Seventh Lecture

Moving Coil Instruments

Moving Coil Instruments

There are two types of moving coil instruments namely, permanent magnet moving coil type which can only be used for direct current, voltage measurements and the dynamometer type which can be used on either direct or alternating current, voltage measurements.

Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Mechanism (PMMC)

In PMMC meter or (DArsonval) meter or galvanometer all are the same instrument, a coil of fine wire is suspended in a magnetic field produced by permanent magnet. According to the fundamental law of electromagnetic force, the coil will rotate in the magnetic field when it carries an electric current by electromagnetic (EM) torque effect. A pointer which attached the movable coil will deflect according to the amount of current to be measured which applied to the coil. The (EM) torque is counterbalance by the mechanical torque of control springs attached to the movable coil also. When the torques are balanced the moving coil will stopped and its angular deflection represent the amount of electrical current to be measured against a fixed reference, called a scale. If the permanent magnet field is uniform and the spring linear, then the pointer deflection is also linear.

Mathematical Representation of PMMC Mechanism

Assume there are (N) turns of wire and the coil is (L) in long by (W) in wide. The force (F) acting perpendicular to both the direction of the current flow and the direction of magnetic field is given by: where N: turns of wire on the coil I: current in the movable coil F = N BI L B: flux density in the air gap L: vertical length of the coil Electromagnetic torque is equal to the multiplication of force with distance to the point of suspension W W in one side of cylinder in the other side of cylinder TI 1 = NBIL TI 2 = NBIL 2 2 The total torque for the two cylinder sides

W where A: effective coil area TI = 2 NBIL = NBILW = NBIA 2 This torque will cause the coil to rotate until an equilibrium position is reached at an angle with its original orientation. At this position Electromagnetic torque = control spring torque TI = Ts Since Ts = K NBA NBA So = I where Thus C= = CI K K The angular deflection proportional linearly with applied current

Seventh Lecture

Moving Coil Instruments

pointer
F B S I W L I B F N

1- D.c Ammeter:

An Ammeter is always connected in series with a circuit branch and measures the current flowing in it. Most d.c ammeters employ a dArsonval movement, an ideal ammeter would be capable of performing the measurement without changing or distributing the current in the branch but real ammeters would possess some internal resistance.

Im Rm

Extension of Ammeter Range:

Since the coil winding in PMMC meter is small and light, they can carry only small currents (A-1mA). Measurement of large current requires a shunt external resistor to connect with the meter movement, so only a fraction of the total current will passes through the meter.
Vm = Vsh Im Rm = IshRsh Ish = I T Im Im Rm Rsh = I T Im

I range=IT Ish Rsh Im Rm

Seventh Lecture

Moving Coil Instruments

Example: If PMMC meter have internal resistance of 10 and full scale range of 1mA. Assume we wish to increase the meter range to 1A. Sol. So we must connect shunt resistance with the PMMC meter of
Rsh = Im Rm I T Im
Rsh = 1 10 3 10 1 1 10 3 = 0.01001

a) Direct D.c Ammeter Method (Ayrton Shunt):

The current range of d.c ammeter can be further extended by a number of shunts selected by a range switch; such ammeter is called a multirange ammeter.

Rsh =

Im Rm Ir Im

Ish3 Rsh3

Ish2 Rsh2

Ish1 Rsh1

Im Rm

I range2 I range3 I range1

_
b) Indirect D.C Ammeter Method:

Ir Rm + R = Im r Where R=Ra+ Rb+ Rc And r = parallel resistors branch with the meter

Ir1

Ra Ir2 Ir3 Rb Im Rm

Rc

Seventh Lecture

Moving Coil Instruments

Example (1): Design a multirange ammeter by using direct method to give the following ranges 10mA, 100mA, 1A, 10A, and 100A. If dArsonval meter have internal resistance of 10 and full scale current of 1mA. Sol: Rm=10 Im=1mA
Rsh = Im Rm Ir Im

Rsh1 =

1 10 3 10

(10 1) 10 3
1 10 3 10 1 10 10 3

= 1.11

Rsh2 =
Rsh 4 =

1 10 3 10

(100 10) 10 3
1 10 3 10 10 1 10 3

= 0.101

Rsh3 =

= 0.0101
= 0.00011

= 0.0011

Rsh5 =

1 10 3 10 100 1 10 3

+
Rsh5 Rsh4 Rsh3
1A

Rsh2
100mA

Rsh1
10mA

Im 1mA Rm 10

100A

Example (2): Design an Ayrton shunt by indirect method to provide an ammeter with current ranges 1A, 5A, and 10A, if PMMC meter have internal resistance of 50 and full scale current of 1mA. Sol.: Rm=50

IFSD=Im=1mA 1A Ra 5A 10A Rb Im Rm

Ir Rm + R = Im r Where R=Ra+ Rb+ Rc And r = parallel resistors branch with the meter

1-

For 1A Range:

Rc

I1 Rm + R = Im R

Seventh Lecture
1A 50 + R = 1mA R For 5A Range: I 2 Rm + R = Im Rb + Rc 5 A 50 + 0.05005 = 1mA Rb + Rc Ra=R-(Rb+Rc) For 10A Range: R=0.05005

Moving Coil Instruments

2-

r =Rb+Rc

Rb+Rc= 0.01001

Ra=0.05-0.01001=0.04004

3-

I 3 Rm + R r =Rc = Im Rc 10 A 50 + 0.05005 Rc=5.005x10-3 = Rc 1mA Rb=0.01001-5.005x10-3= 5.005x10-3

2- D.C Voltmeter:

A voltmeter is always connect in parallel with the element being measured, and measures the voltage between the points across which its connected. Most d.c voltmeter employ PMMC meter with series resistor as shown. The series resistance should be much larger than the impedance of the circuit being measured, and they are usually much larger than Rm.

Rs = RT Rm Rs = Vrange Im Rm

+
VRange

Rs Im Rm

Im=IFSD The ohm/volt sensitivity of a voltmeter Is given by: Rm 1 Sv = = = rating V FSD I FSD V

S Range =

Rm + Rs 1 = = V Range I Range V

So the internal resistance of voltmeter or the input resistance of voltmeter is

Rv= VFSD x sensitivity Example: We have a micro ammeter and we wish to adapted it so as to measure 1volt full scale, the meter has internal resistance of 100 and IFSD of 100A.

Seventh Lecture Sol.:

Moving Coil Instruments

1 V Rm Rs = 100 = 9900 = 9.9 K Im 0.0001 So we connect with PMMC meter a series resistance of 9.9K to convert it to voltmeter Rs =

Extension of Voltmeter Range:

Voltage range of d.c voltmeter can be further extended by a number of series resistance selected by a range switch; such a voltmeter is called multirange voltmeter.

a) Direct D.c Voltmeter Method:

In this method each series resistance of multirange voltmeter is connected in direct with PMMC meter to give the desired range.

V Rs = Rm Im
Rm

Rs1 Im Rs2 Rs3 V2

V1

+
V3 o/p of voltmeter

b) Indirect D.c Voltmeter Method:

In this method one or more series resistances of multirange voltmeter is connected with PMMC meter to give the desired range.

Rs1 =
Rs 2 =

V1 Rm Im
V 2 V1 Im V3 V 2 Im Im Rm

Rs1

Rs2 V2 V1

Rs3

V3

+ _
O/P

Rs3 =

Example (1): A basic dArsonval movement with internal resistance of 100 and half scale current deflection of 0.5 mA is to be converted by indirect method into a multirange d.c voltmeter with voltages ranges of 10V, 50V, 250V, and 500V. Sol: IFSD = IHSD x 2 IFSD = 0.5mA x 2 =1mA 10 V1 Rs1 = Rm Rs1 = 100 = 9.9 K Im 1mA

Seventh Lecture

Moving Coil Instruments

Rs 2 =

Rs 2 =
Rs3 = Rs 4 =

V 2 V1 Im 50 10

Rs1

Rs2

Rs3 50V

Rs4

1 10 3 250 50
3

= 40 K
= 200 K = 250 K
Rm

Im 10V 250V 500V

1 10 500 250 1 10 3

+ _ O/P

Example (2): Design d.c voltmeter by using direct method with dArsonval meter of 100 and full scale deflection of 100A to give the following ranges: 10mV, 1V, and 100V. Sol:

V Rs = Rm Im
Rs1 = V1 Rm Im
Rm

Rs1 Im Rs2 Rs3 1V

100mV

+
o/p of voltmeter

100V

10mV 100 = 0 100 A 1 Rs 2 = 100 = 9.9 K 100 10 6 100 Rs3 = 100 = 99.9 K 100 10 6 Rs1 =

3- Ohmmeter and Resistance measurement:

When a current of 1A flows through a circuit which has an impressed voltage of 1volt, the circuit has a resistance of 1. V R= I There are several methods used to measure unknown resistance: This method is inaccurate unless the ammeter has a small resistance and voltmeter have a high resistance.

a) Indirect method by ammeter and voltmeter.

Seventh Lecture

Moving Coil Instruments

b) Series Ohmmeter:
Rx is the unknown resistor to be measured, R2 is variable adjusted resistance so that the pointer read zero at short circuit test. The scale of series ohmmeter is nonlinear with zero at the right and infinity at extreme left. Series ohmmeter is the most generally used meter for resistance measurement.

c) Shunt Ohmmeter:
Shunt ohmmeter are used to measure very low resistance values. The unknown resistance Rx is now shunted across the meter, so portion of current will pass across this resistor and drop the meter deflection proportionately. The switch is necessary in shunt ohmmeter to disconnect the battery when the instrument is not used. The scale of shunt ohmmeter is nonlinear with zero at the left and infinity at extreme right.

d) Voltage Divider (potentiometer):

The meter of voltage divider is voltmeter that reads voltage drop across Rs which dependent on Rx. This meter will read from right to left like series ohmmeter with more uniform calibration.

Eighth Lecture

A.c Measuring Instruments

A.c Measuring Instrument

Review on Alternating Signal: The instantaneous values of electrical signals can be graphed as they vary with time. Such graphs are known as the waveforms of the signal. If the value of waveform remains constant with time, the signal is referred to as direct (d.c) signal; such as the voltage of a battery. If a signal is time varying and has positive and negative instantaneous values, the waveform is known as alternating (a.c) waveform. If the variation of a.c signal is continuously repeated then the signal is known as periodic waveform. The frequency of a.c signal is defined as the number of cycles traversed in one second. Thus the time duration of one cycle per second for a.c signal is known as the period (T). Where the complete variation of a.c signal before repeated itself is represent one cycle. Average Values: It is found by dividing the area under the curve of the waveform in one period (T) by the time of the period. Average value= Algebraic sum of the areas under the curve Length of the curve

areas .. (1) Av = T

or

1 Av = T

f (t )dt

.. (2)

V Vm 0 2

V 6 3 -3 5 7 9 t

V 4 3 t 2 -2 4 6 8 10

1 Av = 2

2 0

VmSind

1 1 3 6 + 4 ( 3) 2 Av = 2 9

Av =

4 2 + ( 2 ) 2 + 3 2 10

Vm 2 Av = Cos 0 2 Vm (1 1) = 0 Av = 2 The average value for the figure below by using equation (2) is:
Av = 1 T
T

f (t )dt
0

we use the tangent equation for (xo,yo)=(0,0), and (x1,y1)=(3,6) to find the

function of f(t)

Eighth Lecture
y y1 y 2 y1 = x x1 x 2 x1
1 Av = (2t )dt 3
0 3

A.c Measuring Instruments

y0 60 y 6 = = 2 y = 2 x = x 0 3 0 x 3
f(t) 6

f (t ) = 2t
(3,6)

Av =

2 t2 3 3 2 0

Av =

1 (3)2 (0)2 = 9 = 3 3 3

(0,0)

t 3

Root Mean Square Value(effective value of a.c signal):

The r.m.s value of a waveform refers to its power capability. It is refer to the effective value of a.c signal because the r.m.s value equal to the value of a d.c signal which would deliver the same power if it replaced with a.c signal. V area(V ) 2 ( for square waveform only) 4 r.m.s = T 3 16 2 + 4 2 + 9 2 1- r.m.s = t 10 6 8 10 2 4 In general form the r.m.s value has the following aqua. -2
r.m.s= Average f(t)2

1 r.m.s = T

f (t )
0

V2 16 9 4 2 f(t) 6 (3,6) 4 6 8 10 t

dt

2-

If f(t) = 2t then its r.m.s value is:

r.m.s =

1 (2t )2 dt 3
0

r.m.s =

4 t3 3 = 3 3 0
1 2
2 0

4 (3)3 (0)3 = 9

4 27 = 3.46 9 (0,0)
Vm 2 r.m.s = 2

t 3
2

3-

If f(t) = Vm Sind
r.m.s =

Vm

Sin d
1 2

1 Cos 2 d 2

Vm 2 r.m.s = 4

2 2 d Cos 2d 0 0

r.m.s =

2 2 Vm 2 1 Sin 2 4 0 2 0

Eighth Lecture
2 Vm 2 [2 0] = Vm = Vm r.m.s = 4 2 2

A.c Measuring Instruments

V Vm

r.m.s for Sine wave F.F=1.11 (F.W.R) average F.F=1.57 (H.W.R) PeakValue CrestFactor = r.m.s FormFactor =

Dynamometer:
This instrument is suitable for the measurement of direct and alternating current, voltage and power. The deflecting torque in dynamometer is relies by the interaction of magnetic field produced by a pair of fixed air cored coils and a third air cored coil capable of angular movement and suspended within the fixed coil.
Non linear scale FSD 0 pointer

moving coil

Fixed coil Fixed coil

FSD

FSD

0 N S

0
S N S S N N

i
N

i
S

Ti = N Bim A ,

B i f

thus

T i i m i f A

so T i i 2

average i2 , since

r.m.s = averagef (t ) 2
3

Eighth Lecture

A.c Measuring Instruments

The output scale is calibrated to give the r.m.s value of a.c signal by taking the square roots of the inside measured value. O/P scale = r.m.s = average(i ) 2 , for example if (average i2) = 16 inside the measuring device, the output scale of the device will indicate (4) 4 d.c d.c dynamometer 1 r.m.s = T
T

a.c

dynamometer

r.m.s

f (t )
0

dt

Meters d.c meters measure d.c or Av values a.c meters measure r.m.s values

PMMC

dynamometer

Average Responding a.c meter Rectifier + PMMC

True Responding a.c meter dynamometer

Ti B constant linear scale i

T i2 B varied non linear scale average i2

1- Average Responding a.c Meter:

O/P (r.m.s) = Av x F.Fsine wave (measured) O/P (r.m.s) = Av x F.Ftrue (true) F.Fsine wave(F.W.R) = 1.11 F.Fsine wave (H.W.R) = 1.57 F.Ftrue = The form factor of any input signal (sine, square, or any thing)

a.c i/p signal

Rectifier circuit To remove the negative part

PMMC Measure Av.

Scale calibrated by O/P=Av x F.Fsine

Eighth Lecture

A.c Measuring Instruments

2- True Responding a.c Meter (Dynamometer):

O/P (r.m.s) = Av x F.Ftrue (true) = (measured)

F.Ftrue = The form factor of any input signal

I/P a.c signal Dynamometer

O/P r.m.s

Example: What will be the out put of the following meters, if an average responding a.c meter of halfwave rectifier read (4.71v), and true form factor of input waveform is (1.414).
DArsonval meter H.W.R + PMMC meter F.W.R + PMMC meter

Dynamo. meter

1
Sol:

r.m.s measured = 1.57 Av

for average responding a.c meter of half wave rectifier 4.71 Av = = 3V 4.71 = 1.57 Av 1.57 1. DArsonval meter read Av = 3V 2. HWR+PMMC (Average responding of halve wave rectifier) meter = 4.71V 3. FWR+PMMC (Average responding of full wave rectifier) meter = 1.11 x 3 = 3.33V 4. Dynamometer =F.F(true) x Av r.m.s(true)= 1.414 x 3 = 4.242V
H.W.R + PMMC meter F.W.R + PMMC meter

Exercise: What will be the o/p of the following meters?

DArsonval meter E=10V

Dynamo. meter

4 5

Eighth Lecture

A.c Measuring Instruments

Dynamometer As Ammeter And Voltmeter:

For small current measurement (5mA to 100mA), fixed and moving coils are connect in series. While larger current measurement (up to 20A) , the moving coil is shunted by a small resistance.

moving

Fixed

Fixed

moving

Fixed

Fixed

Rsh

To convert such an instrument to a voltmeter only a rather big series resistance is connected with the moving coil.

moving

Fixed Rs

Fixed

Clamp on Meters (Average Responding A.C meter):

One application of average responding a.c meters is the clamp on meter which is used to measured a.c current, voltage in a wire with out having to break the circuit being measured. The meter having use the transformer principle to detect the current. That is, the clamp on device of the meter serves as the core of a transformer. The current carrying wire is the primary winding of the transformer, while the secondary winding is in the meter. The alternating current in the primary is coupled to the secondary winding by the core, and after being rectified the current is sensed by a dArsonval meter.

Eighth Lecture
Core

A.c Measuring Instruments

Current carrying conductor Mechanism For opening clamp on meter As primary winding Secondary Winding

Rectifier

PMMC

Example: The symmetrical square wave voltage is applied to an average responding a.c voltmeter with a scale calibrated in term of the r.m.s value of a sine wave. Calculate: 1. The form factor of square wave voltage. 2. The error in the meter indication. Sol:
V(t)
T

1 Vrms(True) = V (t ) 2 dt = Vm T
o

Vm t -Vm T

2 Vaverage(True) = V (t )dt = Vm T
o

T 2

Vrms Vm F .F(True) = = =1 Vav. Vm Vrms( measured ) = 1.11 Av. = 1.11 Vm = 1.11Vm

Error = Error =

Vrms(True ) Vrms( measured ) Vrms(True) Vm 1.11Vm 100% Vm

100% V(t) 100 t -100 4Sec

Exer.: Repeat the above example for saw tooth waveform shown Sol: V(t)=25t Vav.=50V Vrms(True)=57.75V Vrms(Measured)=55.5V F.F(True)=1.154 Error=0.0389%

Ninth Lecture

Bridges and Their Application

Bridges and Their Application

Bridge circuit are extensively used for measuring component values, such as resistance, inductance, capacitance, and other circuit parameters directly derived from component values such as frequency, phase angle, and temperature. Bridge accuracy measurements are very high because their circuit merely compares the value of an unknown component to that of an accurately known component (a standard).

1- D.c Bridges:
The basic d.c bridges consist of four resistive arms with a source of emf (a battery) and a null detector usually galvanometer or other sensitive current meter. D.c bridges are generally used for the measurement of resistance values.

a) Wheatstone Bridge:
This is the best and commonest method of measuring medium resistance values in the range of 1 to the low megohm. The current through the galvanometer depends on potential difference between point (c) and (d). The bridge is said to be balance when potential difference across the galvanometer is zero volts, so there is no current through the galvanometer (Ig=0). This condition occurs when Vca=Vda or Vcb=Vdb hence the bridge is balance when V 1 = V 2 .. (1) Since I g = 0 so by voltage divider rule
R1 .. (2) and R1 + R3 R2 .. (3) V2 = E R2 + R4 Substitute equations (2) & (3) in equ. (1) R1 R2 = R1 + R3 R2 + R4 V1 = E
a I1 R1 I2 R2

c I3 R3

G I4 R4 b

Thus R1 R4 = R2 R3 is the balance equation for Wheatstone bridge So, if three of resistance values are known, the fourth unknown ones can be determined. R R R4 = 3 2 R1 R3 are called the standard arm of the bridge and resistors R2 and R1 are called the ratio arms.

Thevenin Equivalent Circuit:

To determine whether or not the galvanometer has the required sensitivity to detect an unbalance condition, it is necessary to calculate the galvanometer current for small unbalance condition. The solution is approached by converting the Wheatstone bridge to its thevenin equivalent. Since we are interested in the current through the galvanometer, the thevenin equivalent circuit is determined by looking into galvanometer terminals (c) and (d).

Ninth Lecture

Bridges and Their Application

a R1 R3 R4 Rth d R2

when

E=0

RR R2 R 4 Rth = 1 3 + R1 + R3 R2 + R4 Eth = V1 V2 E0 ER1 ER2 Eth = R1 + R3 R2 + R4

Rth

c Ig G Rg d

Eth

Eth Rth + Rg and galvanometer deflection (d) is: Ig =

d = Ig x current sensitivity (mm/A)

b) Kelvin Bridge:
Kelvin bridge is a modification of the Wheatstone bridge and provides greatly increased accuracy in the measurement of low value resistance, generally below (1). It is eliminate errors due to contact and leads resistance. (Ry) represent the resistance of the connecting lead from R3 to R4. Two galvanometer connections are possible, to point (m) or to point (n). 1- If the galvanometer connect to point (m) then R4 = R x + R y therefore unknown resistance will be higher than its actual value by Ry

2- If the galvanometer connect to point (n) then

R4 = R3 + R y

therefore unknown resistance will be lower than its actual value by Ry

Ninth Lecture

Bridges and Their Application

R1 R2

3- If the galvanometer connect to point (p) such that

Rnp Rmp =

. (1)
R2 R1 G R3 m p Ry E n

At balance condition R2 R x + Rnp = R1 R3 + Rmp

.. (2)

Substituting equ.(1) in to equ.(2) we obtain R1 R2 R R y = 1 R3 + Rx + R +R R + R Ry R2 2 2 1 1

R This reduces to R x = 1 R3 R2

R4

So the effect of the resistance of the connecting lead from point (m) to point (n) has be eliminated by connecting the galvanometer to the intermediate position (p).

c) Kelvin Double Bridge:

Kelvin double bridge is used for measuring very low resistance values from approximately (1 to as low as 1x10-5). The term double bridge is used because the circuit contains a second set of ratio arms labelled Ra and Rb. If the galvanometer is connect to point (p) to eliminates the effect of (yoke resistance Ry).
Ra R = 1 Rb R2 At balance V2 = V3 + Vb . (1) R2 .. (2) V2 = E R1 + R2 V3 = I 3 R3 and Vb = I b Rb .. (3) Ry (4) Ib = I3 (Ra + Rb ) + R y
(Ra + Rb )R y + R4 (5) E = I 3 R3 + (Ra + Rb ) + R y Sub.equ. (5) in to equ. (2) and equ. (4) into equ.(3) then substitute the result in equ.(1), we get

K R2 I2 L I3
Ib

R1

G Rb p Ra n R4 Ry

R3 m

E
(Ra + Rb )R y Ry R2 + R4 I 3 R3 + = I 3 R3 + I 3 R (Ra + Rb ) + R y b (Ra + Rb ) + R y R1 + R2

Ninth Lecture
Rx = R y Rb R3 R1 + R2 Ra + Rb + R y
R1 Ra +11 Rb R2

Bridges and Their Application

Rx =

R y Rb R1 Ra R3 R1 + This is the balanced equation R2 Ra + Rb + R y R2 Rb

If

R R Ra R = 1 then R x = 3 1 R2 Rb R2

2- Ac Bridge and Their Application:

The ac bridge is a natural outgrowth of the dc bridge and in its basic form consists of four bridge arms, a source of excitation, and a null ac detector. For measurements at low frequencies, the power line may serve as the source of excitation; but at higher frequencies an oscillator generally supplies the excitation voltage. The null ac detector in its cheapest effective form consists of a pair of headphones or may be oscilloscope. The balance condition is reached when the detector response is zero or indicates null. Then VAC = 0 and VZ1 = VZ2 Z1 VZ 1 = Vin Z1 + Z 3 Z2 Vin thus VZ 2 = Vin Z2 + Z4
Z1Z 4 = Z 2 Z 3 is the balance equation
B i1
Z

i2
Z Z2

Z1 A i3

C i4 Z3
Z Z

Z4

Or Y1Y4 = Y2Y3 D The balance equation can be written in complex form as: (Z11 )(Z 4 4 ) = (Z 2 2 )(Z 3 3 ) And (Z1Z 4 1 + 4 ) = (Z 2 Z 3 2 + 3 ) So two conditions must be met simultaneously when balancing an ac bridge 1- Z1Z 4 = Z 2 Z 3 2- 1 + 4 = 2 + 4 jXL Review on Ac Impedance: ZL a) In series connection R Impedance = resistance j reactance Z L = R + jXL and Z L = R + jL 1 -jXC and Z C = R j Z C = R jXC C Conversion from polar to rectangular R= Z Cos X= Z Sin become Z = R jX Z in polar form Conversion from rectangular to polar X X Z = R jX in rectangular form Z = R2 + X 2 = tan 1 tan = R R 4

Ninth Lecture

Bridges and Their Application

b) In parallel connection
Admittance = conductance j susceptance 1 1 YL = G jB L and YL = j R L 1 YC = G + jBC and YC = + jC R 1 B C tan = C = Xc = = RC 1 1 G R R Example (1): The impedance of the basic a.c bridge are given as follows:

jBC

YC G

-jBL

YL

Z 1= 10080 o (inductive impedance) Z 4 = unknown Sol:

Z4 = Z 2 Z3 Z1 Z4 = 250 400 = 1k 100

Z 2 = 250

Z 3 = 40030 o (inductive impedance)

4 = 2 + 3 1

4 = 0 + 30 80 = 50 o
B
Z
30 0
2

Z 4 = 1000 50 o (capacitive impedance) Example (2): For the following bridge find Zx? Z1 The balance equation Z1Z 4 = Z 2 Z 3 Z1 = R = 450 Vin A j 1 Z2 = R + = R 1V j C C 1KHz Z 2 = 300 j 600 Z3 Z 3 = R + j L Z 3 = 200 + j100 Z 4 = Z x = unknown Z Z (300 j 600)(200 + j100) Z4 = 2 3 Z4 = = 266.6 j 200 450 Z1 1 R = 266.6 C= = 0.79F 2F 200
0 20

45 0

0. 5 26 F

a) Comparison Bridges:
A.c comparison bridges are used to measure unknown inductance or capacitance by comparing it with a known inductance or capacitance. 1- Capacitive Comparison Bridge: In capacitive comparison bridge R1 & R2 are ratio arms, Rs in series with Cs are standard known arm, and Cx represent unknown capacitance with its leakage resistance Rx. j j Z1 = R1 Z 2 = R2 Z 3 = Rs Z 4 = Rx C s C x At balance
Z1 Z 4 = Z 2 Z 3

.9 15 H m

Ninth Lecture
j j = R2 R s R1 R x C x C s jR1 jR2 = R2 R s R1 R x C x C s By equating the real term with the real and imaginary term with imaginary we get: R R Rx= 2 s R1 R x = R2 Rs R1

Bridges and Their Application

B Z1
R1 R2

Vin

A
Rs Cs Cx Rx

RC jR1 jR2 Cx = 1 s = R2 C x C s D We can note that the bridge is independent on frequency of applied source. 2- Inductive Comparison Bridge: The unknown inductance is determined by comparing it with a known standard inductor. At balance we get R R B R x = 2 s represent resistive balance equation R1 Z Z1 2 R L L x = 2 s inductive balance equation R1
R1 R2

Vin

A
Rs Ls Lx Rx

b) Maxwell bridge:
This bridge measure unknown inductance in terms of a known capacitance, at balance: 1 thus Z1 Z 4 = Z 2 Z 3 Z1 = Y1 B
Z 4 = Z 2 Z 3Y1 Z 2 = R2

where 1 + jC1 R1

Z 3 = R3 Y1 =

Y1

C1 R1 R2

Z3

Z3

Z 4 = R x + jL x So

Vin

A
R3 Rx Lx

1 R x + jL x = R2 R3 R + jC1 1 R R Rx = 2 3 R1 L x = R2 R3C1

Z3

D
6

Ninth Lecture

Bridges and Their Application

Maxwell bridge is limited to the measurement of medium quality factor (Q) coil with range between 1<Q10 1 L4 Bc1 XC1 tan 1 = tan 4 = = = = R1C1 = Q 1 R4 G1 R1

c) Hay Bridge:
Hay bridge convening for measuring high Q coils j Z 2 = R2 Z1 = R1 Z 3 = R3 C1 Z 4 = R x + j L x At balance Z1 Z 4 = Z 2 Z 3 j R1 (R + jL x ) = R 2 R3 C1 x L jR R1 R x + x x + jR1 L x = R2 R3 C1 C1 Separating the real and imaginary terms L R1 R x + x = R2 R3 .. (1) C1 Rx = R1 L x (2) C1 Solving equ.(1) and (2) yields
2 C1 R1 R2 R3 Rx = 2 2 1 + 2 C1 R1 2

B Z1
R1 C1

Z
R2

Vin

A
R3 Rx Lx

Z3

2 2 1 + 2 C1 R1 1 = 4 because 2 = 3 = zero

Lx =

R2 R3C1

1 L4 XC1 C1 1 = = = =Q tan 1 = tan 4 = R4 R1 R1 C1 R1 1 Thus Q = .. (3) R1C1 Submitted equ.(3) in to equ. (2) yield Lx = R2 R3C 1 1 1+ Q
2

1 For Q> 10, then << 1 and can be neglected, then Q

L x = R2 R3C1

Ninth Lecture

Bridges and Their Application

d) Schering Bridge:
Schering bridge used extensively for capacitive measurement, (C3) is standard high mica capacitor for general measurement work, or (C3) may be an air capacitor for insulation 1 + 4 = 2 + 3 but 1 + 4 = 90 measurements. The balance condition require that Thus 2 + 3 must equal (-90) to get balance At balance Z 4 = Z 2 Z 3Y1 1 j + jC1 Z 2 = R2 Y1 = Z3 = C 3 R1 j Z 4 = Rx B C x j 1 j = R2 C R + jC1 C x 3 1 R C jR2 j Rx = 2 1 C x C2 C3 R1 Rx C R x = R2 1 C3
(1)

Y1 A

C1 R1 R2

Vin

C
C3 Rx Cx

R C x = C3 1 (2) R2 The power factor (pf): R pf = Cos c = x Zx The dissipation factor (D): R 1 D = Cot c = x = = R x C x (3) XC x Q Substitute equs. (1) & (2) into (3), we get D = R1C1

e) Wien Bridge:
This bridge is used to measured unknown frequency 1 j Z 2 = R2 Y3 = + j C 3 Z1 = R1 C1 R3 Z Z1 Z 4 = 2 Y3 Z 2 = Z1Z 4Y3

Z 4 = R4

j 1 R4 R2 = R1 R + j C 3 C1 3 R1 R4 R4 C 3 R2 = + R3 C1 Dividing by R4 we get R2 R1 C 3 . (1) = + R4 R3 C1 8

Z3

Ninth Lecture
Equating the imaginary terms, yield R4 Since = 2F C3 R1 R4 = C1 R3 1 if R1 = R3 Thus F = 2 C1C3 R1 R3
And

Bridges and Their Application

and C1 = C3 then

R2 = 2 in equ.(1) R4

F=

1 this is the general equation for Wien bridge 2RC

B Z1 R 1
C1 R2

Vin

A
R
3

C
R4

Y3
C

Variable Resistors:
The variable resistance usually have three leads, two fixed and one movable. If the contacts are made to only two leads of the resistor (stationary lead and moving lead), the variable resistance is being employed as a rheostat which limit the current flowing in circuit branches. If all three contacts are used in a circuit, it is termed a potentiometer or pot and often used as voltage dividers to control or vary voltage across a circuit branch.

Load

Load

Tenth Lecture

Oscilloscope

Oscilloscope
The cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) is a device that allows the amplitude of electrical signals, whether they are voltage, current; power, etc., to be displayed primarily as a function of time. The oscilloscope depends on the movement of an electron beam, which is then made visible by allowing the beam to impinge on a phosphor surface, which produces a visible spot

Oscilloscope Block Diagram:

General oscilloscope consists of the following parts: 1. Cathode ray tube (CRT) 2. Vertical deflection stage 3. Horizontal deflection stage 4. Power supply
Volt /Div

Vin

Vertical Amplifier

Delay Line

To CRT CRT H.V supply

Electron Gun

H
Screen

L.V supply To All Circuits Trigger Circuit Time Base Generator

Horizontal Amplifier

Time/Div

General Purpose Oscilloscope

The Cathode Ray Tube (CRT):

Cathode ray tube is the heart of oscilloscope which generates the electron beam, accelerates the beam to high velocity, deflects the beam to create the image, and contains the phosphor screen where the electron beam eventually become visible. There are two standard type of CRT electromagnetic and electrostatic. Each CRT contains: a) One or more electron guns. b) Electrostatic deflection plates. c) Phosphoresce screen. 1

Tenth Lecture

Oscilloscope

A gun consists of a heated cathode, control grid, and three anodes. A heated cathode emits electrons, which are accelerated to the first accelerating anode, through a small hole in the control grid. The amount of cathode current, which governs the intensity of the spot, can be controlled with the control grid. The preaccelerating anode is a hollow cylinder that is at potential a few hundred volts more positive than the cathode so that the electron beam will be accelerated in the electric field. A focusing anode is mounted just a head of the preaccelerating anode and is also a cylinder. Following the focusing anode is the accelerating anode, which gives the electron beam its last addition of energy before its journey to the deflecting plates. The focusing and accelerating anodes form an electrostatic lens, which bring the electron beam into spot focus on the screen. Three controls are associated with the operating voltages of the CRT; intensity, focus, and astigmatism 1- The intensity control varies the potential between the cathode and the control grid and simply adjusts the beam current in the tube. 2- The focus control adjusts the focal length of the electrostatic lens. 3- The astigmatism control adjusts the potential between the deflection plates and the first accelerating electrode and is used to produce a round spot.
cathode gride Preaccelerating anode Accelerating anode
Electron beam

+
heater Focusing anode Intensity control focusing control

-1500V

+300V
Astigmatism control

The electrostatic deflection system consists of two sets of plates for each electron gun. The vertical plates move the beam up and down, while horizontal plates move it right and left. The two sets of plates are physically separated to prevent interaction of the field. The position of the spot at any instant is a resultant of potentials on the two set of plates at that instant. The viewing screen is created by phosphor coating inside front of the tube. When electron beam strikes the screen of CRT with considerable energy, the phosphor absorbs the kinetic energy of bombarding electrons and reemits energy at a lower frequency range in visible spectrum. Thus a spot of light is produced in outside front of the screen. In addition to light, heat as well as secondary electrons of low energy is generating. Aquadag coating of graphite material is cover the inside surface of CRT nearly up the screen to remove these secondary electrons. The property of some crystalline materials such as phosphor or zinc oxide to emit light when stimulates by radiation is called fluorescence. Phosphorescence refers to the property of material to continue light emission even after the source of excitation is cut off. Persistence is the length of time that the intensity of spot is taken to decrease to 10% of its original brightness. Finally, the working parts of a CRT are enclosed in a high vacuum glass envelope to permit the electron beam moves freely from one end to other with out collision. 2

Tenth Lecture

Oscilloscope

Graticules is a set of horizontal and vertical lines permanently scribed on CRT face to allow easily measured the waveform values.

Electrostatic Deflection Equations:

P Vin Av Ed l +
Electron gun

e l/2 e l/2 e
Screen

d (0,0) Vox y

fy X

Ea

where Vin : input voltage to channel A or B of CRO Vin Ed: deflection voltage (potential) Ed = Vin. Av -X Ex = Ez = 0 Ed y = (1) y: electrical field in Y direction d x= z=0 fy = e .y Fy: force generate by electrical field effect

Y X Z -Y

ay = fy me

e: electron charge (1.6x10-19 C) ay: acceleration in Y direction ,

fx = fz = 0
ax = az = 0

me: electron mass (9.1x10-31 Kg) Vx = Vox = cons tan t Vz = 0 Vy = Voy + ayt Since Voy = 0 Vy: velocity in Y direction at any time fy e y t Voy: initial velocity in Y direction Vy = ayt = t= me me

Y = Yo + Voy +
1 ayt 2 2

Since

Yo = 0

Voy = 0

Y: distance in Y direction

Tenth Lecture Y = Y = 1 e 1 y t 2 ayt 2 = 2 2 me

Oscilloscope
Yo: initial distance in Y direction Relation of Y with time

1 e y t 2 . (2) 2 me
Since
ax = 0

Vx = Vox + axt Vx = Vox

Vx: velocity in X direction

1 axt 2 = 0 2 Relation of X with time
Xo = 0

1 Since axt 2 2 X = Voxt .. (3) X (4) t= Vox Substitute equ. (4) into equ.(2) give

X = Xo + Voxt +

Y =

1 e X2 y .. (5) The parabolic equation of electron beam 2 me Vox 2

1 where (Ea) is the acceleration voltage (potential) mVox 2 = eEa 2 2eEa Vox = .. (6) m By substituting equs.(6) & (1) into equ.(5) we get 1 Ed 2 Y = Relation of Y with X . X ... (7) 4d Ea When the electrons leaves the region of deflecting plates, the deflecting force no longer exist, and the electrons travels in a straight line toward point P. The slope of parabolic curve at distance (x=l) is: dy el y = tan = dx mVox 2 Or 1 Ed tan = l .. (8) 2d Ea D The deflection on the screen (D) is y D = L tan . (9) x Substitute equ.(9) into (8) give L lLEd D= ... (10) 2dEa By similarity The deflection sensitivity (S) of CRT is: D y D S= = . (11) Ed x L The deflection factor (G) of CRT is: 1 Ed 2dEa (12) G= = = S D lL

Eleventh Lecture

Oscilloscope (2)

Post Deflection Acceleration:

The amount of light given off by the phosphor depends on the amount of energy that is transferred to the phosphor by the electron beam. For fast oscilloscope (of high frequency response greater than 100MHz), the velocity of electron beam must be great to respond to fast occurring events; otherwise, the light output will be drop off. This is done by increasing the acceleration potential but it will be difficult to deflected the fast electron beam by the deflection plates because this would required a higher deflection voltage and a higher deflection current to charge the capacitance of the plates. Modern CRTs use a two step acceleration to eliminate this problem. First, the electron beam is accelerated to a relatively low velocity through a potential of a few thousand volts. The beam is then deflected and after deflection is further accelerated to the desired final velocity. The deflection sensitivity of the CRT depends on the acceleration voltage before the deflection plates, which is usually regulated and does not depends on the post acceleration voltage after the deflection plates.
+25 KV CRT
Electron Gun

Post deflection Accelerating voltage

H
Screen

Vertical deflection system:

The vertical deflection system provides an amplified signal of the proper level to derive the vertical deflection plates with out introducing any appreciable distortion into the system. This system is consists of the following elements: 1- Input coupling selector. 2- Input attenuator. 3- Preamplifier. 4- Main vertical amplifier. 5- Delay line.
Coupling Selector Vin

a.c
GND
Input Attenuator Vertical Amplifier Vertical Amplifier Delay Line

Screen

d.c
to Trigger Circuit

Vertical Deflection System

Eleventh Lecture

Oscilloscope (2)

1- Input Coupling Selector:

Its purpose is to allow the oscilloscope more flexibility in the display of certain types of signals. For example, an input signal may be a d.c signal, an a.c signal, or a.c component superimposed on a d.c component. There are three positions switch in the coupling selector (d.c, a.c, and GND). If an a.c position is chosen, the capacitor appears as an open circuit to the d.c components and hence block them from entering. While the GND position ground the internal circuitry of the amplifier to remove any stored charge and recenter the electron beam.

2- 4- Input Attenuators And Amplifiers:

The combine operation of the attenuator, preamplifier and main amplifier together make up the amplifying portion of the system. The function of the attenuator is to reduce the amplitude of the input signal by a selected factor and verse varies amplifier function.

5- Delay Line:
Since part of the input signal is picked off and fed to the horizontal deflection system to initiate a sweep waveform that is synchronized with the leading edge of the input signal. So the purpose of delay is to delay the vertical amplified signal from reaching the vertical plates until the horizontal signal reach the horizontal plates to begin together at the same time on CRT screen.

Horizontal Deflection System:

The horizontal deflection system of OSC consist of : 1- Trigger circuit. 2- Time base generator. 3- Horizontal amplifier.
CRT From Vertical Amplifier

H
Screen

Electron Gun

V
Trigger Circuit Time Base Generator Horizontal Amplifier

Time/Div

Horizontal Deflection System

Trigger and Time Base Generator:

The most common application of an oscilloscope is the display of voltage variation versus time. To generate this type of display a saw tooth waveform is applied to horizontal plates. The electron beam being bent towards the more positive plate and deflected the luminous spot from left to right of the screen at constant velocity whilst the return or fly back is at a speed in excess of the maximum writing speed and hence invisible. The saw tooth or time base signal must be repetitively applied to the horizontal plates so that; the beam can retrace the same path rapidly enough to make the moving spot of light appear to be a solid line. 2

Eleventh Lecture

Oscilloscope (2)

To synchronous the time base signal applied to (X-plates) with input voltage to be measured which applied to vertical or (Y-plates) a triggering circuit is used. This circuit is sensitive to the level of voltage applied to it, so that when a predetermined level of voltage is reached a pulse is passed from the trigger circuit to initiate one sweep of the time base. In a practical oscilloscope the time base will be adjustable from the front panel control of scope.

Horizontal Amplifier:
The horizontal amplifier is used to amplify the sweep waveform to the required level of horizontal plates operation.

Twelveth Lecture

Transducers

Transducers
The input quantity for most instrumentation system is nonelectrical. In order to use electrical methods and techniques for measurement, manipulation, or control the nonelectrical quantity is converted into an electrical signal by a device called electrical transducer. Transducers are broadly defined as devices that convert energy or information from one form to another. This energy may be electrical, mechanical, chemical, optical (radiant), or thermal. Such as, for example, mechanical force or displacement, liner and angular velocity heat, light intensity, humidity, temperature variation, sound time, pressure, all are converted into electrical energy by means of electrical transducers. Transducers may be classified according to their application, method of energy conversion, nature of output signal, and so on.

1- Primary and Secondary Transducers:

Transducers, on the basis of methods of applications, may be classified into primary and secondary transducers. Transducer that converts energy from any form to electrical form is called primary transducer, such as a photovoltaic cell, while transducer that converts energy from any form to another form but not electrical energy or signal is called secondary transducer, such as displacement transducer (which converts force or pressure to displacement).

2- Active and Passive Transducers:

Transducers, on the basis of methods of energy conversion used, may be classified into active and passive transducers. Active (self generating) transducers develop their output in the form of electrical voltage or current without any source of electrical excitation, such as thermocouples, tacho generator. While, if the transducer is capable of producing an output signal only when it is in connection with electrical power source is called passive transducers, such as a potentiometer, thermistor (thermal resistance). Passive transducer producing a variation in some electrical parameter, such as a resistance, capacitance, inductance and so on, which can be measured as voltage or current variation in the circuit.

3- Analog and Digital Transducers:

Transducers, on the basis of nature of output signal, may be classified into analog and digital transducer. Analog transducer converts input signal into output signal, which is a continuous function of time, while digital transducer converts input signal into output signal in a discrete forms.

Strain Gauges
The strain gauge is an example of a primary passive analog transducer that converts force or small displacement into a change of resistance. Since many other quantities such as torque, pressure, weight, and tension also involve force or displacement effects, they can also be measured by strain gauges. Strain gauges are so named because when they undergo a strain (defined to be a fractional change in linear dimension tension or compression caused by an applied force); they also undergo a change in electrical resistance. The strain takes the form of a lengthening of the special wire from which the gauge is constructed. The change in resistance is proportional to the applied strain and is measured with a specially adopted Wheatstone bridge. The gauge factor (k) is given by: R R l l l k= , where R = and R = since the strain ( ) = thus 2 l l A l ( 4)d 1

Twelveth Lecture
k= R R

Transducers
and R = kR

Displacement transducers
The mechanical elements that are used to convert the applied force into a displacement are called force summing devices. The force summing members generally used the following: a) Diaphragm, flat or corrugated b) Bellows c) Bourdon tube, circular or twisted d) Straight tube e) Mass cantilever, single or double suspension f) Pivot torque The displacement created by the action of the force summing device is converted into a change of some electrical parameter and measured by one of the following electrical principle: 1) Capacitive 2) Inductive 3) Differential transformer 4) Photoelectrical 5) Potentiometer 6) Ionization 7) Oscillation 8) Piezoelectric 9) Velocity

1- Capacitive Transducer:
The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is given by

A C= o r d

, where

and r = relative dielectric constant A force applied to a diaphragm that function as one plate of a simple capacitor, change the distance between the diaphragm and static plate. Deflected The resulting change in capacitance could be measured with diaphragm an ac bridge, but it is usually measured with an oscillator circuit. The transducer as a part of oscillator circuit will causes a change in oscillator frequency which proportional Pressure to the applied force.

o = 8.85 10 12 F/m

2- Inductive Transducer:

Static plate

In the inductive transducer the measurement of force is accomplished by the change in the inductance ratio of a pair of coils or by the change of inductance in a single coil. The ferromagnetic armature is displaced by the force being measured, varying the reluctance of the magnetic circuit. The air gap is varied by a change in position of the armature; the resulting change in inductance is a measure of applied force. forcedisplacementair gap changepermaebility() = l A = mmf = NI L = N i
Diaphragm or mass E-core Bourdon tube armature

Coil winding

air gaps Double coil

Single coil

Twelveth Lecture

Transducers

3- Linear Variable Differential Transformer:

It is produces an electrical signal that is linearly proportional to mechanical displacement. The displacements detectable by LVDTs are relatively large compared to those detectable by strain gauges. LVDT consists of a single primary winding and two secondary windings which are placed on either side of the primary. The secondary windings have an equal number of turns but they are connected in series opposition so that the emf induced in the coil oppose each other. The position of the moveable core determines the flux linkage between the ac excited primary winding and each of the two secondary winding. a) With the core in the centre, or reference position, the induced emfs in the secondaries are equal, and since they oppose each other, the output voltage will be zero. b) When the core is forced to move to the left, more flux links the left hand coil than the right hand coil, the induced emf of the left coil is therefore larger than the induced emf of the right coil. The magnitude of the output voltage is than equal to the difference between the two secondary voltages, and it is in phase with the voltage of the left hand coil. c) Similarly, when the core is force to move to the right, more flux links the right hand coil than the left hand coil and the result output is now in phase with the emf of the right hand coil, while its magnitude again equals the difference between the two induced emfs.
Ac supply voltage Primary wind
C tA

Secondary winding (2)

Vo Secondary winding (1) _ A

Phase of coil (2)

B 0 Phase of coil (1) +

Vo=V1-V2

Core at A

Core at 0

Core at B

4- Oscillator Transducer:
This class of oscillator uses the force summing member to change the capacitance or inductance in an (LC) oscillator circuit, which C change the frequency of the circuit in proportional to the applied L Mechanical force.
linkage FM o/p Oscillator

Force summing member Pressure

Twelveth Lecture

Transducers

5- Photoelectric Transducer:
The photoelectric transducer makes use of the properties of photo emissive cell or phototube. The phototube is a radiant energy device that controls its electron emission when exposed to incident light. The large semicircular element is the photosensitive cathode and the thin wire down the centre of the tube is the anode. Both elements are place in a high vacuum glass envelope. When a constant voltage is applied between cathode and anode, the current is directly proportional to the amount of light falling on the cathode. The output current is extremely small in (A) and for a voltage approximately above 20V, the output current is nearly independent of the applied anode voltage but depends entirely on the amount of the incident light.
light cathode phototube Anode volt A Ia (A) 20 15 10 5

Light flux(lumen)

0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 Va (volt)

20 40 60 100 120

6- Piezoelectric transducer:
A symmetrical crystalline material, such as quartz, Rochelle salt, and barium titanate, produce an emf when they are placed under stress. This property is used in piezoelectric transducer. When a crystal is placed between a solid base and the force summing member, an externally applied force, entering the transducer through its pressure port, applies pressure to the top of a crystal; this will produce a small emf proportional to the applied force or pressure.

pressure

Force summing member

Vo crystal

base

7- Potentiometric Transducer:
A Potentiometric transducer is an electromechanical device containing a resistance element that is contacted by a movable slider. Motion of the slider results in a resistance change that may be linear, logarithmic, exponential, and so on, depending on the manner in which the resistance wire is wound.

Force summing member

Vo

Potentiometer

8- Velocity Transducer (Tachometer):

The velocity transducer essentially consists of a moving coil suspended in the magnetic field of a permanent magnet. A voltage is generated by the motion of the coil in the field which is proportional to the velocity of the moving coil. It is used for velocity measurement.
N Moving coil

Vo

Thirteenth Lecture

Curve Fitting and Approximation by LSA

Curve Fitting and Approximation by Least Square Approximations Method

Suppose we wish to fit a curve to an approximate set of data such as from the determination of the effects of temperature on resistance, we want to suitably determine the constants (a) and (b) in the equation relating resistance R and temperature T, we shall assume that the error of reading the temperature is negligible, so that all the errors are in the resistance measurements, and use vertical distance. R=aT+b Yi o T(C ) R() R () 20.5 765 -e 32.7 826 51.0 873 +e 73.2 942 T (Co) 95.7 1032 Xi We want to minimize the deviations of the points from the line (errors). The deviations are measured by the distances from the point to the line. The deviation could be minimizing by making their sum minimum, but this is not an adequate criterion.

1- Fitting linear curves by Least Square Approximations (LSA) method:

Let (Yi) represent an experimental value, and let (yi) represent the theoretical value which get by y i = aX i + b where (Xi) is a particular value of the variable assumed free from this equation error. We wish to determine the best values for (a) and (b), so that (yi) predict the function values that correspond to x-values. Since error= measured- theoretical thus e i = Yi y i Least squares method criterion requires that the sum of errors in the reading (S) must be minimized, so
2 2 2 2 S = e1 + e 2 + e 3 + e 4 + + e 2 = min N

where N is the number of the measured points

S=

i =1

e i2 =

i =1

(Yi y i )

i =1

(Yi aX i b )2 = min

which reach the minimum by proper

S S choice of parameters (a) and (b). When S be a minimum, the two partial derivatives and a b will be zero. Thus
S = 2(Yi aX i b )( X i ) = 0 (1) a i = 1 S = 2(Yi aX i b )( 1) = 0 ... (2) b i = 1 Dividing each of these equations by (-2) and expanding the summation, we get
i =1 N N

(Yi X i aX i2 bX i ) = Yi X i a X i2 b X i = 0
N N N N i =1 i =1 i =1

Thirteenth Lecture

Curve Fitting and Approximation by LSA

N N N

i =1

(Yi aX i b ) = Yi a X i b = 0
i =1 i =1 i =1 N N N

note that:

i =1

b = Nb

The normalized equations

a X i2 + b X i = a X i + bN =
i =1 i =1 N i =1 N

i =1

Yi X i . (1)

i =1

Yi . (2)

Solving these equations simultaneously gives the values for the slope and intercept (a) and (b). For the data of previous example, we find that N=5 Ti= Xi=273.1 Ti 2 =18607.27 Ri=Yi=4438 Ti Ri =YiXi=2549325

The normalized equations are then 18607.27 a + 273.1 b = 254932.5 . (1) 273.1 a + 5 b = 4438 . (2) By solving these equations we obtain And hence the equation
a=3.395 , b=702.17

R=aT+b will be

R= 3.39T + 702.17

To find R at T=70 is R(70)=3.39x70+702.17=939.3 The measured and theoretical values are then T(Co) Rmeasured Rtheoretical 20.5 765 772 32.7 826 813 51.0 873 875 73.2 942 950 95.7 1032 1026

Exercise: Find the theoretical values for linear equation (y) from the given data

Xi Yi yi

6 3.8

8 3.7

10 4

12 3.9

14 4.3

16 4.2

18 4.2

20 4.4

22 4.5

24 4.5 a=0.0445 b=3.48

2- Fitting nonlinear curves by Least Square Approximations method:

In many cases, of course, data from experimental test are not linear, so we need to fit other function than a first degree polynomial, popular forms that are tried are the exponential forms such as

y = ax b y = ae bX or The exponential forms are usually linearized by taking logarithms before determining the , then let ln y=z , ln a= A, ln X=w parameters, so for the first equ. ln y = ln a + b ln X Thus z=A+bw is a linear equation
2

Thirteenth Lecture Curve Fitting and Approximation by LSA Solving this equation to find the values of (A) and (b) then find the value of (a) ei = Z i zi S=
i =1

e i2 =
N

i =1

(Z i z i )2 = (Z i A bw i )2 = min
i =1

S = 2( Z i A bw i )( 1) = 0 .. (1) A i = 1 S = 2( Z i A bw i )( w i ) = 0 .. (2) b i = 1 Dividing each of these equations by (-2) and expanding the summation, we get
N

i =1 N

(Z i A bw i ) = Z i A b w i
i =1 i =1 N i =1 N i =1 i =1

= 0 . (1)
N

i =1

(Z i w i Aw i bw i2 ) = Z i w i A w i b w i2 = 0 (2)
i =1

The normalized equations

b w i2 + A w i = b w i + AN =
i =1 i =1 N i =1 N

i =1

Z i w i . (1)

i =1

Z i . (2)

Solving these equations simultaneously gives the values of (A) and( b) and by taking the inverse ln of (A) we can get the value of (a).

Home work:
Derive the normalized equations for y = ae bX

Example: The results obtained for some experimental measurement is:

Xi Yi 1 7 2 11 3 17 4 27

The variable is varied according the function y = ae bX fit the curve by LSA method. Sol: Taking the logarithms for above equ. ln y= ln a + bx ln e , since ln e =1 , so ln y= ln a + bx , let ln y=z , ln a =A thus z=A+bx , by deriving this equation the normalized equations will be

Thirteenth Lecture b x i2 + A x i =
i =1 i =1 N N

Curve Fitting and Approximation by LSA

i =1

Z i xi

(1)

b x i + AN =
i =1

i =1

Zi

. (2) Zixi=28.42

N=4,

xi=10 , xi2=30 , Zi=10.471,

30 b+ 10 A =28.42 .. (1) 10 b + 4 A =10.471 .. (2) Solving these equs. 10.471 10b A= = 2.61775 2.5b 4 30b + 10[2.61775 2.5b] = 28.42 30b + 26.1775 25b = 28.42

b = 0.4485

A = 1.4965

a = ln 1 A = 4.466

, thus

z = 1.4965 + 0.448 x

and

y = 4.466e 0.448 X
Xi Yi lnYi yi 1 7 1.946 6.99 2 11 2.397 10.94 3 17 2.833 17.12 4 27 3.295 26.8