overall voltage gain of the amplifier Av = (R15+R17)/R17 or 3 To provide 10-volt peak to peak sine wave output, the amplifier is required to have slew rate of at least 3.2 volts per micro second(10Vpp*pi*100kHz). The high slew rate of the LM318 (70 volt/microsecond) along with the good fT(100MegaHz) of the output transistors make this possible. However, handling the square waves places far greater demand on the amplifier. Thus, despite the good slew rate of the amplifier, the high frequency square waves may tend to take on a slightly trapezoidal shape.
LIST OF COMPONENTS
RESISTORS:
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 R8 R9 R10 R11 R12 R13 R14 R15 R16 R17
10 ohms 1 kilo ohms 4.7 kilo ohms 4.7 kilo ohms 4.7 kilo ohms 2.2 kilo ohms 22 kilo ohms 2.2 kilo ohms 240 ohms 3.9 kilo ohms 56 ohms 3.9 kilo ohms 10 ohms 10 ohms 3.9 kilo ohms 47 ohms 1.8 kilo ohms
VARIABLE RESISTORS:
VR1 VR2 VR3
2.2 kilo ohms 500 ohms 2.2 kilo ohms
VR4 VR5 VR6
470 ohms 100 kilo ohms 100 kilo ohms Page 10
VR7 VR8 VR9
100 kilo ohms 22 kilo ohms 22 kilo ohms
CAPACITORS:

C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 C9 C10 C11 C12 C13 C14
0.1UF 3.3UF 0.33UF 0.33UF 3.3PF 333PF 0.1UF 0.1UF 0.1UF 0.1UF 1000UF 1000UF 100UF 22PF
SEMI CONDUCTORS AND ICS: Op-amps: ICL8038 LM318 7808 7908
Diodes: IN4148 IN4002
Transistors: Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, PVPSIT Page 11
SL100 SK100
MISCELLANEOUS: Switches: 5 way rotary switch 3 way rotary switch Function selector
Transformer: Main transformer: primary 9V Secondary-9V Secondary current-250mA.
Power supply: 8V
RESISTORS:
A resistor is a two-terminal passive electronic component that implements electrical resistance as a circuit element. When a voltage V is applied across the terminals of a resistor, a current I will flow through the resistor in direct proportion to that voltage. This constant of proportionality is called conductance, G. The reciprocal of the conductance is known as Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, PVPSIT Page 12
the resistance R, since, with a given voltage V, a larger value of R further "resists" the flow of current I as given by Ohm's law:
Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel-chrome). Resistors are also implemented within integrated circuits, particularly analog devices, and can also be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits. The electrical functionality of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial resistors are manufactured over a range of more than 9 orders of magnitude. When specifying that resistance in an electronic design, the required precision of the resistance may require attention to the manufacturing tolerance of the chosen resistor, according to its specific application. The temperature coefficient of the resistance may also be of concern in some precision applications. Practical resistors are also specified as having a maximum power rating which must exceed the anticipated power dissipation of that resistor in a particular circuit: this is mainly of concern in power electronics applications. Resistors with higher power ratings are physically larger and may require heat sinks. In a high voltage circuit, attention must sometimes be paid to the rated maximum working voltage of the resistor. Practical resistors include a series inductance and a small parallel capacitance; these specifications can be important in high-frequency applications. In a low-noise amplifier or pre-amp the noise characteristics of a resistor may be an issue. The unwanted inductance, excess noise, and temperature coefficient are mainly dependent on the technology used in manufacturing the resistor. They are not normally specified individually for a particular family of resistors manufactured using a particular technology. A family of discrete Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, PVPSIT Page 13
resistors is also characterized according to its form factor, that is, the size of the device and position of its leads (or terminals) which is relevant in the practical manufacturing of circuits using them.
UNITS:
The ohm (symbol: ) is the SI unit of electrical resistance, named after Georg Simon Ohm. An ohm is equivalent to a volt per ampere. Since resistors are specified and manufactured over a very large range of values, the derived units of milliohm (1 m = 103 ), kilo ohm (1 k = 103 ), and mega ohm (1 M = 106 ) are also in common usage. The reciprocal of resistance R is called conductance G = 1/R and is measured in Siemens (SI unit), sometimes referred to as a mho. Hence, Siemens is the reciprocal of an ohm: S = 1. Although the concept of conductance is often used in circuit analysis, practical resistors are always specified in terms of their resistance (ohms) rather than conductance. THEORY OF OPERATION: OHMS LAW: The behavior of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship specified in Ohm's law:
Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the current (I) passing through it, where the constant of proportionality is the resistance (R). Equivalently, Ohm's law can be stated:
This formulation of Ohm's law states that, when a voltage (V) is present across a resistance (R), a current (I) will flow through the resistance. This is directly used in practical computations. For example, if a 300 ohm resistor is attached across the terminals of a 12 volt battery, then a current of 12 / 300 = 0.04 amperes (or 40 milliamperes) will flow through that resistor. Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, PVPSIT Page 14
POWER DISSIPATION:
The power P dissipated by a resistor (or the equivalent resistance of a resistor network) is calculated as:
The first form is a restatement of Joule's first law. Using Ohm's law, the two other forms can be derived. The total amount of heat energy released over a period of time can be determined from the integral of the power over that period of time:
Practical resistors are rated according to their maximum power dissipation. The vast majority of resistors used in electronic circuits absorb much less than a watt of electrical power and require no attention to their power rating. Such resistors in their discrete form, including most of the packages detailed below, are typically rated as 1/10, 1/8, or 1/4 watt.
Resistors required to dissipate substantial amounts of power, particularly used in power supplies, power conversion circuits, and power amplifiers, are generally referred to as power resistors; this designation is loosely applied to resistors with power ratings of 1 watt or greater. Power resistors are physically larger and tend not to use the preferred values, color codes, and external packages described below. If the average power dissipated by a resistor is more than its power rating, damage to the resistor may occur, permanently altering its resistance; this is distinct from the reversible change in resistance due to its temperature coefficient when it warms. Excessive power dissipation may raise the temperature of the resistor to a point where it can burn the circuit board or adjacent components, or even cause a fire. There are flameproof resistors that fail (open circuit) before they overheat dangerously.
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MEASUREMENT:
The value of a resistor can be measured with an ohmmeter, which may be one function of a multimeter. Usually, probes on the ends of test leads connect to the resistor. A simple ohmmeter may apply a voltage from a battery across the unknown resistor (with an internal resistor of a known value in series) producing a current which drives a meter movement. The current flow, in accordance with Ohm's Law, is inversely proportional to the sum of the internal resistance and the resistor being tested, resulting in an analog meter scale which is very non-linear, calibrated from infinity to 0 ohms. A digital multimeter, using active electronics, may instead pass a specified current through the test resistance. The voltage generated across the test resistance in that case is linearly proportional to its resistance, which is measured and displayed. In either case the low-resistance ranges of the meter pass much more current through the test leads than do high-resistance ranges, in order for the voltages present to be at reasonable levels (generally below 10 volts) but still measurable. Measuring low-value resistors, such as fractional-ohm resistors, with acceptable accuracy requires four-terminal connections. One pair of terminals applies a known, calibrated current to the resistor, while the other pair senses the voltage drop across the resistor.
Some laboratory quality ohmmeters, especially milliohm meters, and even some of the better digital multimeters sense using four input terminals for this purpose, which may be used with special test leads. Each of the two so-called Kelvin clips has a pair of jaws insulated from each other. One side of each clip applies the measuring current, while the other connections are only to sense the voltage drop. The resistance is again calculated using Ohm's Law as the measured voltage divided by the applied current.
SMD RESISTORS:
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This image shows four surface-mount resistors (the component at the upper left is a capacitor) including two zero-ohm resistors. Zero-ohm links are often used instead of wire links, so that they can be inserted by a resistor-inserting machine. Of course, their resistance is non-zero, although quite low. Zero is simply a brief description of their function. Surface mounted resistors are printed with numerical values in a code related to that used on axial resistors. Standard-tolerance surface-mount technology (SMT) resistors are marked with a three-digit code, in which the first two digits are the first two significant digits of the value and the third digit is the power of ten (the number of zeroes). For example: 334 222 473 105 = 33 104 ohms = 330 kilo ohms = 22 102 ohms = 2.2 kilo ohms = 47 103 ohms = 47 kilo ohms = 10 105 ohms = 1.0 mega ohm
Resistances less than 100 ohms are written: 100, 220, 470. The final zero represents ten to the power zero, which is 1. For example: 100 = 10 100 ohm = 10 ohms 220 = 22 100 ohm = 22 ohms Sometimes these values are marked as 10 or 22 to prevent a mistake. Resistances less than 10 ohms have 'R' to indicate the position of the decimal point (radix point). For example: 4R7 = 4.7 ohms Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, PVPSIT Page 17
R300 = 0.30 ohms 0R22 = 0.22 ohms 0R01 = 0.01 ohms Precision resistors are marked with a four-digit code, in which the first three digits are the significant figures and the fourth is the power of ten. For example: 1001 = 100 101 ohms = 1.00 kilo ohm 4992 = 499 102 ohms = 49.9 kilo ohm 1000 = 100 100 ohm = 100 ohms 000 and 0000 sometimes appear as values on surface-mount zero-ohm links, since these have (approximately) zero resistance. More recent surface-mount resistors are too small, physically, to permit practical markings to be applied.
ELECTRONIC COLOR CODE: The electronic color code is used to indicate the values or ratings of electronic components, very commonly for resistors, but also for capacitors, inductors, and others. A separate code, the 25-pair color code, is used to identify wires in some telecommunications cables. Color bands were commonly used (especially on resistors) because they were easily printed on tiny components, decreasing construction costs. However, there were drawbacks, especially for color blind people. Overheating of a component, or dirt accumulation, may make it impossible to distinguish brown from red from orange. Advances in printing technology have made printed numbers practical for small components, which are often found in modern electronics. It is sometimes not obvious whether a color coded component is a resistor, capacitor, or inductor, and this may be deduced by knowledge of its circuit function, physical shape or by measurement. Resistor values are always coded in ohms (symbol ), capacitors in pico farads (pF), and inductors in micro henries (H).
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To distinguish left from right there is a gap between the C and D bands.

band A is first significant figure of component value (left side) band B is the second significant figure band C is the decimal multiplier band D if present, indicates tolerance of value in percent (no color means 20%)
For example, a resistor with bands of yellow, violet, red, and gold will have first digit 4 (yellow in table below), second digit 7 (violet), followed by 2 (red) zeros: 4,700 ohms. Gold signifies that the tolerance is 5%, so the real resistance could lie anywhere between 4,465 and 4,935 ohms. Resistors manufactured for military use may also include a fifth band which indicates component failure rate (reliability).
The standard color code per EN 60062:2005 is as follows:
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Significan Color t figures Black 0 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 10-1 10-2 1% 2% (5%) 0.5% 0.25% 0.1% 0.05% (10%) 5% 10% 20% J F 25 0 10 0 U S Multiplier Tolerance Temp. Coefficient (ppm/K)
Brown 1 Red 2
G 50 R 15 P 25 Q
Orange 3 Yellow 4 Green 5 Blue 6
D 20 Z C B 10 Z 5 M K
Violet 7 Gray 8
A 1
White 9 Gold
Silver None
K M
CAPACITORS:
Capacitor (formerly known as condenser) is a device for storing electric charge. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two conductors separated by a non-conductor. Capacitors used as parts of electrical systems, for example, consist of metal foils separated by a layer of insulating film. A capacitor is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator). When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a static electric field develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on one plate and negative charge on the other Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, PVPSIT Page 20
plate. Energy is stored in the electrostatic field. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them. Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of power supplies, in the resonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies and for many other purposes. The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of conductor, hence capacitor conductors are often called "plates," referring to an early means of construction. In practice the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current and also has an electric field strength limit, resulting in a breakdown voltage, while the conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance.
A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region. The non-conductive region is called the dielectric or sometimes the dielectric medium. In simpler terms, the dielectric is just an electrical insulator. Examples of dielectric mediums are glass, air, paper, vacuum, and even a semiconductor depletion region chemically identical to the conductors. A capacitor is assumed to be self-contained and isolated, with no net electric charge and no influence from any external electric field. The conductors thus hold equal and opposite charges on their facing surfaces, and the dielectric develops an electric field. In SI units, a capacitance of one farad means that one coulomb of charge on each conductor causes a voltage of one volt across the device.
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The capacitor is a reasonably general model for electric fields within electric circuits. An ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the ratio of charge Q on each conductor to the voltage V between them:
Sometimes charge build-up affects the capacitor mechanically, causing its capacitance to vary. In this case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental changes:
ENERGY STORAGE: Work must be done by an external influence to "move" charge between the conductors in a capacitor. When the external influence is removed the charge separation persists in the electric field and energy is stored to be released when the charge is allowed to return to its equilibrium position. The work done in establishing the electric field, and hence the amount of energy stored, is given by:
CURRENT-VOLTAGE RELATION
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The current i(t) through any component in an electric circuit is defined as the rate of flow of a charge q(t) passing through it, but actual charges, electrons, cannot pass through the dielectric layer of a capacitor, rather an electron accumulates on the negative plate for each one that leaves the positive plate, resulting in an electron depletion and consequent positive charge on one electrode that is equal and opposite to the accumulated negative charge on the other. Thus the charge on the electrodes is equal to the integral of the current as well as proportional to the voltage as discussed above. As with any anti derivative, a constant of integration is added to represent the initial voltage v (t0). This is the integral form of the capacitor equation.
Taking the derivative of this, and multiplying by C, yields the derivative form.
. The dual of the capacitor is the inductor, which stores energy in the magnetic field rather than the electric field. Its current-voltage relation is obtained by exchanging current and voltage in the capacitor equations and replacing C with the inductance L. DC CIRCUITS:
A simple resistor-capacitor circuit demonstrates charging of a capacitor. A series circuit containing only a resistor, a capacitor, a switch and a constant DC source of voltage V0 is known as a charging circuit. If the capacitor is initially uncharged while the switch is open, and the switch is closed at t = 0, it follows from Kirchhoff's voltage law that
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Taking the derivative and multiplying by C, gives a first-order differential equation,
At t = 0, the voltage across the capacitor is zero and the voltage across the resistor is V0. The initial current is then i (0) =V0 /R. With this assumption, the differential equation yields
where 0 = RC is the time constant of the system. As the capacitor reaches equilibrium with the source voltage, the voltage across the resistor and the current through the entire circuit decay exponentially. The case of discharging a charged capacitor likewise demonstrates exponential decay, but with the initial capacitor voltage replacing V0 and the final voltage being zero.
AC CIRCUITS: Impedance, the vector sum of reactance and resistance, describes the phase difference and the ratio of amplitudes between sinusoidally varying voltage and sinusoidally varying current at a given frequency. Fourier analysis allows any signal to be constructed from a spectrum of frequencies, whence the circuit's reaction to the various frequencies may be found. The reactance and impedance of a capacitor are respectively
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Where j is the imaginary unit and is the angular velocity of the sinusoidal signal. The j phase indicates that the AC voltage V = Z I lags the AC current by 90: the positive current phase corresponds to increasing voltage as the capacitor charges; zero current corresponds to instantaneous constant voltage, etc. Note that impedance decreases with increasing capacitance and increasing frequency. This implies that a higher-frequency signal or a larger capacitor results in a lower voltage amplitude per current amplitudean AC "short circuit" or AC coupling. Conversely, for very low frequencies, the reactance will be high, so that a capacitor is nearly an open circuit in AC analysisthose frequencies have been "filtered out". Capacitors are different from resistors and inductors in that the impedance is inversely proportional to the defining characteristic, i.e. capacitance. PARALLEL PLATE MODEL:
The simplest capacitor consists of two parallel conductive plates separated by a dielectric with permittivity (such as air). The model may also be used to make qualitative predictions for other device geometries. The plates are considered to extend uniformly over an area A and a charge density = Q/A exists on their surface. Assuming that the width of the plates is much greater than their separation d, the electric field near the centre of the device will be uniform with the magnitude E = /. The voltage is defined as the line integral of the electric field between the plates
Solving this for C = Q/V reveals that capacitance increases with area and decreases with separation Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, PVPSIT Page 25
. The capacitance is therefore greatest in devices made from materials with a high permittivity, large plate area, and small distance between plates. However solving for maximum energy storage using Vd as the dielectric strength per distance
we see that the maximum energy is a function of dielectric volume, permittivity, and dielectric strength per distance. So increasing the plate area while decreasing the separation between the plates while maintaining the same volume has no change on the amount of energy the capacitor can store. Care must be taken when increasing the plate separation so that the above assumption of the distance between plates being much smaller than the area of the plates is still valid for these equations to be accurate
DIELECTRIC MATERIALS:
Most types of capacitor include a dielectric spacer, which increases their capacitance. These dielectrics are most often insulators. However, low capacitance devices are available with a vacuum between their plates, which allows extremely high voltage operation and low losses. Variable capacitors with their plates open to the atmosphere were commonly used in radio tuning circuits. Later designs use polymer foil dielectric between the moving and stationary plates, with no significant air space between them. In order to maximise the charge that a capacitor can hold, the dielectric material needs to have as high a permittivity as possible, while also having as high a breakdown voltage as possible.
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APPLICATIONS OF CAPACITORS:
DC BLOCKING CAPACITOR: In this application the capacitor blocks the passage of DC current (after completely
charged) and yet allows the AC to pass at certain portion of a circuit. CAPACITOR AS A FILTER: Capacitors are the main elements of filters. There are several types of filters that are used in electronic circuits, such as LPF (Low Pass Filter), HPF (high Pass Filter), BPF (Band Pass Filter), etc. Since the reactance of the capacitor is inversely related to the frequency, therefore it can be used to increase or decrease the impedance of the circuit at certain frequencies and therefore does the filteration job.
CAPACITOR AS A DISCHARGE UNIT: Capacitors used as a charging unit and the release of the charge is used for
triggering, ignition, and in high scale as a power source.
BY PASS CAPACITOR: The reactance of capacitor decreases as the frequency increases. Therefore in certain
application it is used in parallel with other components to bypass it at a specified frequency.
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COUPLING CAPACITOR: The ability of capacitor to pass AC signal, allows it to couple a section of an
electronic circuit to another circuit. DECOUPLING CAPACITOR: In high speed electronic logic switching causes draw of significant amount of current which in turn would cause disturbance in the logic voltage level. Decoupling capacitor is typically located very close to the IC output and serves as a local energy source to provide the needed extra current and therefore minimizes the noise and disturbances to the logic signal. SNUBBER CAPACITOR: In some application, relays or SCR (Silicon controlled rectifier) are to drive a high inductance loads. In these circumstances, when the relay or the SCR opens, a major transient voltage could be induced in the contact of the relay or across the junction of SCR, which in turn either shows as an arc on the relay contacts or may damage the internal SCR junction. Therefore snubber capacitor is used to limit the high voltage transient across the circuit. There are also other applications such as Tuned circuits, signal processing, etc...
VARIABLE RESISTOR:
A variable resistor is a device that is used to change the resistance according to our needs in an electronic circuit. It can be used as a three terminal as well as a two terminal device. Mostly they are used as a three terminal device. Variable resistors are mostly used for device calibration.
Preset (closed type)
Multi turn preset
Preset (openstyle)
WORKING OF VARIABLE RESISTOR:
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As shown in the diagram below, a variable resistor consists of a track which provides the resistance path. Two terminals of the device are connected to both the ends of the track. The third terminal is connected to a wiper that decides the motion of the track. The motion of the wiper through the track helps in increasing and decreasing the resistance.
The track is usually made of a mixture of ceramic and metal or can be made of carbon as well. As a resistive material is needed, carbon film type variable resistors are mostly used. They find applications in radio receiver circuits, audio amplifier circuits and TV receivers. For applications of small resistances, the resistance track may just be a coil of wire. The track can be in both the rotary as well as straight versions. In a rotary track some of them may include a switch. The switch will have an operating shaft which can be easily moved in the axial direction with one of its ends moving from the body of variable resistor switch. The rotary track resistor with has two applications. One is to change the resistance. The switch mechanism is used for the electric contact and non-contact by on/off operation of the switch. There are switch mechanism variable resistors with annular cross-section which are used for the control of equipments. Even more components are added onto this type of a variable resistor so as to make them compatible for complicated electronic circuits. A highvoltage variable resistor such as a focus pack is an example. This device is capable of producing a variable focus voltage as well as a screen voltage. It is also connected to a variable resistance circuit and also a fixed resistance circuit [bleeder resistor] to bring a change in the applied voltage. For this both the fixed and variable resistor are connected in series. A track made in a straight path is called a slider. As the position of a slider cannot be seen or confirmed according to the adjustment of resistance, a stopping mechanism is usually included to prevent the hazards caused due to over rotation. VARIABLE RESISTANCE SPECIFICATION: The resistance and type of track are marked on the body Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, PVPSIT Page 29
4K7 LIN means 4.7k
linear track
1M LOG means 1 M logarithmic track. Some variable resistors are designed to mounted directly on the circuit board , but most are for mounting through a hole drilled in the case containing the circuit with stranded wire connecting their terminals to the circuit board. LINEAR (LIN) AND LOGARITHMIC (LOG) TRACKS Linear (LIN) track means that the resistance changes at a constant rate as you move the wiper. This is the standard arrangement and you should assume this type is required if a project does not specify the type of track. Presets always have linear tracks.
Logarithmic (LOG) track means that the resistance changes slowly at one end of the track and rapidly at the other end, so halfway along the track is not half the total resistance! This arrangement is used for volume (loudness) controls because the human ear has a logarithmic response to loudness so fine control (slow change) is required at low volumes and coarser control (rapid change) at high volumes. It is important to connect the ends of the track the correct way round, if you find that turning the spindle increases the volume rapidly followed by little further change you should swap the connections to the ends of the track.
APPLICATION OF VARIABLE RESISTOR: There are mainly three types of variable resistors. They are 1. Potentiometer 2. Rheostat 3. Presets RHEOSTAT: This is the simplest way of using a variable resistor. Two terminals are used: one connected to an end of the track, the other to the moveable wiper. Turning the spindle changes the resistance between the two terminals from zero up to the maximum resistance Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, PVPSIT Page 30
Rheostat symbol
Rheostats are often used to vary current, for example to control the brightness of a lamp or the rate at which a capacitor charges. If the rheostat is mounted on a printed circuit board we may find that all three terminals are connected! However, one of them will be linked to the wiper terminal. This improves the mechanical strength of the mounting but it serves no function electrically.
POTENTIOMETER: Variable resistors used as potentiometers have all three terminals connected.
Potentiometer symbol This arrangement is normally used to vary voltage, for example to set the switching point of a circuit with a sensor, or control the volume (loudness) in an amplifier circuit. If the terminals at the ends of the track are connected across the power supply then the wiper terminal will provide a voltage which can be varied from zero up to the maximum of the supply. PRESETS:
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These are miniature versions of the standard variable resistor. They are designed to be mounted directly onto the circuit board and adjusted only when the circuit is built.
Preset symbol Out of these presets are just smaller versions of a variable resistor. They can be easily placed on a PCB and can be adjustable when needed. The value of resistance is commonly adjusted with the help of a screw-driver. They are mostly used in applications like adjusting the frequency of an alarm tone or to adjust sensitivity of circuits. Since this device is the cheapest among all the three they are more commonly used amongst all of them. There are also highly precise presets which have multi turn options. In this type, the resistance will increase/decrease only slowly and hence the screw has to be rotated many times. Here also the basic slider and track mechanism is used. The track is always linear For example to set the frequency of an alarm tone or the sensitivity of a lightsensitive circuit. A small screwdriver or similar tool is required to adjust presets. Presets are much cheaper than standard variable resistors so they are sometimes used in projects where a standard variable resistor would normally be used Multi turn presets are used where very precise adjustments must be made. The screw must be turned many times (10+) to move the slider from one end of the track to the other, giving fine control.
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DIODE:
Diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts electric current in only one direction. The term usually refers to a semiconductor diode, the most common type today. This is a crystalline piece of semiconductor material connected to two electrical terminals. A vacuum tube diode (now little used except in some high-power technologies) is a vacuum tube with two electrodes: a plate and a cathode.
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The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass in one direction (called the diode's forward direction), while blocking current in the opposite direction (the reverse direction). Thus, the diode can be thought of as an electronic version of a check valve. This unidirectional behavior is called rectification, and is used to convert alternating current to direct current, and to extract modulation from radio signals in radio receivers. However, diodes can have more complicated behavior than this simple on-off action. This is due to their complex non-linear electrical characteristics, which can be tailored by varying the construction of their P-N junction. These are exploited in special purpose diodes that perform many different functions. For example, specialized diodes are used to regulate voltage (Zener diodes), to electronically tune radio and TV receivers ( varactor diodes), to generate radio frequency oscillations (tunnel diodes), and to produce light (light emitting diodes). Tunnel diodes exhibit negative resistance, which makes them useful in some types of circuits.
A modern semiconductor diode is made of a crystal of semiconductor like silicon that has impurities added to it to create a region on one side that contains negative charge carriers (electrons), called n-type semiconductor, and a region on the other side that contains positive charge carriers (holes), called p-type semiconductor. The diode's terminals are attached to each of these regions. The boundary within the crystal between these two regions, called a PN junction, is where the action of the diode takes place. The crystal conducts a current of electrons in a direction from the N-type side (called the cathode) to the P-type side (called the anode), but not in the opposite direction; that is, a conventional current flows from anode to cathode (opposite to the electron flow, since electrons have negative charge). Another type of semiconductor diode, the Schottky diode, is formed from the contact between a metal and a semiconductor rather than by a p-n junction.
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CURRENTVOLTAGE CHARACTERISTIC:
A semiconductor diodes behavior in a circuit is given by its currentvoltage characteristic, or IV graph. The shape of the curve is determined by the transport of charge carriers through the so-called depletion layer or depletion region that exists at the p-n junction between differing semiconductors. When a p-n junction is first created, conduction band (mobile) electrons from the Ndoped region diffuse into the P-doped region where there is a large population of holes (vacant places for electrons) with which the electrons recombine. When a mobile electron recombines with a hole, both hole and electron vanish, leaving behind an immobile positively charged donor (dopant) on the N-side and negatively charged acceptor (dopant) on the P-side. The region around the p-n junction becomes depleted of charge carriers and thus behaves as an insulator. However, the width of the depletion region (called the depletion width) cannot grow without limit. For each electron-hole pair that recombines, a positively charged dopant ion is left behind in the N-doped region, and a negatively charged dopant ion is left behind in the P-doped region. As recombination proceeds more ions are created, an increasing electric field develops through the depletion zone which acts to slow and then finally stop recombination. At this point, there is a built-in potential across the depletion zone. If an external voltage is placed across the diode with the same polarity as the built-in potential, the depletion zone continues to act as an insulator, preventing any significant electric current flow (unless electron/hole pairs are actively being created in the junction by, for instance, light. see photodiode). This is the reverse bias phenomenon. However, if the polarity of the external voltage opposes the built-in potential, recombination can once again proceed, resulting in substantial electric current through the p-n junction (i.e. substantial numbers of electrons and holes recombine at the junction). For silicon diodes, the built-in potential is approximately 0.7 V (0.3 V for Germanium and 0.2 V for Schottky). Thus, if an external current is passed through the diode, about 0.7 V will be developed across the diode such that the P-doped region is positive with respect to the N-doped region and the diode is said to be turned on as it has a forward bias.
A diodes 'IV characteristic' can be approximated by four regions of operation. Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, PVPSIT Page 35
IV characteristics of a P-N junction diode Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, PVPSIT Page 36
At very large reverse bias, beyond the peak inverse voltage or PIV, a process called reverse breakdown occurs which causes a large increase in current (i.e. a large number of electrons and holes are created at, and move away from the p n junction) that usually damages the device permanently. The avalanche diode is deliberately designed for use in the avalanche region. In the zener diode, the concept of PIV is not applicable. A zener diode contains a heavily doped p-n junction allowing electrons to tunnel from the valence band of the p-type material to the conduction band of the n-type material, such that the reverse voltage is clamped to a known value (called the zener voltage), and avalanche does not occur. Both devices, however, do have a limit to the maximum current and power in the clamped reverse voltage region. Also, following the end of forward conduction in any diode, there is reverse current for a short time. The device does not attain its full blocking capability until the reverse current ceases. The second region, at reverse biases more positive than the PIV, has only a very small reverse saturation current. In the reverse bias region for a normal P-N rectifier diode, the current through the device is very low (in the A range). However, this is temperature dependent, and at sufficiently high temperatures, a substantial amount of reverse current can be observed (mA or more). The third region is forward but small bias, where only a small forward current is conducted. As the potential difference is increased above an arbitrarily defined cut-in voltage or on-voltage or diode forward voltage drop (Vd), the diode current becomes appreciable (the level of current considered appreciable and the value of cut-in voltage depends on the application), and the diode presents a very low resistance. The currentvoltage curve is exponential. In a normal silicon diode at rated currents, the arbitrary cut-in voltage is defined as 0.6 to 0.7 volts. The value is different for other diode types Schottky diodes can be rated as low as 0.2 V, Germanium diodes 0.25 to 0.3 V, and red or blue light-emitting diodes (LEDs) can have values of 1.4 V and 4.0 V respectively. At higher currents the forward voltage drop of the diode increases. A drop of 1 V to 1.5 V is typical at full rated current for power diodes. SHOCKLEY DIODE EQUATION: The Shockley ideal diode equation or the diode law gives the IV characteristic of an ideal diode in either forward or reverse bias (or no bias). The equation is:
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where I is the diode current, IS is the reverse bias saturation current (or scale current), VD is the voltage across the diode, VT is the thermal voltage, and n is the ideality factor, also known as the quality factor or sometimes emission coefficient. The ideality factor n varies from 1 to 2 depending on the fabrication process and semiconductor material and in many cases is assumed to be approximately equal to 1 The thermal voltage VT is approximately 25.85 mV at 300 K, a temperature close to room temperature commonly used in device simulation software. At any temperature it is a known constant defined by:
where k is the Boltzmann constant, T is the absolute temperature of the p-n junction, and q is the magnitude of charge on an electron.
DIODE BRIDGE:
A diode bridge is an arrangement of four (or more) diodes in a bridge circuit configuration that provides the same polarity of output for either polarity of input. When used in its most common application, for conversion of an alternating current (AC) input into direct current a (DC) output, it is known as a bridge rectifier. A bridge rectifier provides full-wave rectification from a two-wire AC input, resulting in lower cost and weight as compared to a rectifier with a 3-wire input from a transformer with a centertapped secondary winding. The essential feature of a diode bridge is that the polarity of the output is the same regardless of the polarity at the input. The diode bridge circuit is also known as the Graetz circuit after its inventor, physicist Leo Graetz Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, PVPSIT Page 38
BASIC OPERATION: According to the conventional model of current flow originally established by Benjamin Franklin and still followed by most engineers today, current is assumed to flow through electrical conductors from the positive to the negative pole. In actuality, free electrons in a conductor nearly always flow from the negative to the positive pole. In the vast majority of applications, however, the actual direction of current flow is irrelevant. Therefore, in the discussion below the conventional model is retained. In the diagrams below, when the input connected to the left corner of the diamond is positive, and the input connected to the right corner is negative, current flows from the upper supply terminal to the right along the red (positive) path to the output, and returns to the lower supply terminal via the blue (negative) path.
When the input connected to the left corner is negative, and the input connected to the right corner is positive, current flows from the upper supply terminal to the right along the red (positive) path to the output, and returns to the lower supply terminal via the blue (negative) path.
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AC, half-wave and full wave rectified signals.
In each case, the upper right output remains positive and lower right output negative. Since this is true whether the input is AC or DC, this circuit not only produces a DC output from an AC input, it can also provide what is sometimes called "reverse polarity protection". That is, it permits normal functioning of DC-powered equipment when batteries have been installed backwards, or when the leads (wires) from a DC power source have been reversed, and protects the equipment from potential damage caused by reverse polarity. Prior to the availability of integrated circuits, a bridge rectifier was constructed from "discrete components", i.e., separate diodes. Since about 1950, a single four-terminal
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component containing the four diodes connected in a bridge configuration became a standard commercial component and is now available with various voltage and current ratings.
APPLICATIONS OF DIODES:
Radio demodulation Power conversion Over voltage protection
Logic gates Temperature measurements Current steering Ionizing radiation detectors
The type of diodes used in our circuit are IN4148 and IN4002. IN4002 is a 1amp general purpose rectifying diode, most commonly used for rectification purpose.
IN4002
FEATURES OF DIODE IN4002:
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Diffused Junction High Current Capability and Low Forward Voltage Drop Surge Overload Rating to 30A Peak Low Reverse Leakage Current Plastic Material: UL Flammability Classification Rating 94V-0
IN4148 are standard silicon switching diodes used for high speed applications
IN4148 FEATURES OF DIODE IN4148: Fast Switching Speed General Purpose Rectification Silicon Epitaxial Planar Construction Lead Free Finish
TRANSISTORS:
A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals. It is made of a solid piece of semiconductor material, with at least three terminals for Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, PVPSIT Page 42
connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals changes the current flowing through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled (output) power can be much more than the controlling (input) power, the transistor provides amplification of a signal. Today, some transistors are packaged individually, but many more are found embedded in integrated circuits. The transistor is the fundamental building block of modern electronic devices, and is ubiquitous in modern electronic systems. Following its release in the early 1950s the transistor revolutionized the field of electronics, and paved the way for smaller and cheaper radios, calculators, and computers, among other things.
The essential usefulness of a transistor comes from its ability to use a small signal applied between one pair of its terminals to control a much larger signal at another pair of terminals. This property is called gain. A transistor can control its output in proportion to the input signal; that is, it can act as an amplifier.
Alternatively, the transistor can be used to turn current on or off in a circuit as an electrically controlled switch, where the amount of current is determined by other circuit elements.
Simple circuit to show the labels of a bipolar transistor
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The two types of transistors have slight differences in how they are used in a circuit. A bipolar transistor has terminals labeled base, collector, and emitter. A small current at the base terminal (that is, flowing from the base to the emitter) can control or switch a much larger current between the collector and emitter terminals. For a field-effect transistor, the terminals are labeled gate, source, and drain, and a voltage at the gate can control a current between source and drain. The image to the right represents a typical bipolar transistor in a circuit. Charge will flow between emitter and collector terminals depending on the current in the base. Since internally the base and emitter connections behave like a semiconductor diode, a voltage drop develops between base and emitter while the base current exists. The amount of this voltage depends on the material the transistor is made from, and is referred to as VBE.
TRANSISTOR AS A SWITCH:
BJT used as an electronic switch, in grounded-emitter configuration.
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Transistors are commonly used as electronic switches, both for high-power applications such as switched-mode power supplies and for low-power applications such as logic gates. In a grounded-emitter transistor circuit, such as the light-switch circuit shown, as the base voltage rises the base and collector current rise exponentially, and the collector voltage drops because of the collector load resistor. The relevant equations: VRC = ICE RC, the voltage across the load (the lamp with resistance RC) VRC + VCE = VCC, the supply voltage shown as 6V If VCE could fall to 0 (perfect closed switch) then Ic could go no higher than VCC / RC, even with higher base voltage and current. The transistor is then said to be saturated. Hence, values of input voltage can be chosen such that the output is either completely off, or completely on. The transistor is acting as a switch, and this type of operation is common in digital circuits where only "on" and "off" values are relevant.
TRANSISTOR AS AN AMPLIFIER:
Amplifier circuit, common-emitter configuration. The common-emitter amplifier is designed so that a small change in voltage in (Vin) changes the small current through the base of the transistor and the transistor's current amplification combined with the properties of the circuit mean that small swings in Vin produce large changes in Vout. Various configurations of single transistor amplifier are possible, with some providing current gain, some voltage gain, and some both. Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, PVPSIT Page 45
From mobile phones to televisions, vast numbers of products include amplifiers for sound reproduction, radio transmission, and signal processing. The first discrete transistor audio amplifiers barely supplied a few hundred milli watts, but power and audio fidelity gradually increased as better transistors became available and amplifier architecture evolved. Modern transistor audio amplifiers of up to a few hundred watts are common and relatively in expensive.
SL100 and SK100 are the two transistors used in our circuit
SL100:
. SL100
SL100 is a general purpose, medium power NPN transistor. It is mostly used as switch in common emitter configuration. The transistor terminals require a fixed DC voltage to operate in the desired region of its characteristic curves. This is known as the biasing. For switching applications, SL100 is biased in such a way that it remains fully on if there is a signal at its base. In the absence of base signal, it gets turned off completely. The emitter leg of SL100 is indicated by a protruding edge in the transistor case. The base is nearest to the emitter while collector lies at other extreme of the casing. Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, PVPSIT Page 46
PIN DIAGRAM:
SK100:
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SK100 is a general purpose, medium power PNP transistor. The basic applications of a transistor are switching, amplification and regulation. Its DC current gain ranges from 100 to a maximum of 300. The transistor terminals require a fixed DC voltage to operate in the desired region of its characteristic curves. This is known as the biasing. For amplification applications, the transistor is biased such that it is partly on for all input conditions. The input signal at base is amplified and taken at the emitter. BC548 is used in common emitter configuration for amplifiers. The voltage divider is the commonly used biasing mode. For switching applications, transistor is biased so that it remains fully on if there is a signal at its base. In the absence of base signal, it gets completely off. The emitter leg of SK100 is indicated by a protruding edge in the transistor case. PIN DIAGRAM:
TRANSFORMER:
A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another through inductively coupled conductorsthe transformer's coils. A varying current in the first or primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core and thus a varying magnetic field through the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field induces a
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varying electromotive force (EMF), or "voltage", in the secondary winding. This effect is called mutual induction. If a load is connected to the secondary, an electric current will flow in the secondary winding and electrical energy will be transferred from the primary circuit through the transformer to the load. In an ideal transformer, the induced voltage in the secondary winding (Vs) is in proportion to the primary voltage (Vp), and is given by the ratio of the number of turns in the secondary (Ns) to the number of turns in the primary (Np) as follows:
By appropriate selection of the ratio of turns, a transformer thus allows an alternating current (AC) voltage to be "stepped up" by making Ns greater than Np, or "stepped down" by making Ns less than Np.
In the vast majority of transformers, the windings are coils wound around a ferromagnetic core, air-core transformers being a notable exception. Transformers range in size from a thumbnail-sized coupling transformer hidden inside a stage microphone to huge units weighing hundreds of tons used to interconnect portions of power grids. All operate with the same basic principles, although the range of designs is wide. While new technologies have eliminated the need for transformers in some electronic circuits, transformers are still found in nearly all electronic devices designed for household ("mains") voltage. Transformers are essential for high-voltage electric power transmission, which makes long-distance transmission economically practical.
BASIC OPERATION: The transformer is based on two principles: first, that an electric current can produce a magnetic field (electromagnetism), and, second that a changing magnetic field within a coil of wire induces a voltage across the ends of the coil (electromagnetic induction). Changing the current in the primary coil changes the magnetic flux that is developed. The changing magnetic flux induces a voltage in the secondary coil.
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An ideal transformer is shown in the adjacent figure. Current passing through the primary coil creates a magnetic field. The primary and secondary coils are wrapped around a core of very high magnetic permeability, such as iron, so that most of the magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary coils.
INDUCTION LAW:
The voltage induced across the secondary coil may be calculated from Faraday's law of induction, which states that:
where Vs is the instantaneous voltage, Ns is the number of turns in the secondary coil and is the magnetic flux through one turn of the coil. If the turns of the coil are oriented perpendicular to the magnetic field lines, the flux is the product of the magnetic flux density B and the area A through which it cuts. The area is constant, being equal to the crosssectional area of the transformer core, whereas the magnetic field varies with time according to the excitation of the primary. Since the same magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary coils in an ideal transformer, the instantaneous voltage across the primary winding equals
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Taking the ratio of the two equations for Vs and Vp gives the basic equation for stepping up or stepping down the voltage
Np/Ns is known as the turns ratio, and is the primary functional characteristic of any transformer. In the case of step-up transformers, this may sometimes be stated as the reciprocal, Ns/Np. Turns ratio is commonly expressed as an irreducible fraction or ratio: For example, a transformer with primary and secondary windings of, respectively, 100 and 150 turns is said to have a turns ratio of 2:3 rather than 0.667 or 100:150.
IDEAL POWER EQUATION:
The ideal transformer as a circuit element If the secondary coil is attached to a load that allows current to flow, electrical power is transmitted from the primary circuit to the secondary circuit. Ideally, the transformer is perfectly efficient; all the incoming energy is transformed from the primary circuit to
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the magnetic field and into the secondary circuit. If this condition is met, the incoming electric power must equal the outgoing power:
giving the ideal transformer equation
Transformers normally have high efficiency, so this formula is a reasonable approximation. If the voltage is increased, then the current is decreased by the same factor. The impedance in one circuit is transformed by the square of the turns ratio. For example, if an impedance Zs is attached across the terminals of the secondary coil, it appears to the primary circuit to have an impedance of (Np/Ns)2Zs. This relationship is reciprocal, so that the impedance Zp of the primary circuit appears to the secondary to be (Ns/Np)2Zp.
DETAILED OPERATION: The simplified description above neglects several practical factors, in particular the primary current required to establish a magnetic field in the core, and the contribution to the field due to current in the secondary circuit. Models of an ideal transformer typically assume a core of negligible reluctance with two windings of zero resistance. When a voltage is applied to the primary winding, a small current flows, drivingflux around the magnetic acircuit of the core. The current required to create the flux is termed the magnetizing current; since the ideal core has been assumed to have near-zero reluctance, the magnetizing current is negligible, although still required to create the magnetic field. The changing magnetic field induces an electromotive force (EMF) across each winding. Since the ideal windings have no impedance, they have no associated voltage drop, and so the voltages Vp and VS measured at the terminals of the transformer, are equal to the corresponding EMFs. The primary EMF, acting as it does in opposition to the primary voltage, is sometimes termed the "back EMF". This is due to Lenz's law which states that the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, PVPSIT Page 52
induction of EMF would always be such that it will oppose development of any such change in magnetic field.
LEAKAGE FLUX:
The ideal transformer model assumes that all flux generated by the primary winding links all the turns of every winding, including itself. In practice, some flux traverses paths that take it outside the windings. Such flux is termed leakage flux, and results in leakage inductance inseries with the mutually coupled transformer windings. Leakage results in energy being alternately stored in and discharged from the magnetic fields with each cycle of the power supply. It is not directly a power loss (see "Stray losses" below), but results in inferior voltage regulation, causing the secondary voltage to fail to be directly proportional to the primary, particularly under heavy load. Transformers are therefore normally designed to have very low leakage inductance. However, in some applications, leakage can be a desirable property, and long magnetic paths, air gaps, or magnetic bypass shunts may be deliberately introduced to a transformer's design to limit the short-circuit current it will supply. Leaky transformers may be used to supply loads that exhibit negative resistance, such as electric arcs, mercury vapor lamps, and neon signs; or for safely handling loads that become periodically short-circuited such as electric arc welders. Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, PVPSIT Page 53
Air gaps are also used to keep a transformer from saturating, especially audiofrequency transformers in circuits that have a direct current flowing through the windings. Leakage inductance is also helpful when transformers are operated in parallel. It can be shown that if the "per-unit" inductance of two transformers is the same (a typical value is 5%), they will automatically split power "correctly" (e.g. 500kVA unit in parallel with 1,000kVA unit, the larger one will carry twice the current).
Transformer equivalent circuit with secondary impedances referred to primary side
APPLICATIONS: A major application of transformers is to increase voltage before transmitting electrical energy over long distances through wires. Wires have resistance and so dissipate electrical energy at a rate proportional to the square of the current through the wire. By transforming electrical power to a high-voltage form for transmission and back again afterward, transformers enable economical transmission of power over long distances. Consequently, transformers have shaped the electricity supply industry, permitting generation to be located remotely from points of demand. All but a tiny fraction of the world's electrical power has passed through a series of transformers by the time it reaches the consumer. Transformers are also used extensively in electronic products to step down the supply voltage to a level suitable for the low voltage circuits they contain. The
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transformer also electrically isolates the end user from contact with the supply voltage. Signal and audio transformers are used to couple stages of amplifiers and to match devices such as microphones and record players to the input of amplifiers. Audio transformers allowed telephone circuits to carry on a two-way conversation over a single pair of wires. A balun transformer converts a signal that is referenced to ground to a signal that has balanced voltages to ground, such as between external cables and internal circuits. The principle of open-circuit (unloaded) transformer is widely used for characterisation of soft magnetic materials.
9v-0v-9v 250 ma transformer
SWITCH:
Switch is an electrical component that can break an electrical circuit, interrupting the current or diverting it from one conductor to another. The most familiar form of switch is a manually operated electromechanical device with one or more sets of electrical contacts. Each set of contacts can be in one of two states: either 'closed' meaning the contacts are touching and electricity can flow between them, or 'open', meaning the contacts are separated and the switch is non conducting. The mechanism actuating the transition between these two states (open or closed) is normally of the toggle or momentary type. Through the use of logic gates, momentary switches can also activate timed-activation circuits. Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, PVPSIT Page 55
A switch may be directly manipulated by a human as a control signal to a system, such as a computer keyboard button, or to control power flow in a circuit, such as a light switch. Automatically operated switches can be used to control the motions of machines, for example, to indicate that a garage door has reached its full open position or that a machine tool is in a position to accept another work piece. Switches may be operated by process variables such as pressure, temperature, flow, current, voltage, and force, acting as sensors in a process and used to automatically control a system. For example, a thermostat is a temperature-operated switch used to control a heating process. A switch that is operated by another electrical circuit is called a relay. Large switches may be remotely operated by a motor drive mechanism. Different types of switches:
Electrical switches. Top, left to right: circuit breaker, mercury switch, wafer switch, DIP switch, surface mount switch, reed switch. Bottom, left to right: wall switch (U.S. style), miniature toggle switch, in-line switch, push-button switch, rocker switch, micro switch
An ideal switch describes a switch that: has no current limit during its ON state has infinite resistance during its OFF state has no voltage drop across the switch during its ON state has no voltage limit during its OFF state
has zero rise time and fall time during state changes
switches only once without "bouncing" between on and off positions Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, PVPSIT Page 56
Practical switches have loss and limitation. The ideal switch is often used in circuit analysis as it greatly simplifies the system of equations to be solved, however this can lead to a less accurate solution.
A toggle switch in the "on" position.
In the simplest case, a switch has two conductive pieces, often metal, called contacts that touch to complete (make) a circuit, and separate to open (break) the circuit. The contact material is chosen for its resistance to corrosion, because most metals form insulating oxides that would prevent the switch from working. Contact materials are also chosen on the basis of electrical conductivity, hardness (resistance to abrasive wear), mechanical strength, low cost and low toxicity. Sometimes the contacts are plated with noble metals. They may be designed to wipe against each other to clean off any contamination. Nonmetallic conductors, such as conductive plastic, are sometimes used.
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Triple Pole Single Throw (TPST or 3PST) knife switch used to short the windings of a 3 phase wind turbine for braking purposes. Here the switch is shown in the open position. A pair of contacts is said to be "closed" when current can flow from one to the other. When the contacts are separated by an insulating air gap, they are said to be "open", and no current can flow between them at normal voltages. Switches are classified according to the arrangement of their contacts in electronics. Electricians installing building wiring use different nomenclature, such as oneway, two-way, three-way and four-way switches. In a push-button type switch, in which the contacts remain in one state unless actuated, the contacts can either be normally open until closed by operation of the switch, or normally closed and opened by the switch action. A switch with both types of contact is called a changeover switch. These may be "make-before-break" which momentarily connect both circuits, or may be "break-beforemake" which interrupts one circuit before closing the other. The terms pole and throw are also used to describe switch contact variations. The number of "poles" is the number of separate circuits which are controlled by a switch. For example, a "2-pole" switch has two separate identical sets of contacts controlled by the same knob. The number of "throws" is the number of separate positions that the switch can adopt. A single-throw switch has one pair of contacts that can either be closed or open. A double-throw switch has a contact that can be connected to either of two other contacts, a triple-throw has a contact which can be connected to one of three other contacts, etc.
Electronics and abbreviation SPST
Expansion
British mains name
American electrical wiring name Two-way A simple The on-off two Description Symbol
specification of
abbreviation wiring
Single pole, One-way single throw
switch:
terminals are either Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, PVPSIT Page 58
connected together or disconnected each example switch. A simple changeover SPDT Single pole, double throw Two-way Threeway switch: Common) L2. Similar Some to SPDT. suppliers C (COM, is other. is from An a light
connected to L1 or to
Single or
pole
changeover SPCO SPTT, c.o. Single pole, centre off or Single Pole, Triple Throw
use SPCO/SPTT for switches with a stable off position in the centre those
needed]
and SPDTfor without.[citation
Equivalent DPST Double pole, single throw Double pole Double pole two SPST switches
to
controlled by a single mechanism
DPDT
Double pole, double throw
Equivalent two SPDT switches
to
controlled by a single mechanism: to E, or A A is is connected to B and D connected to C and D
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to F. Equivalent to DPDT. Double pole changeover DPCO or Double pole, off centre Some suppliers use DPCO for switches with a stable off position in the centre and DPDT for those without. DPDT switch internally wired for polarity-reversal applications: wires Intermediate Four-way outside switch switch housing; are the only brought switch the with four rather than six
above, B is connected to F and C to E; hence A is connected to B and D to C, or A is connected to C and D to B. Switches with larger numbers of poles or throws can be described by replacing the "S" or "D" with a number (e.g. 3PST, 4PST, etc.) or in some cases the letter "T" (for "triple)
ROTARY SWITCH:
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A rotary switch is a switch operated by rotation. These are often chosen when more than 2 positions are needed, such as a three-speed fan or a CB radio with multiple frequencies of reception or "channels".
Rotary switch
Three-deck rotary switch allows controlling three different circuit functions A rotary switch consists of a spindle or "rotor" that has a contact arm or "spoke" which projects from its surface like a cam. It has an array of terminals, arranged in a circle around the rotor, each of which serves as a contact for the "spoke" through which any one of a number of different electrical circuits can be connected to the rotor. The switch is layered to allow the use of multiple poles, each layer is equivalent to one pole. Usually such a switch has a detent mechanism so it "clicks" from one active position to another rather than stalls in an intermediate position. Thus a rotary switch provides greater pole and throw capabilities than simpler switches do. Modern rotary switches utilise a "star wheel" mechanism to provide the switching positions. 30,45 ,60 or 90 degrees. Nylon cams are then mounted behind this mechanism and spring loaded electrical contacts slide around these cams. The cams are notched or cut where the contact should close in order to make an electrical circuit. Rotary switches were used as channel selectors on television receivers until the early 1970s, as range selectors on electrical metering equipment, as band selectors on multi-band radios, etc.
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PRECISION OSCILLATOR:
WAVEFORM
GENERATOR/VOLTAGE
CONTROLLED
The ICL8038 waveform generator is a monolithic integrated circuit capable of producing high accuracy sine, square, triangular, saw tooth and pulse waveforms with a minimum of external components. The frequency (or repetition rate) can be selected externally from 0.001Hz to more than 300kHzusing either resistors or capacitors, and frequency modulation and sweeping can be accomplished with an external voltage. The ICL8038 is fabricated with advanced monolithic technology, using Schottky barrier diodes and thin film resistors, and the output is stable over a wide range of temperature and supply variations. These devices may be interfaced with phase locked loop circuitry to reduce temperature drift to less than 250ppm/oC.
FEATURES: Low Frequency Drift with Temperature . . . . . 250ppm/oC Low Distortion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1% (Sine Wave Output) High Linearity . . . . . . . . . . .0.1% (Triangle Wave Output) Wide Frequency Range . . . . . . . . . . . .0.001Hz to 300kHz Variable Duty Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2% to 98% High Level Outputs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TTL to 28V Simultaneous Sine, Square, and Triangle Wave Outputs Easy to Use - Just a Handful of External Component required. PIN DIAGRAM: Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, PVPSIT Page 62
FUNCTIONAL DIAGRAM:
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APPLICATION INFORMATION : An external capacitor C is charged and discharged by two current sources. Current source #2 is switched on and off by a flip-flop, while current source #1 is on continuously. Assuming that the flip-flop is in a state such that current source #2 is off, and the capacitor is charged with a current I, the voltage across the capacitor rises linearly with time. When this voltage reaches the level of comparator #1 (set at 2/3 of the supply voltage), the flip-flop is triggered, changes states, and releases current source #2. This current source normally carries a current 2I, thus the capacitor is discharged with a net-current I and the voltage across it drops linearly with time. When it has reached the level of comparator #2 (set at 1/3 of the supply voltage), the flip-flop is triggered into its original state and the cycle starts again. Four waveforms are readily obtainable from this basic generator circuit. With the current sources set at I and 2I respectively, the charge and discharge times are equal. Thus a triangle waveform is created across the capacitor and the flip-flop produces a square wave. Both waveforms are fed to buffer stages and are available at pins 3 and 9. TEST CIRCUIT:
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WAVEFORM TIMING: The symmetry of all waveforms can be adjusted with the external timing resistors. Two possible ways to accomplish this are shown in Figure. Best results are obtained by keeping the timing resistors RA and RB separate (A). RA controls the rising portion of the triangle and sine wave and the 1 state of the square wave. The magnitude of the triangle waveform is set at 1/3 VSUPPLY; Therefore the rising portion of the triangle is, T1=(C*V)/I = (C*1/3*V SUPPLY*RA)/ (0.22*V SUPPLY) = (R A*C)/0.66 The falling portion of the triangle and sine wave and the 0 state of the square wave is: T2 =(C *V)/I = C*1/3*V SUPPLY/ (0.44 (V SUPPLY/RB)-0.22 (V SUPPLY/ RA)) = (RA*RB*C)/0.66*(2RA-RB) Thus a 50% duty cycle is achieved when RA = RB. If the duty cycle is to be varied over a small range about 50% only, the connection shown in Figure is slightly more convenient. A 1k potentiometer may not allow the duty cycle to be adjusted through 50% on all devices. If a 50% duty cycle is required, a 2k or 5k potentiometer should be used. With two separate timing resistors, the frequency is given by F=1/ (TI+T2) = 0.66/ RA (1+(RB/2RA-RB) APPLICATIONS OF ICL8038: It is used in Sine wave output buffer amplifier Variable audio oscillator Linear voltage controlled oscillator Strobe turn burst generator Wave form generator used as a stable vco in phase locked loops
DIFFERENT WAVE FORMS PRODUCED BY ICL8038:
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ABSOLUTE MAXIMUM RATINGS THERMAL INFORMATION: Supply Voltage (V- to V+) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36V Input Voltage (Any Pin) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V- to V+ Input Current (Pins 4 and 5). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25mA Output Sink Current (Pins 3 and 9) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25mA
OPERATING CONDITIONS: Temperature Range ICL8038AC, ICL8038BC, ICL8038CC . . . . . . . . . . . . 0oC to 70oC THERMAL INFORMATION:
Thermal Resistance (Typical, Note 1) JA (oC/W ) JC (oC/W) Page 66
CERDIP Package. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 20 PDIP Package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 N/A Maximum Junction Temperature (Ceramic Package) . . . . . . . .175oC Maximum Junction Temperature (Plastic Package) . . . . . . . .150oC Maximum Storage Temperature Range . . . . . . . . . -65oC to 150oC Maximum Lead Temperature (Soldering 10s) . . . . . . . . . . . . 300oC
DIE CHARACTERISTICS:
Back Side Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vcaution.
LM318:
The LM318 is a precision, high speed, high gain operational amplifier that has been specifically designed for use in high slew rate and wide bandwidth applications. Unlike many wideband amplifiers, the LM318 is unity-gain stable since it has internal circuitry for frequency compensation. However, external components may be added for compensation to achieve optimum performance. When used in inverting applications, feed-forward compensation can be used to achieve slew rate in excess of 150V/s and almost double the bandwidth. For greater stability, using overcompensation with the amplifier is possible if maximum bandwidth is not needed. In general, by adding a single capacitor can reduce the settling time for 0.1% error band to under 1s.
PIN DIAGRAM:
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FEATURES:
Unit gain stable (internal frequency compensation) 4mV typical input offset voltage 30nA typical input offset current Input bias current of 250nA (maximum) 15MHz bandwidth (small signal) 50V/s slew rate (guarantee) Operates voltages of 5V to 20V Overload protection for Input and output Same pin assignment as general-purpose op amps Pb-free plating product number: LM318L
APPLICATIONS: A/D converters fast integrator oscillators active filters sample and hold circuits general purpose amplifier.
7808 AND 7908:

The 78xx (sometimes LM78xx) is a family of self-contained fixed linear voltage regulator integrated circuits. The 78xx family is commonly used in electronic circuits requiring a regulated power supply due to their ease-of-use and low cost. For ICs within the family, the xx is replaced with two digits, indicating the output voltage (for example, the 7805 has a 5 volt output, while the 7812 produces 12 volts). The 78xx line are positive voltage regulators: they produce a voltage that is positive relative to a common ground. There is a related line of 79xx devices which are complementary negative voltage regulators. 78xx and 79xx ICs can be used in combination to provide positive and negative supply voltages in the same circuit.
78xx ICs have three terminals and are commonly found in the TO220 form factor, although smaller surface-mount and larger TO3 packages are available. These devices support an input voltage anywhere from a couple of volts over the intended output voltage, up to a maximum of 35 or 40 volts, and typically provide 1 or 1.5 amps of current (though smaller or larger packages may have a lower or higher current rating)
ADVANTAGES:
78xx series ICs do not require additional components to provide a constant, regulated source of power, making them easy to use, as well as economical and efficient uses of space. Other voltage regulators may require additional components to set the output voltage level, or to assist in the regulation process. Some other designs (such as a switching power supply) may need substantial engineering expertise to implement.
78xx series ICs have built-in protection against a circuit drawing too much power. They have protection against overheating and short-circuits, making them quite robust in most applications. In some cases, the current-limiting features of the 78xx devices can provide Protection not only for the 78xx but also for the other parts of the circuit.
The 7808 of three terminal positive regulators are available in the TO-220 package and with several fixed output voltages, making them useful in a wide range of applications. Each type employs internal current limiting, thermal shut down and safe
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operating area protection, making it essentially indestructible. If adequate heat sinking is provided, they can deliver over 1A output current. Although designed primarily as fixed voltage regulators, these devices can be used with external components to obtain adjustable voltages and currents.
FEATURES : Output Current up to 1A Output Voltages of 8 volt Thermal Overload Protection Short Circuit Protection Output Transistor Safe Operating Area Protection
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7808 BLOCK DIAGRAM :
7908 GENERAL DESCRIPTION : The LM7908 three terminal negative voltage regulator IC is available in TO-220 package and with a fixed output voltage of -8 volt, making it useful in a wide range of applications. Each type employs internal current limiting, thermal shut down and safe operating area protection, making it essentially indestructible.
7908 FEATURES : Output Current in Excess of 1A Output Voltages of -8V Internal Thermal Overload Protection Short Circuit Protection Output Transistor Safe Operating Area Compensation
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PIN DIAGRAM:
7908 BLOCK DIAGRAM :
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CONCLUSION:
APPLICATIONS OF FUNCTION GENERATORS:
Function Generators are used in development, testing and repair of electronic equipment, e.g. as a signal source to test amplifiers, or to introduce an error signal into a control loop
They are generally used in designing, testing, troubleshooting, and repairing electronic or electroacoustic devices; though they often have artistic uses as well.. A device such as an oscilloscope is then used to measure the circuit's output.
There are many different types of signal generators, with different purposes and applications (and at varying levels of expense); in general, no device is suitable for all possible applications.
Another type of function generator is a sub-system that provides an output proportional to some mathematical function of its input; for example, the output may be proportional to the square root of the input. Such devices are used in feedback control systems and in analog computers
. A function generator IC named ICL8038 (which is also used as Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO)) can be used to generate triangular wave, square wave, saw-tooth wave or even, sine wave simultaneously. For maximum voltage rating of 36, more than 300kHz of frequency can be generated.
Technology Behind Multi-Instrument Synchronization

Semiconductor Characterization Ultrasonic Phase Array Testing Disk Array Configuration
The wave forms thus generated by the function generator, sine, square and triangular wave can visualized by using cathode ray oscilloscope. The output of the circuit is varied by connecting switch2 position at three points namely A, B, C. When switch2 is connected to A
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it generates square wave, when it is connected to B , it generates a triangular wave and it generate sine wave when it get connected to c. The wave forms obtained when it connected to the respective switch 2 terminals When connected to A:
when connected to B:
when connected to C:
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REFERENCES:
www.wikipedia.com www.google.com www.engineersgarage.com www.alldatasheets.com Electrical measurements by U.A Bhakshi and A.M Bhakshi.
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INDEX OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 2: Circuit diagram Circuit description

Applications Result Conclusion

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, PVPSIT

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, PVPSIT

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Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, PVPSIT

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, PVPSIT

R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 R8 R9 R10 R11 R12 R13 R14 R15 R16 R17

VR1 VR2 VR3

2.2 kilo ohms 500 ohms 2.2 kilo ohms

VR4 VR5 VR6

470 ohms 100 kilo ohms 100 kilo ohms Page 10

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VR7 VR8 VR9

100 kilo ohms 22 kilo ohms 22 kilo ohms

C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 C9 C10 C11 C12 C13 C14

SEMI CONDUCTORS AND ICS: Op-amps: ICL8038 LM318 7808 7908

Diodes: IN4148 IN4002

Transistors: Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, PVPSIT Page 11

Transformer: Main transformer: primary 9V Secondary-9V Secondary current-250mA.

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, PVPSIT

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, PVPSIT

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, PVPSIT

The standard color code per EN 60062:2005 is as follows:

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, PVPSIT

Orange 3 Yellow 4 Green 5 Blue 6

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, PVPSIT

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, PVPSIT

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, PVPSIT

Taking the derivative and multiplying by C, gives a first-order differential equation,

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, PVPSIT

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, PVPSIT

triggering, ignition, and in high scale as a power source.

application it is used in parallel with other components to bypass it at a specified frequency.

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Preset (closed type)

Multi turn preset

WORKING OF VARIABLE RESISTOR:

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4K7 LIN means 4.7k

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Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, PVPSIT

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, PVPSIT

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, PVPSIT

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, PVPSIT

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, PVPSIT

AC, half-wave and full wave rectified signals.

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Radio demodulation Power conversion Over voltage protection

Logic gates Temperature measurements Current steering Ionizing radiation detectors

FEATURES OF DIODE IN4002:

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Simple circuit to show the labels of a bipolar transistor

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BJT used as an electronic switch, in grounded-emitter configuration.

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Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, PVPSIT

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, PVPSIT

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, PVPSIT

IDEAL POWER EQUATION: