Phrase Phrase A phrase is defined as a group of related words that lacks both subject and verb.

A phrase is a part of a sentence. It is a group of words (within a sentence) that does not contain both subject and verb, and does not express a complete idea. Example: He is standing near a wall. The part of above sentence near a wall is a phrase because it does not contain subject and verb, and does not express a complete idea. A phrase does not include both subject and verb at a same time and does not make a complete sense, hence a phrase cannot stand as a sentence on its own. If a group of words include both subject and verb then it becomes a clause, so the difference in a clause and a phrase is that a clause contains subject and verb but a phrase does not contain subject and verb. Here are some examples of phrases. He is laughing at a joker. She is making tea for the guests. I saw a girl with blue eyes. He always behaves in a strange way. The boy in the red shirt is my cousin. The boy, with a book in his hand, won a prize. A sentence may consist of one or more phrases. For example, The boy in the red shirt behaves in a strange way. A phrase functions as a noun, adverb, or adjective in a sentence, therefore a phrase is also defined as a group of words (lacking subject and verb), that functions as a single part of speech, in a sentence. Examples He is wearing a nice read shirt. The people at the party were dancing. The man in the room is our teacher. She gave me a glass full of water. He always behaves in a strange way. He returned in a short while. (as a noun/object) (as a noun/subject) (as adjective, modifies noun man) (as adjective, modifies noun glass) (as adverb, modifies verb behave) (as adverb, modifies verb return)

On the basis of their functions and constructions, phrases are divided into various types i.e. noun phrase, verb phrase, adverb phrase, adjective phrase, appositive phrase, infinite phrase, participle phrase and gerund phrase.

Types of Phrases A phrase is a group of related words (within a sentence) without both subject and verb. For example, He is laughing at the joker. A phrase functions as a noun, verb, adverb, adjective or preposition in a sentence. The function of a phrase depends on its construction (words it contains). On the basis of their functions and constructions, phrases are divided into various types i.e. noun phrase, verb phrase, adverb phrase, adjective phrase, appositive phrase, infinite phrase, participle phrase and gerund phrase. Noun Phrase A noun phrase consists of a noun and other related words (usually modifiers and determiners) which modify the noun. It functions like a noun in a sentence. A noun phrase consists of a noun as the head word and other words (usually modifiers and determiners) which come after or before the noun. The whole phrase works as a noun in a sentence. Noun Phrase = noun + modifiers (the modifiers can be after or before noun) Examples:

Examples: He is wearing a nice red shirt. (as noun/object) She brought a glass full of water. (as noun/object) The boy with brown hair is laughing (as noun/subject) A man on the roof was shouting. (as noun/subject) A sentence can also contain more noun phrases. For example: The girl with blue eyes bought a beautiful chair. Prepositional phrase A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition, object of preposition(noun or pronoun) and may also consist of other modifiers. e.g. on a table, near a wall, in the room, at the door, under a tree A prepositional phrase starts with a preposition and mostly ends with a noun or pronoun. Whatever prepositional phrase ends with is called object of preposition. A prepositional phrase functions as an adjective or adverb in a sentence. Examples: A boy on the roof is singing a song. The man in the room is our teacher. (As adjective) (As adjective)

She is shouting in a loud voice. He always behaves in a good manner. Adjective Phrase

(As adverb) (As adverb)

An adjective phrase is a group of words that functions like an adjective in a sentence. It consists of adjectives, modifier and any word that modifies a noun or pronoun. An adjective phrase functions like an adjective to modify (or tell about) a noun or a pronoun in a sentence. Examples. He is wearing a nice red shirt. (modifies shirt) The girl with brown hair is singing a song. (modifies girl) He gave me a glass full of water. (modifies glass) A boy from America won the race. (modifies boy) Prepositional phrases and participle phrases also function as adjectives so we can also call them adjective phrases when they function as adjective. In the above sentence The girl with brown hair is singing a song, the phrase with brown hair is a prepositional phrase but it functions as an adjective. Adverb Phrase An adverb phrase is a group of words that functions as an adverb in a sentence. It consists of adverbs or other words (preposition, noun, verb, modifiers) that make a group with works like an adverb in a sentence. An adverb phrase functions like an adverb to modify a verb, an adjective or another adverb. Examples He always behaves in a good manner. They were shouting in a loud voice. She always drives with care. He sat in a corner of the room. He returned in a short while. (modifies verb behave) (modifies verb shout) (modifies verb drive) (modifies verb sit) (modifies verb return)

A prepositional phrase can also act as an adverb phrase. For example in above sentence He always behaves in a good manner, the phrase in a good manner is a prepositional phrase but it acts as adverb phrase here. Verb Phrase A verb phrase is a combination of main verb and its auxiliaries (helping verbs) in a sentence. Examples. He is eating an apple. She has finished her work. You should study for the exam. She has been sleeping for two hours.

According to generative grammar, a verb phrase can consist of main verb, its auxiliaries, its complements and other modifiers. Hence it can refer to the whole predicate of a sentence. Example. You should study for the exam. Infinitive Phrase An infinitive phrase consist of an infinitive(to + simple form of verb) and modifiers or other words associated to the infinitive. An infinitive phrase always functions as an adjective, adverb or a noun in a sentence. Examples. He likes to read books. To earn money is a desire of everyone. He shouted to inform people about fire. He made a plan to buy a car. Gerund Phrase A gerund phrase consists of a gerund(verb + ing) and modifiers or other words associated with the gerund. A gerund phrase acts as a noun in a sentence. Examples I like writing good essays. She started thinking about the problem. Sleeping late in night is not a good habit. Weeping of a baby woke him up. Participle Phrase A participle phrase consists of a present participle (verb + ing), a past participle (verb ending in -ed or other form in case of irregular verbs) and modifiers or other associate words. A participle phrase is separated by commas. It always acts as an adjective in a sentence. Examples The kids, making a noise, need food. (modifies kids) I received a letter, mentioning about my exam. (modifies letter) The table, made of steel, is too expensive. (modifies table) We saw a car, damaged in an accident. (modifies car) Absolute Phrase Absolute phrase (also called nominative phrase) is a group of words including a noun or pronoun and a participle as well as any associated modifiers. Absolute phrase modifies (give information about) the entire sentence. It resembles a clause but it lack a true finite verb. It is separated by a comma or pairs of commas from the rest sentence. Examples He looks sad, his face expressing worry. She was waiting for her friend, her eyes on the clock. John is painting a wall, his shirt dirty with paint. (As noun/object) (As noun/object) (As noun/subject) (As noun/subject) (As noun/object) (As noun/subject) (As adverb, modifies verb shout) (As adjective, modifies noun plan)

Clause Clause A clause is a group of related words containing a subject and a predicate For example, he laughed. A clause refers to a group of related words (within a sentence or itself as an independent sentence) which has both subject and predicate. Example: I will meet him in office. The part of above sentence I will meet him is a clause because it has a subject (I) and a predicate (will meet him). On the other hand, the rest part of above sentence in office lacks both subject and predicate (verb) such group of word is called phrase. A clause may stand as a simple sentence or may join another clause to make a sentence. Therefore, a sentence consists of one, two or more clauses. Examples. He is sleeping. The kids were laughing at the joker. The teacher asked a question, but no one answered. I am happy, because I won a prize. I like Mathematics, but my brother likes Biology, because he wants to become a doctor. (one clause) (one clause) (two clauses) (two clauses) (three clauses)

Clauses are divided into main clause (also called independent clause) and subordinate clause (also called dependent clauses). Types of Clauses There are two major types of clauses main (or independent) clause and subordinate (or dependant) clause. Main Clause and Subordinate Clause Comparison He is buying a shirt which looks very nice. The above sentence has two clauses He is buying a shirt and which looks very nice. The clause He is buying a shirt expresses a complete thought and can alone stand as a sentence. Such a clause is called main or independent clause. While the clause which looks very nice does not express a complete thought and cant stand as a sentence. It depends on another clause (main clause) to express complete idea. Such a clause is called subordinate or dependent clause. Main or Independent Clause

Main (or independent) clause is a clause that expresses a complete thought and can stand as a sentence. Examples I met the boy who had helped me. She is wearing a shirt which looks nice. The teacher asked a question but no one answered. He takes medicine because he suffers from fever. He became angry and smashed the vase into peaces. In the above sentences each underlined part shows main clause. It expresses complete though and can stand as a sentence that is why a main or an independent clause is normally referred as a simple sentence. Subordinate or dependent Clause Subordinate (or independent) clause is a clause which does not express complete thought and depends on another clause (main clause) to express complete thought. Subordinate clause does not express complete idea and cant stand as a sentence. A sentence having a subordinate clause must have a main clause. Example He likes Chinese rice which tastes good. The clause which tastes good in above sentence is a subordinate clause because it does not express complete thought and cant stand as a sentence. It depends on main clause (he likes Chinese rise) to express complete thought. Examples. I met the boy who had helped me. I bought a table that costs $ 100. He takes medicine because he suffers from fever. The teacher asked a question but no one answered. Subordinate (or dependent) clauses are further divided into tree types, 1. Noun Phrase, 2. Adjective Phrase, 3. Adverb Phrase Types of Subordinate Clause Functions of Subordinate Clause. A subordinate (dependent) clause may function as a noun, an adjective or an adverb in sentence. On the basis of their function in a sentence, subordinate clauses can be divided in to following types. 1. Noun Clause 2. Adjective Clause. 3. Adverb Clause Noun Clause

A dependent clause that functions as a noun in a sentence is called noun clause. A noun clause performs same function like a noun in a sentence. Example What he did made a problem for his family. In above sentence the clause what he did functions as a noun, hence it is a noun clause. A noun clause works as a noun that acts as a subject, object, or predicate in a sentence. A noun clause starts with words that, what, whatever, who, whom, whoever, whomever. Examples Whatever you learn will help you in future. (noun clause as a subject) What you said made me laugh. (noun clause as a subject) He knows that he will pass the test. (noun clause as an object) Now I realize what he would have thought. (noun clause as an object) Adjective Clause A dependent clause that functions as an adjective in a sentence is called adjective clause. An adjective clause works like adjective in a sentence. The function of an adjective is to modify (describe) a noun or a pronoun. Similarly a noun clause modifies a noun or a pronoun. Example He wears a shirt which looks nice. The clause which looks nice in above sentence is an adjective clause because it modifies noun shirt in the sentence. An adjective clause always precedes the noun it modifies. Examples. I met the boy who had helped me. An apple that smells bad is rotten. The book which I like is helpful in preparation for test. The house where I live consists of four rooms. The person who was shouting needed help. Adjective clause begins with relative pronoun (that, who, whom, whose, which, or whose) and is also relative clause. Adjective (relative) clauses can be restrictive clause or nonrestrictive clause Restrictive and Nonrestrictive Clauses Adjective (relative) clauses can be restrictive clause or nonrestrictive clause. A restrictive clause limits the meaning of preceding noun or pronoun. A nonrestrictive clause tells us something about preceding noun or pronoun but does not limit the meaning of preceding noun or pronoun.

Example The student in the class who studied a lot passed the test. (restrictive clause) The student in the class, who had attended all the lectures, passed the (nonrestrictive clause) test.

In the first sentence the clause who studied a lot restrict information to preceding noun(student), it means that there is only one student in the class who studied a lot, hence it is a restrictive clause. In the second sentence the clause who had attended all the lectures gives us information about preceding noun but does not limit this information to the preceding noun. It means there can be several other students in the class who had attended all the lectures. A comma is always used before a restrictive clause in a sentence and also after nonrestrictive clause if it is within a main clause. That is usually used to introduce a restrictive clause while which is used to introduce a nonrestrictive clause. Example The table that costs $ 100 is made of steel. The table, which costs $ 100, is made of steel. Adverb Clause A dependent clause that functions as an adverb in a sentence is called adverb clause An adverb clause like an adverb modifies a verb, adjective clause or other adverb clause in a sentence. It modifies(describes) the situation in main clause in terms of time, frequency (how often), cause and effect, contrast, condition, intensity (to what extent). The subordinating conjunctions used for adverb clauses are as follows. Time: when, whenever, since, until, before, after, while, as, by the time, as soon as Cause and effect: because, since, now that, as long as, so, so that, Contrast: although, even, whereas, while, though Condition: if, unless, only if, whether or not, even if, providing or provided that, in case Examples. Dont go before he comes. He takes medicine because he is ill. Although he tried a lot, he couldnt climb up the tree. Unless you study for the test, you cant pass it. I will go to the school unless it rains. You are safe as long as you drive carefully. You can achieve anything provided that you struggle for it. (restrictive clause) (nonrestrictive clause)

Phrase and Clause Comparison Definitions A clause is defined as a group of related words that contains a subject and predicate (verb). e.g. he came. A phrase is defined as a group of related words that does not contain a subject and a verb. e.g. on the table. Consider the following example. He is laughing at a joker. The above sentence has two parts he is laughing and at a joker. The first part of the sentence he is laughing is a clause because it has a subject (he) and a predicate (is laughing). The second part of the sentence at a joker is a phrase because it does not contain subject and verb. The difference between a clause and a phrase is that a clause consists of both subject and verb, but a phrase lacks a subject and verb. Examples. The underlined part of each of following sentences shows a clause, while the rest part (nonunderlined) of each sentence shows a phrase. He reached school in time. I was standing near a wall. They are singing in a loud voice. She made tea for the guests. He a bought a book for his friend. I will meet him in my office. You look handsome in this picture.

Adverb Adverb is a word which modifies (gives more information about) a verb or adjective or other adverb. For example, He replied. He replied quickly. The word quickly is an adverb which gives more information about verb reply in the above example. The adverb quickly in above example tells us about the verb reply that the reply was given quickly or with no time delay. Similarly an adverb may also modify adjective or other adverb or other part of speech except the noun. Examples (adverbs modifying verbs). He was driving carelessly. John can speak French fluently. They live happily. Marry is laughing loudly. He goes to school daily. We sometimes get confused. He met me yesterday. Guests will come here. Examples (adverbs modifying adjectives). Note: The bold words (in following examples) are adverbs and the underlined words are adjectives. It is a very difficult problem. He is seriously ill. This book is really nice. The story of crazy man was truly funny. You are too weak to walk. Examples (adverbs modifying other adverbs). Note: The bold word (in following examples) is an adverb and underlined word is the other adverb. John drives very slowly. He was talking too much angrily. He ran fast enough to catch the bus. They live very happily.

Formation of adverb
1. Most of adverbs are formed by adding -ly to adjectives. For example, happily,

easily, quickly, angrily, correctly, fluently, proudly, loudly, rapidly, immediately etc
1. A few adverbs exists without -ly. For example, fast, slow, deep, far, hard, high,

wrong, right, low, well, tight, straight, there, here, close, late, very, too, not Examples. Adverbs of Manner Happily Sadly Easily Rudely Loudly Fluently Rapidly Angrily Greedily Wildly Adverbs of Place Here There Near Somewhere Outside Inside Ahead High Top Bottom Adverbs of Time Now Then Yesterday Today Tomorrow Late Early Again Tonight Soon Adverbs of Frequency Sometimes Often Usually Seldom Frequently Daily Generally Occasionally Again and again Never

Types/Kinds of Adverb Adverb modifies verb by giving us the following information. How the action occurs Where the action occurs How many times action occur At which time the action occurs Intensity of action Adverbs are categorized on the basis of it information it gives, into the following categories. 1. 2. 3. 4. Adverbs of manner Adverb of place Adverb of time Adverb of frequency

Active and Passive Voice

There are two ways to express an action of a subject in relation to its object

Active voice Passive voice

In active voice subject acts upon object, while in passive voice object is acted upon by subject. It can also be said, in active voice subject does a work on object, while in passive voice object is worked on by subject. The normal structure of an active voice sentence is subject+verb+object but in passive the normal structure of sentence is reversed according to certain rules and becomes like object+verb+subject. The real meaning of a sentence does not change if the sentence is expressed either by active voice or by passive voice. The active voice is mostly used in writing because it gives a direct and more concise meaning. Passive voice is used sometimes due to the following reasons.

When intentionally hiding the subject of sentence. For example, a student who failed in exam might say, some chapters were not studied.

Another example. Women were not treated as equals

When passive voice better explain thought of sentence. For example, to say, cloth is sold in yards, is more meaningful than to say, Shop keepers sell cloth in yards. When passive voice better emphasizes the main though of the sentence. For example, a man who is being teased by another person might say in anger, you will be beaten by me When subject is not exactly known. For example, His watch was stolen. It is not known that who stole his watch, the subject (thief) is not exactly known so it is better to use passive voice for such sentence.

There are certain rules for expressing a thought in passive voice or for changing a sentence from active voice to passive voice. Fundamental Rules for changing from active voice to passive voice

The places of subject and object are interchanged i.e. the object shifts to the place of subject and subject shifts to the place of object in passive voice.

Example. Active voice: I write a letter. Passive voice: I letter is written by me. Subject (I) of sentence shifted to the place of object (letter) and object (letter) shifted to the place of subject (I) in passive voice.

Sometimes subject of sentence is not used in passive voice. Subject of sentence can be omitted in passive voice, if without subject it can give enough meaning in passive voice.

Examples. Passive voice: cloth is sold in yards

3rd form of verb (past participle) is always used as main verb in sentences of passive voice for all tenses. Base form of verb or present participle will be never used in passive voice. The word by is used before subject in sentences in passive voice.

Example. Active voice: He sings a song. Passive voice: A song is sung by him.

The word by is not always used before subject in passive voice. Sometimes words with, to, etc may also be used before subject in passive voice.

Examples. Active voice: The water fills the tub. Passive voice: The tub is filled with water. Active voice: He knows me. Passive voice: I am known to him.

Auxiliary verbs are used passive voice according to the tense of sentence.

Note: First 5 rules are usually same for all tenses in passive voice. Rule No. 6 is about the use of auxiliary verb in passive voice which differs for each tense. The auxiliary verbs of passive voice are used according to tense of sentence of its active voice form. The auxiliary verb for each tense is given in the following table with explanation and examples.

PASSIVE VOICE FOR ALL TENSES RULES

The places of subject and object in sentence are inter-changed in passive voice. 3rd form of verb (past participle) will be used only (as main verb) in passive voice. Auxiliary verbs for each tense are given below in the table.

Present Simple Tense (passive Voice) Auxiliary verb in passive voice: am/is/are Passive voice: Active voice: A song is sung by him. He sings a song. A song is not sung by him. He does not sing a song.Does he sing a song? Is a song sung by him?

Present Continuous Tense (passive Voice) Auxiliary verb in passive voice: am being/is being/are being Active voice: I am writing a letter I am not writing a letter. Passive voice: A letter is being written by me. A letter is not being written by me.

Am I writing a letter?

Is a letter being written by me?

Present Perfect Tense (passive Voice) Auxiliary verb in passive voice: has been/have been Active voice: She has finished his work She has not finished her work. Has she finished her work? Passive voice: Her work has been finished by her. Her work has not been finished by her. Has her work been finished by her?

Past Simple Tense (passive Voice) Auxiliary verb in passive voice: was/were Active voice: I killed a snake I did not kill a snake. Did I kill a snake? Passive voice: A snake was killed by me. A snake was not killed by me. Was a snake killed by me?

Past Continuous Tense (Passive Voice) Auxiliary verb in passive voice: was being/were being Active voice: He was driving a car. He was not driving a car. Was he driving a car? Passive voice: A car was being driven by him. A car was not being driven by him. Was a car being driven by him?

Past Perfect Tense (Passive Voice) Auxiliary verb in passive voice: had been Active voice: They had completed the assignment. They had not completed the assignment. Had they completed the assignment? Passive voice: The assignment had been completed by them. The assignment had not been complete by them. Had the assignment been completed by them?

Future Simple Tense (Passive Voice) Auxiliary verb in passive voice: will be

Active voice: She will buy a car. She will not buy a car. Will she buy a car?

Passive voice: A car will be bought by her. A car will not be bought by her. Will a car be bought by her?

Future Perfect Tense (passive Voice) Auxiliary verb in passive voice: will have been Active voice: You will have started the job. You will have not started the job. Will you have started the job? Passive voice: The job will have been started by you. The job will not have been started by you. Will the job have been started by you?

Note: The following tenses cannot be changed into passive voice. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Present perfect continuous tense Past perfect continuous tense Future continuous tense Future perfect continuous tense Sentence having Intransitive verbs

Fundamental Rules

The places of subject and object in sentence are inter-changed in passive voice. 3rd form of verb (past participle) will be used only (as main verb) in passive voice. Auxiliary verbs for each tense are given below in the table.

Passive voice for Present/Future Modals CAN, MAY, MIGHT, SHOULD, MUST, OUGHT TO

The places of subject and object in sentence are inter-changed in passive voice. 3rd form of verb (past participle) will be used only (as main verb) in passive voice. To change sentences having present/future modal into passive voice, auxiliary verb be is added after modal in sentence.

Passive voice for Present/Future Modals CAN, MAY, MIGHT, SHOULD, MUST, OUGHT TO Auxiliary verb in passive voice: be Active voice: CAN She can play a violin. She cannot play a violin. Can she play a violin? Active voice: MAY I may buy the computer. I may not buy the computer. Passive voice: CAN BE A violin can be played by her. A violin cannot be played by her. Can a violin be played by her? Active voice: MAY BE The computer may be bought by me. The computer may not be bought by me.

May I buy the computer? Active voice: MIGHT Guests might play chess. Guests might not play chess. Active voice: SHOULD Students should study all lessons. Students should not study all lessons. Should students study all lessons?

May the computer be bought by me? Active voice: MIGHT BE Chess might be played by guests. Chess might not be played guests. Active voice: SHOULD BE All lessons should be studied by students. All lessons should not be studied by students. Should all lessons be studied by students? Active voice: MUST BE Active voice: MUST Test-taking strategies must be learnt by you. You must learn the test-taking strategies. Test-taking strategies must not be learned by You must not learn the test-taking strategies. you. Active voice: OUGHT TO Active voice: OUGHT TO BE They ought to take the examination. The examination ought to be taken by them. Passive voice for Past Modals MAY HAVE, MIGHT HAVE, SHOULD HAVE, MUST HAVE, OUGHT TO HAVE

The places of subject and object in sentence are inter-changed in passive voice. 3rd form of verb (past participle) will be used only (as main verb) in passive voice. To change sentences having past modal into passive voice, auxiliary verb been is added after modal in sentence.

Passive voice for Present/Future Modals MAY HAVE, MIGHT HAVE, SHOULD HAVE, MUST HAVE, OUGHT HAVE TO Auxiliary verb in passive voice: been Active voice: MAY HAVE You may have availed the opportunity. You may not have availed the opportunity. Active voice: MIGHT HAVE He might have eaten meal. He might not have eaten meal. Active voice: SHOULD HAVE You should have studied the book. You should not have studied the book. Active voice: MUST HAVE He must have started job. He must not have started job. Active voice: OUGHT TO HAVE You ought to have helped him. Active voice: MAY HAVE BEEN The opportunity may have been availed by you. The opportunity may not have been availed by you. Active voice: MIGHT HAVE BEEN Meal might have been eaten by him. Meal might not have been eaten by him. Active voice: SHOULD HAVE BEEN The book should have been studied by you. The book should have not been studied by you. Active voice: MUST HAVE BEEN Job must have been started by you. Job must not have been started by you. Active voice: OUGHT TO HAVE BEEN He ought to have been helped by you

Passive voice of imperative sentences (Command and request) A sentence which expresses command or request or advice is called imperative sentence. For example, Open the door. Turn off the television. Learn your lesson. For changing these sentences in to passive voice, auxiliary verb be is used. The word Let is added before sentence in passive voice. Auxiliary verb be is added after object in sentence in passive voice. Main verb (base form) of imperative sentence is changed to 3rd form of verb (past participle) in passive voice. For best understand read the following examples. Examples Passive voice of Imperative Sentences Active Voice Open the door. Complete the work. Turn off the television. Learn your lesson. Kill the snake. Punish him. Speak the truth. Help the poor. Revise your book. Clean your room. Passive Voice Let the door be opened. Let the worked be completed. Let the television be tuned off. Let your lesson be learnt. Let the snake be killed. Let him be punished. Let the truth be spoken. Let the poor be helped. Let your book be revised. Let your room be cleaned.

Sentences which cannot be changed into passive voice Transitive and intransitive verb A verb can be either transitive or intransitive. A transitive verb needs an object (in sentence) to give complete meaning while intransitive verb does need an object (in sentence) to give complete meaning. For example, Transitive verb. He sent a letter. (Send is a transitive verb and it needs an object i.e. letter to express full meaning.)

Intransitive Verb. He laughs. (Laugh is an intransitive verb and it does not need object for expressing full meaning.) e.g. Sleep, go, reach, sit, die, are examples of intransitive verbs. Intransitive verb cannot be changed into passive voice The sentences having intransitive verbs (belonging to any tense) cannot be changed into passive voice. The reason is that there is not any object in such sentences and without object of sentence passive voice is not possible. A sentence can be changed into passive voice if it has subject and object. Sometimes subject may not be written in passive voice but it does not mean that it has no subject. Such sentences have subject but the subject is so common or familiar or known that if even it is not written in passive voice, it gives full meaning. For example Cloth is sold in yards. The following tenses can also not be changed into passive voice. 1. 2. 3. 4. Present perfect continuous tense Past perfect continuous tense Future continuous tense Future perfect continuous tense

Interjection Interjections are short words which show strong feeling or emotions. e.g. oh, ah, wow, hurrah, alas, ouch, Oops, aha, hey, etc Interjections are short exclamations which express strong or sudden feeling of

Joy Sorrow Wonder

Exclamation sign is used after interjections. Examples. Hurrah! We won the competition. Ouch ! It hurts. Wow! What a nice shirt. Hey ! what are you doing? Alas! My parents are dead. Oh! I forgot to bring my purse.

Besides these specific interjections, a normal word can also be used as interjection if it is used to express feeling or emotion. No! Dont touch it, its hot. What! I am selected for the job? Help! I am about to fall. Well ! I will try my level best. Direct and indirect speech Introduction There two ways to convey a message of a person or the words spoken by a person to other person 1. Direct speech 2. Indirect speech Suppose your friend whose name is John tells you in school, I will give you a pen. You come to home and you want to tell your brother what your friend told you. There are two ways to tell him. Direct speech: John said, I will give you a pen. Indirect Speech: John said that he would give me a pen. In direct speech the original words of person are narrated (no change is made) and are enclosed in quotation mark. While in indirect speech some changes are made in original words of the person because these words have been uttered in past so the tense will change accordingly and pronoun may also be changed accordingly. In indirect speech the statement of the person is not enclosed in quotation marks, the word that may be used before the statement to show that it is indirect speech. Indirect speech is also called reported speech because reported speech refers to the second part of indirect speech in which something has been told by a person. Reporting verb: The verb first part of sentence (i.e. he said, she said, he says, they said, she says,) before the statement of a person in sentence is called reporting verb. Examples. In all of the following example the reporting verb is said. He said, I work in a factory (Direct speech) He said that he worked in a factory. (Indirect speech) They said, we are going to cinema (Direct speech) They said that they were going to cinema. (Indirect speech) Reported Speech. The second part of indirect speech in which something has been told by a person (which is enclosed in quotation marks in direct speech) is called reported speech. For example, a sentence of indirect speech is, He said that he worked in a factory. In this sentence the second part he worked in a factory is called reported speech and that is why the indirect speech as a whole can also be called reported speech. Fundamental rules for indirect speech.

1. Reported speech is not enclosed in quotation marks. 2. Use of word that: The word that is used as a conjunction between the reporting verb and reported speech. 3. Change in pronoun: The pronoun (subject) of the reported speech is changed according to the pronoun of reporting verb or object (person) of reporting verb (first part of sentence). Sometimes the pronoun may not change. In following example the pronoun of reported speech is I which will be changed in indirect speech into the pronoun (Subject) of reporting verb that is he. Example. Direct speech: He said, I am happy Indirect Speech: He said that he was happy. Direct speech: I said to him, you are intelligent Indirect Speech: I said him that he was intelligent. (You changed to he the person of object of reporting verb)
1. Change in time: Time is changed according to certain rules like now to then, today to

that day, tomorrow to next day and yesterday to previous day. Examples. Direct speech: He said, I am happy today Indirect Speech: He said that he was happy that day.
1. Change in the tense of reported speech: If the first part of sentence (reporting verb

part) belongs to past tense the tense of reported speech will change. If the first part of sentence (reporting verb part) belongs to present or future tense, the tense of reported speech will not change. Examples. Direct speech: He said, I am happy Indirect Speech: He said that he was happy. (Tense of reported speech changed) Direct speech: He says, I am happy Indirect Speech: He said that he is happy. (Tense of reported speech didnt change) Change in tense is made according to rules of indirect speech which are given in table below. Table for change in tense of reported speech for all TENSES. TENSE CHANGE - IN - INDIRECT SPEECH Present simple tense into Past simple Present Continuous tense into Past continuous Present Perfect tense into Pas perfect Present Perfect Continuous into Past perfect continuous Past simple into Past Perfect Past Continuous into Past Perfect Continuous Past Perfect into Past Perfect Future simple, will into would

Future Continuous, will be into would be Future Perfect, will have into would have Examples. DIRECT SPEECH INDIRECT SPEECH PRESENT TENSE PRESENT SIMPLE changes into PAST SIMPLE He said, I write a letter He said that he wrote a letter. She said, he goes to school daily He said that she went to school daily. They said, we love our country They said that they loved their country He said, he does not like computer He said that he did not like computer. PRESENT CONTINUOUS changes into PAST CONTINUOUS He said, he is listening to the music He said that he was listening to the music. She said, I am washing my clothes She said that she was washing her clothes. They said, we are enjoying the weather They said that they were not enjoying the I said, it is raining weather. She said, I am not laughing She said that she was not laughing. PRESENT PERFECT changes into PAST PERFECT She said, he has finished his work She said that he had finished his work. He said, I have started a job He said that he had started a job. I said, she have eaten the meal I said that she had eaten the meal. They said, we have not gone to New York. They said that they had not gone to New York. PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS changes into PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS He said, I have been studying since 3 He said that he had been studying since 3 Oclock Oclock. She said, It has been raining for three days. She said that it been raining for three days. I said, She has been working in this office I said that she had been working in this office since 2007 since 2007. PAST TENSE PAST SIMPLE changes into PAST PERFECT He said to me, you answered correctly He said to me that I had answered correctly. John said, they went to cinema John said that they had gone to cinema. He said, I made a table He said that he had made a table. She said, I didnt buy a car She said that she had not bought a car. PAST CONTINUOUS changes into PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS They said, we were enjoying the weather They said that they had been enjoying. He said to me, I was waiting for you He said to me that he had been waiting for me. I said, It was raining I said that it had been raining. She said, I was not laughing She said that she not been laughing. PAST PERFECT changes into PAST PERFECT (tense does not change) She said, She had visited a doctor She said that she had visited a doctor. He said, I had started a business He said that he had started a business. I said, she had eaten the meal I said that she had eaten the meal. They said, we had not gone to New York. They said they had not gone to New York.

FUTURE TENSE FUTURE SIMPLE TENSE WILL changes into WOULD He said, I will study the book She said, I will buy a computer They said to me, we will send you gifts I said, I will not take the exam FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE WILL BE changes into WOULD BE I said to him, I will be waiting for him She said, I will be shifting to new home He said that he would study the book. She said that she would buy a computer. They said to me that they would send you gifts. I said that I would not take the exam.

He said, I will be working hard He said, he will not be flying kite FUTURE PERFECT TENSE WILL HAVE changes into WOULD HAVE He said, I will have finished the work He said that he would have finished the work. She said, they will have passed the She said that they would have passed the examination examination. He said, I will have gone He said that he would have gone. Note: The tense of reported speech may not change if reported speech is a universal truth though its reporting verb belongs to past tense. Examples. Direct speech: He said, Mathematics is a science Indirect Speech: He said that mathematics is a science. Direct speech: He said, Sun rises in east Indirect Speech: He said that sun rises in east. (Tense didnt change because reported speech is a universal truth thought its reporting verb belongs to past tense) Indirect speech for Interrogative (question) sentence. For changing interrogative (question) sentence into indirect speech we have to observe the nature of question and then change it into indirect speech according to it rules for indirect speech. A question can be of two types. One type which can be answered in only YES or NO and other type which needs a little bit explanation for its answer and cannot be answered in only YES or NO. Examples Do you like music? (It can be answered in YES or NO) How are you? (It cannot be answered in YES or NO but it needs a little bit explanation i.e, I am fine.) Questions which can be answered in YES/NO.

I said to him that I would be waiting for him. She said that she would be shifting to a new home. He said that he would be working hard. She said that he would not be flying kites.

To change questions (which can be answered in yes or no) into indirect speech, word if or whether is used before the question in indirect speech. Rules for change in tense of question sentences are same as for change in normal tenses in indirect speech but sentence will not start with the auxiliary verb of the tense. The word that is not used between reporting verb and reported speech as conjunction in indirect speech for question sentence. Question mark is not used in indirect speech. Examples. Direct speech: He said to me, do you like music? Indirect Speech: He asked me if I liked music. (Not, did I like music) Or Indirect Speech: He asked me whether I liked music. Direct speech: She said, Will he participate in the quiz competition? Indirect Speech: She asked me if he would participate in quiz competition. Direct speech: I said to him, are you feeling well? Indirect Speech: I asked him if he was feeling well. Direct speech: They said to me, did u go to school? Indirect Speech: They asked me if I had gone to school. Direct speech: He said to me, Have you taken the breakfast? Indirect Speech: He asked me if I had taken the breakfast Question which cannot be answered in YES/NO. To change such questions into indirect speech, the words if or whether is not used. The tense of the question is changed according to the rules for change in normal tenses in indirect speech but sentence will not start with the auxiliary verb of the tense. The word that is not used between reporting verb and reported speech as conjunction, in indirect speech for question sentence. Question mark is not used in indirect speech. Examples. Direct speech: He said to me, how are you? Indirect speech: He asked me how I was. (Not, how was I) Direct speech: Teacher said to him, what is your name? Indirect speech: Teacher asked him what his name was. Direct speech: She said to him, why did you come late? Indirect speech: She asked him why he had come late. Direct speech: He said, when will they come? Indirect speech: He asked when they would come. Direct speech: She asked his son, why are you crying? Indirect speech: She asked her son why he was crying. Indirect speech for sentence having MODALS, can, may, must, Present modals are changed to past modals Direct Speech Indirect Speech Indirect speech for sentence having MODALS, can, may, must, should, ought to

CAN changes into COULD He said, I can drive a car She said, he can play a violin. They said, we can climb on a hill MAY changes into MIGHT He said, I may buy a computer She said, he may visit a doctor. They said, they may go to zoo MUST changes into HAD TO He said, I must work hard She said, they must carry on their work I said to him, you must learn the test-taking strategies

He said that he could drive a car. She said that he could play a violin. They said that they can climb on a hill.

He said that he might buy a computer. She said that he might visit a doctor. They said that they might go to zoo. He said that he had to work hard. She said that they had to carry on their work. I said to him that he had to learn the testtaking strategies.

Indirect speech for sentence having MODALS, should, ought to, might, would, and could The modal will not change in indirect speech Direct Speech THESE MODALS DO NOT CHANGE Would, could, might, should, ought to Would They said, we would apply for a visa He said, I would start a business. She said, I would appear in exam Could She said, she could play a piano They said, we couldnt learn the lesson He said, I could run faster Might He said, guests might come She said, it might rain John said, I might meet him Should He said, I should avail the opportunity She said, I should help a him They said, we should take the exam Ought to He said to me, you ought to wait for him She said, I ought to learn method of study They said, we ought to attend our classes Indirect Speech

They said that they would apply for visa. He said that he would start a business. She said that she would appear in the exam. She said that she could play a violin. They said they couldnt learn the lesson. He said that he could run faster. He said that guest might come. She said that it might rain. John said that he might meet him. He said that he should avail the opportunity. She said that she should help him. They said that they should take the exam. He said to me that I ought to wait for him. She said that she ought to learn method of study. They said that they ought to attend their classes.

Indirect speech for exclamatory and imperative sentences. Indirect speech of imperative sentence. A sentence which expresses command, request, advice or suggestion is called imperative sentence. For example, Open the door. Please help me. Learn your lesson. To change such sentences into indirect speech, the word ordered or requested or advised or suggested or forbade or not to do is added to reporting verb depending upon nature of imperative sentence in reported speech. Examples. Direct speech: He said to me, please help me Indirect Speech: He requested me to help him. Direct speech: She said to him, you should work hard for exam Indirect Speech: He suggested him to work hard for exam. Direct speech: They said to him, do not tell a lie Indirect Speech: They said to him not to tell a lie. Direct speech: He said, open the door Indirect Speech: He ordered to open the door. Direct speech: The teacher said to student, do not waste time Indirect Speech: The teacher advised the students not to waste time. Direct speech: He said, please give me glass of water Indirect Speech: He requested to give him a glass of water. Direct speech: Doctor said to me, Do not smoke Indirect Speech: Doctor advised me not to smoke. Direct speech: The teacher said to him, Get out Indirect Speech: The teacher ordered him to get out. Indirect speech of exclamatory sentences. Sentence which expresses state of joy or sorrow or wonder is called exclamatory sentence. For example. Hurrah! We won the match. Alas! I failed the test. Wow! What a nice shirt it is. To change such sentences, the words exclaimed with joy or exclaimed with sorrow or exclaimed with wonder is added in the reporting verb depending upon the nature of exclamatory sentence in indirect speech. Examples. Direct speech: He said, Hurrah! I won a prize Indirect Speech: He exclaimed with joy that he had won a prize. Direct speech: She said, Alas! I failed in exam Indirect Speech: She exclaimed with sorrow that she failed in the exam.

Direct speech: John said, Wow! What a nice shirt it is Indirect Speech: John exclaimed with wonder that it was a nice shirt. Direct speech: She said, Hurrah! I am selected for the job Indirect Speech: She exclaimed with joy that she was selected for the job. Direct speech: He said, Oh no! I missed the train Indirect Speech: He exclaimed with sorrow that he had missed the train. Direct speech: They said, Wow! What a pleasant weather it is Indirect Speech: They exclaimed with wonder that it was a pleasant weather.

Changes in pronoun in Indirect Speech. The pronoun (subject) of the reported speech is changed according to the pronoun of reporting verb or object (person) of reporting verb (first part of sentence). Sometimes the pronoun may not change. 1. First person pronoun in reported speech i.e. I, we, me, us, mine, or our, is changed according to the pronoun of reporting verb if pronoun in reporting verb is third person pronoun i.e. he, she, it, they, him, his, her, them or their. Examples. Direct speech: He said, I live in New York Indirect speech: He said that he lived in New York. Direct speech: They said, we love our country Indirect speech: They said that they loved their country 2. First person pronoun in reported speech i.e. I, we, me, us, mine, or our, is not the pronoun (Subject) of reporting is also first person pronoun i.e. I or we. Examples. Direct speech: I said, I write a letter Indirect speech: I said that I wrote a letter. Direct speech: We said, we completed our work Indirect speech: We said that we completed our work. 3. Second person pronoun in reported speech i.e. you, yours is changed according person of object of reporting verb. Examples. Direct speech: She said to him, you are intelligent Indirect speech: She said to him that he was intelligent. Direct speech: He said to me, you are late for the party Indirect speech: He said to me that I was late for the party. to the changed if

4. Third person pronoun in reported speech i.e. he, she, it, they, him, his, her, them their, is not changed in indirect speech. Examples. Direct speech: They said, he will come Indirect speech: They said that he would come. Direct speech: You said, they are waiting for the bus Indirect speech: You said that they were waiting for the bus. Changes in time and adverbs in indirect speech. Time and adverbs are changed in indirect speech. Examples. Direct speech: He said, I will buy a book tomorrow Indirect speech: He said that he would buy a book the next day. Direct speech: She said, I am happy now Indirect speech: She said that she was happy then. Direct speech: He said, I like this book Indirect speech: He said that he liked that book. Common Rules Today changes to that day/the same day Tomorrow changes to the next day/the following day Yesterday changes to the day before/the previous day Next week/month/year changes to the following week/month/year Last week/month/year changes to the previous week/month/year Now/just changes to then Ago changes to before Here changes to there This changes to that

or

Types of Adverb Adverb modifies verb by giving us the following information. How the action occurs Where the action occurs How many times action occur At which time the action occurs Intensity of action Adverbs are categorized on the basis of it information it gives, into the following categories.

1. 2. 3. 4.

Adverbs of manner Adverb of place Adverb of time Adverb of frequency

Adverbs of Manner These adverbs tell us that in which manner the action occurs or how the action occurs or occurred or will occur. Examples. She speaks loudly. He was driving slowly. You replied correctly. He runs fast. They solved the problem easily. Listen to me carefully.

Adverb of Place. Adverb of place tells us about the place of action or where action occurs/occurred/will occur. e.g. here, there, near, somewhere, outside, ahead, on the top, at some place. Examples. He will come here. The children are playing outside. He was standing near the wall. They were flying kites on the top of hill. He lives somewhere in New York. She went upstairs. Adverb of time These adverbs tell us about the time of action. e.g. now, then, soon, tomorrow, yesterday, today, tonight, again, early, yesterday. Examples. I will buy a computer tomorrow. The guest came yesterday. Do it now. She is still waiting for her brother. He got up early in the morning. Adverb of frequency

Adverbs of frequency tell us how many times the action occurs or occurred or will occur. e.g. daily, sometimes, often, seldom, usually, frequently, always, ever, generally, rarely, monthly, yearly. Examples. He goes to school daily. She never smokes. He is always late for class. They always come in time. Barking dogs seldom bite. The employees are paid monthly. The employees are paid every month. Articles English language has two articles, the and a/an. An article is used for a noun. An article like an adjective modifies a noun. For example, a book, the book, a cup, the cup, an umbrella, the umbrella The article the is called definite article and the article a/an is called indefinite article. Use of Articles There are two articles in English language. 1. Indefinite article: a/an 2. Definite article: the An article is used before a noun or an adjective modifying a noun. Definite Article: (the) The definite article "the" is used for a definite, specific or particular noun. Example. He bought the shirt. The article the before the noun shirt in above sentence means that the shirt, he bought, is a specific or particular shirt and not any shirt. Indefinite Article: (a/an) The definite article a/an is used for indefinite, non-specific or non-particular (common) noun. Example. He bought a shirt. The article a before shirt in above sentence means that the shirt he bought is any shirt and not a specific shirt.

Rules for using Indefinite Article (a/an) The article form a is used before a word (singular) beginning with a consonant, or a vowel with a consonant sound. e.g. a book, a cat, a camera, a university, a European The article form an is used before a word (singular) beginning with a vowel (a, e, i, o, u) or consonant with vowel sound (or beginning with mute h ). e.g. an apple, an elephant, an umbrella, an hour, 1. Before a singular noun which is countable e.g. He bought a book She is eating an apple. 2. Before a singular noun which refers to a class of things. e.g. An orange is rich in vitamins. 3. Before a name of a profession e.g. She wants to be a doctor He is an engineer. 4. For certain expressions of quantity e.g. a lot of, a few, a couple, a dozen 5. For certain numbers. e.g. a hundred, a thousand, a million 6. Before a singular, countable noun in exclamation. e.g. What a beautiful flower! What a nice shirt! 7. Article a/an is not used before uncountable nouns e.g. water, milk, sand etc Rules for using definite Article (the) The article the can be used both before a singular and plural noun according to the following grammatical rules. e.g. the book, the books 1. Before the place, object or group of object which is unique or considered to be and geographical region and points on globe. e.g. the earth, the moon, the sky, the stars, the north pole, the equator 2. For a noun which becomes definite or particular because it is already mentioned being mentioned a second time. e.g. The teacher helped a student and the student became happy. 3. For a noun made specific or definite in a clause or a phrase. e.g. The old lady, The girl with blue eyes, The boy that I saw, The nice red shirt unique

and is

4. Before superlatives, and first, second, etc, and only e.g. The best day, The only method, the second month, 5. Before a phrase composed of a proper and common noun e.g. The New York city, The river Nile, The library of Congress 6. Before the names of organizations e.g. The Association of Chartered Accountants, The World Health Organization 7. Before names of scientific principles, theories, laws etc. e.g. the Pythagorean Theorem, the laws of Newton, The Fahrenheit Scale. But no article will be used for these names if written in forms like, Newtons Law, Daltons Law of Partial Pressures, Hooks Law of Elasticity 8. Article the is not used for names of universities if written in forms like Oxford University, Yale University, Columbia University. But article the is used if names of university are written in forms like The University of Oxford, The University of Yale, The University of Toronto. 9. Article the is not used for names of countries of places. e.g. New York, America, Mexico, Japan, London. Butarticle the is used for a name, if it expresses a group of place, states, or land. e.g. The United States, The Philippines, The Netherlands