IT

Information Systems (IS) is an academic/professional discipline bridging the business field and the well-defined computer science field that is evolving toward a new scientific area of study.[4][5][6][7] An information systems discipline therefore is supported by the theoretical foundations of information and computations such that learned scholars have unique opportunities to explore the academics of various business models as well as related algorithmic processes within a computer science discipline.[8][9][10] Typically, information systems or the more common legacy information systems include people, procedures, data, software, and hardware (by degree) that are used to gather and analyze digital information.[11][12] Specifically computer-based information systems are complementary networks of hardware/software that people and organizations use to collect, filter, process, create, & distribute data (computing).[13] Computer Information System(s) (CIS) is often a track within the computer science field studying computers and algorithmic processes, including their principles, their software & hardware designs, their applications, and their impact on society.[14][15][16] Overall, an IS discipline emphasizes functionality over design.[17] As illustrated by the Venn Diagram on the right, the history of information systems coincides with the history of computer science that began long before the modern discipline of computer science emerged in the twentieth century.[18] Regarding the circulation of information and ideas, numerous legacy information systems still exist today that are continuously updated to promote ethnographic approaches, to ensure data integrity, and to improve the social effectiveness & efficiency of the whole process.[19] In general, information systems are focused upon processing information within organizations, especially within business enterprises, and sharing the benefits with modern society.[20]

Definition
Silver et al.[22] defined Information Systems as follows: Information systems are implemented within an organization for the purpose of improving the effectiveness and efficiency of that organization. Capabilities of the information system and characteristics of the organization, its work systems, its people, and its development and implementation methodologies together determine the extent to which that purpose is achieved

[edit] The Discipline of Information Systems

Several IS scholars have debated the nature and foundations of Information Systems which has its roots in other reference disciplines such as Computer Science, Engineering, Mathematics, Management Science, Cybernetics, and others [23][24][25][26]

[edit] The Impact on Economic Models

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Microeconomic theory model Transaction Cost theory Agency Theory

[edit] Differentiating IS from Related Disciplines

Similar to computer science, other disciplines can be seen as both related disciplines and foundation disciplines of IS. But, while there may be considerable overlap of the disciplines at the boundaries, the disciplines are still differentiated by the focus, purpose and orientation of their activities.[27] In a broad scope, the term Information Systems (IS) is a scientific field of study that addresses the range of strategic, managerial and operational activities involved in the gathering, processing, storing, distributing and use of information, and its associated technologies, in society and organizations.[28] The term information systems is also used to describe an organizational function that applies IS knowledge in industry, government agencies and not-for-profit organizations.[29] Information Systems often refers to the interaction between algorithmic processes and technology. This interaction can occur within or across organizational boundaries. An information system is not only the technology an organization uses, but also the way in which the organizations interact with the technology and the way in which the technology works with the organizations business processes. Information systems are distinct from information technology (IT) in that an information system has an information technology component that interacts with the processes components.

[edit] Types of information systems

A four level pyramid model of different types of Information Systems based on the different levels of hierarchy in an organization The 'classic' view of Information systems found in the textbooks[30] of the 1980s was of a pyramid of systems that reflected the hierarchy of the organization, usually Transaction processing systems at the bottom of the pyramid, followed by Management information systems, Decision support systems and ending with Executive information systems at the top. Although the pyramid model remains useful, since it was first formulated a number of new technologies

have been developed and new categories of information systems have emerged, some of which no longer fit easily into the original pyramid model. Some examples of such systems are:
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Data warehouses Enterprise resource planning Enterprise systems Expert systems Geographic information system Global information system Office Automation

[edit] Information systems career pathways

Information Systems have a number of different areas of work:
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Information systems strategy Information systems management Information systems development Information systems security Information systems iteration Information system organization

There are a wide variety of career paths in the information systems discipline. "Workers with specialized technical knowledge and strong communications skills will have the best prospects. Workers with management skills and an understanding of business practices and principles will have excellent opportunities, as companies are increasingly looking to technology to drive their revenue."[31]

[edit] Information systems development

Information technology departments in larger organizations tend to strongly influence information technology development, use, and application in the organizations, which may be a business or corporation. A series of methodologies and processes can be used in order to develop and use an information system. Many developers have turned and used a more engineering approach such as the System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) which is a systematic procedure of developing an information system through stages that occur in sequence. An Information system can be developed in house (within the organization) or outsourced. This can be accomplished by outsourcing certain components or the entire system.[32] A specific case is the geographical distribution of the development team (Offshoring, Global Information System). A computer based information system, following a definition of Langefors,[33] is:

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a technologically implemented medium for recording, storing, and disseminating linguistic expressions, as well as for drawing conclusions from such expressions.

which can be formulated as a generalized information systems design mathematical program Geographic Information Systems, Land Information systems and Disaster Information Systems are also some of the emerging information systems but they can be broadly considered as Spatial Information Systems. System development is done in stages which include:
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Problem recognition and specification Information gathering Requirements specification for the new system System design System construction System implementation Review and maintenance[34]

[edit] Information systems research

Information systems research is generally interdisciplinary concerned with the study of the effects of information systems on the behavior of individuals, groups, and organizations.[35][36] Hevner et al. (2004) [37] categorized research in IS into two scientific paradigms including behavioral science which is to develop and verify theories that explain or predict human or organizational behavior and design science which extends the boundaries of human and organizational capabilities by creating new and innovative artifacts. Salvatore March and Gerald Smith [38] proposed a framework for researching different aspects of Information Technology including outputs of the research (research outputs) and activities to carry out this research (research activities). They identified research outputs as follows: 1. Constructs which are concepts that form the vocabulary of a domain. They constitute a conceptualization used to describe problems within the domain and to specify their solutions. 2. A model which is a set of propositions or statements expressing relationships among constructs. 3. A method which is a set of steps (an algorithm or guideline) used to perform a task. Methods are based on a set of underlying constructs and a representation (model) of the solution space. 4. An instantiation is the realization of an artifact in its environment. Also research activities including: 1. Build an artifact to perform a specific task. 2. Evaluate the artifact to determine if any progress has been achieved.

3. Given an artifact whose performance has been evaluated, it is important to determine why and how the artifact worked or did not work within its environment. Therefore theorize and justify theories about IT artifacts. Although Information Systems as a discipline has been evolving for over 30 years now,[39] the core focus or identity of IS research is still subject to debate among scholars such as.[40][41][42] There are two main views around this debate: a narrow view focusing on the IT artifact as the core subject matter of IS research, and a broad view that focuses on the interplay between social and technical aspects of IT that is embedded into a dynamic evolving context.[43] A third view provided by [44] calling IS scholars to take a balanced attention for both the IT artifact and its context. Since information systems is an applied field, industry practitioners expect information systems research to generate findings that are immediately applicable in practice. However, that is not always the case. Often information systems researchers explore behavioral issues in much more depth than practitioners would expect them to do. This may render information systems research results difficult to understand, and has led to criticism.[45] To study an information system itself, rather than its effects, information systems models are used, such as EATPUT. The international body of Information Systems researchers, the Association for Information Systems (AIS), and its Senior Scholars Forum Subcommittee on Journals (23 April 2007), proposed a 'basket' of journals that the AIS deems as 'excellent', and nominated: Management Information Systems Quarterly (MISQ), Information Systems Research (ISR), Journal of Association of Information Systems (JAIS), Journal of Management Information Systems (JMIS), European Journal of Information Systems (EJIS), and Information Systems Journal (ISJ).

It in org:

Abstract: In today's business environment, organizations try to improve their efficiency in

order to have more power in the global competition. This requires capabilities to detect and evaluate the impact of Information Technology (IT) on the organization's efficiency.There are some difficulties in evaluating the impact of IT on the organization s efficiency. For example, one should consider many quantitative and qualitative factors in the evaluation process. For solving these kinds of problems, this thesis proposes a methodology to identify the effects of IT investment and the importance of IT related activities on the organization s efficiency, within the BSC-DEA model.In the first parts of thesis, the Balanced Scorecard is used as a performance management tool for evaluating an organization s efficiency. The four dimensions of the Balanced Scorecard link organization s strategies with indicators and help the management establish an integrated efficiency assessment system for evaluation of IT investment. This thesis has studied some shortcoming of BSC for efficiency measurement and argued that DEA has the advantage to fill these shortcomings of BSC and to better evaluates impacts of IT on the

organization's efficiency.In the Second part of this thesis, I have shown that the DEA model generates one single efficiency figure in multi-input and multi-output situations. DEA performs the optimization analysis on each individual unit (DMUs) and generate relative efficiency value of each DMU. In this way, the integrated BSC-DEA model is constructed. For a better explanation of proposed BSC-DEA model, I presented and analyzed an example in the final part of the thesis.The presented model has two major benefits in subjected area:Firstly, It Combines two well-established managerial methodologies and proposes a new approach to evaluate IT effects on organizations. This approach uses BSC as a comprehensive framework for defining evaluation criteria with regard to IT investment and uses DEA as a nonparametric technique for ranking organization performance with those criteria. The second contribution is that with the comprehensive view which BSC gives us and with efficiency measure that DEA calculates, we can have a dependent variable to study how and why some organizations use IT better than others.

Information and data:

Both information and data are types of knowledge, a concept for which English has numerous words. The various words are used in different ways, according to context, but heres an effort to differentiate some of them. information knowledge obtained from investigation or communication. Detectives and journalists gather information. Just the facts, Mam. data [d 't , d t' , d't ] reliable information based on observation and record-keeping. Scientists, marketing specialists, and government agencies gather data.

Data vs Information The frequency of the use of the words data and information are very high in our daily lives. Depending on the context the meanings and use of these words differ. Both data and information are types of knowledge or something used to attain knowledge. Though used interchangeably, there are many differences between the meanings of these two words. Data refers to the lowest abstract or a raw input which when processed or arranged makes meaningful output. It is the group or chunks which represent quantitative and qualitative attributes pertaining to variables. Information is usually the processed outcome of data. More specifically speaking, it is derived from data. Information is a concept and can be used in many domains. Information can be a mental stimulus, perception, representation, knowledge, or even an instruction. The examples of data can be facts, analysis, or statistics. In computer terms, symbols, characters, images, or numbers are data. These are the inputs for the system to give a meaningful interpretation. In other words, data in a meaningful form is information.

Information can be explained as any kind of understanding or knowledge that can be exchanged with people. It can be about facts, things, concepts, or anything relevant to the topic concerned. The word information was derived from Latin. The verb from which it is derived is informare, which means to instruct. It also means giving form to an idea or fact. Data is the plural of the Latin word datum. It can mean to give. In the realms of mathematics and geometry, the terms data and given are very often used interchangeably. This is how the term was derived for use in computer realm. If data is at the lowest level in the series, information is placed at the next step. As an example, if you have a list on the Seven Wonders of the World, that is a data; if you have a book giving details about each wonder, it is information. Data can be in the form of numbers, characters, symbols, or even pictures. A collection of these data which conveys some meaningful idea is information. It may provide answers to questions like who, which, when, why, what, and how. The raw input is data and it has no significance when it exists in that form. When data is collated or organized into something meaningful, it gains significance. This meaningful organization is information. Data is often obtained as a result of recordings or observations. For example, the temperature of the days is data. When this data is to be collected, a system or person monitors the daily temperatures and records it. Finally when it is to be converted into meaningful information, the patterns in the temperatures are analyzed and a conclusion about the temperature is arrived at. So information obtained is a result of analysis, communication, or investigation. Summary: 1. Data is the lowest level of knowledge and information is the second level. 2. Data by itself alone is not significant. Information is significant by itself. 3. Observations and recordings are done to obtain data, while analysis is done to obtain information.

Read more: Difference Between Data and Information | Difference Between | Data vs Information http://www.differencebetween.net/language/difference-between-data-andinformation/#ixzz1GZjuw5jq

System concepts
Environment and boundaries Systems theory views the world as a complex system of interconnected parts. We scope a system by defining its boundary; this means choosing which entities are inside the system and which are outside - part of the environment. We then make simplified representations (models)

of the system in order to understand it and to predict or impact its future behavior. These models may define the structure and/or the behavior of the system. Natural and man-made systems There are natural and man-made (designed) systems. Natural systems may not have an apparent objective but their outputs can be interpreted as purposes. Man-made systems are made with purposes that are achieved by the delivery of outputs. Their parts must be related; they must be designed to work as a coherent entity - else they would be two or more distinct systems. Theoretical Framework An open system exchanges matter and energy with its surroundings. Most systems are open systems; like a car, coffeemaker, or computer. A closed system exchanges energy, but not matter, with its environment; like Earth or the project Biosphere2 or 3. An isolated system exchanges neither matter nor energy with its environment. A theoretical example of such system is the Universe. Process and transformation process A system can also be viewed as a bounded transformation process, that is, a process or collection of processes that transforms inputs into outputs. Inputs are consumed; outputs are produced. The concept of input and output here is very broad. E.g., an output of a passenger ship is the movement of people from departure to destination. Subsystem A subsystem is a set of elements, which is a system itself, and a component of a larger system. System Model A system comprises multiple views. For the man-made systems it may be such views as planning, requirement, design, implementation, deployment, operational, structure, behavior, input data, and output data views. A system model is required to describe and represent all these multiple views. System Architecture A system architecture, using one single coalescence model for the description of multiple views such as planning, requirement, design, implementation, deployment, operational, structure, behavior, input data, and output data views, is a kind of system model.

[edit] Types of systems

Evidently, there are many types of systems that can be analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively. For example, with an analysis of urban systems dynamics, [A.W. Steiss] [5] defines five intersecting systems, including the physical subsystem and behavioral system. For sociological models influenced by systems theory, where Kenneth D. Bailey [6] defines systems in terms of conceptual, concrete and abstract systems; either isolated, closed, or open, Walter F. Buckley [7] defines social systems in sociology in terms of mechanical, organic, and process models. Bela H. Banathy [8] cautions that with any inquiry into a system that understanding the type of system is crucial and defines Natural and Designed systems. In offering these more global definitions, the author maintains that it is important not to confuse one for the other. The theorist explains that natural systems include sub-atomic systems, living systems, the solar system, the galactic system and the Universe. Designed systems are our creations, our physical structures, hybrid systems which include natural and designed systems, and our conceptual knowledge. The human element of organization and activities are emphasized with their relevant abstract systems and representations. A key consideration in making distinctions among various types of systems is to determine how much freedom the system has to select purpose, goals, methods, tools, etc. and how widely is the freedom to select itself distributed (or concentrated) in the system. George J. Klir [9] maintains that no "classification is complete and perfect for all purposes," and defines systems in terms of abstract, real, and conceptual physical systems, bounded and unbounded systems, discrete to continuous, pulse to hybrid systems, et cetera. The interaction between systems and their environments are categorized in terms of relatively closed, and open systems. It seems most unlikely that an absolutely closed system can exist or, if it did, that it could be known by us. Important distinctions have also been made between hard and soft systems.[10] Hard systems are associated with areas such as systems engineering, operations research and quantitative systems analysis. Soft systems are commonly associated with concepts developed by Peter Checkland and Brian Wilson through Soft Systems Methodology (SSM) involving methods such as action research and emphasizing participatory designs. Where hard systems might be identified as more "scientific," the distinction between them is actually often hard to define.
[edit] Cultural system Main article: Cultural system

A cultural system may be defined as the interaction of different elements of culture. While a cultural system is quite different from a social system, sometimes both systems together are referred to as the sociocultural system. A major concern in the social sciences is the problem of order. One way that social order has been theorized is according to the degree of integration of cultural and social factors.
[edit] Economic system Main article: Economic system

An economic system is a mechanism (social institution) which deals with the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services in a particular society. The economic system

is composed of people, institutions and their relationships to resources, such as the convention of property. It addresses the problems of economics, like the allocation and scarcity of resources.

[edit] Application of the system concept

Systems modeling is generally a basic principle in engineering and in social sciences. The system is the representation of the entities under concern. Hence inclusion to or exclusion from system context is dependent of the intention of the modeler. No model of a system will include all features of the real system of concern, and no model of a system must include all entities belonging to a real system of concern.
[edit] Systems in information and computer science

In computer science and information science, system is a software system which has components as its structure and observable Inter-process communications as its behavior. Again, an example will illustrate: There are systems of counting, as with Roman numerals, and various systems for filing papers, or catalogues, and various library systems, of which the Dewey Decimal System is an example. This still fits with the definition of components which are connected together (in this case in order to facilitate the flow of information). System can also be used referring to a framework, be it software or hardware, designed to allow software programs to run, see platform.
[edit] Systems in engineering and physics

In engineering and physics, a physical system is the portion of the universe that is being studied (of which a thermodynamic system is one major example). Engineering also has the concept of a system that refers to all of the parts and interactions between parts of a complex project. Systems engineering refers to the branch of engineering that studies how this type of system should be planned, designed, implemented, built, and maintained.
[edit] Systems in social and cognitive sciences and management research

Social and cognitive sciences recognize systems in human person models and in human societies. They include human brain functions and human mental processes as well as normative ethics systems and social/cultural behavioral patterns. In management science, operations research and organizational development (OD), human organizations are viewed as systems (conceptual systems) of interacting components such as subsystems or system aggregates, which are carriers of numerous complex business processes (organizational behaviors) and organizational structures. Organizational development theorist Peter Senge developed the notion of organizations as systems in his book The Fifth Discipline. Systems thinking is a style of thinking/reasoning and problem solving. It starts from the recognition of system properties in a given problem. It can be a leadership competency. Some

people can think globally while acting locally. Such people consider the potential consequences of their decisions on other parts of larger systems. This is also a basis of systemic coaching in psychology. Organizational theorists such as Margaret Wheatley have also described the workings of organizational systems in new metaphoric contexts, such as quantum physics, chaos theory, and the self-organization of systems.
[edit] Systems applied to strategic thinking

In 1988, military strategist, John A. Warden III introduced his Five Ring System model in his book, The Air Campaign contending that any complex system could be broken down into five concentric rings. Each ringLeadership, Processes, Infrastructure, Population and Action Unitscould be used to isolate key elements of any system that needed change. The model was used effectively by Air Force planners in the First Gulf War.[11][12][13] In the late 1990s, Warden applied this five ring model to business strategy.[

Open system
An open system is a system which continuously interacts with its environment. The interaction can take the form of information, energy, or material transfers into or out of the system boundary, depending on the discipline which defines the concept (see below). An open system should be contrasted with the concept of an isolated system which exchanges neither energy, matter, or information with its environment. The concept of an "open system" was formalized within a framework that enabled one to interrelate the theory of the organism, thermodynamics, and evolutionary theory.[1] This concept was expanded upon with the advent of information theory and subsequently systems theory. Today the concept has its applications in the natural and social sciences