TUGAS MANDIRI TYPES OF COMPUTER Mata Kuliah: Bahasa Inggris Sains

Nama Mahasiswa NPM Dosen Pengampu

: Erwin Arnandy : 100810135 : Asmiati, S.S

UNIVERSITAS PUTERA BATAM 2011

Types of Computer
Analog computer
An analog computer does not operate with the digital signals. It recognizes data as a continuous measurement of a physical property. It has no state .Analog computer is difficult to operate and use. Its output is unusually displayed on a meter or graph Voltage, pressure, Speed and Temperature and some physical properties that can be measured in this way. Analog computer has low memory and fewer functions. It is usually built for special purpose. Analog Computer is mainly used in the field of engineering and medical

An analog computer (spelt analogue in British English) is a form of computer that uses continuous physical phenomena such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to model the problem being solved.

The Antikythera mechanism is believed to be the earliest known mechanical analog computer. It was designed to calculate astronomical positions. It was discovered in 1901 in the Antikythera wreck off the Greek island of Antikythera, between Kythera and Crete, and has been dated to circa 100 BC. Devices of a level of complexity comparable to that of the Antikythera mechanism would not reappear until a thousand years later.

The astrolabe was invented in the Hellenistic world in either the first or second centuries BCE and is often attributed to Hipparchus. A combination of the planisphere and dioptra, the astrolabe was effectively an analog computer capable of working out several different kinds of problems in spherical astronomy.

Muslim astronomers later produced many different types of astrolabes and used them for over a thousand different problems related to astronomy, astrology, horoscopes, navigation, surveying, timekeeping, Qibla (direction of Mecca), Salah (prayer), etc.

Ab Rayhn al-Brn invented the first mechanical geared lunisolar calendar astrolabe, an early fixed-wired knowledge processing machine with a gear train and gear-wheels, circa 1000 AD.

The Planisphere was a star chart astrolabe also invented by Ab Rayhn al-Brn in the early 11th century.

The Equatorium was an astrometic calculating instrument invented by Ab Ishq Ibrhm al-Zarql (Arzachel) in Islamic Spain circa 1015.

The "castle clock", an astronomical clock invented by Al-Jazari in 1206, is considered to be the first programmable analog computer. It displayed the zodiac, the solar and lunar orbits, a crescent moon-shaped pointer travelling across a gateway causing automatic doors to open every hour, and five robotic musicians who play music when struck by levers operated by a camshaft attached to a water wheel. The length of day and night could be re-programmed every day in order to account for the changing lengths of day and night throughout the year.

An astrolabe incorporating a mechanical calendar computer and gear-wheels was invented by Abi Bakr of Isfahan in 1235.

A slide rule

The slide rule is a hand-operated analog computer for doing multiplication and division, invented around 16201630, shortly after the publication of the concept of the logarithm.

The differential analyser, a mechanical analog computer designed to solve differential equations by integration, using wheel-and-disc mechanisms to perform

the integration. Invented in 1876 by James Thomson (engineer), they were first built in the 1920s and 1930s.

By 1912 Arthur Pollen had developed an electrically driven mechanical analog computer for fire-control system, based on the differential analyser. It was used by the Imperial Russian Navy in World War I.

World War II era gun directors and bomb sights used mechanical analog computers. The Curta Calculator was a small cylindrical hand crank powered device which could do multiplication, division, and a number of other operations.

The MONIAC Computer was a hydraulic model of a national economy first unveiled in 1949.

Computer Engineering Associates was spun out of Caltech in 1950 to provide commercial services using the "Direct Analogy Electric Analog Computer" ("the largest and most impressive general-purpose analyzer facility for the solution of field problems") developed there by Gilbert D. McCann, Charles H. Wilts, and Bart Locanthi.

Heathkit EC-1, an educational analog computer made by the Heath Company, USA c. 1960.

Comdyna GP-6 analog computer introduced in 1968 and produced for 36 years.

Digital Computer Some kinds of digital computer: 1. Supercomputer and Mainframe Supercomputer is a broad term for one of the fastest for computers currently available. that Supercomputers are very expensive and are employed specialized applications require immense amounts of mathematical calculations (number crunching). For example, Image 1 : Super computer

weather forecasting requires a supercomputer. Other uses of supercomputers scientific simulations, (animated) graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research, electronic design, and analysis of geological data (e.g. in petrochemical prospecting). Perhaps the best known supercomputer manufacturer is Cray Research. : Image 2 Mainframe Mainframe was a term originally referring to the cabinet containing the central processor unit or "main frame" of a room-filling Stone Age batch machine. After the emergence of smaller "minicomputer" designs in the early 1970s, the traditional big iron machines were described as "mainframe computers" and eventually just as mainframes. Nowadays a Mainframe is a very large and expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds, or even thousands, of users simultaneously. The chief difference between a supercomputer and a mainframe is that a supercomputer channels all its power into executing a few programs as fast as possible, whereas a mainframe uses its power to execute many programs concurrently. In some ways, mainframes are more powerful than supercomputers because they support more simultaneous programs. But supercomputers can execute a single program faster than a mainframe. The distinction between small mainframes and minicomputers is vague, depending really on how the manufacturer wants to market its machines. Differences Mainframe from Supercomputer A supercomputer is a computer that is at the frontline of current processing capacity, particularly speed of calculation. Supercomputers are used for scientific and engineering problems (high-performance computing) which are limited by processing speed and memory size, while mainframes are used for problems which are limited by data movement in input/output devices, reliability, and for handling multiple business transactions concurrently. The differences are as follows: Mainframes are measured in millions of instructions per second (MIPS) while assuming typical instructions are integer operations, but supercomputers are measured in floating pointoperations per second (FLOPS). Examples of integer operations include moving data around in memory or checking values. Floating point operations are mostly addition, subtraction, and multiplication with enough digits of

precision to model continuous phenomena such as weather prediction and nuclear simulations. In terms of computational ability, supercomputers are more powerful.

Mainframes are built to be reliable for transaction processing as it is commonly understood in the business world: a commercial exchange of goods, services, or money. A typical transaction, as defined by the Transaction Processing Performance Council, would include the updating to a database system for such things as inventory control (goods), airline reservations (services), or banking (money). A transaction could refer to a set of operations including disk read/writes, operating system calls, or some form of data transfer from one subsystem to another. This operation does not count toward the processing power of a computer. Transaction processing is not exclusive to mainframes but also used in the performance of microprocessor-based servers and online networks.

2. Minicomputer A minicomputer (colloquially, mini) is a class of multi-user computers that lies in the middle range of the computing spectrum, in between smallest the largest multi-user systems computers). systems (mainframe computers) and the single-user (microcomputers or personal

The class at one time formed a distinct group with its own hardware and operating systems, but the contemporary term for this class of system ismidrange computer, such as the higher-end SPARC, POWER and Itaniumbased systems from Sun Microsystems, IBM and Hewlett-Packard. Several pioneering computer companies first built minicomputers, such as DEC, Data General, and Hewlett-Packard (HP) (who now refers to its HP3000 minicomputers as servers rather than minicomputers). And although todays PCs and servers are clearly microcomputers physically, architecturally their CPUs and operating systems have evolved largely by integrating features from minicomputers.

3. Workstation It is a type of computer used for engineering applications (CAD/CAM), desktop publishing, software development, and other types of applications that require a moderate amount of computing power and relatively high quality graphics capabilities. Workstations generally come with a large, high-resolution graphics screen, at large amount of RAM, built-in network support, and a graphical user interface. Most workstations also have a mass storage device such as a disk drive, but a special type of workstation, called a diskless workstation, comes without a disk drive. The most common operating systems for workstations are UNIX and Windows NT. Like personal computers, most workstations are single-user computers. However, workstations are typically linked together to form a local-area network, although they can also be used as stand-alone systems.

A significant segment of the desktop market are computers expected to perform as workstations, but using PC operating systems and components. PC component manufacturers will often segment their product line, and market premium components which are functionally similar to the cheaper "consumer" models but feature a higher level of robustness and/or performance. and Notable examples of this are the AMD Opteron, Intel Xeon processors, Quadro graphics processors. the ATI FireGL and Nvidia

A workstation class PC may have some of the following features: support for ECC memory a larger number of memory sockets which use registered (buffered) modules multiple processor sockets, powerful CPUs (for Intel CPU it will be server derived Xeon instead of typical for PCs Core) multiple displays run reliable operating system with advanced features high performance graphics card

4. Personal computer It can be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive computer designed for an individual user. In price, personal computers range anywhere from a few hundred pounds to over five thousand pounds. All are based on the microprocessor technology that enables manufacturers to put an entire CPU on one chip. Businesses use personal computers for word processing, accounting, desktop publishing, and for running spreadsheet and database management applications. At home, the most popular use for personal computers is for playing games and recently for surfing the Internet. Personal computers first appeared in the late 1970s. One of the first and most popular personal computers was the Apple II, introduced in 1977 by Apple Computer. During the late 1970s and early 1980s, new models and competing operating systems seemed to appear daily. Then, in 1981, IBM entered the fray with its first personal computer, known as the IBM PC. The IBM PC quickly became the personal computer of choice, and most other personal computer manufacturers fell by the wayside. P.C. is short for personal computer or IBM PC. One of the few companies to survive IBM's onslaught was Apple Computer, which remains a major player in the personal computer marketplace. Other companies adjusted to IBM's dominance by building IBM clones, computers that were internally almost the same as the IBM PC, but that cost less. Because IBM clones used the same microprocessors as IBM PCs, they were capable of running the same software. Over the years, IBM has lost much of its influence in directing the evolution of PCs. Therefore after the release of the first PC by IBM the term PC increasingly came to mean IBM or IBM-compatible personal computers, to the exclusion of other types of personal computers, such as Macintoshes. In recent years, the term PC has become more and more difficult to pin down. In general, though, it applies to any personal computer based on an Intel microprocessor, or on an Intel-compatible microprocessor. For nearly every other component, including the operating system, there are several options, all of which fall under the rubric of PC

Today, the world of personal computers is basically divided between Apple Macintoshes and PCs. The principal characteristics of personal computers are that they are single-user systems and are based on microprocessors. However, although personal computers are designed as single-user systems, it is common to link them together to form a network. In terms of power, there is great variety. At the high end, the distinction between personal computers and workstations has faded. High-end models of the Macintosh and PC offer the same computing power and graphics capability as low-end workstations by Sun Microsystems, Hewlett-Packard, and DEC 5. Tower model The term refers to a computer in which the power supply, motherboard, and mass storage devices are stacked on top of each other in a cabinet. This is in contrast to desktop models, in which these components are housed in a more compact box. The main advantage of tower models is that there are fewer space constraints, which makes installation of additional storage devices easier.

6. Notebook computer
An extremely lightweight personal computer.

Notebook computers typically weigh less than 6 pounds and are small enough to fit easily in a briefcase. Aside from size, the principal difference between a notebook computer and a personal computer is the display screen. Notebook computers use a variety of techniques, known as flat-panel technologies, to produce a lightweight and non-bulky display screen. The quality of notebook display screens varies considerably. In terms of computing power, modern notebook computers are nearly equivalent to personal computers. They have the same CPUs, memory capacity, and disk drives. However, all this power in a small package is expensive. Notebook computers cost about twice as much as equivalent regular-sized computers. Notebook computers come with battery packs that enable you to run them without plugging them in. However, the batteries need to be recharged every few hours .

7. Netbook Netbooks are a category and of small, lightweight, legacy-free, inexpensive laptop

computers. At their inception in late 2007 as smaller notebooks optimized for low weight and low cost netbooks omitted certain features (e.g., the optical drive), featured smaller screens and keyboards, and offered reduced computing power when compared to a full-sized laptop. Over the course of their evolution, netbooks have ranged in size from below 5" screen diagonal to 12". A typical weight is 1 kg (23 pounds). Often significantly less expensive than other laptops, by mid-2009, some wireless data carriers began to offer netbooks to users "free of charge", with an extended service contract purchase Netbooks typically have less powerful hardware than larger laptop computers. Some netbooks do not even have a conventional hard drive. Such netbooks use solid-state storage devices instead, as these require less power, are faster, lighter, and generally more shock-resistant, but with much less storage capacity (such as 32, 64, or 128 GB compared to the 100 GB to 2 TB mechanical hard drives typical of many notebooks/laptop computers). All netbooks on the market today support Wi-Fi wireless networking and many can be used on mobile telephone networks with data capability (for example, 3G). Mobile data plans are supplied under contract in the same way as mobile telephones. Some also includeethernet and/or modem ports, for broadband or dial-up Internet access, respectively. Netbooks are a growing trend in education for several reasons. The need to prepare children for 21st century lifestyles, combined with hundreds of new educational tools that can be found online, and a growing emphasis on student centered learning are three of the biggest contributing factors to the rising use of Netbook technology in schools. Dell was one of the first to mass produce a ruggedised netbook for the education sector, by having a rubber outlay, touchscreen and network activity light to show the teacher the netbook is online. Netbooks offer several distinct advantages in educational settings. First, their compact size and weight make for an easy fit in student work areas. Similarly, the small size make Netbooks easier to transport than heavier, larger sized traditional laptops. In addition, prices ranging from $200$600 dollars mean the affordability of Netbooks can be a relief to school budget makers. 8. Hand-held computer

A portable computer that is small enough to be held in ones hand. Although extremely convenient to carry, handheld computers have not replaced notebook computers because of their small keyboards and screens. The most popular hand-held computers are those that are specifically designed to provide PIM (personal information manager) functions, such as a calendar and address book. Some manufacturers are trying to solve the small keyboard problem by replacing the keyboard with an electronic pen. However, these pen-based devices rely on handwriting recognition technologies, which are still in their infancy. Hand-held computers are also called PDAs, palmtops and pocket computers.

9. PDA Short for personal digital assistant, a handheld device that combines computing, telephone/fax, and networking features. A typical PDA can function as a cellular phone, fax sender, and personal organizer. Unlike portable computers, most PDAs are pen-based, using a stylus rather than a keyboard for input. This means that they also incorporate handwriting recognition features. Some PDAs can also react to voice input by using voice recognition technologies. The field of PDA was pioneered by Apple Computer, which introduced the Newton MessagePad in 1993. Shortly thereafter, several other manufacturers offered similar products. To date, PDAs have had only modest success in the marketplace, due to their high price tags and limited applications. However, many experts believe that PDAs will eventually become common gadgets. PDAs are also called palmtops, hand-held computers and pocket computers.

10. Wearable Computer Wearable computers are digital devices that are worn on the body. This type of wearable technology has been used in behavioral modeling, health monitoring systems, information technologies and media development. Wearable computers are especially useful for applications that require computational support while the user's hands, voice, eyes, arms or attention are actively engaged with the physical environment. "Wearable computing" is an active topic of research, with areas of study including user interface design, augmented reality, pattern wearables for recognition, specific use of applications

or disabilities, electronic textiles and fashion design. Many issues are common to the wearables, mobile computing, ambient intelligence and ubiquitous computing researchcommunities, including power management and heat dissipation, software architectures, wireless and personal area networks. One of the main features of a wearable computer is consistency. There is a constant interaction between the computer and user, i.e. there is no need to turn the device on or off. Another feature is the ability to multi-task. It is not necessary to stop what you are doing to use the device; it is augmented into all other actions. These devices can be incorporated by the user to act like a prosthetic. It can therefore be an extension of the users mind and/or body.

Evidence of the allure of the wearable computer and the weak market acceptance is evident with market leading PanasonicComputer Solutions Company's failed product in this market. Panasonic has specialized in mobile computing with their Toughbook line for over 10 years and has extensive market research into the field of portable, wearable computing products. In 2002, Panasonic introduced a wearable brick computer coupled with a handheld or armworn touchscreen. The brick would communicate wirelessly to the screen, and concurrently the brick would communicate wirelessly out to the internet or other networks. The wearable brick was quietly pulled from the market in 2005, while the screen evolved to a thin client touchscreen used with a handstrap.

11. Server

In computing, the term server is used to refer to one of the following: a computer program running to serve the needs or requests of other programs (referred to in this context as "clients") which may or may not be running on the same computer. a physical computer dedicated to running one or more such services, to serve the needs of programs running on other computers on the same network. a software/hardware system (i.e. a software service running on a dedicated computer) such as a database server, file server, mail server, orprint server. In computer networking, a server is a program that operates as

a socket listener. The term server is also often generalized to describe ahost that is deployed to execute one or more such programs. A server computer is a computer, or series of computers, that link other computers or electronic devices together. They often provide essential services across a network, either to private users inside a large organization or to public users via the internet. For example, when you enter a query in a search engine, the query is sent from your computer over the internet to the servers that store all the relevant web pages. The results are sent back by the server to your computer. Many servers have dedicated functionality such as web servers, print servers, and database servers. Enterprise servers are servers that are used in a business context. Server-oriented operating systems tend to have certain features in common that make them more suitable for the server environment, such as: GUI not available or optional ability to reconfigure and update both hardware and software to some extent without restart, advanced backup facilities to permit regular and frequent online backups of critical data, transparent data transfer between different volumes or devices, flexible and advanced networking capabilities, automation capabilities such as daemons in UNIX and services in Windows, and tight system security, with advanced user, resource, data, and memory protection.

Hybrid computer

Hybrid computers are computers that exhibit features of analog computers and digital computers. The digital component normally serves as the controller and provides logical operations, while the analog component normally serves as a solver of differential equations.

Polish Hybrid computer WAT 1001 In general, analog computers are extraordinarily fast, since they can solve most complex equations at the rate at which a signal traverses the circuit, which is generally an appreciable fraction of the speed of light. On the other hand, the precision of analog computers is not good; they are limited to three, or at most, four digits of precision. Digital computers can be built to take the solution of equations to almost unlimited precision, but quite slowly compared to analog computers. Generally, complex equations are approximated using iterative numerical methods which take huge numbers of iterations, depending on how good the initial "guess" at the final value is and how much precision is desired. (This initial guess is known as the numerical seed for the iterative process.) For many real-time operations, the speed of such digital calculations is too slow to be of much use (e.g., for very high frequency phased array radars or for weather calculations), but the precision of an analog computer is insufficient.

Hybrid computers can be used to obtain a very good but relatively imprecise 'seed' value, using an analog computer front-end, which is then fed into a digital computer iterative process to achieve the final desired degree of precision. With a three or four digit, highly accurate numerical seed, the total digital computation time necessary to reach the desired precision is dramatically reduced, since many fewer iterations are required. Consider that the nervous system in animals is a form of hybrid computer. Signals pass across the synapses from one nerve cell to the next as discrete (digital) packets of chemicals, which are then summed within the nerve cell in an analog fashion by building an electro-chemical potential until its threshold is reached, whereupon it discharges and sends out a series of digital packets to the next nerve cell. The advantages are at least threefold: noise within the system is minimized (and tends not to be additive), no common grounding system is required, and there is minimal degradation of the signal even if there are substantial differences in activity of the cells along a path (only the signal delays tend to vary). The individual nerve cells are analogous to analog computers; the synapses are analogous to digital computers.