International Journal of Coal Geology 61 (2005) 97 118 www.elsevier.

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The Lower Karoo coal (k23) of the Mid-Zambezi basin, Zimbabwe: depositional analysis, coal genesis and palaeogeographic implications
P.M. Oesterlena,*, J. Lepperb
b

Girlitzpark 49, 30627 Hannover, Germany Nieders7chsisches Landesamt fur Bodenforschung, Stilleweg 2, 30655 Hannover, Germany Received 17 March 2004; accepted 19 July 2004 Available online 13 October 2004

Abstract Intensive lithological study and correlation of borehole records from the k23 coalfields or coal occurrences in the MidZambezi basin led to the identification of two sedimentological types of coal: the Alluvial plain coal and the freshwater-lake shoreline coal. The Alluvial plain coal was found only at Gokwe and in the Nyamandlovu area. Its depth of more than 200 m below surface, the thinness and discontinuous nature of the seams, and the high ash content of the coal make the economic significance extremely small. In clear contrast, lithologically and economically, stand the lake shoreline coal fields at Wankie, Lubimbi, Lusulu, Lubu, Busi, and Sengwa. The pay-zone is the basal Main Seam, up to 17-m thick. The shoreline coal is either more or less massive (Wankie, Lusulu-Lubu) or is thin coal bands alternating with carbonaceous mudstone (Lubimbi, Sengwa). The clearest evidence for a lake shoreline environment comes from the lateral lithofacies change of the coal, e.g., at Wankie where it turns down-dip into sapropelic mudstone of the lake, and up-dip into terrestrial sediments of the coastal plain. The lake shoreline interpretation results finally in the delineation of a 20- to 40-km-wide coal-belt stretching from Wankie in the W to Sengwa in the E. The new model also opens up new perspectives for more coal within and between the coalfields. The study of quality and petrography of the shoreline coal supports the above depositional environment and reveals a standard maceral profile characterized by a basal vitrinite-rich coal passing upwards into inertinite-rich coal forming the major upper part of the sequence (typical Gondwana coal). The profile reflects an initial swamp phase generating a wetforest swamp with Glossopteris trees, but this turned soon to a dry-forest swamp, with oxidation and decomposition of the vegetation, before it was finally overlain by fluviodeltaic sandstones of k4. The paludification is referred to an eustatic rise of the water-table caused by post-ice-age meltwater, but soon the water level dropped, due to the warmer climate. The local and regional controls of the peatswamp formation were considered, as well as the autochthonous and diachronous nature of the coal. The two coal types led to a new palaeogeographic setting for the Mid-Zambezi basin which is in agreement with the new rift concept. It was more of a trough having a SWNE trend axis which was in the centre filled by a shallow freshwater lake. The

* Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: pmoesterlen@gmx.de (P.M. Oesterlen)8 j.lepper@nlfb.de (J. Lepper). 0166-5162/$ - see front matter D 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.coal.2004.07.002

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above coal-belt was formed out of a peatswamp zone along its palaeo-shoreline. South of this stretched a ca. 100-km-wide shallow alluvial plain drained towards the NW by some meandering rivers, with adjacent flood plains temporarily occupied by local swamps. The alluvial plain was bounded on the SE by crystalline highlands representing the source of clastic sediments for the basin. D 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Lower Karoo coal; Mid-Zambezi basin; Depositional environment; Coalfields; Coal petrography; Palaeogeography

1. Introduction Coals are delicate indicators for a certain environment in sedimentation and regional tectonics: the water-table must remain at or near the ground surface of the swamp, the area must subside to keep pace with the vertical growth of the swamp mat, and the site has to be protected from detrital input. These special conditions were fulfilled during the Lower Karoo in the Mid-Zambezi basin, as manifested by a number of coalfields and occurrences in the MidZambezi basin (Fig. 1). The main fields, such as the active coal mine of Wankie and the coalfields Sengwa-South, Lubimbi, etc., occur in the Black Shale and Coal Member of the Lower Permian Wankie Formation (k23, see Table 1). Some occurrences, however, such as Marowa and Nebiri, are now known to belong to the Upper Permian Madumabisa Formation (k5). This paper focuses on the k23 coal sequence, as this coal represents the prime energy resource for Zimbabwe and, secondly, its main conditions of formation, the depositional environment and palaeogeographic setting, are, to date, poorly understood. The knowledge on the Mid-Zambezi k2 coal is rather limited, the most recent publications being from Duguid (1986). The general Lower Karoo lithostratigraphy of the Mid-Zambezi was covered by Lepper (1992). But since then, new ideas have been put forward on the formation and evolution of the Zambezi basin and rift in general, as well as on the Mid-Zambezi basin which shed a new light on the Lower Karoo coal of Zimbabwe (e.g., Oesterlen and Blenkinsop, 1994; Oesterlen, 1998, 1999). The previous models of k2 coal genesis and palaeogeographic setting are summarized below and are discussed in the light of the new ideas on the Mid-Zambezi basin formation and evolution. Then,

the lithology of the main k2 coalfields and occurrences is reviewed applying sedimentological criteria, and depositional environments and trends are established. Subsequently, these results are viewed in the light of coal quality and maceral data from the individual coalfields so far published. Finally, a new model for the coal formation and the palaeogeographic setting for the k23 sequence of the Wankie Formation is proposed. For the stratigraphic subdivision of the MidZambezi basin, the new classification of Oesterlen (1999) is used (Table 1).

2. Previous models of coal origin and their palaeogeographic settingsa summary Lightfoot, mapping the Wankie coalfield in 1912 and again in 1923, was the first to suggest a detrital origin for the Wankie Main Seam (Lightfoot, 1914, 1929). He used as main arguments the lack of underclay for the Main Seam, its common compositional alternation of bright and dull bands, the high ash content of the coal (compared to the coals of the UK), the exclusive clastic nature of organic remains in the coal and also borehole results (Watson, 1960, p. 15 ff.). Watson (1960), following a mapping survey of the Wankie coalfield between 1950 and 1956, opposed all these arguments in detail and instead came to the conclusion that the coal was formed din situT, dat the shoreline of a lakeT occupying much the same area as the Middle Zambezi Valley of today (Fig. 2). Bond (1967) accepted, in general, the arguments of Watson (1960) for the in situ origin of the coal, and pointed out the dfundamental differences between Wankie coal and Northern Hemisphere (Europe USA) Upper Carboniferous coalsT (p. 185).

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Fig. 1. Location of coalfields and coal-occurrences in the Mid-Zambezi basin, Zimbabwe (I=Insuza, S=Sawmills, T=Tjolotjo).

Duguid (1977, 1986) changed the generally accepted palaeogeographic picture of the basin by introducing the dKamativiSijarira inlierT as a dpalaeo-islandT during Lower Karoo time. Thus, he subdivided the Lower Karoo basin into a northern or dWankie intrabasinT and a southern or dLusulu intrabasinT (Fig. 3), allowing him to apply the dk2 shoreline modelT not only for Wankie, Sebungwe and

Sengwa-North but also for Lubimbi, Lusulu, Sengwa-South, and even for the k2 coal intersected in the boreholes at Gokwe and Sawmills, Tjolotjo, Insuza (Fig. 3). Hosking (1981), in studies of the stratigraphy and sedimentation of the Karoo Supergroup in the Mid-Zambezi Valley, agreed with the palaeogeographic setting of Duguid (1977), mainly on grounds of palaeocurrent data. However, he

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Table 1 Stratigraphic correlation of the Karoo System for the Mid-Zambezi basin (MZB, from Oesterlen, 1999) Period Cretaceous Late Middle Early Late Middle Early Late Group Post Karoo Gair (1959) Bond (1967) Gokwe Sutton (1979) White sandstone M. Gokwe Calcareous M. Hosking (1981) Gokwe Oesterlen (1999) Gokwe

Jurassic

Upper Karoo

Triassic

Batoka basalt Red sandstone Sandstone and Interbedded mudstone

Escarpment grit Middle Early Late

Batoka basalt Forest sandstone Pebbly arkose Fine red marly sandstone Ripple-marked flagstone Escarpment grit

Batoka basalt Forest sandstone Pebbly arkose Fine red sandstone

Batoka basalt Forest sandstone Tashinga

Batoka basalt Forest sandstone Pebbly arkose

Escarpment grit

Escarpment

Escarpment

Permian

Lower Karoo

Madumabisa mudstone

Early

Gwembe coal Red mudstone and Basal sandstone Basal beds Gwembe area/ Zambia

Carbonifer. Region

Late

Upper Madumabisa mudstone Middle Madumabisa mudstone Lower Madumabisa mudstone Upper Wankie sandstone Black shale and coal Lower Wankie sandstone Tillites and varved shales MZB, Zimbawe

Madumabisa

Madumabisa (k 5)

Lower Madumabisa mudstone Upper Wankie sandstone Black shale and coal Lower Wankie sandstone Tillites and varved shales Gokwe area, Zimbabwe

Wankie

Dwyka MZB, Zimbabwe

Upper Wankie sandstone (k 4) Wankie Black shale and coal (k 23) Lower Wankie sandstone (k 1) Dwyka (k 0) MZB, Zimbabwe

changed the existing stratigraphy of Bond (1967) for the Lower Karoo of the Mid-Zambezi Valley by defining the Wankie Formation as constituted by the three members Lower Wankie Sandstone, Black Shale and Coal, and Upper Wankie Sandstone (Table 2). His argument was that these three units replace each other laterally. The introduction of the Wankie Formation was accepted by Oesterlen (1999) and is used in this paper. From the isopach pattern of the various units and subunits of the Lower Karoo Group, the lack of any coarse clastic marginal facies adjacent to the inlier, the palaeocurrent directions, and the pebble size distribution pattern Lepper (1992) concluded a

postsedimentary (post-Lower Karoo) uplift of the central KamativiSijarira horst, but did not review the palaeogeographic setting for the k23 member in detail.

3. The new rift concept of the Mid-Zambezi basin The kinematicthermal models of McKenzie (1978) and others for rift basins were applied to the intracratonic Lower Zambezi Basin (Orpen et al., 1989; Oesterlen and Blenkinsop, 1994) and to the Mid-Zambezi basin (Oesterlen, 1999): the nondeformational phase of a sag basin originated by

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Fig. 2. Apparent shape of the Early Karoo Mid-Zambezi basin (from Watson, 1960).

Fig. 3. The Lower Karoo Mid-Zambezi basin (from Duguid, 1993).

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Table 2 Subseam development of borehole No. 1067, Wankie Concession (from Palloks, 1987) Depth (m) From 3.96 4.19 4.42 5.03 5.64 6.25 6.86 7.47 8.08 8.69 9.30 9.91 10.52 11.13 11.74 12.32 12.93 13.24 13.85 14.46 15.07 15.58 To 4.19 4.42 5.03 5.64 6.25 6.86 7.47 8.08 8.69 9.30 9.91 10.52 11.13 11.74 12.32 12.93 13.24 13.85 14.46 15.07 15.68 15.98 58.2 35.5 30.9 22.8 25.1 23.3 16.9 12.9 13.9 13.3 13.6 13.3 11.7 12.9 10.0 7.4 8.6 6.2 7.0 8.5 5.4 8.9 13.4 16.9 16.9 18.3 18.7 18.4 20.3 20.9 21.7 22.0 21.4 21.1 21.0 22.1 24.3 26.5 26.3 30.3 29.2 28.4 32.3 32.5 Roof 3 Cumulative AshN25% Ash (%) Volatile matter (%) Subseam Definition of Subseam

of the graben which happened only in Upper Karoo time, from Lower Triassic onwards. This model is supported by a number of arguments: (1) The inliers consisting of Precambrian rocks of various ages still carry a number of Lower Karoo erosional remnants, being witnesses of the original Lower Karoo roof sediments overlying the Precambrian base (Chappell, 1969; Humphreys, 1969). Isopach trends for the k2 Main Seam from Wankie to Sengwa coalfields and also the ash content isolines, both calculated by Palloks (1984), do not reflect the boundary faults of the inliers. The coal seams at Sengwa, Lusulu, and Wankie Concession show a distinct increase in thickness towards the uplifted blocks (Lepper, 1992, p. 2324).

(2)
2 Cumulative Ashb20%

(3)

Cumulative Ash up to 15%

Floor

kinematic stretching of crust and lithosphere during the Lower Karoo (Permian; pre-rift phase), the phase of formation of a subsiding central rift zone along boundary faults, due to crustal breakdown, accompanied by rising rift shoulders during the Upper Karoo (syn-rift phase during Triassic time), and the phase of widening of the Mid-Zambezi basin in Jurassic time, due to thermal subsidence on the margins of the basin (post-rift phase). Evidence for all these processes, which resulted in the socalled dTexas longhorn cross-sectionT of a typical rift basin, was recognized in the Mid-Zambezi basin. For further details on the evolution of the MidZambezi basin, see Oesterlen (1999). For the Lower Karoo time, the new model contradicts substantially the palaeogeographic settings described by Duguid (1977, 1986) and Hosking (1981) mentioned above, as it describes a large shallow sag basin which was not subdivided by an intrabasinal high. The KamativiSijarira inliers were uplifted in conjunction with the rifting and subsidence

The new model of a large shallow Lower Karoo basin calls urgently for a new palaeogeographic and depositional picture, in particular, for the k2 coal mudstone member of the Wankie Formation, as the palaeo-shoreline model of Duguid (1986) is no longer suitable. This new picture has also to consider the k2 coal findings in the boreholes of Tjolotjo, Sawmills, and Insuza (Thompson, 1977; Harrison, 1978). The answer to all these questions comes only from the k2 3 coalmudstone sequence and from the sediments below and above the Wankie Formation.

4. Lithology and coal quality related to the environment of deposition of the Black Shale and Coal member (k23), Wankie formation All the available literature and selected borehole records of the k23 coalfields from the Mid-Zambezi basin were studied concerning lithology, lithofacies, thickness, and coal quality and were tentatively interpreted with regard to the environment of deposition. The most substantial document for this paper was the borehole correlation of the main coalfields and coal occurrences (Wankie Concession with Entuba and Western Areas, Lubimbi, Lusulu, Lubu, Busi, Sengwa-South and -North, and Gokwe) done by Lepper (1985) who had selected and reinterpreted 480

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key boreholes out of approximately 5000 drilling records. The coalfields of Lusulu and Wankie Concession contain medium volatile bituminous coal, whereas the rank of all the other fields ranges from subbituminous to high-volatile bituminous coal (Lepper, 1992). 4.1. Wankie coalfields (Wankie Concession, Western Areas, and Entuba) More than 3000 boreholes have been drilled altogether in the fields since the beginning of mining activities in 1903; thus, the database for sedimentological interpretation is excellent. The coalfields consist of the Wankie Concession in the centre, Entuba to the east, and the Western Areas to the west, all located south of Hwange town and stretching over 40 km in WSWENE direction (Fig. 4). The boreholes of the coalfields revealed striking lithological differences, as Duguid has already pointed out

(Duguid, 1986, 1993, and Fig. 5). The Wankie Concession k23 sequence typically consists of the Main Seam at the base, up to 14-m thick, which is overlain by a ca. 20-m carbonaceous mudstone succession, in places intersected in the upper part by a thin coal seam, Seam No. 1, and a 6-m-thick fireclay horizon (see hole W 1539, Fig. 5). This pelitecoal lithology changes in the Western Areas gradationally replacing the coal by clastic intercalations in the Main Seam and in the hanging mudstones and fireclay, until finally the Main Seam tapers out, having only siltstone and fireclay resting on the k1 sandstone (borehole M 92, Fig. 5). Towards the east, the dblack shale and coalT lithology is replaced increasingly by carbonaceous mudstone (borehole SE 33, Fig. 5). This general trend from sandsilt facies in the far WSWpart via a peatswampmud facies in the centre towards a pure mud facies in the far ENE was recognized by Duguid (1986) and interpreted as a lake shoreline peatswamp environment, with its up-dip

Fig. 4. The coal localities of Wankie coalfields (from Palloks, 1987).

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Fig. 5. The k2-3 lithofacies changes at Wankie coalfields including lithological explanation (borehole data from Lepper, 1985).

margin on one side representing the shore of the MidZambezi lake, and its down-dip lacustrine facies in the other direction. Watson (1960) described for the Main Seam of Wankie Concession the increase of ash contents upwards, from 57% at the base to 30% at the top of the Main Seam. The same picture was given by Thompson et al. (1982b) for the Entuba Coalfield and Palloks (1984) for the Western Areas. However, Palloks (1987) found out, by vertical quality variations in ash content and volatile matter, that apparently the Main Seam of Wankie Concession consists of three subseams: subseam No. 1 revealing a cumulative ash yield of maximum 15%, subseam No. 2b20%, and subseam No. 3N25% (see Table 2). The roof of subseam No. 3 is again marked by a sudden increase in ash content (N30%). Palloks (1987,

p. 10) explained these djumpsT by either a sudden subsidence of the floor or rise of the water level. Another characteristic found often, and not only at Wankie coalfields, is the striking high ash content of about 20% in the first 50 cm at the footwall contact of the Main Seam, before it drops abruptly to b10% (Palloks, 1987, Table 5). This is considered as evidence of the previous fluviodeltaic clastic depositional environment of k1, before this was replaced by a shoreline peatswampmud environment of k23. Duguid (1993) pointed out that the Main Seam in the Wankie district becomes progressively higher in ash and lower in basal coking coal (Duguid, 1993, Table 1) towards the edges of distribution, the up-dip margin at the Western Areas, and the down-dip edge at Entuba. This is also in full agreement with the general lithofacies trend of the k23 sequence

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described above, where the coal was replaced by clastic or pelitic sediments. These environments brought along a large amount of inorganic material deposited in the peatswamp, forming mudstone partings and resulting in higher ash contents of the raw coal. 4.2. Lubimbi coalfields The Lubimbi coalfields are located about 100 km east of Hwange town and consist of the four individual fields Dahlia, Hankano, Lubimbi, and Lubimbi-East (Fig. 6), arranged from SW to NE. They altogether cover an area at least 40-km long and 5-km wide at Dahlia and 25-km wide at LubimbiEast. More than 300 boreholes were drilled up to 1975, which is the database available for the authors. The main publications are from Taupitz (1976) and Thompson (1981). The lithology of the k23 succession at Lubimbi coalfields is rather different from that of Wankie coalfields. The 40- to 50-m-thick succession consisting, in general, of bright and dull coal, carbonaceous mudstone, mudstone, and the dGrey Shale MarkerT is

traditionally subdivided into the six coal-bearing horizons B, C, D, E, F, and G, and the sequence was called dBira Coal MeasuresT (Thompson, 1981). The A-coal-horizon occurs interbedded in the k1 sequence. The Grey Shale Marker, on average is 4-m thick and is petrographically the same as the Fireclay of Wankie, thus representing its eastern extension, ubiquitously occurs between the E- and F-horizon. Comparing the Lubimbi lithology with Wankie the Main Seam of Wankie can be correlated with the Band C-coal horizons from Lubimbi, and the A- or No. 1 Seam with the EF-horizons. Fig. 7 displays the lithology, coal horizons and thickness of one typical borehole from each of the four coalfields arranged from SW to NE. The basal Bhorizon consists of dull coal with a higher ash content, rarely bearing bright coal band. The overlying Chorizon, the main dpay-zoneT, is predominantly a lowash bright-banded coal alternating with dull coal and carbonaceous mudstone layers. The D-horizon is composed not of coal but of stratified carbonaceous mudstone with bright coal bands, and an ash content of N50%. The E-horizon is an alternation of bright coal with bituminous mudstone. Above the Grey

Fig. 6. The coal localities of Lubimbi coalfields.

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Fig. 7. The k2-3 lithofacies changes at Lubimbi coalfields (data from Lepper, 1985, modified). For explanation, see Fig. 5.

Shale marker occur the F- and G-horizons; the lower, a bright coal with mudstone partings and the upper, again a carbonaceous mudstone. The typical features of the Lubimbi coal, in contrast to the Wankie coal, are the alternation of bright coal sequences with dull coal horizons, the alternation of coal with bituminous mudstone layers, the common stratification of the coal (dbanded coalT) with bands displaying a lenticular shape on a larger scale (Thompson, 1981), the relatively high amount of silty mineral matter of the coal, and the considerable increase in thickness of the k23 member, from 32 m at Dahlia to 53.5 m at Lubimbi-East (Fig. 7). The higher thickness accounts for Lubimbi and LubimbiEast, but not for the Dahlia sequence, which compares better with the Wankie Concession lithology and thickness. The Hankano lithology, however, appears to be a transition between the Dahlia type in the SW and the Lubimbi types in the NE. All the lithological criteria cited above do not point to a deltaic environment, as suggested by Thompson (1981), but to a lacustrine shorelineswamp environment of deposition. The thick alternation of coal with mudstones (D- to G-horizons) is best explained by a long period of water-level fluctuation, leading to a temporary drowning of the swamp and deposition of

sapropelic mud. The greater thickness of this sequence towards the northeast might indicate the growing influence of a delta system nearby delivering higher mineral input into the adjacent swamp in times of flooding. However, the thickness decrease of the coal layers of horizons C and D to the north, where they are replaced by carbonaceous mudstone, looks more like the change from shoreline swamp into sapropelic lacustrine sediment. This depositional environment is also found in the northern part of Dahlia coalfield which is composed completely of carbonaceous mudstone (boreholes 504 and 509, Lepper, 1985). Another interesting hint to the palaeogeographic setting is the fact that the Lubimbi coalfields did not give any evidence for shore-face sediments in the southern part (Dahlia-South), such as in the Wankie coalfields. Instead, carbonaceous mudstone was found which could have come from a sapropelic lake environment or an alluvial plain environment. For palaeogeographic reasons, the latter suggestion appears more probable. The coal quality data for Lubimbi are scarce, but Thompson (1981, p. 60) compiled some figures for all horizons of each coalfield (Table 3). In general, it can be stated (1) that the ash content increases upwards

P.M. Oesterlen, J. Lepper / International Journal of Coal Geology 61 (2005) 97118 Table 3 Averages of raw coal ash-content for the k23 coal horizons, Lubimbi coalfields (from Thompson, 1981) Horizon of coalfield Bright banded coal fraction (Ash %) Dull coal/ carbonaceous mudstone fraction (Ash %) 62.9 65.1 61.2 48.4 36.4

107

Lubimbi F or F/G E or E/F D or D/E C or C/D B or B/D Lubimbi East F or F/G E or E/F D or D/E C or C/D B or B/C Hankano F or F/G E or E/F D or D/E C or C/D B or B/C (one borehole) Dahlia F or F/G (two boreholes) E or E/F D or D/E C or C/D B or B/D

37.9 30.7 32.0 20.4 23.6

36.6 34.0 29.0 19.0 15.0

69.5 65.9 61.5 40.8 24.9

24.9 30.9 28.9 27.3 26.5

73.2 66.3 61.4 55.7 56.2

37.8 33.2 33.3 28.9 26.9

71.4 63.0 60.3 55.3 43.3

throughout the horizons of k23, as in Wankie coalfields and (2) that the amount of mineral matter or ash content for the Lubimbi coal is higher than for Wankiewhich again is in line with the hypothesis of a delta system not far to the northeast of the Lubimbi coalfields. 4.3. Lusulu coalfield The Lusulu coalfield is situated ca. 90 km northeast of Lubimbi and ca. 50 km southwest of SengwaSouth. It stretches 45 km in a NESW direction and has an average width of 5 km (Fig. 1). The main source of data is Palloks (1984) who interpreted 185 boreholes and other results from exploration by Shell Developments Zimbabwe and others during 1975 1976 and 19801982 (Shell Developments Zimbabwe

(Pvt.) Ltd., 1983). Further information was obtained from the research borehole MT 1, which is 368-m deep and located about 5 km south of the southwestern corner of Lusulu coalfield (Falcon, 1973). Taupitz (1976) recognized the lithological similarity of the so-called Lusulu dLower coal shaleT to the Lubimbi k23 lithology. Fig. 8 displays four borehole records, where the two logs of boreholes 201 and 250 represent the typical lithology of central Lusulu. The sequence starts with the two main coal horizons, the Main Seam, up to 10-m thick, and the A-Seam, 2.5- to 4.5-m thick and up to 3.5 m above the Main Seam. The younger coal seams B, C, D, and E, of lesser quality, occur higher up in the succession, interbedded with carbonaceous mudstone. The Grey Shale Marker horizon separates the D- and E-Seams (Fig. 8). In borehole MT 1, the coal seams are widely replaced by carbonaceous mudstone, and in borehole 256, the total thickness is greater due to a thick pile of carbonaceous mudstone overlying the E-Seam. The k23 sequence at Lusulu is 40- to 60-m thick. Palloks (1984) demonstrated that the thickness of the Main Seam decreased from 10.0 m in the N to 4.0 m in the SE and SW, the coal being replaced by carbonaceous mudstone, as in borehole MT 1 (Fig. 8). The same trend was also found for the A-Seam. The typical lithology of the dLower coal shaleT, i.e., the alternation of lenticular coal seams with carbonaceous mudstone indicates, as with the Lubimbi coalfields, a shoreline swamp environment which, towards the south, grades rapidly into the carbonaceous floodplain sediments of the adjacent alluvial plain (borehole MT 1). Although lithologically the same, the carbonaceous mudstone of the uppermost sequence towards the NE (C-section from Lepper, 1985, and borehole 256, Fig. 8) has probably an origin from a nearby delta system. The northwestern continuation of the Lusulu coalfield might be seen in the Lubu coalfield (see below). The best quality coal (ash content b20%) occurs in the lower portion of the Main Seam, towards the top the ash content increases (Palloks, 1984). All the coal seams above the Main Seam are of inferior quality. Laterally, the quality of the Main Seam becomes poorer towards the south, in agreement with the above explanation that the shoreline sediments grade into sediments of an alluvial plain. The Lusulu coal is classified as a high-ash coal on average (Palloks, 1984, p. 26).

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Fig. 8. The k2-3 lithofacies changes at Lusulu coalfield (data from Lepper, 1985). For explanation, see Fig. 5.

4.4. Lubu coalfield Lubu coalfield is located about 35 km in the northwestern continuation of Lusulu (Fig. 1). It has an extent of only 15 km in a SWNE direction and a maximum 8 km width, as it occurs on a down-faulted block within the Sijarira Inlier. Palloks (1984) compiled the results of the coal exploration done by MessinaTransval Development (MTD) in 1982, which included the drilling of 13 boreholes. The k23 lithology is similar to that of central Lusulu, a basal Main Seam averaging 12.5 m thickness (maximum of 18 m), overlain by mudstone and carbonaceous mudstone with two smaller intercalated coal seams (A-seam with 2.5 m, B-seam with 2.0 m thickness average, see Fig. 9). There is no fireclay or Grey Shale marker horizon intersected in the sequence. The Lubu k23 sequence represents the northwestern down-dip extension of the Lusulu shoreline sediments. The lower portion, including the Main Seam, A-, and B-Seam, is the expression of a persistent shoreline swamp environment which was replaced twice by thick nonorganic mud intervals, representing the lateral input of a nearby delta system (Fig. 9). This explanation is supported by the high ash content of the Main Seam (see below) and the considerable thickening of the Main Seam towards the SE (Palloks, 1984: from 6 m in the

NW to 18 m in the SE), and the unusual thickness of the total succession (Fig. 9). However, the very thick sapropelic mudstones, with few sandstone tongues, of the upper portion, which was found also in most of the other boreholes, most probably are of lacustrine origin resulting from a transgression of the lake, like at Wankie Concession. Borehole 13, ca. 10 km to the W of borehole 6, has much more mudstone in the succession than the other boreholes, at the expense of coal, probably indicating the lateral influence of another fluvial delta towards the west. The best quality coal is not found at the base of the Main Seam as typical, but near its centre; the bottom and upper portions being of inferior quality, as well as the A- and B-coal seams (Palloks, 1984, p. 19). On average, the Main Seam is high in ash content (27.3% for raw coal). Thompson (1980) described a 1.2-m thick coal seam at Sebungu, located about 25 km west of Lubu (see Fig. 1), but no sampling or drilling results were reported. The lack of information does not allow a sedimentological classification of the coal, but a sapropelic origin is suggested. 4.5. Busi coalfield Busi is situated between the Lusulu, about 40 km towards the SW, and the Sengwa coalfields, ca. 20 km

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Fig. 9. Some k2-3 lithofacies records of Lubu and Busi coalfields (from Lepper, 1985). For explanation, see Fig. 5.

towards the NE (Fig. 1). The data is very limited (Lepper, 1985) and consists only of six borehole-logs stretching over 18 km in a SWNE direction, only four of them having intersected the k23 sequence of the Wankie Formation. Nevertheless, the four litho-logs display two distinct different sedimentological environments. The two boreholes TB 1 and TB 3, with a pure sand-facies, sometimes with pebble bands and in places with a few coal bands in the k23 sequence (see borehole TB 1, Fig. 9) represent a delta environment of a river system, here at least 40-m thick. The delta obviously follows the SENW depositional trend, as expected, but is not wide enough to affect the Lusulu coalfield. The other two boreholes (TB 4 and TB 5), which consist of an alternation of carbonaceous mudstone with coal bands, in places with a Main Seam at the base (see borehole TB 5, Fig. 9), represent a shoreline environment affected by frequent flooding of the adjacent delta system, leading to temporary swamps before they were terminated by suspended sediment load. This facies resembles the one found in the Lubimbi coalfields. Unfortunately, no coal quality data are available.

4.6. Sengwa coalfields The Sengwa coalfields consist of Sengwa-South and Sengwa-North, both situated along the northeastern end of the Sijarira Inlier, the former on the southeastern side, the latter on the northern side and 15 km NNW of Sengwa-South (Fig. 1). The main source of information is again Palloks (1984), Lepper (1985), and Oesterlen (1999). From 1973 to 1980, Rio Tinto Rhodesia carried out coal exploration in this region, of which 13 boreholes of each area were recorded by Palloks (1984) and Lepper (1985). In 1994, Rio Tinto Zimbabwe drilled another 178 boreholes in Sengwa-South, but only very limited data were available for the authors (Falcon Research Laboratory (Pty.) Ltd., 1995). The area drilled at Sengwa-North stretches ca. 15 km in the SWNE direction and 4 km in the perpendicular direction. Sengwa-South area extends 7 km in the NS direction and 2 km in the EW direction (Fig. 1). The lithologies of both coalfields are nearly identical. The k23 sequence starts with the Main Coal Seam (MCL), the only economic seam of the area, at the base, overlain by the Lower Carbonaceous Shale (LCS), the Upper Coal Seam (UCL), and then

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the Upper Carbonaceous Shale (UCS). Both the LCS and UCS are in reality carbonaceous mudstones intercalated with thin coal bands. The fireclay is developed in Sengwa-North, but not in SengwaSouth; the UCL is often missing in Sengwa-North (see Fig. 10). The Main Coal Seam of Sengwa-North averages 14.1 m thickness (17 m maximum), and 12.5 m thickness (maximum 15 m) in Sengwa-South. As in the other coalfields, the lithology of the entire sequence and the high thickness of the Main Seam suggest a shoreline swamp environment. Subsequently, the swamp vegetation was periodically terminated by the deposition of suspension load. The interpretation of this portion could consider, as described already for Lubimbi and Busi coalfields, either an episodic flooding of the lake or a rhythmic influx of suspension material from an adjacent delta system. The overall configuration suggests the two coalfields were originally part of one ca. 25-km wide SWNE-trending shoreline peatswamp, with its down-dip side passing into the lake to the NW (Sengwa-North) and the up-dip side into the alluvial floodplain towards the SE (Sengwa-South, see also borehole 4, Fig. 10). The central part was eroded by the uplift of the Sijarira Inlier. This concept is supported by the shaling-out of the Main Seam in

Sengwa-North towards the east, and in Sengwa-South, towards the south (Palloks, 1984, p. 35). Another argument is the synchronous Bari coal occurrence, ca. 30 km to the east (see Fig. 1), which displayed only four thin coal bands within a 50-m-thick carbonaceous mudstone succession of k23, typical for an alluvial plain environment. The unusually great thickness of the k23 sequence at Sengwa, i.e. 6580 m at Sengwa-South and 40100 m at Sengwa-North, is probably explained by the particular palaeogeographic position of Sengwa in a large bay of the eastern margin of the lake, where the hinterland provided large amounts of detrital load (see Fig. 12). This concept is also supported by the high ash contents of coals in both coalfields, about 22.5% on average for both. The best coal quality is found in the lower portion of the Main Seam (b10% ash), but from 2 m above the footwall, it deteriorates towards the top of the seam (N20% ash, Palloks, 1984, p. 34 ff.) results which were already reported from the other coalfields. 4.7. The Gokwe coal occurrences Sessami and Kaongo are the two subsurface coal occurrences of the Gokwe area, 14 km apart in a northeasterly direction, and both located ca. 60 km

Fig. 10. The k2-3 lithofacies changes at Sengwa-North and Sengwa-South coalfields (data from Lepper, 1985). Explanation see Fig. 5.

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southeast of Sengwa-South and 30 km north of Gokwe town (Fig. 1). They were investigated by reconnaissance drilling first in 19511952 and later in 19711974 by Rio Tinto Rhodesia (Boehmke and Duncan, 1974). The results were compiled by Sutton (1979), and 13 borehole logs, covering an area of 70 km in an WE direction and 30 km in a NS direction, were correlated by Lepper (1985). The k23 sequence intersected in depths of 200 300 m below surface looks very different from the ones described above. It is composed of various lithologies changing rapidly in a lateral direction (see Fig. 11). Sometimes the Main Seam occurs at the base, with a maximum of 9 m thickness, overlain by siltstone (e.g. borehole G 7 and G 10, Fig. 11); sometimes the sequence is represented only by carbonaceous mudstone (borehole SY 1) or siltstone or sandstone (boreholes G 12, G 4), or is completely missing (boreholes G 11; see Sutton, 1979). Its total thickness is reduced to 15 m average (maximum 40 m). The coal quality is not good, with about 20% ash content at the base of the Main Seam and N30% in the upper portion (Sutton, 1979). The rapid lateral change of lithology, the higher proportion of silt- and sandstone in the sequence and the higher ash content in the coal all indicate an alluvial plain environment for the coal, with the entire sequence composed of river systems and adjacent flood plains. The thickness increase of the succession

towards the NW (Lepper, 1985, Section B) and a stable thickness of ca. 15 m in EW direction (see Fig. 11) point to drainage from a source area in the SE towards the lake in the NW (Fig. 12). 4.8. Boreholes of Tjolotjo, Sawmills, and Insuza Further information on the coal-bearing k23 succession comes from the three deep research boreholes at Tjolotjo, Sawmills, and Insuza; all located in the Nyamandlovu district and arranged on a 50-kmlong NESW-trending line in an area situated ca. 200 km southeast of Wankie (Fig. 1). The boreholes were correlated and interpreted by Harrison (1978). The litho-logs of the k23 sequence intersected at about 300 m depth in all three holes are similar in all boreholes: one or several thin coal seams are interbedded in an alternation of carbonaceous mudstone, the dominant lithology, with siltstone or, rarely, sandstone. A general coarsening-up of grain size is recognizable, as well as a progressive decrease of organic material in the mudstone. The lithofacies and the small thickness of 2630 m resemble much the Gokwe logs; thus, the sediments are also considered typical sediments of a flood plain on an alluvial plain. This environmental classification is supported by the very high ash content of N30% for the coal seam at the base (Thompson, 1977) and the increasing thickness for the Lower Karoo succession towards the NW.

Fig. 11. The k2-3 lithofacies changes at Gokwe coal occurrences (data from Lepper, 1985). Explanation see Fig. 5.

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Fig. 12. The k2-3 coal-belt and adjacent sedimentological boundaries in the Mid-Zambezi Lower Karoo basin, on the geological background (I= Insuza, S=Sawmills, T=Tjolotjo).

The same principal lithostratigraphic subdivision of the Wankie Formation also provides evidence, that the area of the boreholes is still a part of the same Lower Karoo basin of the Mid-Zambezi terrain.

5. Information from maceral analysis of the coal The petrography of the k23 coal is not wellstudied yet; the data is scarce and in parts incomplete, with no information at all from Busi and Lubu coalfields, Gokwe occurrence, and the deep boreholes of Nyamandlovu area. However, it appears that there

exists one dominant maceral model for the coalfields of Wankie, Lusulu, and Sengwa, while Lubimbi coalfields present a different one. Watson (1960) reported on two maceral analyses from the Main Seam coal of Wankie Concession No. 2 colliery, without giving any details of sampling. The one sample is a bi-maceral coal (54.3% vitrinite (V), 44.3% inertinite (I), 0.2% liptinite (L) and 1.2% other components), presumably sampled from the lower portion of the Main Seam; the other a typical Gondwana coal (61.7% I, 34.6% V, 0.5% L and 3.2% other components) which comes certainly from the upper Main Seam. Thompson et al. (1982b)

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produced some data from Entuba coalfield, from washed coal with specific gravity of 1.4: the Main Seam lowermost 1.3 m coal, classified as coking coal, is composed of 47.3% V, 27.0% I and 2.3% L (and 23.4% minerals, as suggested by the authors), whereas the overlying 1.4 m of coal classified as blend coking coal revealed only 29.7% V, 18.0% I and 1.3% L (the remaining 51.0% not reported). Similar maceral values were given for the Main Seam 2.3 m bottom coal (coking coal) of the Western Area coalfield (40.6% V, 20.2% I, 2.7% L (the remaining 36.5% not reported), Thompson et al., 1982a). No maceral analyses were given for the main upper portion of the Main Seam, classified as steam coal, but it is noted that the bright coal changes to a dull coal accompanied by an abrupt drop of the vitrinite content to 0% (Thompson et al., 1982a, Fig. 2). One result is known for the No. 1 Seam above the Main Seam, which again is a vitrinite-rich coal (71.1% V, 7.2% I, and 4.4% L (the remaining 17.3% not reported)). Similar results are available from Lusulu coalfield (Shell Developments Zimbabwe (Pvt.) Ltd., 1983). The base of the Main Seam is a vitrinite-rich coal (64% V, 28% I, 6% L, and 2% minerals), but the most common coal type is a Gondwana-type inertinite-rich coal (ca. 50% I, 40% V, and 10% L) grading into the less-common, strongly inertinitic coal (73% I, 12% V, 10% L, and 5% minerals). Falcon Research Laboratory (Pty.) Ltd. (1995) reported the same results from Sengwa-South coalfield based on the analysis of three boreholes. The Main Seam coal was determined to be dominantly an inertinite-rich coal (5196% I, 1.535% V, and 1.313% L), a typical Gondwana coal. The vitrinite-rich coal (5060% V, 3045% I, and 0.512% L) was subordinate occurring only at the base of the Main Seam and in the Upper Seam. The maceral analyses of the Lubimbi coalfields were carried out on seven boreholes (Thompson, 1981). The main two coal lithologies within the k23 sequence, i.e. the bright banded coal and the dull coal differ in the maceral composition and the ash or mineral content (see Tables 3 and 4). The brightbanded coal is mainly a vitrinite-rich coal, while the dull coal and carbonaceous mudstone coal are dominantly inertinite-rich, with a higher mineral content than the vitrinite-rich coal (Table 4). The maceral profile of the entire k23 succession at Lubimbi does not fit to the above standard maceral

Table 4 Maceral analyses from boreholes No. 101 and 107, Lubimbi coalfields (from Thompson, 1981) Bright banded coal (vol.%) Vitrinite Liptinite Inertinite Minerals 4559 811 2331 1013 Dull coal and carbonaceous mudstone (vol.%) 1323 57 4161 1931

All data refer to a float at S.G. of 1.9

model. The dull coals of the B-horizon are inertiniterich coals (N70% I) which are overlain by a vitriniterich coal of the C-horizon in the south (51% V, 33% I, 11% L, and 5% minerals, see Table 5). The banded coal of the D-horizon revealed similar results, while its carbonaceous mudstone coals are typical inertiniterich coals (Gondwana coal). The banded coals of the E/F-horizons, equivalent to the No. 1 Seam of Wankie, are vitrinite-rich (64% V, 16% I, 7% L, and 13% minerals), with mudstone intercalations and minor inertinite-rich coal bands. The maceral data of the individual coalfields described above are the result of depositional processes. The swamp formation started as a paludification process; that is, the fluviodeltaic sandstones of the k1 sequence were replaced by a swamp, due to a rising groundwater-table. The above-described standard maceral model for the Wankie, Lusulu, and Sengwa coal was, for the lower ca. 2 m of the Main Seam, characterized by a wet forest swamp with a GlossopterisGangamopteris flora, having a high water-table (vitrinite-dominated coal). The first stage of coal formation changed gradationally by the fall of the water level, leading to oxidation and decomposition of the plants in the swamp (dry forest swamp). This second stage was more stable than the first and produced the inertinite-dominated coal of the major part of the Main Seam. The second stage was followed at Wankie by the deposition of carbonaceous mudstone, when the shoreline swamp was drowned, either by higher subsidence of the ground or a rise of the lake water level (transgression of the shoreline towards the south). However, the vitrinite-rich coal of the No. 1 Seam at Wankie and equivalent coal horizons in Lusulu and Sengwa demonstrate that the first stage of a dwet forest swampT could be reestablished by a transient regression of the lake

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Table 5 Maceral analyses of the coal horizons from Lubimbi coalfields (from Thompson, 1981) Banded coals Horizon Vitrinite (vol.%) Liptinite (vol.%) Inertinite (vol.%) Minerals (vol.%) Ash (wt.%) E/F 64 7 16 13 23.7 D 51 10 27 12 25.8 C South 51 11 33 5 14.9 North 37 9 44 10 22.4 6 10 71(?) 13 28.7 35 6 33(?) 26 42.6 14 7 53(?) 26 41.5 Dull coals B Carbonaceous mudstones E/F D

that it has formed from herbaceous peats after flooding with oxygenated water and subsequent desiccation. The flooding was deduced from the higher liptinite content of the inertinite-rich coal. Falcon Research Laboratories (Pty.) Ltd. (1995) stated, in its report on the Sengwa-South coal, that the liptinite macerals were dtypically concentrated in layers which are sometimes associated with high mineral contents, sometimes with detrital inertiniteT. This explanation corresponds well with the conclusions drawn by the authors for the sedimentological environments of the individual coalfields, and the increase in mineral content of the inertinite-rich coals.

6. Discussion 6.1. Peatswamp formation and controlling parameters It is well known that swamps form only under certain special conditions, i.e., a subsiding floor, a stable water level, and a lack of clastic contamination. During the time span of the upper k23 sequence, the main coalfields presented a number of different lithologies, more or less synchronously: sapropelic lacustrine mudstone was deposited in Wankie Concession, while in Entuba, the vitrinite coal of the No. 1 Seam formed. In Lubimbi, Lusulu and Sengwa-South as well, the dull coal of mainly inertinite macerals was dominant. It means that at least three different depositional sub-environments were present along the shoreline of the k23 Mid-Zambezi lake, at about the same time, certainly due to local controls on deposition. In Entuba, the favourable conditions for a water-covered shorelineswamp were established again, whereas in Wankie Concession, the swamp was drowned by a high water level or by suspension load from a sedimentary source nearby; but for Lubimbi, Lusulu, and Sengwa-South, the oxygen-rich dry forestswamp was still active. Local controls were also the reason for the unusual maceral development at Lubimbi and Wankie Concession, where inertinite coal was found either all over or in parts at the base of the Main Seam or equivalent. These irregularities were most probably caused by a temporary low water level for these areaswhich was already suggested by Palloks

All data refer to a float at S.G. of 1.9 (?) Data suggested by the authors.

shoreline. This facies regression is also indicated by the alternation of mudstone with coal bands, typical for the upper portion of k23 at Sengwa, or further coal seams in the upper sequence at Lusulu. Finally, the deposition of organic and/or suspension material was abruptly replaced by the fluviodeltaic environment of the k4 sandstones (regression again). The maceral profile of the Lubimbi coal (see above) differs from the standard model mainly in the bottom part of the k23 sequence, which is an inertinite-rich coal. The latter grades into vitrinite-coal of the Chorizon, both horizons together being the equivalent of the Main Seam of Wankie. The maceral composition of the overlying carbonaceous mudstones and mudstonecoal band alternation of the horizons D to G is similar to the maceral development of the standard model including the vitrinite-rich coal seams in the upper k23 sequence. Most probably, the dull coal at the base is due to a local, temporary topographic high, where the swamp started to develop as a dry forest swamp. Irregularities of this type were already reported by Palloks (1987) from the Wankie Concession, where the lack of bright coal at the base of the Main Seam, i.e., the subseam No. 1, were explained by palaeotopographic conditions (Palloks, 1987). With regard to the vitrinertite, the most dominant coal microlithotype of k23 in this report, and a characteristic microlithotype in Gondwana coals as well, Styan and Bustin (1983) came to the conclusion

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(1987). On the other side, the general trend of the maceral development for all the coalfields, i.e., the vertical change from a low-ash vitrinite coal at the base of the sequence to the high-ash inertinite coal (Gondwana coal) in the upper portion is referred to a regional control. A substantial controlling factor was slow post-ice-age climatic warming, with meltwater causing an eustatic rise of the water level from k 1 onwards, a process which slowly came to a standstill at the end of k23. Another regional factor was the annual rhythm of precipitation, characterized by high precipitation in the rainy season followed by a cold dry season, which led to periodic or episodic flooding and then drying up of lake waters. Crustal rebound following melting of ice in the highlands to the southeast, which, from k1 onwards, became the sedimentary source area for the Lower Karoo basin of the Mid-Zambezi, may have been another parameter. This factor could have played a role in the onlap of the k4 fluviodeltaic clastic sediments over the k23 shoreline coals and mudstones. With the beginning of k5, the isostatic control became the dominant factorthe crust of the basin began to subside and formed a sag-basin, until it broke in the central zone and generated the Zambezi-graben, approximately at the Permian/Triassic boundary. 6.2. Diachronous coal Duguid (1986) was the first to consider the diachronous nature of the k23 coal. The lithological facies changes in vertical and lateral direction are the result of changes in the sedimentary environment, as described above, and led of course to a lateral migration of the shoreline peatswamp. The dwet forestT zone with its vitrain, clarain, and duroclarain lithotypes moved up-dip, when the water level rose, and down-dip into the lake, when the water level dropped. The migration affected also the maceral types of the peat, the vitrain-dominated peat replaced by the durain-dominated peat, and vice versa. Evidently, the general topographic relief of the area was very low; this migration of the peatswamp on the shoreline of the lake led eventually to an unusually broad zone for a coal-belt. Based on the drilling data available, the Wankie coal-belt attains a width of at least 30 km, Lubimbi belt at least 20 km, Lusulu and Lubu coalfields about 40 km, and Sengwa (North

South) about 25 km. In the lateral direction, the coalbelt having a thickness of maximum 18 m at Lubu, stretches from Wankie coalfields in the west in a lobe over more than 300 km towards Sengwa coalfields in the northeast, reflecting the palaeo-shoreline of the k23 lake (Fig. 12). However, it is interbedded with several wide clastic zones of delta systems, as seen in the Busi coalfield, for example. The width of the coal-belt is, in principle, defined by the coal seams which grade laterally into a sapropelic mudstone of lacustrine origin on the down-dip side, and bituminous mudstone intercalated with clastic sediments of an alluvial floodplain on the up-dip side. In the light of these criteria, it can be seen that in particular the Lubimbi coalfields still have an interesting potential for more coal towards the up-dip side in the southeast. 6.3. Autochthonous or allochthonous origin of the coal This discussion was opened, after Lightfoot (1914, 1929) had decided for the drift coal theory, whereas Watson (1960) disagreed and opted clearly for the insitu origin of the coal (see Section 2). Since then, coal petrography in general has developed considerably, especially with respect to the individual maceral types of the coal and their origin. The main arguments of Lightfoot (1929) for a detrital coal (composition, high ash content and fragmentary nature of the coal) lost their value, as coal petrography has investigated and understood the substantial differences between the Carboniferous coals in Europe and North America and the Permian coals of Gondwana. The most common coal type of the k23 sequence, the inertinite coal consists mainly of decomposed and detrital macerals, e.g., inertodetrinite, which, however, were generated by aerobic or subaerobic decay during the process of oxidation of the swamp vegetation in situ and were not necessarily of detrital origin. Of course, small reworking of plant remains or of peat took place repeatedly within the peatswamps of k23 during times of flooding, and led to the term of dhypautochthonous coalT. On the other hand, allochthonous coals are in general much richer in mineral content. Therefore, the authors consider the shoreline coal of Wankie and the other coalfields to be a hypautochthonous coal.

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7. Conclusionsthe new concept of k23 coal genesis and related palaeogeographic setting Intensive lithology and lithofacies interpretation of the coal-bearing k23 sequences from the individual coalfields and occurrences of the Mid-Zambezi Karoo basin and of their coal quality and coal petrology has led to the identification of two different sedimentological types of coal and also a new palaeogeographic setting for the coals. These new results are in full agreement with the new rift concept for the MidZambezi basin of Oesterlen (1999). The Alluvial plain coal was found only at Gokwe and in the Nyamandlovu area (see Sections 4.7 and 4.8) and occurs embedded in fine-grained flood plain sediments deposited along meandering river channels. The drainage system of the gentle alluvial plain had its catchment area in the southeastern highlands and was running towards the NW where the channels emptied into the Mid-Zambezi lake with delta systems (Fig. 12). The respective coal seams are in general thin and discontinuous; the coal contains high ash contents and is encountered only at depths of more than 200 m below the surface. In other words, the economic significance of this type of coal in the Mid-Zambezi basin is extremely low. This is in contrast to the other main type of coal, the lake shoreline coal, of all the coalfields in the NW, from Wankie over Lubimbi, Lusulu and Lubu, Busi to Sengwa (see Section 4). The coal-bearing sequence starts almost in all fields with the Main Seam at the base, up to 17-m thick, which represents the main dpay-zoneT, and continues upwards with up to five thinner coal seams intercalated in carbonaceous mudstone. In some cases, the coal is massive and is not split-up by mudstone partings, like the coals of Wankie or LusuluLubu coalfields, suggesting continuous peat formation without episodes of clastic influx. In other places, the coal consists of thick alternations of carbonaceous mudstone with thin coal bands, manifested at Lubimbi and Sengwa coalfields, where the peatland was contaminated by the deposition of suspension load, most probably coming from nearby delta systems. The thickness of the Main Seam is one indicator of a shoreline environment of the coal. Other ones are the lack of coarser-grained clastic contamination, and the presence of suspension load sediments as the main

country rock. However, the strongest argument derives from the lateral lithofacies and environment change, e.g., at Wankie coalfields, where drilling has proven the shoreline coal changes down-dip into sapropelic mudstone of lacustrine origin and up-dip into terrestrial sediments of the coastal plain of the lake. A similar, but less clear dfacies cross-sectionT of the shoreline coal has been found at Lusulu, with Lubu as the down-dip continuation, and at Sengwa, where Sengwa-North represents the down-dip extension of the Sengwa-South shoreline coal (Fig. 12). Even the Lubimbi coalfields show good indications of the same facies change. This interpretation was supported by the finding in the Busi coalfield of delta sandstones laterally interfingering with the shoreline coal. The interpretation results in the delineation of a 20- to 40-km-wide coal-belt along the palaeo-shoreline of the lake which stretches in Zimbabwe from the Wankie coalfields in the west to the Sengwa coalfields in the east. The coal-belt is, over its course, interrupted by some delta systems related to river channels draining from the SE, e.g. at Busi (Fig. 12). The belts width points to a synsedimentary migration of the shoreline peatswamps, due to a change of the water level. Finally, the new sedimentological model for the coalfields opens new potential for more coal within and between the coalfields explored so far. The maceral profile of the shoreline coal which is, in its main trend, similar in all coalfields, reveals some more information on the coal genesis. It suggests an initial paludification (term from Diessel, 1992) of the shoreline of the newly formed lakedue to a transgression on the fluviodeltaic k1 sediments caused by post-ice-age meltwater. Wet forest swamps of mainly Glossopteris trees established themselves along the shoreline which had a high water-table (vitrinite-rich coal). Subsequently, the water-table began to drop, the wet forests changed slowly to dry forests where the swamp vegetation was prone to oxidation and decomposition, due to a regression of the lake (typical Gondwana inertinite-rich coal, with higher ash-content). This type of coal was formed for most of the time span of the k23 sequence, the wet forest swamp returning only at the end temporarily in some coalfields, before the final regression of the lake took place and fluviodeltaic sandstones of k4 (Upper Wankie Sandstone, Wankie Formation) were deposited over the shoreline peatswamps. Only one

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exception to this standard maceral profile was found at Lubimbi coalfields where the paludification phase did not start with a wet, but a dry forestswamp (inertinite-rich coal). This may have been the consequence of palaeo-topography, such as a local shallow floor of the lake shoreline. This leads to the question of the controls for the lakeshoreline peatswamp formation. An essential precondition for the regional paludification phase was, firstly, the eustatic rise of the groundwater-table, by meltwater production following the Dwyka ice age (Latest CarboniferousEarliest Permian). The gradational change from the wet forest to the longer-lasting dry forestswamp and the final cessation of peat formation with the deposition of the k4fluviodeltaic sandstones is explained mainly by the slow fall of the water level, when all the ice was melted and the warming climate resulted in higher evaporation. Only from k5 onwards did isostatic controls take over; that is, the crust subsided by extension to form a sagbasinagain setting the depositional environment for another paludification phase which produced the coal of the lower k5 Madumabisa Formation (Table 1). The depositional classification of the k23 MidZambezi coal results in a new palaeogeographic model for the Karro basina model which is in contrast to the hypothesis of Duguid (1986), but conforms to the rift concept of Oesterlen (1999). Accordingly, the basin was rather a trough elongated along a SWNE axis, having one central depositional centre which was filled with a shallow freshwater lakelocated more or less coincident with the modern Lake Kariba (Fig. 12). The lithofacies of the various coalfields indicates that its palaeo-shoreline coincided with the southern boundary of the coal-belt (Fig. 12). The shoreline follows a SWNE trend parallel to the basin axis, but turns at Wankie towards the NW, and at Sengwa towards the N. Southwards stretched an approximately 100-km-wide shallow alluvial plain comprised of meandering rivers with accompanying flood plains. The alluvial plain was drained towards the lake in the NW. The interfluvial flood plains were in some places temporarily occupied by swamps, but often, mainly in the rainy seasons, flooding episodes brought a clastic splay covering the peatground. The origin of the alluvial plain so far is unknown, but it was generated most probably by erosion of glaciers flowing downwards from the

southeastern highlands during the Dwyka ice age (Bond, 1970). The alluvial plain of the Mid-Zambezi Karoo basin was bounded in the south by the crystalline highlands, representing the southern source area for the Karoo basin (Fig. 12). The southern boundary runs in general parallel to the lake shoreline, but in the NE it turns sharply towards the NW and meets the lakeshore. Probably, it reflects the northeastern end of the MidZambezi basin, an idea previously suggested by Oesterlen (2001) in his report on the Mana Pools basin. The southwestern end of the basin at Wankie is less intensely studied, but some drill records of the Western Areas of Wankie coalfields revealed terrestrial sediments replacing the coalmudstone sequence. Lepper (1992) suggested that the k23 succession tapered out towards the west, where the k5 mudstones overlap on the k1 sequence. Consequently, there was apparently no direct connection to the k23 deposits of Botswana.

Acknowledgements The authors thank Drs. W. Hiltmann and Th. Thielemann, Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources (BGR), Hannover/Germany, for discussions and advice, also for reviewing the manuscript. BGR supported also the publication substantially, by bringing the original figures into a digitized format. The manuscript has been greatly improved by the comments from the editor and two reviewers of IJCG, and the final reading by Dr. D. Bartholomew, New Galloway/Scotland. The senior author is grateful to Rio Tinto of Zimbabwe, Harare, which offered him accommodation at Sengwa Mine during JuneJuly 1996.

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