Design of an Energy-Efficient Standalone Distributed Generation System Employing Renewable Energy Sources and Smart Grid Technology as a Student

Design Project
R. W. Wies, Member, IEEE, R. A. Johnson, John Aspnes, Member, IEEE
Abstract-- This paper describes an undergraduate or graduate level student project that involves the design of an energy-efficient standalone distributed generation system integrating existing fossil fuel based energy sources with renewable energy sources and smart grid technologies for offgrid communities. One such application is the development of stand-alone electric power sources for Native American villages in rural Alaska. This student project addresses many facets of engineering design and development including system component design, system integration including smart grid technology, environmental impacts, and economic and cultural concerns. The design requires consideration of all possible energy sources and energy conversion alternatives in the development of a standalone distributed generation system, and depends on the power requirements and location, as well as environmental, economic, and cultural concerns. System efficiency is determined, including the possibility of utilizing waste thermal energy. Available energy sources may include wind, solar, small head or river hydro, thermoelectric generators, micro-turbine technology, and thermoelectric systems, battery and other energy storage devices combined with the existing diesel/electric or gasoline/electric generators. Environmental impacts include calculations of emissions and avoided costs of integrating renewable energy sources into the system. Economic considerations include the life cycle cost and estimated unit cost of electricity generated. Index Terms--Diesel driven generators, Energy conservation, Environmental factors, Life cycle costing, Photovoltaic cells, Power engineering education, Rural areas, and Wind power generation.

he need for energy-efficient standalone electric power sources in remote communities is the driving force behind this student design project. This topic is very important for Alaska which has more than 200 remote communities [1] and for developing countries such as Mexico, which has approximately 85,000 villages each with a population less
This research was supported by the Arctic Energy Technology and Development Laboratory (AETDL) under Task 1.03.1 of a cooperative agreement DE-FC26-01NT41248 with the United States Department of Energy. R. W. Wies is with the Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks, AK 99775-5915 USA (phone: 907-474-7071; fax: 907-474-5135; e-mail: rwwiesjr@alaska.edu). R. A. Johnson is with the Mechanical and Environmental Engineering Department, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks, AK 99775-5905 USA (email: :ffraj@uaf.edu) J. D. Aspnes is with the Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks, AK 99775-5915 USA (email: ffjda@uaf.edu).

I. INTRODUCTION

than 1000 persons. Most of the remote Alaskan communities have no access to the electric utility system and rely on dieselelectric generators (DEGs) for electric power. These systems are typically uneconomical due to the shipping costs of fuel and require routine maintenance due to operating conditions [2], [3]. Efforts are already underway to build hybrid systems in remote villages of Alaska such as the diesel/photovoltaic/battery electric power system in Lime Village, Alaska backed by the Alaska Energy Authority (AEA) and the Alaska Village Electric Cooperative (AVEC). The use of distributed energy systems in remote standalone systems could help reduce the operating cost through the reduction in fuel consumption, increase system efficiency and reduced noise and emissions [4-6]. In many remote villages stand-alone power systems are often more cost-effective than utility grid extensions mainly due to the high cost of transmission lines. In rural Alaska, the average cost of producing electricity is still extremely high (averaging $0.40/kWh) mainly due to high cost of the transportation of fuel for diesel electric generators (DEGs) [2]. Further compounding the problem is the environmental impact of leaking fuel tanks which are contaminating soils, air emissions from DEGs, and noise pollution [7]. Solar PV, wind and other renewable sources of energy are being integrated with DEGs to help reduce the fuel consumed by the DEGs. Projects which involve renewable technologies combine student design and faculty research efforts with private industry collaboration. The goal of this student design project is to develop a distributed generation system for a remote off-grid community which integrates renewable energy sources and smart grid technologies with existing fossil fuel based energy sources. The criteria for the design include: 1. finding the most economical solution in terms of lifecycle costs, 2. making the best use of existing and donated equipment, 3. optimizing the system performance for the load profile, 4. lowering the operating and maintenance costs, and 5. assessing the impacts of the design on the environment and the community. Pursuant to these goals and the goals of industrycollaborative energy research projects, a design and analysis tool was developed that can be used in undergraduate and graduate level engineering design courses to visually demonstrate distributed generation systems that integrate renewable energy sources. The analysis tool will help students to visualize the reduction in fuel consumption of dieselelectric generators and the minimization in cost of producing electricity in remote locations through integrated design and optimization.

978-1-4244-6551-4/10/$26.00 2010 IEEE

II. COURSE CURRICULUM INTEGRATION This project was designed with both the undergraduate and the graduate student in mind. This project will be offered to undergraduate students in all engineering disciplines as part of a 3-credit technical elective senior design course entitled Renewable and Sustainable Energy Systems which satisfies part of the design requirements for an undergraduate degree. The design project is pedagogically organized so that it can be integrated into any senior or graduate level power systems course with a renewable energy system integration component. The Renewable and Sustainable Energy Systems course employs this design project as part of the renewable system integration topics in the second half of a 14-week semester after the six major renewable energy sources (solar, wind, biomass, hydro, geothermal, and tidal/wave), fossil-fuel energy sources, energy efficiency, and cost of electricity concepts are covered. The design criteria require consideration of all possible energy sources and energy conversion alternatives in the development of the distributed generation system. Participation from all engineering disciplines is encouraged with the intent of students from electrical, mechanical, civil, and environmental engineering working together to achieve a complete system design. Students make use of computer simulation tools for system design and analysis while also working with an actual system. The design and analysis tool incorporates the advantages of GUI capability with a simulation environment using Simulink [8] and allows for future incorporation of new renewable energy components and a control/power management (smart grid) system. The project will provide undergraduate and graduate students in all facets of engineering with valuable design and research experience while helping them to develop working relationships with other engineering students and with industry partners. The project also involves students at the graduate level who will work with the undergraduate students and faculty on the design, simulation, and analysis of the distributed generation system as part of a thesis project requirement. Students will be exposed to the process of engineering design and development including system component design and system integration. Students will need to consider the economic and environmental aspects of the design, as well as the impact of the technology on the community. The distributed generation analysis tool was first tested by graduate students in the electrical and mechanical engineering departments at the University of Alaska Fairbanks (UAF). The results obtained from the various case studies including integration of solar photovoltaic PV arrays and wind turbine generators WTGs with diesel electric generators DEGs to supply electric power in remote villages demonstrate the usefulness of this analysis tool for teaching renewable energy system integration concepts through a design process. A PV integration study example used in a technical elective design course entitled Renewable and Sustainable Energy Systems is provided in section III to illustrate the use of the distributed generation design and analysis tool. The analysis includes the fundamentals of electric power (production and distribution),

energy balance (inputs, outputs, and efficiency), engineering economics (LCC), environmental impacts (noise and emissions), and thermodynamic processes (heat recovery). Students are able to learn how to perform balance of plant design, system optimization, LCC, and determine the avoided costs of pollutants for distributed power generation systems. III. SYSTEM DESIGN PROCESS Students will work with the recently-installed hybrid power system at Lime Village, Alaska. The design process begins with an assessment of the site, including the current system specifications, load requirements, and available sources of electric power production. This information will aid in developing a hybrid system which best fits the needs of the community with the optimum life cycle costs and use of available energy sources. After a site survey has been established five configurations are examined using the existing load profile and an economic analysis is performed using the original system for comparison. The components for the distributed generation system are selected based on optimal operation and cost savings. A. Distributed Generation System When two or more different sources of electric power are connected to a common grid and operate hand in hand to supply the desired load, the system becomes a distributed power generation system or hybrid system. A simple block diagram of a hybrid power system is shown in Fig. 1. The sources of electric power in this system consist of a DEG, a
Boiler Control Unit

Diesel Electric Generator

Heat Exchanger

Heating Load

AC Bus DC PV Panels DC Bus DC DC

DC AC

AC Load

DC Load

Battery Bank

Fig. 1. General distributed (hybrid) power generation system.

battery bank, a WTG, and a PV array. The output of the diesel generator is regulated AC voltage, which supplies the load directly through the main distribution transformer. The connection of the battery bank, the WTG, and the PV array are through a DC bus. The control unit regulates the flow of power to and/or from the sources, depending on the load. The load in the hybrid power system can be an AC load, a DC load, a heating load (resistive load bank), or a hybrid load. Distributed generation systems like the one described above are currently used in many parts of the world. The design developed here can be applied to any distributed

generation system containing these components, but can also be extended to include other energy technologies. This work focuses on design of a distributed electric power generation system for the remote community of Lime Village, Alaska. B. Lime Village Power System Lime Village is located on the south bank of the Stony River, about 111 air miles southeast of McGrath and 185 miles west of Anchorage [9]. The village is located at a northern latitude of 612029 and a western longitude of 1552927 as shown in Fig. 2. According to the United States Census Bureau, Lime Village has a total area of 213.6 km (82.5 mi). According to the 2000 US Census the village has 25 housing units with 6 vacant [10]. The village has one K-12 school attended by 10 students [11]. Lime Village has a continental climate with temperatures ranging from -47F to 82F, an average annual precipitation of 22 inches, and an annual average snowfall of 85 inches. The main occupation of people in the village is hunting, berry picking, fire fighting, and trapping. The mode of transportation in and out of the village is small airplanes and riverboats [10], [11].
70 N

The 35 kW DEG in Lime Village is oversized for the current load profile which is not expected to increase for some time. Current operation is with one manually operated 35 kW DEG without back-up capability. If this DEG fails or is offline for maintenance, the community will be without electricity. The average load in Lime Village is less than 12 kW. A newly opened laundry and telephone utility in Lime Village are considered in the future load profile for the design. Fig. 3 below shows a sample annual load profile for the system [6].

65

Lime Village
50 N

Alaska
60 N

55

Fig. 3: Load Profile for Lime Village, Alaska

13
E
18 0 W

175

0 W

175

170 W

165 W

160 W

155

150 W

14 5

140

135

Fig. 2. Location of Lime Village, Alaska.

The current power system at Lime Village incorporates two diesel-electric generators rated at 50 kW and 35 kW. The 50 kW DEG has been damaged and is unusable without major repairs. Generation efficiencies are 3 to 5 kW-hrs/gallon and the operation and maintenance costs for the DEGs are high because the 35 kW generator is delivering power well below its efficient operating range. DEGs are usually sized to the maximum peak load. Fluctuating demand requires that sufficient spinning reserve be supplied to avoid system imbalances. These two conditions, oversizing and spinning reserve requirements result in keeping the diesel generator sets operating in less than optimal fuel saving conditions. Fuel savings is important in this design since fuel is shipped by air at a cost of $2.80 to $4.80 per gallon [2]. The current subsidized rate for electricity in Lime Village is $0.30/kW-hr [2]. A 4 kW photovoltaic (PV) array and a 100 kW-hr valve regulated lead-acid (VRLA) battery bank are also in place, but unusable because the system lacks a suitable energy conversion device. Other system components in place include the system controller, switchgear, warm secure building, operational software, electrical distribution system, fuel storage and handling, and PV panel support framing. A backhoe, a truck, and a bobcat are available and in working order on location in Lime Village for use in this project.

Fig. 4 shows the solar insolation profile for Lime Village, Alaska. The solar insolation values were obtained using a solar map developed by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). This map utilizes extrapolations of 30 year data from measurements at other locations, combined with satellite data on cloud cover [12].

Fig. 4. Solar insolation profile for Lime Village.

C. Proposed System (Design Cases) The proposed system solution is to replace the damaged 50 kW DEG and rotary power converter with a smaller DEG and an electronic inverter. The smaller DEG and inverter would be sized to meet the average load. The other components will be configured to reduce the use of the DEGs while optimizing the system for the load requirements. Wind

is not considered as a generation source in this analysis. Each option assumes a revised load profile incorporating the newly opened laundry and telephone utility in Lime Village. The following distributed generation system configurations were considered with Case 1 as the base. Case 1: Base case and lowest cost option. This analysis consists of adding a 15 kW DEG to avoid running the 35 kW DEG. This option discontinues the use of the battery bank and PV panels. Manual operation is assumed. Case 2: Installation of two new DEGs rated at 15 kW and 21 kW. Diesel dispatch is automated. Case 3: Installation of two new 15 and 21 kW DEGs and a stock 16 kW three-phase inverter which allows the system to make use of the existing 4 kW PV array and battery bank. Case 4: Same as Case 3 with 8 kW of new PV capacity added to the system. Costs associated with the additional PV panels do not include the cost of the panels themselves ($40,000). The PV panels have been donated by BP Solar. Included are costs for structural improvements to the support framing, additional wiring, freight, and installation labor. Analysis supports Case 4 as the preferred configuration. Case 5: Similar to Case 4 with increased battery storage capacity. D. Preliminary Budget The preliminary budgets for the proposed Lime Village hybrid electric power system configurations are outlined in Table I [2]. IV. DESIGN ASSESSMENT A simulation model called the Hybrid Arctic Remote Power Simulator HARPSim developed by the authors for analysis of standalone distributed generation systems was used for the design assessment. Fig. 5 shows the HARPSim block diagram for the PV-wind-diesel-battery hybrid power system. The model is based on our previous work with a PV-diesel-battery system [6], [13] and a wind-diesel-battery system [14]. The model consists of nine different subsystems contained in blocks. The electrical energy sources in the model include a PV array, WTGs, a battery bank, and DEGs. The basic model blocks in Fig. 4 and their subsystems are described in detail in Chapter 2 of [15]. The assessment of the proposed Lime Village distributed generation system configurations using Case 1 (addition of a 15 kW DEG and automated control) as the base with a one-year simulation period is shown in Tables II-V [2]. The simulation uses the base case fuel use of 20,578 gallons, a fuel cost of 3.00USD/gallon, and discount rate of 6% [16]. V. PREFERRED CONFIGURATION

Table I: Preliminary Budget for Lime Village System Cases

Case 0: Existing System - Insufficient, Non-compliant 35 kW DEG manually controlled Case 1: 15, 35 kW DEGs 15 kW diesel added (misc. parts) Switch gear to automate control of both DEGs Engineering/Labor/freight/travel TOTAL Case 2: 15, 20 kW DEGs New 15 kW DEG New 20 kW DEG (misc. parts) Switch gear to automate control of both diesels Engineering Commissioning, Installation, freight, travel TOTAL Case 3: 15, 20 kW DEGs, Existing PV and Batteries New 15 kW DEG New 20 kW DEG (misc. parts) Switch gear to automate control of both diesels Add Trace package for rectification/inversion( wholesale) Use existing battery bank Use existing 4 kW PV Engineering Commissioning, Installation, freight, travel TOTAL $ 14,000 $ 18,500 $ 15,000 $ 15,000 $ $ $ 14,000 $ 18,500 $ 15,000 $ 4,000 $ 14,000 $ 65,500 $ 18,000 $ 15,000 $ 11,000 $ 44,000

$ 4,500 $ 15,700 $ 82,700

Case 4: 15, 20 kW DEGs, Existing Batteries, Increase PV to 12 kW New 15 kW DEG New 20 kW DEG (misc. parts) Switch gear to automate control of both diesels Add Trace package for rectification/inversion( wholesale) Use existing battery bank Increase to 12 kW PV (8 kW of panels donated by BP Solar) Engineering Commissioning, Installation, freight, travel TOTAL $ 14,000 $ 18,500 $ 15,000 $ 15,000 $ $ 7,000 $ 4,500 $ 16,000 $ 90,000

Case 5: 15, 20 kW DEGs, More Batteries, Increase PV to 12 kW New 15 kW DEG New 20 kW DEG Switch gear to automate control of both diesels Add Trace package for rectification/inversion New batteries to double size of bank Increase to 12 kW PV (8 kW of panels donated by BP Solar) Engineering Commissioning, Installation, freight, travel TOTAL $ 14,000 $ 18,500 $ 15,000 $ 15,000 $ 27,000 $ 7,000 $ 4,000 $ 16,000 $116,500

Results from the economic outcomes assessment (see Table IV) and the provision of donated equipment suggest that the Lime Village load is best served by the system outlined in Case 4. This will involve the installation of two smaller generator sets configured with a bi-directional converter to make use of the existing batteries and an expanded

photovoltaic array. The preferred configuration makes use of a donation of 108 photovoltaic panels from BP Solar, as well as the existing battery bank, and existing power system infrastructure. These features give this alternative an economic

advantage. The total project cost is $130,000 including the $40,000 for additional solar panels which were donated. This proposed system satisfies the design criteria for the project by: 1) providing the largest net fuel and cost savings over a 1 year simulation period 2) making the best use of existing and donated equipment,

3) optimizing DEG performance, and 4) lowering operating and maintenance costs. The addition of two newer more efficient DEGs, an expanded photovoltaic array, and the use of battery storage are estimated to reduce diesel fuel use by 28%, or 5800 gallons annually. This reduction in fuel consumption is expected to decrease electrical rates by $0.10/kW-hr to $0.20/kW-hr.
Fuel Consumed (Lbs)

Fuel Consumed (gallons) Load Fuel consumed (lbs) Fuel consumed (gallons) Error
Out 1 Out 2 Out 3

KWH per Gallons

kW-hr per gallons Total cost of fuel NOx emitted Battery Model PV & Wind Model Generator Model Fuel Consumption Model Calculate Other Parameters PM emitted CO2 emitted Total PM (Lbs) Total NOx (Lbs) Total Cost of Fuel ($)

Input Parameters

Second Law Efficiency

Total CO2 (Lbs)

Fig. 5. PV-wind-diesel-battery hybrid power system model.

Table II: Lime Village Hybrid Power System Configurations Case 2 3 4 5 DEGs, kW 15, 20 15, 20 15, 20 15, 20 PV, kW None 4 12 12 Battery, cells None 96 96 192

Table III: Fuel Savings for Lime Village Hybrid Power System Configurations Case 2 3 4 5 Fuel Use, gal 17,234 15,342 14,698 14,722 Fuel Saved, gal 3,345 5,236 5,881 5,856 % Fuel Saved 16.3% 25.4% 28.6% 28.5%

Table IV: Economics for Lime Village Hybrid Power System Configurations Case 2 3 4 5 Annual Savings (USD) $ $ $ $ 10,033.85 15,709.32 17,641.80 17,567.35 Present Value of 10-Year Savings $ 73,849.99 $ 115,621.96 $ 129,845.18 $ 129,297.24 Cost of System $ $ $ $ 65,500.00 82,700.00 90,000.00 116,500.00 Net $ 8,349.99 $ 32,921.96 $ 39,845.18 $ 12,797.24

1 (Base)

2 3 4 5

Table V: DEG Cycling for Lime Village Hybrid Power System Configurations 15 kW DEG 35 kW DEG On-time On-time Number of Starts Number of Starts (hours) (hours) 990 90 7770 91 15 kW DEG 20 kW DEG On-time On-time Number of Starts Number of Starts (hours) (hours) 3190 640 7770 91 4758 471 4212 438 5350 506 3578 482 5375 507 3571 485

VI. EQUIPMENT AND DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS A number of important equipment and design considerations surfaced in the overall implementation and control of the hybrid power system project. These topics provide opportunities for individual undergraduate and graduate projects as part of the overall design. A. DEGs The operating and maintenance cost for the DEGs is a primary concern in this design. This analysis considers using the John Deere 4020 DF and the TF models. These engines differ by fuel system configuration. The DF is naturally aspirated and is the primary unit. The TF model is the turbocharged unit. Depending on the load characteristics the DF is expected to provide additional fuel savings at lower loads. If the load grows the DF can be upgraded from a 14.7 kW continuous rating to a 21 kW continuous rating or easily replaced [2]. This engine selection provides additional parts redundancy. B. Photovoltaics Photovoltaic cells are semiconductors which generate electricity from sunlight [17]. The level of current generated by an array of cells is directly proportional to light intensity. It is conservatively estimated that the combined solar array will displace about 950 gallons of diesel fuel per year [2]. The current photovoltaic system consists of approximately 4 kW of panels. BP Exploration Alaska has donated an additional 8 kW of panels to increase the capacity of this system to 12 kW to match the average load on the system. C. Battery Energy Storage The battery energy storage component of the system performs three primary tasks [2]: 1. Energy storage 2. Spinning reserve 3. Voltage stabilization Battery storage acts as a reversible demand-side management system which stores energy and shifts excess peak load to offpeak hours. PV arrays and DEGs often produce energy when it is not needed, or in the case of DEGs, excess energy is available at very little marginal cost under certain operating conditions. The battery bank stores electricity when it is in excess or cheaper to produce, saving it for periods when it is unavailable or more costly [2], [18]. Maintenance consists of: 1. freeze protection; 2. specific gravity checks every 4-6 months; 3. battery terminal cleaning; 4. maintaining electrolyte concentration and amount and type of any impurities in the batteries; and 5. monitoring of charge levels. These maintenance tasks are simple and anticipated to be incorporated into existing maintenance routines at a cost of approximately $1000 per year. The existing battery bank has reached half of its life expectancy. It is anticipated that the remaining battery life is 5 years [2]. This request does not include funds for a new battery bank, since the existing battery bank has some life left. A major battery purchase should be deferred until such a time as it is determined to be needed and that its effectiveness has been clearly demonstrated. Two major battery replacement expenses are freight and proper disposal. It is anticipated that old batteries would be recycled at the time of battery replacement. Costs would be saved through airfreight backhauling. The investment in the inverter is needed to permit the use of the PV panels and batteries. D. System Converter/Controller The system controller provides [19]: 1. Remote data acquisition and control 2. Power distribution control 3. Station data logging In a typical application, the smallest DEG would run during most periods of consumer demand, and all DEGs would be shut down during periods of very low load [2], [20], [21]. This situation is expected to occur on most summer nights and occasionally during the winter. As the load increases throughout the day, the control system selects between various power options to meet demand. These options include, running the smallest DEG and using battery energy to smooth out the peaks, or if the peaks continue, bringing the next largest DEG on line. The inverter system has a built in controller which can respond to a number of signals it receives from load sensors and remote users. Signals automatically initiate or manually override operating routines.

In Lime Village shutting off or limiting large customer loads and establishing artificial diesel generator set points could be an important next step for system optimization. E. Additional Design Considerations There are six additional design considerations in assuring the long-term viability of this project [2], [18], [20], [21]. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. accurate sizing of generation for the load ability to manage the load, adequate long-lasting battery capacity, automation, addition of wind generators, and addition of fuel cells.

Association in Fairbanks, Alaska has constructed a 40 MW battery energy storage system (BESS). Much research has been conducted in extending the life of battery energy storage systems. Power conditioning equipment and system control advances have lowered maintenance costs and extended the life of battery systems. GNB Technologies, (Lombard, Illinois) have demonstrated a 20-year lifetime of the same valve regulated lead-acid (VRLA) batteries as those installed in Lime Village [22]. E.4. Automation Future work on this project will include the addition of the capability to manage the system and the load from a remote location. The system controller has the ability to automatically dial the McGrath Light and Power office and report system faults [2], [19]. The staff in McGrath and other locations could receive a detailed analysis of the situation. It is also possible to add an automatic meter reading system allowing the parent utility in McGrath to keep track of specific load and use information. These two features would allow much better management of resources and coordination of service tasks, thus significantly reducing travel expenses, and the cost of administration, management, and maintenance. Telephone service improvements in Lime Village, dependent on reliable, low-cost electrical service, are needed before these features can be implemented reliably. E.5. Wind Generators Wind generators are only viable if the site exhibits an average wind speed of 5 mph or more [12], [20], [21]. At this time there is not enough information about the wind speeds in Lime Village to accurately assess the cost-effectiveness of adding wind as a source of electric generation in the hybrid system. Wind data (50m) is being collected at this location. E.6. Fuel Cells Fuel cells face some of the same issues as batteries. One of the key components in a fuel cell is the power section which acts as a hydrogen-air battery [17]. The addition of fuel cells to this system depends on reliability, cost, and life-span considerations. The reliability of fuel cells has not yet been proven. Furthermore, current fuel cell systems are expensive because of the fuel processor and the stack requirements to eliminate NOx and SOx by-products from the hydrogen rich fuel which is produced [17]. The life-span of the fuel cell reactor is currently about five to seven years which limits the distribution of the initial costs over time. A future project will include the simulation of a fuel cell and its integration into the distributed generation system. The capability for hands-on experience and the collection of performance data from actual systems is also available. A fuel cell research laboratory headed by the mechanical engineering department is already in place at UAF. The students also have access to data from a 1 MW fuel cell demonstration project which powers the US Post Office in Anchorage, Alaska sponsored by Chugach Electric Association. VII. CONCLUSION This paper proposes an undergraduate or graduate level course project that involves the design of an energy-efficient

E.1. Sizing The load data has been estimated in a conservative manner, taking into consideration all available data. Several days of one-minute data have been collected and are available to investigate system sizing. Future load projections are uncertain since the current average daily load of 12 kW is not expected to increase in the next few years. This leaves an open door for analysis of possible contingencies in the future load profile for Lime Village. E.2. Load Management One of the largest and most unpredictable loads are the two 5900 watt dryers in the new laundry. These dryers could at times make up 80% of the community load. The supervisory controller has the ability to sense, limit, or switch off this load. Other strategies such as restricting hours of dryer operation or disconnecting one dryer are possible. Management of the dryer loads will be important for scheduling generation. Fluctuating demand requires sufficient spinning reserve to be supplied by the DEGs. Spinning reserve is essential to prevent system collapse in the event of a sudden increase in load, and is met by keeping excess DEG capacity on line. The battery energy storage system allows the most efficient operation of the DEGs close to rated power by balancing the load fluctuations through charging and discharging [18]. During peak loads, usually between noon and 8 p.m. the battery system is to be used to level out variations in loading, collecting and storing surplus energy, or providing short term (minutes to hours, depending on the control strategy) energy. Many other opportunities can be found to manage and reduce generator operations. It is expected that there will be periods of low, or manageable load, when the DEGs can be shut-off entirely. Peaking strategies can be implemented which avoid starts and stops of the next largest generator set, save fuel, and extend generator life [18]. The supervisory controller adds to this performance by monitoring the load and implementing a strategy based on parameters learned over time. In addition, the battery system provides for the moderation of high voltages during periods of charging and peak demand. E.3. Battery Capacity Battery energy storage is not a new technology in Alaska. Several demonstration projects and operational systems have been built. Most recently a 1 MW energy storage project was built in Metlakatla, Alaska. Golden Valley Electric

distributed generation systems integrating renewable energy sources and smart grid technology for off-grid communities. This project provides an avenue for student involvement in responding to the challenge of promoting research and development of energy technologies in remote and rural communities. The availability of an existing system in a rural Alaskan village from which data has been collected provides the students with the basis for the design. The project addresses many facets of engineering design and development including energy, environmental, economic and cultural impact assessment using simulation tools developed by the authors. The design criteria require consideration of all available energy sources and conversion devices and the economics of the proposed system. The impact of the design on the community and the need for system automation is also addressed in this design. The educational benefits of the project include design credit, hands-on experience, and a versatile design project that can be employed in any senior or graduate level engineering course where renewable energy system integration issues are discussed. Students are also provided with the experience of working with others on a design team and building relationships with the participating organizations including the state and private industry. VIII. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors would like to thank Peter Crimp and Lenny Landis of the Alaska Energy Authority for providing the power system information and data for Lime Village, Alaska. The authors would also like to thank Siemens, British Petroleum Solar, John Deere (Yanmar) and GNB Industrial for providing the design specifications for the PV panels, diesel-electric generator and battery bank, respectively. IX. REFERENCES
Official Webpage for State of Alaska Tourism (2009, June). Available: Juneau, http://www.dced.state.ak.us/tourism/student/student23.htm, Alaska 99801. [2] D. Meiners, Lime Village Power System Alternatives, Alaska Energy Authority, June 2001. [3] Denali Commission, Memorandum of Agreement Re Sustainability of Rural Power Systems, A Memorandum of Agreement between the Denali Commission, the Alaska Energy Authority and the Regulatory Commission of Alaska, August 2003. [4] W. S. Fyfe, M. A. Powell, B. R. Hart, and B. Ratanasthien, A Global Crisis: Energy in the Future, Nonrenewable Resources, pp. 187-195, 1993. [5] F. P. Dawson, and S. B. Dewan, Remote Diesel Generator with Photovoltaic Cogeneration, Solar89, pp. 269-274, Sept. 1989. [6] R. W. Wies, R. A. Johnson, A. N. Agrawal, and T. J. Chubb, Simulink Model for Economic Analysis and Environmental Impacts of a PV with Diesel-Battery System for Remote Villages, IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, vol. 20, no. 2, 2005, pp. 692-700. [7] M. A. Foster, Rural Alaska Energy Plan Initiatives Aimed at Improving Rural Energy Efficiency and Reliability, a report prepared for Alaska Energy Authority, MA Foster and Assoc., Dec. 2002. [8] Official webpage of MATLAB, (2005, Feb. 17) [Online]. Available: www.mathworks.com [9] Official Webpage for the Alaska Wilderness Recreation and Tourist Association,(2009,Nov).Available: http://www.awrta.org/comminfo/communities.cfm?city=Lime Village. [10] Official Webpage for the Department of Commerce, (2009, Nov) Available: http://www.commerce.state.ak.us/dca/commdb/CIS.cfm?Comm_Boro_ name=Lime Village. [1]

[11] Official Webpage of School at Lime Village, (2007, May) Available: http://lvd.schoolaccess.net/. [12] Official webpage of the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, (2005, Feb. 17) [Online]. Available: http://rredc.nrel.gov/solar. [13] R. W. Wies, A. N. Agrawal, and T. J. Chubb, Optimization of a PV with Diesel-Battery System for Remote Villages, International Energy Journal, vol. 6, no.1, part 3, 2005, pp. 107-118. [14] R. W. Wies, R. A. Johnson, and A. N. Agrawal, Life Cycle Cost Analysis and Environmental Impacts of Integrating Wind-Turbine Generators (WTGs) into Standalone Hybrid Power Systems, WSEAS Transaction on Systems, iss. 9, vol. 4, pp. 1383-1393. [15] A.N. Agrawal, R.W. Wies, and R.A. Johnson, Hybrid Electric Power Systems: Modeling, Optimization, and Control, VDM Verlag, 2007. [16] S. Drouilhet, Performance and Economic Analysis of the Addition of Wind Power to the Diesel Electric Generating Plant at Wales, Alaska, Preliminary Report, National Wind Technology Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 1617 Cole Blvd., Golden , CO 80401, September 1997. [17] M. A. El-Sharkawi, Electric Energy: An Intoduction, 2nd ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 2008. [18] S. Drouilhet, Power Flow Management in a High Penetration WindDiesel Hybrid Power System with Short-Term Energy Storage, Preliminary Manuscript, National Wind Technology Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 1617 Cole Blvd., Golden, CO 80401, 2001. [19] D. Meiners, Lime Village Power System Specifications, Alaska Energy Authority, June 2001. [20] S. Drouilhet, Diesel Dispatch Strategies in High Penetration WindDiesel Power Systems, Presentation to the ASME, National Wind Technology Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 1617 Cole Blvd., Golden , CO 80401, 2001. [21] S. Drouilhet, Preparing an Existing Diesel Power Plant for a Wind Hybrid Retrofit: Lessons Learned in Wales, Alaska, Wind-Diesel Hybrid Project, Windpower 2001 Conference, Washington, D.C., NREL/CP-500-30586, June 4-6, 2001. [22] GNB Industrial Power Webpage, http://www.gnb.com/stationary/statabsxl.html, accessed Mar. 2008.

X.

BIOGRAPHIES

Richard Wies (S92-M99) received his B.S., M.S., and Ph. D. degrees in Electrical Engineering from University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY in 1992, 1995, and 1999, respectively. He is currently an Associate Professor of Electrical and Computer Engineering at the University of Alaska Fairbanks where he has been since 1999. He teaches undergraduate and graduate courses in electric power systems, electric drives, power electronics, renewable and sustainable energy systems, and controls. His current research involves the application of distributed electric power generation systems, renewable energy, and energy efficiency for remote power systems. Dr. Wies is a member (Student 92 and Member 99) of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) Power Engineering Society. He is a licensed P.E. in the State of Alaska. Ron Johnson received his Sc. B degree from Brown University in 1965 and his MS [1966] and PhD [1969] degrees from Cornell all in Aerospace Engineering. He is a Professor of Mechanical and Environmental Engineering at the University of Alaska Fairbanks. He was employed by Avco Systems Division in Wilmington, Mass. from 1969 until his arrival at UAF in 1976. His current research interests include indoor and outdoor air quality and sustainable energy systems. John D. Aspnes received his Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Montana State University in 1976. He is a professor emeritus in the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering at the University of Alaska Fairbanks. He currently serves as an adjunct faculty in the department and he is a licensed P.E. in the State of Alaska. His specialties include electric power systems and control theory.