CHAPTER 2 INTRODUCTION TO PROJECT

This is a simple circuit for water level alarm. It is built around 2 bc547 transistors(T1 and T2) and 2 IC 555 timer(IC1 and IC2).Both IC1 and IC2 are weird in astable multivibrator mode. Timer IC1 produces low frequency while timer IC2 produces high frequency. As a result a beeping tone is generated when the water tank is full. Initially when the tank is empty, transistor t1 does not conduct. consequently, transistor t2 conducts and pin4 of IC1 is low. This low voltage disables IC1 and it does not oscillate. The low output of IC1 disables IC2 and it does not oscillate. As a result, no beeping tone is generated from speaker. But when the tank gets filled transistor T1 conducts. Consequently transistor T2 is cutoff and pin 4 of IC1 becomes high. This high voltage enables Ic1 and it oscillate to produce low frequency at pin 3. This low frequency output enables Ic2 and it also oscillates to produce high frequency. As a result sound is produced from speaker .Using a preset at load we can tune the sound of speaker. The circuit can be powered from a +9v power supply

17

2.1 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

D U 1 L M I N GN D 1 7 8 0 5 C / T O 1 N 4 0 03 5 G O U T + 9 v

D J P 2 1 2 H E A D E R 2 T R 1 1 T 1 3 6 4 A N S F DO 1 N 1 N

2 4 0 0 71

D N 4

3 0 0 7

C 4R 4 M 0 E 0 7 R D C 5 T 1 N 4 0 0 7 C 1 3 n 1

1 n 0 . 1 u

0
+ J P 2 1 H E A D E R 2 C 4 R 5 1 0 0 1 1 2 1 2 k Q B 3 1 C 5 4 7 2 Q B 3 2 C 5 4 7 3 O U R k 2 T E 8 U 2 R R O G L L ER D 5 6 2 6 k 3 4 E 8 U 3 1 R O G L L J E D R P 2 1 H R 9 2 2 0 k R 1 1 k 0 C 1 7 n C 8 0 . 0 1 u C 5 . 0 1 u C 6 0 . 0 1 u E A D E R 3 n R 7 4 2 R 4 1 2 k 9 v + 9 v + 9 R 1 1 0 k v R 1 + 9 2 k v + 9 v + 9 v + 9 v

R 3 1 K

S V E CT C 7 D I S C H A R I G G E 6 R T H R E S H C 5

S V E CT C 7 D I S C H A T R I G G E 6 R T H R E S H C O U

O N T R O TG P N U D T 5 5 5 a lt 1

5 O N T R O TG P N U D T 5 5 5 a lt 1

T i t le < S D B T i t le c o o u c n > m > d a e y n , t J N u u n m b e r 1o 0f 1 iz e D o < D a t e :M

e S 2 h 8 e , e 12 t 0

Fig 2.1

18

CHAPTER 3 PARTS DESCRIPTION

3.1 IC 555 timer
The 555 timer IC is an amazingly simple yet versatile device. It has been around now for many years and has been reworked into a number of different technologies. The two primary versions today are the original bipolar design and the more recent CMOS equivalent. These differences primarily affect the amount of power they require and their maximum frequency of operation; they are pin-compatible and functionally interchangeable. This page contains only a description of the 555 timer IC itself. Functional circuits and a few of the very wide range of its possible applications will be covered in additional pages in this category.

Fig 3.1
19

The figure shows the functional block diagram of the 555 timer IC. The IC is available in either an 8-pin round TO3-style can or an 8-pin mini-DIP package. In either case, the pin connections are as follows: 1. Ground. 2. Trigger input. 3. Output. 4. Reset input. 5. Control voltage. 6. Threshhold input. 7. Discharge. 8. +VCC. +5 to +15 volts in normal use. The operation of the 555 timer revolves around the three resistors that form a voltage divider across the power supply, and the two comparators connected to this voltage divider. The IC is quiescent so long as the trigger input (pin 2) remains at +V CC and the threshhold input (pin 6) is at ground. Assume the reset input (pin 4) is also at +VCC and therefore inactive, and that the control voltage input (pin 5) is unconnected. Under these conditions, the output (pin 3) is at ground and the discharge transistor (pin 7) is turned on, thus grounding whatever is connected to this pin. The three resistors in the voltage divider all have the same value (5K in the bipolar version of this IC), so the comparator reference voltages are 1/3 and 2/3 of the supply voltage, whatever that may be. The control voltage input at pin 5 can directly affect this relationship, although most of the time this pin is unused. The internal flip-flop changes state when the trigger input at pin 2 is pulled down below +VCC/3. When this occurs, the output (pin 3) changes state to +VCC and the discharge transistor (pin 7) is turned off. The trigger input can now return to +VCC; it will not affect the state of the IC. However, if the threshhold input (pin 6) is now raised above (2/3)+V CC, the output will return to ground and the discharge transistor will be turned on again. When the 20

threshhold input returns to ground, the IC will remain in this state, which was the original state when we started this analysis. The easiest way to allow the threshhold voltage (pin 6) to gradually rise to (2/3)+V CC is to connect it to a capacitor being allowed to charge through a resistor. In this way we can adjust the R and C values for almost any time interval we might want. The 555 can operate in either monostable or astable mode, depending on the connections to and the arrangement of the external components. Thus, it can either produce a single pulse when triggered, or it can produce a continuous pulse train as long as it remains powered.

Fig 3.2
In monostable mode, the timing interval, t, is set by a single resistor and capacitor, as shown to the right. Both the threshhold input and the discharge transistor (pins 6 & 7) 21

are connected directly to the capacitor, while the trigger input is held at +VCC through a resistor. In the absence of any input, the output at pin 3 remains low and the discharge transistor prevents capacitor C from charging. When an input pulse arrives, it is capacitively coupled to pin 2, the trigger input. The pulse can be either polarity; its falling edge will trigger the 555. At this point, the output rises to +VCC and the discharge transistor turns off. Capacitor C charges through R towards +VCC. During this interval, additional pulses received at pin 2 will have no effect on circuit operation. The standard equation for a charging capacitor applies here: e = E(1 (-t/RC)

). Here, "e" is

the capacitor voltage at some instant in time, "E" is the supply voltage, VCC, and " " is the base for natural logarithms, approximately 2.718. The value "t" denotes the time that has passed, in seconds, since the capacitor started charging. We already know that the capacitor will charge until its voltage reaches (2/3)+VCC, whatever that voltage may be. This doesn't give us absolute values for "e" or "E," but it does give us the ratio e/E = 2/3. We can use this to compute the time, t, required to charge capacitor C to the voltage that will activate the threshhold comparator: 2/3 = 1 -1/3 = 1/3 =
(-t/RC)

(-t/RC)

(-t/RC)

ln(1/3) = -t/RC -1.0986123 = -t/RC t = 1.0986123RC t = 1.1RC The value of 1.1RC isn't exactly precise, of course, but the roundoff error amounts to about 0.126%, which is much closer than component tolerances in practical circuits, and is very easy to use. The values of R and C must be given in Ohms and Farads, respectively, and the time will be in seconds. You can scale the values as needed and appropriate for your application, provided you keep proper track of your powers of 10. 22

For example, if you specify R in megohms and C in microfarads, t will still be in seconds. But if you specify R in kilohms and C in microfarads, t will be in milliseconds. It's not difficult to keep track of this, but you must be sure to do it accurately in order to correctly calculate the component values you need for any given time interval. The timing interval is completed when the capacitor voltage reaches the (2/3)+VCC upper threshhold as monitored at pin 6. When this threshhold voltage is reached, the output at pin 3 goes low again, the discharge transistor (pin 7) is turned on, and the capacitor rapidly discharges back to ground once more. The circuit is now ready to be triggered once again.

Fig 3.3
If we rearrange the circuit slightly so that both the trigger and threshhold inputs are controlled by the capacitor voltage, we can cause the 555 to trigger itself repeatedly. In this case, we need two resistors in the capacitor charging path so that one of them can also be in the capacitor discharge path. This gives us the circuit shown to the left. In this mode, the initial pulse when power is first applied is a bit longer than the others, having a duration of 1.1(Ra + Rb)C. However, from then on, the capacitor alternately charges and discharges between the two comparator threshhold voltages. When

23

charging, C starts at (1/3)VCC and charges towards VCC. However, it is interrupted exactly halfway there, at (2/3)VCC. Therefore, the charging time, t1, is -ln(1/2) (Ra + Rb)C = 0.693(Ra + Rb)C. When the capacitor voltage reaches (2/3)VCC, the discharge transistor is enabled (pin 7), and this point in the circuit becomes grounded. Capacitor C now discharges through Rb alone. Starting at (2/3)VCC, it discharges towards ground, but again is interrupted halfway there, at (1/3)VCC. The discharge time, t2, then, is -ln(1/2)(Rb)C = 0.693(Rb)C. The total period of the pulse train is t1 + t2, or 0.693(Ra + 2Rb)C. The output frequency of this circuit is the inverse of the period, or 1.44/(Ra + 2Rb)C. Note that the duty cycle of the 555 timer circuit in astable mode cannot reach 50%. On time must always be longer than off time, because Ra must have a resistance value greater than zero to prevent the discharge transistor from directly shorting VCC to ground. Such an action would immediately destroy the 555 IC.interesting and very useful feature of the 555 timer in either mode is that the timing interval for either charge or discharge is independent of the supply voltage, VCC. This is because the same VCC is used both as the charging voltage and as the basis of the reference voltages for the two comparators inside the 555. Thus, the timing equations above depend only on the values for R and C in either operating mode.In addition, since all three of the internal resistors used to make up the reference voltage divider are manufactured next to each other on the same chip at the same time, they are as nearly identical as can be. Therefore, changes in temperature will also have very little effect on the timing intervals, provided the external components are temperature stable. A typical commercial 555 timer will show a drift of 50 parts per million per Centigrade degree of temperature change (50 ppm/C) and 0.01%/Volt change in VCC. This is negligible in most practical applications.

3.2 TRANSISTOR (BC547)

A transistor is a semiconductor device commonly used to amplify or switch electronic signals. A transistor is made of a solid piece of a semiconductor material, with at least three terminals for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one 24

pair of the transistor's terminals changes the current flowing through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled (output) power can be much more than the controlling (input) power, the transistor provides amplification of a signal. Some transistors are packaged individually but most are found in integrated circuits. The transistor is the fundamental building block of modern electronic devices, and its presence is ubiquitous in modern electronic systems.

Fig 3.4
Transistors are commonly used as electronic switches, for both high power applications including switched-mode power supplies and low power applications such as gates. In a grounded-emitter transistor circuit, such as the light-switch circuit shown, as the base voltage rises the base and collector current rise exponentially, and the collector voltage drops because of the collector load resistor. The relevant equations:

25

VRC = ICE RC, the voltage across the load (the lamp with resistance RC) VRC + VCE = VCC, the supply voltage shown as 6V If VCE could fall to 0 (perfect closed switch) then Ic could go no higher than VCC / RC, even with higher base voltage and current. The transistor is then said to be saturated. Hence, values of input voltage can be chosen such that the output is either completely off, or completely on. The transistor is acting as a switch, and this type of operation is common in digital circuits where only "on" and "off" values are relevant.

3.4 PIEZO ELECTRIC BUZZER

Basically, the sound source of a piezoelectric sound component is a piezoelectric diaphragm. A piezoelectric diaphragm consists of a piezoelectric ceramic plate which has electrodes on both sides and a metal plate (brass or stainless steel, etc.). A piezoelectric ceramic plate is attached to a metal plate with adhesives.0.D.C. voltage between electrodes of a piezoelectric diaphragm causes mechanical distortion due to the piezoelectric effect. For a misshaped piezoelectric element, the distortion of the piezoelectric element expands in a radial direction. The metal plate bonded to the piezoelectric element does not expand.

26

CHAPTER 4 PCB DESIGNING

4.1 PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD
A printed circuit board, or PCB, is used to mechanically support and electrically connect electronic components using conductive pathways, tracks, or traces, etched from copper sheets laminated onto a non-conductive substrate. It is also referred to as printed wiring board (PWB) or etched wiring board. A PCB populated with electronic components is a printed circuit assembly (PCA), also known as a printed circuit board assembly (PCBA). PCBs are inexpensive, and can be highly reliable. They require much more layout effort and higher initial cost than either wire-wrapped or point-to-point constructed circuits, but are much cheaper and faster for high-volume production. Much of the electronics industry's PCB design, assembly, and quality control needs are set by standards that are published by the IPC organization.

27

.Fig 4.1 4.2 LAYOUT

Fig 4.2 4.3 ETCHING

The vast majority of printed circuit boards are made by bonding a layer of copper over the entire substrate, sometimes on both sides, (creating a "blank PCB") then removing unwanted copper after applying a temporary mask (e.g. by etching), leaving only the

28

desired copper traces. A few PCBs are made by adding traces to the bare substrate (or a substrate with a very thin layer of copper) usually by a complex process of multiple electroplating steps."Additive" processes also exist. The most common is the "semiadditive" process. In this version, the unpatterned board has a thin layer of copper already on it. A reverse mask is then applied. (Unlike a subtractive process mask, this mask exposes those parts of the substrate that will eventually become the traces.) Additional copper is then plated onto the board in the unmasked areas; copper may be plated to any desired weight. Tin-lead or other surface platings are then applied. The mask is stripped away and a brief etching step removes the now-exposed original copper laminate from the board, isolating the individual traces. Some boards with plated thru holes but still single sided were made with a process like this. General Electric made consumer radio sets in the late 1960s using boards like these.

4.4 DRILLING ON BOARD

Holes through a PCB are typically drilled with tiny drill bits made of solid tungsten carbide. The drilling is performed by automated machines with placement controlled by a drill tape or drill file. These computer-generated files are also called numerically controlled drill (NCD) files or "Excellon files". The drill file describes the location and size of each drilled hole. These holes are often filled with annular rings (hollow rivets) to create vias. Vias allow the electrical and thermal connection of conductors on opposite sides of the pcb.Most common laminate is epoxy filled fiberglass. Drill bit wear is in part due to the fact that glass, being harder than steel on the Mohs scale, can scratch steel. High drill speed necessary for cost effective drilling of hundreds of holes per board causes very high temperatures at the drill bit tip, and high temperatures (400-700 degrees) soften steel and decompose (oxidize) laminate filler. Copper is softer than epoxy and interior conductors may suffer damage during drilling.When very small vias are required, drilling with mechanical bits is costly because of high rates of wear and breakage. In this case, the vias may be evaporated by lasers. Laser-drilled vias typically have an inferior surface finish inside the hole. These holes are called micro vias.It is also

29

possible with controlled-depth, drilling laser drilling, or by pre-drilling the individual sheets of the PCB before lamination, to produce holes that connect only some of the copper layers, rather than passing through the entire board. These holes are called blind vias when they connect an internal copper layer to an outer layer, or buried vias when they connect two or more internal copper layers and no outer layers.The walls of the holes, for boards with 2 or more layers, are made conductive then plated with copper to form plated-through holes that electrically connect the conducting layers of the PCB. For multilayer boards, those with 4 layers or more, drilling typically produces a smear of the high temperature decomposition products of bonding agent in th

4.5 SOLDERING
Soldering is a process in which two or more metal items are joined together by melting and flowing a filler metal into the joint, the filler metal having a relatively low melting point. Soft soldering is characterized by the melting point of the filler metal, which is below 400 C (752 F). The filler metal used in the process is called solder. Soldering is distinguished from brazing by use of a lower melting-temperature filler metal; it is distinguished from welding by the base metals not being melted during the joining process. In a soldering process, heat is applied to the parts to be joined, causing the solder to melt and be drawn into the joint by capillary action and to bond to the materials to be joined by wetting action. After the metal cools, the resulting joints are not as strong as the base metal, but have adequate strength, electrical conductivity, and watertightness for many uses. Soldering is an ancient technique mentioned in the Bible and there is evidence that it was employed up to 5000 years ago in Mesopotamia.

30

Soldering filler materials are available in many different alloys for differing applications. In electronics assembly, the eutectic alloy of 63% tin and 37% lead (or 60/40, which is almost identical in performance to the eutectic) has been the alloy of choice. Other alloys are used for plumbing, mechanical assembly, and other applications.

31

Fig 4.3

CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION
In this report, we presented a comprehensive overview of water level alarm circuit. This circuit gives an alarm when water reaches a specific desired level in the tank. 32

It is useful in daily life for conserving and checking of overflow of water.it is very Useful in multi storey buildings.as no need to go on roof to check the level of water. It has certain limitation i,e it is not suitable for industrial applications,with further Modifications it can be used in industries. The project holds great scope for future Improvements as well.It can be used in flood prone areas by disaster management. It will give alarming sound when river reaches danger level.with further modifications it can also control the water pump i,e as soon as water reaches desired level water pump will be shut automatically.

REFERENCES

[1]. Jain R.P modern digital electronicsTata Mcgraw Hill Publication 2008, 4th edition 33

[2]. Gayakwad Ramakant Linear Intergrated Circuits Pearson Publication 2009, 3rd edition

[3]..http://www.electronicsforu.com/electronicsforu/lab/ad.asp? url=/EFYLinux/circuit/July2009/CI-

34

APPENDIX-1

35