pPolya's How To Solve It In How To Solve It, G.

Polya describes four steps for solving problems and outlines them at the very beginning of the book for easy reference. The steps outline a series of general questions that the problem solving student can use to successfully write resolutions. Without the questions, common sense goes through the same process; the questions simply allow students to see the process on paper. Polya designed the questions to be general enough that students could apply them to almost any problem. The four steps are:
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understanding the problem, devising a plan, carrying out the plan, and looking back.

This method is very similar to the method in Thinking Mathematically by John Mason, except Polya separates devising a plan, and carrying out the plan. This may seem silly at first, but Polya argues that it does make a difference. By first devising a plan, students can eliminate mistakes they might make by rushing into the actual execution of the plan. When they plan it out first and then do the math, it is possible to check their work as th ey go along. In the first step, students should be able to state the unknown, or the thing they want to find to answer the question, the data the question gives them to work with, and the condition, or limiting circumstances they must work around. If they can identify all of these, and explain the question to other people, then they have a good understanding of what the problem is asking. Polya suggests that students draw a picture if possible, or introduce some kind of notation to visualize the question. To devise a plan, students can start by trying to think of a related problem they have solved before to help them. If the student can think of a problem they have solved before that had a similar unknown, it could also be helpful. Students can also try to r estate the problem in an easier or different way, and try to solve that. By looking at these related problems, students may be able to use the same method, or other part of the plan used. After students have decided which calculations, computations, or con structions that they need, and have made sure that all data and conditions were used, they can try out their plan. To carry out the plan, they must do all the calculations, and check them as they go along. Then they should ask themselves, "Can I see it is right?" and then, "Can I prove it is right?" When students look back on the problem and the plan they carried out, they can increase their understanding of the solution. It is always good to recheck the result and argument used, and to make sure that it is possible to check them. Then students should ask, "Can I get the result in a different way?"and "Can I use this for another problem?" The last chapter of the book is a very helpful encyclopedia of the terms used in the explanation of the first chapter.

NON-ROUTINE PROBLEMS. The non-routine problem is a kind of unique problem solving which requires the application of skills, concept or principle which have been learned and mastered. It is also meant that whenever we are facing an unusual problem or situatio n which we don t know the procedures to solve it, we are facing the non-routine problem. Non-routine problem solving serves a different purpose than routine problem solving. While routine problem solving concerns solving problems that are useful for daily life (in the present or in the future), non -routine problem solving concerns that only indirectly. Non-routine problem solving is mostly concerned with developing students mathematical reasoning power and fostering the understanding that mathematics is a creative endeavor. Non-routine problem solving can be seen as evoking an I tried this and I tried that, and eureka, I finally figured it out. reaction. That involves a search for heuristics (strategies seeking to discover). There is no convenient model o r solution path that is readily available to apply to solving a problem. That is in sharp contrast to routine problem solving where there are readily identifiable models (the meanings of the arithmetic operations and the associated templates) to apply to problem situations EIGHT PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGIES. 1. WORK BACKWARDS To solve some problems, you may need to undo the key actions in the problem. This strategy is called Work Backward. Working backwards is a standard strategy that only seems to have restricted use. However, it s a powerful tool when it can be used. In the kind of problems we will be using in this web site, it will be most often of value when we are looking at games. It frequently turns out to be worth looking at what happens at the end of a game and then work backward to the beginning, in order to see what moves are best. 2. GUESS AND CHECK Some problems cannot be solved directly. You need to use a strategy called Guess and Check. Guess and check is one of the simplest strategies. Anyone can guess an answer. If they can also check that the guess fits the conditions of the problem, then they have mastered guess and check. This is a strategy that would certainly work on the Farmyard problem but it could take a lot of time and a lot of co mputation. Guess and improve is slightly more sophisticated than guess and check. The idea is that you use your first incorrect guess to make an improved next guess. You can see it in action in the Farmyard problem. In relatively straightforward problems like that, it is often fairly easy to see how to improve the last guess. In some problems though, where there are more variables, it may not be clear at first which way to change the guessing.

3. LOOK FOR A PATTERN In many ways looking for patterns is what mathematics is all about. We want to know how things are connected and how things work and this is made easier if we can find patterns. Patterns make things easier because they tell us how a group of objects acts in the same way. Once we see a pattern we have much more control over what we are doing. 4. DRAW A PICTURE It is fairly clear that a picture has to be used in the strategy Draw a Picture. But the picture need not be too elaborate. It should only contain enough detail to solve the problem. Henc e a rough circle with two marks is quite sufficient for chickens and a blob plus four marks will do for pigs. There is no need for elaborate drawings showing beak, feathers, curly tails, etc., in full colour. Children should be encouraged to use this strat egy at some point because it helps children see the problem and it can develop into quite a sophisticated strategy later. 5. MAKE A TABLE There are a number of ways of using Make a Table. These range from tables of numbers to help solve problems like the Farmyard, to the sort of tables with ticks and crosses that are often used in logic problems. Tables can also be an efficient way of finding number patterns.

6. MAKE A LIST Making Organised Lists and Tables are two aspects of working systematically. Most children start off recording their problem solving efforts in a very haphazard way. Often there is a little calculation or whatever in this corner, and another one over there, and another one just here. It helps children to bring a logical and systema tic development to their mathematics if they begin to organize things systematically as they go. This even applies to their explorations. When an Organised List is being used, it should be arranged in such a way that there is some natural order implicit in its construction. For example, shopping lists are generally not organised. They usually grow haphazardly as you think of each item. A little thought might make them organised. Putting all the meat together, all the vegetables together, and all the drinks together, could do this for you. Even more organisation could be forced by putting all the meat items in alphabetical order, and so on. 7. ACT IT OUT Meaning that two strategies combine together because they are closely related. Young children especially, enjoy using Act it Out. Children themselves take the role of things in the problem. In the FARMYARD problem, the children might take the role of the animals though it is unlikely that you would have 87 children in your class. But if there are not enough children you might be able to press gang the odd teddy or two. There are pros and cons for this strategy. It is an effective strategy for demonstration purposes in front of the whole class. On the other hand, it can also be cumbersome when

used by groups, especially if a largish number of students are involved. We have, however, found it a useful strategy when students have had trouble coming to grips with a problem. The on-looking children may be more interested in acting it out because other children are involved. Sometimes, though, the children acting out the problem may get less out of the exercise than the children watching. This is because the participants are so engrossed in the mechanics of what they are doing that they don t see through to the underl ying mathematics. However, because these children are concentrating on what they are doing, they may in fact get more out of it and remember it longer than the others, so there are pros and cons here. 8. USING SYMMETRY It helps us to reduce the difficulty level of a problem. Playing Noughts and crosses, for instance, you will have realized that there are three and not nine ways to put the first symbol down. This immediately reduces the number of possibilities for the game and makes it easier to analyze. This sort of argument comes up all the time and should be grabbed with glee when you see it.