Hindbrain The hindbrain includes the cerebellum , the pons collectively to support vital bodily processes.

and the medulla oblongata , which function

The medulla is joined to the spinal cord and controls unconscious, yet essential, body functions such as breathing, swallowing, blood circulation and muscle tone. Located above the medulla is the pons which serves as a bridge to connect thebrainstem and the cerebellum. The pons receives information from visual areas to control eye and body movements and also plays a role in controlling patterns of sleep and arousal. Information is relayed from the pons to the cerebellum to control the co-ordination of muscular movements and maintain equilibrium. The brainstem is made up of the pons, medulla and midbrain . The medulla connects the brain to the spinal cord and its motor and sensory tracts allow communication between the brain and the rest of the body. Disorders that affect the hindbrain Region Cerebellum Medulla oblongata Pons stroke stroke sleep disorders, stroke Disorder

cerebellum The walnut-shaped structure situated at the base of the brain. The cerebellum is responsible for motor coordination, posture and maintaining equilibrium. pons A component of the hindbrain and the brainstem, situated between the midbrain and the medulla. The pons functions to relay signals from the cortex to assist in the control of movement and is also involved with the control of sleep and arousal. medulla oblongata A brain part forming part of the hindbrain and the brainstem, connecting the spinal cord to the pons. The medulla oblongata is involved with the control of unconscious, essential functions such as breathing, blood circulation and muscle tone. spinal cord The part of the central nervous system that extends from the brainstem to the cauda equina (the collection of spinal nerves that descend from the lower part of the spinal cord; the appearance of which resembles a horse's tail). It functions as a sensory and motor conduit between the body and the brain, and is protected by the vertebrae.

brainstem The stalk-like part of the brain connecting the spinal cord and the forebrain; made up of the pons, the medulla oblongata and the midbrain. The brainstem functions as an important relay station; every nerve impulse that passes between the brain and the spinal cord must pass through the brainstem to allow the body to function normally.

midbrain Positioned between the hindbrain and the forebrain, the midbrain forms part of the brainstem and connects the brainstem to the forebrain. The midbrain is responsible for controlling sensory processes.

hindbrain, also called rhombencephalon, region of the developing vertebrate brain that is composed of the medulla oblongata and the pons. The hindbrain is one of the three major developmental divisions of the brain; the other two are the midbrain and forebrain. The medulla transmits signals between the spinal cord and the higher parts of the brain; it also controls such autonomic functions as heartbeat and respiration. The pons is partly made up of tracts connecting the spinal cord with higher brain levels, and it also contains cell groups that transfer information from the cerebrum to the cerebellum.

Forebrain The forebrain is the largest part of the brain, most of which is made up of the cerebrum . Other important structures found in the forebrain include the thalamus , the hypothalamus and the limbic system . The cerebrum is divided into two cerebral hemispheresconnected by a mass of white matter known as the corpus callosum . Each hemisphere is divided into four lobes :frontal, parietal , occipital and temporal. The surface of each hemisphere is made up of grey matter known as thecerebral cortex and is highly folded to increase the cortical surface area available within the confines of the skull. The cortex controls perception, memory, and all higher cognitivefunctions, including the ability to concentrate, reason and think in abstract form. Unfolded, the highly convoluted cortex of the brain would extend over 2 square metres. Beneath the cortex is white matter, within which a number of nuclei (grey matter), known as the basal nuclei are found. The basal nuclei receive information from the cortex to regulate skeletal movement and other higher motor functions.

The thalamus functions to relay sensory information to the cerebral cortex and the hypothalamus regulates visceral functions, such as temperature, reproductive functions, eating, sleeping and the display of emotion. The limbic system describes a collection of structures within the forebrain, including the amygdala hippocampus . Also known as the 'emotional brain', the limbic system is important in the formation of memories and in controlling emotions, decisions, motivation and learning. Disorders that affect the forebrain Region Cerebral cortex Cerebrum
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Disorder depression, Huntington's disease, mania epilepsy, stroke Alzheimer's disease,depression, mania Alzheimer's diseasea Alzheimer's disease,depression, mania mania depression Alzheimer's disease, mania

frontal lobe parietal lobe temporal lobe

Limbic system
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amygdala hippocampus

cerebrum The main portion of the brain, made up of two cerebral hemispheres united by the corpus callosum, forming the largest part of the central nervous system in man. Each hemisphere is made up of the cerebral cortex and the basal nuclei, which together control all cognitive and motor function. cognitive Pertaining to, or characterised by cognition - the mental process of knowing, thinking, learning and judging.

thalamus A collection of nuclei forming a major structural component of the forebrain. The thalamus has numerous functions, the most important being to relay sensory information to the cerebral cortex.

hypothalamus

An area of the forebrain which lies beneath the thalamus. It secretes corticotropin releasing hormone, which helps to control the body's metabolism by exerting an influence on the pituitary gland, and vasopressin, which is involved in the regulation of the sleep and wake states.

limbic system The limbic system underlies the corpus callosum and is a collective term referring to several brain parts, including the hippocampus and the amygdala. The limbic structures are important in the regulation of visceral motor activity and emotional expression. the activity of smooth muscle fibers, cardiac muscle fibers, and glands.

hemispheres The medial longitudinal fissure divides the brain into left and right hemispheres. The cortex is roughly symmetrical between left and right sections called hemispheres (half circles) because of their shape. The left hemisphere is associated with the right side of the body and vice versa. Usually the left hemisphere dominates as it contains the centres for language and reasoning. The cerebrum is divided into two parts called the left and right cerebral hemispheres. These hemispheres don't have exactly the same functions, and this difference in the way the two hemispheres work is called functional asymmetry.

Bilateral symmetry seems to be fairly common in humans (and many other species). You have 2 arms, 2 legs, 2 eyes, 2 ears, 2 nostrils, 2 breasts, 2 ovaries or testicles, etc. And the same internally: you have 2 lungs, 2 kidneys, 2 sides to your heart, etc. It's been argued that this is just evolutionaly 'byproducts', due to the way cells divide, and so forth. It's also been argued that it is valuable, as 'spares' for critical parts, and so would provide some evolutionary benefit, and would thus have been 'selected for'. Geneticists argu back and forth on this; as far as I know, there is no 'generally accepted consensus' on it. The human brain (and, I believe, the brains of all mammals, and for all I know all vertebrates) is divided into two hemispheres, joined where they meet the spinal cord, and otherwise unconnected except by a small band of nerve tissue called the corpus callosum (which can be cut without impairing brain function, and sometimes is cut surgically to treat epilepsy).

amygdala A nuclear complex forming part of the limbic system. The amygdala is situated in the temporal, in front of the hippocampus, and functions to control autonomic, emotional and sexual behaviour.

Hippocampus

A structure found in the temporal of the forebrain. The hippocampus is a component of the limbic system and is important in the formation of memories and other higher functions.

Midbrain The midbrain sits between the forebrain and thehindbrain and is approximately 2 cm long. It forms a major part of the brainstem ; the name given to the part of the brain which connects the spinal cord and the forebrain. Thedorsal surface of the midbrain forms the tectum , meaning 'roof'. The ventral surface is characterised by two large fibre bundles, the cerebral peduncles, containing axons that travel between the cerebral cortex , the brainstem and the spinal cord. The cerebral peduncles divide the brain into two halves. Each half is further divided into an anterior and posterior part by a band of grey matter , the substantia nigra . These structures form important connections between the cerebral cortex and the brainstem and spinal cord to control sensory processes such as vision and movement. Disorders that affect the midbrain Region Substantia nigra NB: stroke can occur in the midbrain Disorder Parkinson's disease

dorsal An anatomical term used to refer to the back or the upper side. If an object is dorsal to another object in the body, it has a position toward the back of the object of reference. When describing the position of a structure in the central nervous system, the term dorsal indicates a different direction for the brain and the spinal cord. The dorsal direction is towards the back for the brainstem and spinal cord, but towards the top of the head for the forebrain. It is the opposite of ventral.

tectum

A component of the midbrain and the most dorsal part of the brainstem; a general term meaning roof. The tectum contains four swellings involved in visual and auditory reflexes.

Ventral It is the opposite of dorsal.

cerebral cortex

The outer layer of grey matter, approximately 2 mm thick, covering the entire surface of the cerebral hemispheres. The cerebral cortex is made up of neuron and supporting cells (glial cells) and functions to correlate information from many sources to maintain cognitive function (all aspects of perceiving, thinking and remembering).

Spinal cord The spinal cord lies in the vertebral canal and in adults, begins at the top of the first cervical vertebra and stops at the bottom of the first lumbar vertebra (a distance of between 42 and 45 cm). The spinal cord is divided into cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral and coccygeal regions.The peripheral nerves thatinnervate the body arise from the spinal cord as 31 pairs of segmental spinal nerves. Sensory information is carried to the spinal cord from the peripheral nerves and enters the spinal cord via the dorsal roots. Motor commands leave the spinal cord via the ventral roots where they travel along nerveaxons to the periphery. Like the forebrain , the spinal cord is made up of grey matter and white matter . The interior of the cord contains the grey matter and is surrounded by a cylindrical mass of white matter, organised into discrete areas relating to the specific body functions they control.

Functions of the Reticular Formation

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The reticular formation is involved in 4 general types of function: Motor control; Sensory control; Visceral control; And control of consciousness.

1. 2. 3. 4.

Motor Control

Motor control has several different aspects.

1. Certain reticular regions are closely related to the cerebellum and its motor control functions. o A fairly discrete collection of cells in the medullary reticular formation, the lateral reticular nucleus is resolved adjacent to the spinothalamic tract. o It receives direct spinoreticular fibres, collaterals of spinothalamic fibres, and projects them to the cerebellum. o It also receives input from the red nucleus, so it is more than a straightforward somatosensory relay to the cerebellum. o Collections of reticular neurons near the medullary midline, the paramedian reticular nucleus, also project to the cerebellum. o Afferents to the paramedian nucleus arise in the cerebellum and in other locations, including the cerebral cortex. o The reticular tegmental nucleus, located between the medial lemnisci in the rostral pons, receives inputs from the cerebral cortex and other sites. o It also projects to the cerebellum. 2. There are 2 reticulospinal tracts arising from the medial zone of the pontine and the rostral medullary reticular formation. o Fibres from the pons descend with the ipsilateral MLF and travel through the ventral funiculus in the spinal cord, as the medial reticulospinal tract. o Fibres from the medulla descend bilaterally in the ventral part of the lateral funiculus, as the lateral reticulospinal tract. o These tracts are a major alternate route to the corticospinal tract. o These reticular neurons receive projections from many areas, including the basal ganglia, red nucleus, and substantia nigra. o Input from widespread areas of the cerebral cortex, particularly the somatosensory and motor cortex, seems to be especially important. o Most of these descending fibres travel to their reticular terminations in the central tegmental tract. 3. The reticulospinal tracts also carry descending motor commands generated within the reticular formation itself. o The reticular formation contains the neural machinery for considerably complex patterns of movement. o A cat whose brainstem has been surgically separated from its diencephalon can, after a recovery period, assume a variety of complex tasks such as walking and running, and righting itself if tipped over.

Sensory Control
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Reticular neurons exert some control over activity in spinal reflex arcs. They can control over the access of sensory information to ascending pathways. Tonic inhibition of flexor reflexes originates in the reticular formation. The result that only noxious stimuli can normally evoke such a reflex.

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In addition, stimulation of certain regions of the medullary reticular formation causes inhibition of some sensory interneurons and tract cells in the spinal cord. This seems to be important in the regulation of pain perception.

Visceral Control
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Centres controlling inspiration, expiration, and the normal rhythm of breathing have been identified physiologically in the medulla and pons. Other centres controlling heart rate and blood pressure have been identified in the medullary reticular formation.

Control of Consciousness
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Ascending projections from the reticular formation terminate in the thalamus, subthalamus, hypothalamus, and basal ganglia. The functions of most of these are poorly understood, but those to the thalamus seem to be particularly important. They terminate in the intralaminar nuclei, which in turn project to widespread areas of the cortex. Activity in this pathway is essential for the maintenance of a normal state of consciousness. Bilateral damage to these fibres as they traverse or originate in the midbrain reticular formation results in prolonged coma.

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Introduction "From the brain and the brain alone arise our pleasures, joys, laughter and jests, as well as our sorrows, pains and griefs" Hippocrates

The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and the spinal cord the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).

, immersed in

Weighing about 3 pounds (1.4 kilograms), the brain consists of three main structures: the cerebrum the cerebellum and thebrainstem .

Cerebrum - divided into two hemispheres(left and right), each consists of four lobes (frontal, or parietal , occipital and temporal). The outer layer of the brain is known as the cerebral cortex the grey matter. It covers the nuclei deep within the cerebral hemisphere known as the white matter.

Grey matter closely packed neuron cell bodies form the grey matter of the brain. The grey matter includes regions of the brain involved in muscle control, sensory perceptions, such as seeing and hearing, memory, emotions and speech. White matter neuronal tissue containing mainly long, myelinated axons , is known as white matter or the diencephalon. Situated between the brainstem and cerebellum, the white matter consists of structures at the core of the brain such as the thalamus andhypothalamus . The nuclei of the white matter are involved in the relay of sensory information from the rest of the body to the cerebral cortex, as well as in the regulation of autonomic (unconscious) functions such as body temperature, heart rate and blood pressure. Certain nuclei within the white matter are involved in the expression of emotions, the release of hormones from the pituitary gland, and in the regulation of food and water intake. These nuclei are generally considered part of the limbic system .

Cerebellum responsible for psychomotor function, the cerebellum co-ordinates sensory input from the inner ear and the muscles to provide accurate control of position and movement. Brainstem found at the base of the brain, it forms the link between the cerebral cortex, white matter and the spinal cord. The brainstem contributes to the control of breathing, sleep and circulation. Other important areas in the brain include the basal ganglia, thalamus, hypothalamus, ventricles limbic system, and the reticular activating system. Basal Ganglia Collectively the caudate nucleus, putamen and globus pallidusform the basal ganglia, and are involved in movement control. These highly specialised clusters of cells/nuclei are found within the white matter, beneath the cerebral cortex. Thalamus and Hypothalamus The thalamus and hypothalamus are prominent internal structures. The thalamus has wide-ranging connections with the cortex and many other parts of the brain, such as the basal ganglia, hypothalmus and brainstem. It is capable of perceiving pain but not at accurately locating it. The hypothalamus has several important functions, including control of the bodys appetite, sleep patterns, sexual drive and response to anxiety. Ventricles Within the brain there are a number of cavities called ventricles. Ventricles are filled with CSF, which is produced within the ventricle wall. The CSF also surrounds the outer surfaces of the brain and cushions the brain against trauma, maintains and control the extracellular environment, and circulates endocrine hormones. It is the CSF that is removed from the spine when a lumbar puncture (LP) is performed on a patient. Results of an LP can show whether the CSF has normal glucose and electrolyte concentrations and whether there is an infection in or around the brain. Limbic System The limbic system is not a structure, but a series of nerve pathways incorporating structures deep within the temporal lobes, such as the hippocampus and the amygdale. Forming connections with the cerebral cortex, white matter and brainstem, the limbic system is involved in the control and expression of mood ,

and emotion, in the processing and storage of recent memory, and in the control of appetite and emotional responses to food. All these functions are frequently affected in depression and the limbic system has been implicated in the pathogenesis of depression. The limbic system is also linked with parts of the neuroendocrine and autonomic nervous systems, and some neurological disorders, such as anxiety, are associated with both hormonal and autonomic changes. Reticular Activating System At the core of the brainstem is a collection of nuclei called the reticular formation.These nuclei receive input from most of the bodys sensory systems (eg sight, smell, taste, etc) and other parts of the brain, such as the cerebellum and cerebral hemispheres. Some neurons from the reticular formation project to meet motor neurons of the spinal cord and influence functions such as cardiovascular and respiratory control. In addition, there are also neurons projecting into most of the rest of the brain. The ascending fibres of the reticular formation form a network called the reticular activating system, which influence wakefulness, overall degree of arousal and consciousness all factors which may be disturbed in depressed patients. The brain and the different areas of the brain can be illustrated using images of the brain in different orientations or sections. The most commonly used sections are the mid-sagittal (simply, from front to back) and coronal sections. Although extremely complex, the brain is largely made up of only two principal cell types: neurons and glial cells. There are over 100 000 million neurons in the brain and an even greater number of glial cells . It is estimated that there are more than 10 000 million cells in the cerebral cortex alone. Neurons Neurons are involved in information transmission receiving, processing and transmitting information through their highly specialised structure. Neurons consist of a cell body and two types of projections the dendrites and an axon. Most neurons have many dendrites, but only one axon. The majority of neurons are unable to undergo cell division or repair. This limitation results in irreversible damage to the nervous system after trauma, intoxication, oxygen deficiency orstroke. Neurons use their highly specialised structure to both send and receive signals. Individual neurons receive information from thousands of other neurons, and in turn send information to thousands more. Information is passed from one neuron to another via neurotransmission. This is an indirect process that takes place in the area between the nerve ending (nerve terminal) and the next cell body. This area is called the synaptic cleft or synapse. Glia Glial cells are major constituents of the central nervous system, and while they do not have a direct role in neurotransmission, glial cells play a supporting role that helps define synaptic contacts and maintain the signalling abilities of neurons. Various types of glial cells can be found in the brain (or CNS); including astrocytes, oligodendroglia and microglia. The total number of glial cells exceeds that of neurons by approximately three-fold.

Glial cells are smaller than neurons and lack axons and dendrites. The well-defined roles of the glia include: modulating the rate of nerve impulse propagation; controlling the uptake of neurotransmitters; and playing a pivotal role during development and adulthood. Some evidence also suggests that glial cells aid (or, in some cases, prevent) recovery from neuronal injury and that they are involved in a number of diseases, such as Alzheimers disease, multiple sclerosis and other central and peripheral neuropathies.

The occipital lobes are one of the four main lobes or regions of the cerebral cortex. They are positioned at the back region of the cerebral cortex and are the main centers for visual processing. In addition to the occipital lobes, posterior portions of the parietal lobes and temporal lobes are also involved in visual perception. Located within the occipital lobes is the primary visual cortex. This region of the brain receives visual input from the retina. These visual signals are interpreted in the occipital lobes.

Function: The occipital lobes are involved in several functions of the body including: Visual Perception Color Recognition Parietal Lobes

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Function:
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Cognition Information Processing Pain and Touch Sensation Spatial Orientation Speech Visual Perception

Frontal Lobes: The frontal lobes are one of the four main lobes or regions of thecerebral cortex. They are positioned at the frontmost region of the cerebral cortex and are involved in movement, decision-making, problem solving, and planning. There are three main divisions of the frontal lobes. They are the prefrontal cortex, the premotor area and the motor area. The prefrontal cortex is responsible for personality expression and the planning of complex cognitive behaviors. The premotor and motor areas of the frontal lobes contain nerves that control the execution of voluntary muscle movement. Function: The frontal lobes are involved in several functions of the body including: Motor Functions Higher Order Functions

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Planning Reasoning Judgement Impulse Control Memory Temporal Lobes

Function:
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Emotional Responses Hearing Memory Speech

Introduction The brain is the most complex part of the human body. This three-pound organ is the seat of intelligence, interpreter of the senses, initiator of body movement, and controller of behavior. Lying in its bony shell and washed by protective fluid, the brain is the source of all the qualities that define our humanity. The brain is the crown jewel of the human body. For centuries, scientists and philosophers have been fascinated by the brain, but until recently they viewed the brain as nearly incomprehensible. Now, however, the brain is beginning to relinquish its secrets. Scientists have learned more about the brain in the last 10 years than in all previous centuries because of the accelerating pace of research in neurological and behavioral science and the development of new research techniques. As a result, Congress named the 1990s the Decade of the Brain. At the forefront of research on the brain and other elements of the nervous system is the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS), which conducts and supports scientific studies in the United States and around the world. This fact sheet is a basic introduction to the human brain. It may help you understand how the healthy brain works, how to keep it healthy, and what happens when the brain is diseased or dysfunctional.

The Architecture of the Brain The brain is like a committee of experts. All the parts of the brain work together, but each part has its own special properties. The brain can be divided into three basic units: the forebrain, the midbrain, and the hindbrain. The hindbrain includes the upper part of the spinal cord, the brain stem, and a wrinkled ball of tissue called thecerebellum (1). The hindbrain controls the bodys vital functions such as respiration and heart rate. The cerebellum coordinates movement and is involved in learned rote movements. When you play the piano or hit a tennis ball you are activating the cerebellum. The uppermost part of the brainstem is the

midbrain, which controls some reflex actions and is part of the circuit involved in the control of eye movements and other voluntary movements. The forebrain is the largest and most highly developed part of the human brain: it consists primarily of the cerebrum (2) and the structures hidden beneath it (see "The Inner Brain"). When people see pictures of the brain it is usually the cerebrum that they notice. The cerebrum sits at the topmost part of the brain and is the source of intellectual activities. It holds your memories, allows you to plan, enables you to imagine and think. It allows you to recognize friends, read books, and play games. The cerebrum is split into two halves (hemispheres) by a deep fissure. Despite the split, the two cerebral hemispheres communicate with each other through a thick tract of nerve fibers that lies at the base of this fissure. Although the two hemispheres seem to be mirror images of each other, they are different. For instance, the ability to form words seems to lie primarily in the left hemisphere, while the right hemisphere seems to control many abstract reasoning skills. For some as-yet-unknown reason, nearly all of the signals from the brain to the body and vice-versa cross over on their way to and from the brain. This means that the right cerebral hemisphere primarily controls the left side of the body and the left hemisphere primarily controls the right side. When one side of the brain is damaged, the opposite side of the body is affected. For example, a stroke in the right hemisphere of the brain can leave the left arm and leg paralyzed.

The Geography of Thought Each cerebral hemisphere can be divided into sections, or lobes, each of which specializes in different functions. To understand each lobe and its specialty we will take a tour of the cerebral hemispheres, starting with the two frontal lobes (3), which lie directly behind the forehead. When you plan a schedule, imagine the future, or use reasoned arguments, these two lobes do much of the work. One of the ways the frontal lobes seem to do these things is by acting as short-term storage sites, allowing one idea to be kept in mind while other ideas are considered. In the rearmost portion of each frontal lobe is a motor area (4), which helps control voluntary movement. A nearby place on the left frontal lobe called Brocas area (5) allows thoughts to be transformed into words. When you enjoy a good mealthe taste, aroma, and texture of the foodtwo sections behind the frontal lobes called the parietal lobes (6) are at work. The forward parts of these lobes, just behind the motor areas, are the primarysensory areas (7). These areas receive information about temperature, taste, touch, and movement from the rest of the body. Reading and arithmetic are also functions in the repertoire of each parietal lobe. As you look at the words and pictures on this page, two areas at the back of the brain are at work. These lobes, called the occipital lobes (8), process images from the eyes and link that information with images stored in memory. Damage to the occipital lobes can cause blindness. The last lobes on our tour of the cerebral hemispheres are the temporal lobes (9), which lie in front of the visual areas and nest under the parietal and frontal lobes. Whether you appreciate symphonies or rock music, your brain responds through the activity of these lobes. At the top of each temporal lobe is an area responsible for receiving information from the ears. The underside of each temporal lobe plays a crucial role in forming and retrieving memories, including those associated with music. Other parts of this lobe seem to integrate memories and sensations of taste, sound, sight, and touch.

The Cerebral Cortex Coating the surface of the cerebrum and the cerebellum is a vital layer of tissue the thickness of a stack of two or three dimes. It is called the cortex, from the Latin word for bark. Most of the actual information processing in the brain takes place in the cerebral cortex. When people talk about "gray matter" in the brain they are talking about this thin rind. The cortex is gray because nerves in this area lack the insulation that makes most other parts of the brain appear to be white. The folds in the brain add to its surface area and therefore increase the amount of gray matter and the quantity of information that can be processed.

The Inner Brain Deep within the brain, hidden from view, lie structures that are the gatekeepers between the spinal cord and the cerebral hemispheres. These structures not only determine our emotional state, they also modify our perceptions and responses depending on that state, and allow us to initiate movements that you make without thinking about them. Like the lobes in the cerebral hemispheres, the structures described below come in pairs: each is duplicated in the opposite half of the brain. The hypothalamus (10), about the size of a pearl, directs a multitude of important functions. It wakes you up in the morning, and gets the adrenaline flowing during a test or job interview. The hypothalamus is also an important emotional center, controlling the molecules that make you feel exhilarated, angry, or unhappy. Near the hypothalamus lies thethalamus (11), a major clearinghouse for information going to and from the spinal cord and the cerebrum. An arching tract of nerve cells leads from the hypothalamus and the thalamus to the hippocampus (12). This tiny nub acts as a memory indexersending memories out to the appropriate part of the cerebral hemisphere for long-term storage and retrieving them when necessary. The basal ganglia (not shown) are clusters of nerve cells surrounding the thalamus. They are responsible for initiating and integrating movements. Parkinsons disease, which results in tremors, rigidity, and a stiff, shuffling walk, is a disease of nerve cells that lead into the basal ganglia.

Making Connections The brain and the rest of the nervous system are composed of many different types of cells, but the primary functional unit is a cell called the neuron. All sensations, movements, thoughts, memories, and feelings are the result of signals that pass through neurons. Neurons consist of three parts. The cell body (13) contains the nucleus, where most of the molecules that the neuron needs to survive and function are manufactured. Dendrites (14) extend out from the cell body like the branches of a tree and receive messages from other nerve cells. Signals then pass from the dendrites through the cell body and may travel away from the cell body down an axon (15) to another neuron, a muscle cell, or cells in some other organ. The neuron is usually surrounded by many support cells. Some types of cells wrap around the axon to form an insulating sheath (16). This sheath can include a fatty molecule called myelin, which provides insulation for the axon and helps nerve signals travel faster and farther. Axons may be very short, such as those that carry signals from one cell in the cortex to another cell less than a hairs width

away. Or axons may be very long, such as those that carry messages from the brain all the way down the spinal cord.

Scientists have learned a great deal about neurons by studying the synapsethe place where a signal passes from the neuron to another cell. When the signal reaches the end of the axon it stimulates tiny sacs (17). These sacs release chemicals known as neurotransmitters (18) into the synapse (19). The neurotransmitters cross the synapse and attach to receptors (20) on the neighboring cell. These receptors can change the properties of the receiving cell. If the receiving cell is also a neuron, the signal can continue the transmission to the next cell.

Some Key Neurotransmitters at Work Acetylcholine is called an excitatory neurotransmitter because it generally makes cells more excitable. It governs muscle contractions and causes glands to secrete hormones. Alzheimers disease, which initially affects memory formation, is associated with a shortage of acetylcholine. GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) is called an inhibitory neurotransmitter because it tends to make cells less excitable. It helps control muscle activity and is an important part of the visual system. Drugs that increase GABA levels in the brain are used to treat epileptic seizures and tremors in patients with Huntingtons disease. Serotonin is an inhibitory neurotransmitter that constricts blood vessels and brings on sleep. It is also involved in temperature regulation. Dopamine is an inhibitory neurotransmitter involved in mood and the control of complex movements. The loss of dopamine activity in some portions of the brain leads to the muscular rigidity of Parkinsons disease. Many medications used to treat behavioral disorders work by modifying the action of dopamine in the brain..
LEFT BRAIN FUNCTIONS knows object name reality based uses logic detail oriented facts rule words and language present and past math and science can comprehend knowing acknowledges order/pattern perception uses feeling "big picture" oriented imagination rules symbols and images RIGHT BRAIN FUNCTIONS forms strategies practical safe present and future philosophy & religion can "get it" (i.e. meaning) believes appreciates spatial perception knows object function fantasy based presents possibilities impetuous