Natives of many South American countries have historically chewed coca leaves for their stimulating effect.

However, many governments have made it illegal to chew coca leaves due to their potentially negative side effects. This is illogical, as the consumption of yerba maté, another common South American plant, also can cause negative side effects but is freely available at natural food stores worldwide. 1. The argument above depends on which of the following assumptions? A. The side effects of coca leaves are not graver than those of yerba maté. B. It is inappropriate for governments to declare natural plants or herbs illegal. C. Governments cannot be expected to protect public health. D. Coca leaves had also been widely available in natural food stores before they were declared illegal. E. It is safe to consume any natural plant or herb.

Numerous studies of chemotherapy patients over the last ten years have shown that patients who had regularly attended support groups or received counseling experienced significantly fewer side effects and shorter recovery times from chemotherapy than did patients who had not. Clearly, although the mainstream scientific community has been slow to acknowledge it, psychological support has an effect on the body's ability to heal. 2. Which of the following, if true, would most strengthen the argument above? A. The survival rates for chemotherapy patients in the study were virtually identical regardless of whether or not they received support. B. The patients who did not attend support groups chose not to do so, even though they were healthy enough to attend. C. Many medical doctors believe that the mind plays a role in the causation and prevention of illness. D. The majority of chemotherapy patients must undergo more than one round of treatment. E. Some hospitals do not conduct support groups on their premises for chemotherapy patients and their families.

The United States is the only industrialized nation that has not converted to the metric system, despite a major movement in the 1970s that pushed hard for such a conversion. The debate over whether to convert has vociferous advocates on both sides, and both cite cost as evidence for their positions. The cost of converting to the metric system would undoubtedly be hundreds of millions of dollars, but the cost of not converting will be far greater. Continued American adherence to a system that the rest of the industrialized world has abandoned results in a significant loss of trade revenue as well as a significant increase in production costs. To compete in today's growing global market, for example, many U.S. businesses must create one version of a product to distribute domestically and another to distribute abroad. Furthermore, U.S. reluctance to convert puts Americans at an international educational disadvantage when it comes to mathematics and science. To prepare American students for success and to compete in the burgeoning global market, the United States must once again push for conversion to the metric system. This could best be accomplished in graduated steps, beginning with the dual labeling of products and signage as well as teaching the metric system exclusively in schools. 3. The passage implies which of the following about the failure of the 1970s U.S. movement to convert to the metric system? A. It resulted in more support and advocacy for conversion in the long term. B. It has been attributed to deficiencies in the U.S. educational system. C. It was ill-timed because it accompanied economic recession. D. It made the cost-based argument for conversion even more compelling in the present.

E. It was largely due to the fact that gradual implementation was not proposed.

4. The author most likely refers to cost as a reason to oppose conversion in order to A. explain why the debate is likely to continue B. convey the similarity of some of the arguments on both sides C. claim that the issue of cost should be studied in more detail D. imply that some of the opponents' arguments are valid E. undermine the logic of the opponents' claim

5. The author would most likely support which of the following assertions? A. After converting, the United States economy would be more likely to recover from periods of economic decline. B. American students' mathematics and science skills will continue to drop unless metric conversion is undertaken. C. United States companies' distribution costs will keep varying with respect to national and international product lines. D. Only the United States still clings to an antiquated measurement system. E. The United States' reticence to adopt the metric system hampers its scientific and economic competitiveness.

City X and City Y are roughly the same size and have comparable numbers of drivers and miles driven by driver. The yearly rate of traffic accidents is 3.2 per 1,000 drivers in City X and 2.7 per 1,000 drivers in City Y. However, when accidents due to snow and ice are deducted, the accident rate in City X is 0.3 per 1,000 drivers lower than the rate in City Y. 6. The statements above, if true, best support which of the following conclusions? A. City X experiences worse weather overall than does City Y. B. City Y has a higher rate of accidents due to driver error than does City X. C. Cars sold in City Y are better suited to driving on ice and snow than cars sold in City X. D. More people drive during snowstorms in City X than in City Y. E. There are more traffic accidents due to snow and ice in City X than in City Y.

7. The Constitutional Convention was called in no small part for addressing economic issues, and their debate over if and how to count slaves while apportioning representatives split along lines of economic interest. A. for addressing economic issues, and their debate over if and how to count slaves while apportioning representatives B. by addressing economic issues, and their debate over whether and how to count slaves while apportioning representatives C. to address economic issues, and the debate over whether and how to count slaves while apportioning representatives D. in response to economic issues, and their debate over if and how to count slaves while apportioning representatives E. on account of economic issues, and they debated over if and how to count slaves while apportioning representatives

After the passage of strict immigration laws three years ago, it has become more difficult for skilled laborers to enter the country from other nations. This shortage of qualified workers has caused the labor expenses of Company Y to increase by 50 percent. The company's profits have been diminishing every year since then. To increase profits, the company's management will move operations to another location for the purpose of attracting less expensive labor. 8. Which of the following, if true, would cast the most doubt on the validity of management's decision? A. The company could change its production methods to be less reliant on labor. B. Recently passed amendments to the immigration law will make it easier to attract qualified workers in the near future. C. The increasingly crowded competitive landscape in Company Y's industry has resulted in declining revenues for all participants. D. The labor supply has still not recovered from the policy changes from three years ago. E. While investigating new locations for its operations, Company Y has found few that offer a sufficient number of qualified workers.

9. Because the total number of mortgages declined last year and because fixed rate mortgages were available at historically inexpensive rates, less homes were financed with adjustable rate mortgages. A. inexpensive rates, less homes were financed with adjustable rate mortgages B. inexpensive rates, fewer homes were financed with adjustable rate mortgages C. low rates, so fewer homes were financed with adjustable rate mortgages D. low rates, fewer homes were financed with adjustable rate mortgages E. inexpensive rates, so fewer homes were financed with adjustable rate mortgages

Coffee America receives most of its revenues from the sale of brewed coffee through a network of coffee shops that it owns across the state. The company purchases ready-for-brewing coffee beans from coffee growers at wholesale prices and then sells the coffee to consumers at its coffee stores. Over the next year, the management of Coffee America expects that the market price of coffee will rise by approximately 5 percent. Therefore, management estimates that the next year's revenues from the sale of coffee will also increase by 5 percent. 10. The management's projection is based on which of the following assumptions? A. The cost of coffee beans purchased by the company for later sale at its coffee stores will remain relatively constant. B. Higher coffee prices will not reduce the company's revenues from its other business ventures. C. Consumption of coffee at the company's coffee shops will not drop in response to the increased prices. D. Company profits will not be reduced below today's level. E. The supply of coffee beans is likely to decline over the next 12 months.

Over the past few years, violent crime has decreased dramatically in City X. During this period, there has also been an increase in the number of late-night street vending licenses granted by the city, thereby increasing the number of people on the streets at night. Therefore, the reduction in violent crime must be related to the increase in vending licenses. 11. Which of the following, if true, most seriously casts doubt on the argument above? A. The amount of nonviolent crime in City X has not changed much over the past few years. B. A reduction in crime also causes more pedestrians to be out on the streets in the evenings. C. The number of street vendors in City X has increased steadily during the period in question. D. During the past few years, City X has reduced the amount of city taxes street vendors must pay. E. Last year, City X increased the number of police officers working at night.

Usually, when prices for a food item go up, the quantity of that food purchased goes down. However, an increase in the price of a ""staple"" food, such as bread or milk, actually increases rather than decreases the quantity purchased by impoverished households. Because these items are necessary purchases for most households, an increase in their price will lower the proportion of money that a household spends on other, more expensive, ""nonstaple"" food items, such as higher-quality meats. In an effort to maintain the same caloric intake per family member, the household will consume more of the staple foods as they still remain a cheaper way to satisfy hunger and nutritional needs even after their price increases. 12. In the argument above, which of the following statements best describes the role played by each portion in boldface? A. The first is a generalization that the analyst predicts will not hold in this case; the second offers a reason for that prediction. B. The first is a premise that the analyst provides in support of a certain prediction; the second is that prediction. C. The first is a generalization that the analyst agrees with; the second is a consequence that follows directly from that generalization. D. The first is a pattern of cause and effect that the analyst predicts will be repeated in this specific case; the second acknowledges a circumstance in which that pattern would not hold. E. The first acknowledges a consideration that weighs against the main conclusion of the analyst; the second is that conclusion.

African exploration in the late nineteenth century is almost entirely a story of white males: scientists, traders and missionaries. Mary Henrietta Kingsley stands out as an exception. Ostensibly, Kingsley planned her first trip to Africa so she could conduct research on fetishes and complete the academic treatise her father, an explorer, had begun. Privately, Kingsley told a friend she was traveling to Africa "to die," though she had dreamt of such an adventure since childhood. Nevertheless, she prepared for the trip carefully, interviewing friends, doctors, missionaries, and former explorers, all of whom advised her not to make the trek. Kingsley was undaunted and set off for West Africa carrying only £300, and chemicals and specimen cases designed to collect samples of unknown fish and insects for the British Museum. Kingsley sailed the coast, finally putting in at the mouth of the Congo. Recognizing that the natives were naturally suspicious of Europeans traveling without an obvious purpose, Kingsley purchased cloth and other goods in the port and traveled inland for six months as a trader, exchanging goods for food and shelter along the way. During this and her second trip in 1895, Kingsley demonstrated resourcefulness in dealing with such challenges as rescuing a native from cannibals, defeating a leopard with a bucket of water, learning to pilot a native canoe up the Ogooue River, and becoming the first white woman and third "Englishman" to climb the 14,435 foot Mount Cameroon. Upon her return to London, Kingsley campaigned for an enlightened African policy, published her bookTravels in West Africa and advocated a forum for the serious ethnological study of Africa. Kingsley's third trip was to Cape Town during the 1900 Boer War. There she encountered an epidemic of dysentery, volunteered to nurse prisoners of war, contracted typhoid, and died.

13. What is the main purpose of this passage? A. To demonstrate that even the most seasoned African explorers are at risk due to disease. B. To outline the early history of African exploration. C. To establish the need for a more tolerant colonial policy in 19
th

century England.

D. To discuss the achievements of one female explorer. E. To argue that the contributions made by women explorers in Africa were as important as those made by men.

14. The author suggests that Mary Kingsley may have gone to Africa for each of the following reasons EXCEPT: A. to serve as an Anglican missionary B. to complete her father's fetish research C. to fulfill a childhood dream D. to collect specimens of fish and insects for the British Museum E. to die

15. Mary Kingsley's reason for purchasing cloth and other supplies at the mouth of the Congo was: A. to be able to trade for food and shelter along the way B. to earn extra money to finance her trip C. to assuage the natives' concerns over her motives D. to acquire examples of fetish sculptures for her father's research E. to acquaint the natives with European goods

16. Why does the author insert the anecdotes about Kingsley's travels in paragraph three? A. To show that she was not afraid of wild beasts. B. To compare the obstacles faced by female travelers with those faced by male explorers of the day. C. To entice you into reading Kinsley's best-selling book Travels in West Africa. D. To emphasize the dangers Mary faced in her travels. E. To illustrate Kingsley's ability to conquer a variety of challenges.

Faced with declining profits at its iconic downtown store, the department store chain has asked a consultancy to investigate the root cause. The consultants have determined that as the number of the store's customers and the money spent per customer have held steady, the loss of profitability must be due to increased rent on the store's downtown location. In response, the consultants have suggested that the chain close its downtown store in order to concentrate on its other stores in the pursuit of the company's mission of increased profitability. 17. The answer to which of the following questions would be most useful in evaluating whether the consultants' recommendation to close the downtown store is warranted? A. How long has it been since the downtown store was last renovated? B. Can the rent for the downtown store be reduced by negotiating with the building owners? C. What is the current profitability of the chain's other stores? D. Are stores in suburban mall locations increasingly profitable? E. Is the chain's management in agreement with the consultants?

Computerized multiple-choice testing has significant advantages. For one, tests can be administered anywhere, at any time, with little infrastructure. Also, the results can be analyzed and quantified much more precisely than is possible with open-ended tests. On the other hand, timed computerized tests cause anxiety for many students and often lead to the prescription of remedial programs to address minor issues that overly sensitive data analysis can highlight. 18. The statements above, if true, best support which of the following conclusions? A. Issues identified by computerized multiple-choice testing should be of little concern to students and educators. B. Computerized multiple-choice testing could result in the waste of educational resources used to address unimportant issues. C. Open-ended tests are better suited to most students than are multiple-choice tests. D. An open-ended test is cheaper to administer than a multiple-choice test. E. A computerized multiple-choice test yields results faster than a traditional open-ended test.

The rise of industrial production of consumer goods in the mid-19th century led to a marketing phenomenon that changed the nature of not only product advertising in the United States but also the market itself. Advertising tactics became much more aggressive. The small advertisements that had been buried in newspapers gave way to bright, bold ads that were plastered on billboards. They contained slogans that people would remember and were intended to persuade rather than simply to inform, which was the aim of most previous advertising. This new mode of advertising even stimulated competition among companies that produced similar types of products, as it encouraged companies to create and promote products that were not merely useful but appealing and distinctive as well. The public was bombarded with a new array of product choices that promised to facilitate their work and simplify their lives. The new products of the Industrial Age, such as the automobile, the refrigerator, and the sewing machine, certainly did improve Americans' quality of life, but ironically their promotion may have contributed to one of the most severe periods of economic suffering in American history. The new culture of consumerism led many manufacturers to overestimate actual demand, and thus to overproduce. The resultant overabundance of supply and saturation of the market is often cited as one of the causes of the Great Depression. 19. It can be inferred from the passage that Industrial Age advertisers contributed to an economic decline by A. improving Americans' quality of life B. creating competition for brand recognition C. creating an inaccurate picture of market conditions D. deliberately misleading manufacturers about the longterm implications of advertising strategy

E. overestimating the usefulness of the products they promoted

20. The author most likely discusses how advertising led to competition among companies that produced similar products in order to A. allude to a danger in contemporary advertising campaigns B. give an example of the significant societal and market changes effected by advertising C. argue that increased economic competition led to the Great Depression D. reveal a consequence of overly-aggressive business practices E. suggest a valid reason to oppose aggressive advertising

21. According to the passage, the advertising industry contributed to the Great Depression by A. encouraging irresponsible consumer spending B. manifesting indifference toward actual consumer need C. misdirecting its resources D. creating an erroneous impression of consumer demand E. undermining the credibility of industry

Since the new movie studio's chief creative officer was hired, advertising for the studio's action movies has increased while advertising for the studio's documentaries has decreased. Previously, the studio spent the same amount of money promoting documentaries as it did promoting action movies. A leading movie blogger supported the shift in marketing priorities, claiming that the changes have enhanced the overall reputation of the studio as a notable brand. However, many newspaper film critics disagreed, arguing that the new studio chief creative officer has placed a higher priority on making the studio money than on telling important stories. 22. Which of the following is an assumption required by the newspaper critics' argument? A. On average, action movies are viewed twice as often by the general public as documentaries. B. The brand awareness that comes from successful action movies often generates interest in the studio's documentaries. C. A studio can boost sales by promoting its top documentaries. D. The chief creative officer decides how advertising money is spent. E. Some of the actors in the studio's action films have also starred in successful documentaries.

23. Of all the possible threats that affect American national security, the possibility of electromagnetic attack is maybe the more difficult for analysis. A. is maybe the more difficult for analysis B. is probably the most difficult to analyze C. is maybe the most difficult for analysis D. is probably the more difficult to analyze E. is, it may be, the analysis that is most difficult

Kim: Over the last 50 years, there have been numerous sightings of a mysterious creature in a large, deep freshwater loch in Scotland. The creature has been given the name ""The Loch Ness Monster."" All those who have spotted this strange creature have estimated its size to be far greater than that of any known animal that inhabits the loch, and no human trickery has been discovered as of yet. Thus, this new creature, the Loch Ness Monster, must be real. Tammy: Maybe the creature is a type of animal that would typically live in the lake but is larger than any prior known specimens of that animal. After all, it is hard to know how large the biggest whale on the planet is because we do not see every single whale. Or perhaps the sightings were a result of large shadows cast by the asymmetric reeds around the lake, which move around violently on windy days. In any case, I doubt that a new creature called the Loch Ness Monster exists in that lake. 24. Tammy responds to Kim's conclusion by A. offering alternative explanations consistent with the evidence that Kim cites. B. attacking Kim's conclusion as inconsistent with the available evidence. C. weighing Kim's conclusion against expert opinion. D. assuming that Kim has been unduly influenced by media reports. E. negating the validity of a premise on which Kim relies in drawing her conclusion.

Anthropologist: Dominant male members of ancient tribes drew the most female mates. Consequently, anthropologists have long held that the genes of dominant males were likely to survive for at least two generations because the male children of these dominant males should have inherited dominant qualities and had more children as a result. Recently, however, new research has uncovered that the sons of dominant males in multiple ancient tribes failed to inherit the mating successes of their fathers. The dominant males were so busy mating and maintaining their dominance over other males that they neglected their families; as a result, the sons of less dominant males had significantly more success in ensuring the survival of their bloodlines. 25. The two portions in boldface play which of the following roles in the anthropologist's argument? A. The first is a widely held theory; the second is an explanation of that theory. B. The first is a theory that used to be popular; the second is a contrasting theory. C. The first is a theory that the anthropologist disagrees with; the second is an explanation of the anthropologist's theory. D. The first explains a widely held theory; the second is evidence against that theory. E. The first is an explanation of a theory no longer thought to be true; the second is a contrasting theory.

26. Formulas for gross domestic product and trade balance do not apply to small, emergent economies in the same way they apply to established economies, because they are developing and are not in equilibrium. A. Formulas for gross domestic product and trade balance do not apply to small, emergent economies in the same way they apply to established economies, because they are developing and are not in equilibrium B. Because they are developing and are not in equilibrium, formulas for gross domestic product and trade balance do not apply to small, emergent economies in the same way they apply to established economies C. Because they are developing and are not in equilibrium, small, emergent economies are not subject to the same applicability of formulas for gross domestic product and trade balance as established economies D. Because small, emergent economies are developing and are not in equilibrium, formulas for gross domestic product and trade balance do not apply to them in the same way they apply to established economies E. Small, emergent economies are not subject to the applicability of formulas for gross domestic product and trade balance in the same way as established economies, because they are developing and are not in equilibrium

The Minister of Health of City X, acting on the basis of an alarming rise in lung cancer diagnoses, demanded that tobacco companies offer more low-nicotine, low-tar cigarettes by next year. However, because most smokers perceive such cigarettes to be less satisfying than regular cigarettes, smokers who use such cigarettes compensate by smoking more of them per day. The result is that the typical smoker is exposed to an equivalent amount of tar and nicotine even with low-nicotine, low-tar cigarettes. 27. The information above most strongly supports which of the following predictions about the effects of implementing the minister's plan? A. The lung cancer rate in City X is likely to go down in the future. B. A greater percentage of smokers in City X will attempt to quit smoking next year. C. The number of heavy smokers in City X will likely go down next year. D. Casual smokers will begin to smoke a more significant number of cigarettes by next year. E. The average smoker will probably not see a reduction in his or her exposure to nicotine and tar next year.

The findings of the burgeoning scientific field of memory research are being applied to the field of education, with intriguing and controversial results. A recent study of college students was undertaken not by experts in the educational arena but by physicists seeking to discover a more effective way to foster learning in the classroom environmentparticularly in the realm of science education. The method under examination differs dramatically from most instructional techniques used in higher education, calling for fewer lectures and privileging instead collaborative learning experiences. Known as deliberate practice, this form of teaching involves small groups of students working together on problem-solving projects while an instructor circulates among the groups to answer questions, correct misconceptions, and challenge students as part of a dynamic process. The study in question was conducted by comparing the test results of two large lecture classes, each with about 260 freshman students enrolled. Both classes were instructed by the same professor by using a lecture format until the 12th week of the semester, when the professor turned each class over to a teaching assistant. One class acted as the control group, continuing with the lecture format, while the other class was taught with the new method. Both classes were then tested on the material learned during that week. Initial findings showed the average test score in the collaborative group was twice as high as that earned by the control group even though the two classes had received almost identical midterm scores. However, a major flaw became apparent as attendance in each class was sporadic, and 160 of the students did not even take the week 12 exam. Although this attendance rate is not unusual for freshman survey courses, it did undermine the credibility of the research. Consequently, education experts warn that the results are too dubious to justify the risks of drastically changing higher education at this time. But as much as the poor attendance of the test subjects damaged its overall results,

the study does indicate that the field of education may benefit enormously from innovative practices. 28. The author would probably agree that which of the following changes to the study would have made its findings more credible? A. Easing the experimental standards to account for the attendance habits of college freshmen B. Trained educators rather than physicists carrying out the experiment C. Focusing the study on an innovative education technique other than deliberate practice D. Testing a population that has more reliable behavior E. Expansion of the study to include college freshmen survey courses in fields other than science

29. The author most likely mentions that the researchers are physicists in order to A. provide evidence that this is indeed a scientific study. B. verify that the proposed change in teaching methodology is utterly novel. C. criticize what is essentially an amateur foray into the realm of education. D. emphasize that this innovative approach comes from outside the education field. E. underscore the rigorous approach being taken with this experiment.

30. Which of the following would most likely be an example of deliberate practice? A. A student reads with minimal distraction, writing down questions and difficult concepts as she encounters them. B. Groups of students create reports independently and then present their conclusions to the class as a whole. C. Multiple teachers circulate through the auditorium during a lecture, helping students who are having trouble keeping up. D. A teacher interrupts small groups of students working on a difficult project, asking questions designed to help students understand an error in their approach. E. A group of students meets outside of class to study new material, answer questions, and discuss problems they are having with a topic.

31. One reason some particle physicists are switching to astronomy late in their careers is that they tire of spending years constructing environments in which they can conduct experiments; astronomers have an infinite and ready-made supply of environments at their disposal. A. One reason some particle physicists are switching to astronomy late in their careers is that they tire of spending years constructing environments in which they can conduct experiments; astronomers have an infinite and ready-made supply of environments at their disposal B. Late in their careers, one reason that some particle physicists are switching to astronomy is suggested by the fact that particle physicists must spend years constructing environments in which they can conduct experiments, while astronomers have an infinite and ready-made supply of environments at their disposal C. Late in their careers, one reason that some particle physicists are switching to astronomy is suggested by the fact that particle physicists must spend years constructing environments in which they can conduct experiments, while an infinite and ready-made supply of environments is at the disposal of astronomers D. The fact that particle physicists must spend years constructing environments in which they can conduct experiments while astronomers have an infinite and readymade supply of environments at their disposal is one reason, late in their careers, some particle physicists are switching to astronomy E. The existence of an infinite and ready-made supply of environments at the disposal of astronomers compared with the fact that particle physicists must spend years constructing environments in which they can conduct experiments suggests one reason some particle physicists are switching to astronomy late in their careers

Los Angeles officials have determined that regulating carbon emissions from cars is the most effective way to deal with air pollution. Recently, the Los Angeles Department of Motor Vehicles decided to change local car inspection policies to only pass cars that demonstrate a lower level of carbon emissions than was previously accepted. Because there are so many cars on the road in Los Angeles, local government officials concluded that these policies will soon dramatically reduce air pollution in the city. 32. Which of the following, if true, most undermines the government officials' conclusion? A. The average driver in Los Angeles drives for approximately 37 minutes per day. B. There are more cars on the road than trucks or other motor vehicles. C. In order for cars to meet the new standard, some vehicles will need to be fitted with a graphite layer filter, which seeps toxic material into the earth when thrown away. D. Uninsured and unlicensed drivers will not partake in the inspection process. E. The inspection policies will apply only to newly purchased cars, which comprise a small minority of Los Angeles traffic.

In the mid-1980s, Canadian psychologist Roger Barnsley noticed a peculiar trend: A disproportionately high percentage of high-level ice hockey players were born in the months of January, February, and March. This phenomenon was first noticed among junior league players but was soon discovered to also be apparent among professional hockey players. His explanation, quite simply, was that the cutoff date for ageclass hockey in Canada is January 1. To illustrate, imagine that Wayne, a 10-year-old child born in January, plays on the same team as Dave, another 10-year-old child, born in December of the same year. Both boys are 10 years old at the start of hockey season, but the physical maturity of one is likely to be noticeably different from that of the other. Coaches tend to focus their efforts on the players who exhibit the most potential, so it is likely that Wayne, the more physically mature child, will receive better coaching, be grouped for practice with peers who have higher ability levels, and spend more time in play during games. Thus, Wayne's skill level is likely to improve more quickly than that of his younger friend Dave, who may even have been more physically developed at his age than was his older friend. The age difference may only be a matter of months, but it can have significant lifelong implications for a child's athletic development. This age bias also shows itself in academic achievement. For example, studies have found that the oldest students in a particular grade typically score 4-12 percentile points higher on the TIMSS (Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study) tests than do their younger classmates. It is not surprising, then, that the older students in any particular grade are more likely to be in gifted programs. However, exceptions do exist: Children may be earlier developers or they may have parents or older siblings that encourage physical or academic rigor at a higher level. Nevertheless, these exceptions occur at statistically lower rates. Cutoff dates do matter and should be reconsidered in athletics and academics.

33. The passage suggests which of the following about children whose birthday falls shortly after a cutoff date for a youth sports league? A. They will probably be better athletically developed as adults than will their younger teammates. B. Their early advantage will decrease over time. C. They will be bigger than their younger teammates. D. They will enjoy academic advantages. E. They will probably become professional athletes.

34. The author mentions the boys named Wayne and Dave in order to A. provide real-life examples of the phenomenon described. B. prove that boys born in January are better athletes than boys born in December. C. give a hypothetical example of the effects of the January 1 cutoff date. D. imply that the research findings apply only to boys. E. show why Wayne is a better athlete than Dave.

35. Which of the following, if true, would most strengthen the passage's argument? A. Private tutoring improves SAT scores in students born later in the year. B. When coaches make sure to share playing time and coaching attention equally among all children on a team, younger players' development is similar to that of older players. C. The National Hockey League's most recent MVP was born in September. D. Freshmen and sophomores have higher dropout rates than juniors and seniors. E. Australian schools with a July 1 enrollment cutoff date still show early-year bias.

The change in the value of a company's inventory is found by subtracting the total dollar value of units sold from the total dollar value of units produced. The Acme Company only produces ball bearings. Acme sold the same number of ball bearings this year as last year, while the dollar value of units produced stayed constant. Nevertheless, the value of Acme's inventory grew from last year to this year. 36. The statements above, if true, best support which of the following conclusions? A. Acme started selling a new model of ball bearing this year. B. Acme's shipping costs rose this year over last year. C. Acme produced more ball bearings this year than last year. D. Acme lowered the sale price of its ball bearings this year. E. Acme's competition sold more ball bearings this year than did Acme.

Many car companies currently force customers to purchase option packages that bundle together a number of features. Consumer advocates want the government to pass a law that allows customers to select individual features and only pay for the features they actually want. Meanwhile, car companies argue that bundled pricing creates demand for less popular features and thereby creates economies of scale while also spurring innovation. As a result, car companies claim, bundled pricing is cheaper for customers than the ability to purchase individual features would be. 37. Which of the following would be most important for the government to determine before deciding whether to require car companies to offer individual features in order to reduce consumer costs? A. Whether the margins offered by car companies to dealers would decrease due to the offering of individual features B. Whether the number of features purchased would decrease if consumers could purchase features individually C. Whether the number of new cars sold has been decreasing due to the increased availability of high-quality used cars D. Whether car companies would need to change their production processes to allow mass customization E. Whether innovation and the number of available features would decrease as a result of car companies offering individual features for purchase

Ticklishness is the effect produced when a person experiences a light touch on the skin that results in said person drawing away from the touch and typically emitting an audible responseusually laughter or a shriek. Almost everyone has experienced ticklishness, yet it is in some ways a surprising response. For example, even those who consider themselves to be most ticklish find it nearly impossible to produce the effect on themselves. Additionally, tickling often produces a response of laughter despite the fact that many people dislike the sensation. Even children, who often delight in being tickled, do so only for a short time; what is initially fun quickly becomes an irritating sensation. We can consider physiological responses to light touch from the perspectives of both neurology and evolutionary biology. MRI scans reveal that when a person's skin is touched lightly by another in a playful context, the somatosensory cortex analyzes the touch while the anterior cingulated cortex, which governs pleasant feelings, produces the fleetingly enjoyable sensation. The unpredictability of another's tickling touch particularly stimulates these parts of the brain. However, if one tries to tickle oneself, the cerebellum, which governs movement, anticipates the movement and mutes the sensation. This experience is likely an example of sensory attenuation, which reduces the body's focus on unimportant sensory information. These neurological processes do not explain the resultant laughter, which is not a response to humor. Acknowledging that the typical tickle attack involves an adult tickling a child, some evolutionary biologists posit that tickling was once a form of socialization that inculcated desired behaviors: it taught children to protect a vulnerable area-the torso-from touch. Hence, tickling is a light-hearted way for people to learn how to shrink from a stimulus that may be potentially harmful. It also likely taught submission to individuals of higher rank, with the laughter rendering the "attack" innocuous.

38. The primary purpose of this passage is to A. determine the sociological and cultural origins of a perplexing phenomenon B. present complementary explorations into the human response to playful light touch C. suggest that the biological account carries more scientific certitude than the neurological explanation D. use interdisciplinary methods to show why tickling produces an unpleasant physiological response E. argue that the mysteriousness of the reaction to light touch may ultimately be impenetrable

39. Sensory attenuation is defined in the passage as A. the fact that enjoyment of ticklishness is ephemeral, due to self-defense mechanisms B. the capacity of the body to obviate physiological responses to certain stimuli C. the hypothesis that the brain responds to light touch by analyzing its origin D. the interplay between the somatosensory cortex and the anterior cingulated cortex E. the inability to connect the neurological laughter reaction to tickling to humor

40. According to the passage, ticklishness is a physiological reaction with roots in all of the following causes EXCEPT A. hierarchical structures in early societies B. parent-child interactions that encourage bonding C. interplay of brain functions D. acts of harmless aggression E. self-defense instruction

New noise restrictions being considered in Venlia would require public gathering places, including bars and restaurants, to turn down loud music after 9 p.m. Owners of such establishments are vehemently opposed to the plan for fear that it would hurt their businesses. Proponents of the ban point to statistics that show that in those districts of Venlia that introduced noise bans last year, bar and restaurant revenues rose by 40 percent, whereas in other districts, revenues grew by only 25 percent. 41. Which of the following, if true, most supports the bar and restaurant owners' position against the ban? A. As more and more people carry their entire music library with them on mobile devices, less and less live music is performed in Venlia each year. B. The districts that enacted noise bans last year are increasingly popular summer holiday destinations, and the bans were lifted temporarily over the summer months. C. The overall economic growth rate in the districts of Venlia that introduced noise bans last year mirrored that in the rest of the country. D. The districts that enacted noise bans last year saw a temporary decline in bar and restaurant revenues. E. Venlia charges less tax on bar and restaurant sales than it does on durable goods sales.

The California ground squirrel must constantly balance the conflicting demands of self-preservation and predator assessment. Because predator assessment requires a fairly high degree of proximity and sensory contact, the ground squirrel can only safely assess predators from whom there is little to no immediate threat. For example, when avian predators, including the red-tailed hawk and golden eagle, launch sudden, unexpected aerial attacks, self-preservation must take precedence over the acquisition of knowledge. Rattlesnakes, on the other hand, pose relatively little immediate danger, and give the squirrel the greatest opportunity for predator assessment. Predator assessment might normally be hampered by the inherent danger of the rattlesnake's lethal bite. But while squirrels constitute almost 70 percent of the rattlesnake's diet, adult ground squirrels are all but immune to rattlesnakes. Rattlesnakes hunt slowly and stalk their prey, in marked contrast to sudden avian attacks. And even though a rattlesnake's strike is fast, the ground squirrel can move much faster. More important, any danger posed by a snakebite is mitigated by proteins in the squirrel's blood that confer resistance to rattlesnake venom. Adult ground squirrels will generally survive a rattlesnake bite that could prove lethal to a grown human. Indeed, it is the squirrel pups that are most susceptible to rattlesnake bites, because their smaller bodies cannot neutralize a full bite's worth of venom. This innate resistance allows the ground squirrel to change the dynamic of the traditional predator-prey relationship and approach the rattlesnake in an effort to acquire useful information regarding size and body temperature. Larger snakes, which deliver more venom per strike, are naturally more dangerous, as are warmer snakes, which can strike faster, from a greater distance, and with greater accuracy. Visual cues can be helpful, but the squirrel is often hampered by the

surrounding vegetation and darkness of burrows. Auditory cues are generally more reliable. For this reason, the ground squirrel will engage in tail-flagging, sand-kicking, and substrate-throwing in an attempt to put the snake on the defensive, and coax the snake into rattling its tail. The sound of a particular snake's rattle "leaks" information about the snake's size and body temperature. Not only does this information allow the squirrel to accurately assess the surrounding danger to itself and its pups, but it also allows the squirrel to communicate this danger (or lack thereof) to other squirrels by additional tail-flagging. 42. Which of the following can most reasonably be concluded about adult ground squirrels on the basis of the passage? A. They are found exclusively in California. B. They have always been immune to rattlesnake venom. C. They are sometimes vulnerable to a rattlesnake's venom. D. They generally stay away from rattlesnakes in order to protect their young. E. They have only avian and reptilian predators.

43. According to the passage, the adult ground squirrel generally does NOT engage in which of the following? A. The self-application of snake scent B. Acquisition of knowledge regarding a rattlesnake's size C. Biting rattlesnakes D. Large-scale assessment of avian predators E. Communication with other adult ground squirrels

44. The author mentions the hunting method of rattlesnakes in order to A. show how the rattlesnake can sneak up on a ground squirrel engaged in predator assessment. B. give an example of an attack against which the adult ground squirrel must defend itself in order to survive. C. explain why 70 percent of squirrels are eaten by rattlesnakes. D. show how the rattlesnake is different from the red-tailed hawk and golden eagle. E. provide a secondary explanation for the adult California ground squirrel's ability to safely approach the rattlesnake.

45. The passage suggests which of the following about predator-prey relationships? A. They only allow for predator assessment when there is no danger from the predator. B. They often do not allow for a high degree of predator assessment. C. They are fairly traditional in their resistance to evolution. D. They tend to minimize the predator-prey proximity. E. They are the same regardless of the species in question.

When Tim's Tools opened in the town of Hockney last year, the owners of Evan's Equipment-the only other hardware store in town-feared that revenue would suffer. However, since then, the average number of tools sold per day at Evan's Equipment has increased significantly. 46. Which of the following, if true, provides the best explanation for the apparent discrepancy described above? A. Tim's Tools attracts a large number of its customers from neighboring towns, and on many days, the store attracts more customers than its staff can help. B. Evan's Equipment sells more tools on weekends than it does on weekdays, which is not the case at Tim's Tools. C. Tim's Tools is closed on Sundays, and residents of Hockney must either go to Evan's Equipment or drive to a nearby town. D. The profit per tool is higher, on average, at Tim's Tools than it is at Evan's Equipment. E. Tools at Evan's Equipment cost less than those offered at Tim's Tools.

In this era of swiftly changing technology, fundamental changes to decades-old business models are hardly news. The ubiquity of overnight shipping, for instance, has transformed the way companies manage inventories. Now the publishing industry finds itself on the cusp of another revolution. The development of print-on-demand publishing technology could soon make warehouses-and the huge expenses that publishers incur from producing excess inventory-obsolete. The essence of on-demand publishing technology is the capacity to print and bind books in response to specific orders from customers. These machines could be stationed in bookstores or at central distribution hubs. The functionality would allow a publisher to print books rapidly and in exact proportion to demand rather than to initiate print runs of 100,000 or more and subsequently sell a fraction of the product. Huge print runs cost money in the form of taxes on assets, warehouse rental, and, ultimately, the price of destroying unwanted books or recycling them into pulp. Shipping unnecessarily large book orders to stores is another unnecessary expense that can be avoided with print on demand. The downside to implementing this new technology is the loss of the savings that come with large-scale production; since paper and ink supplies will no longer be utilized in bulk, each book, in theory, will cost more to print. On the other hand, given the enormous overhead savings of not having to ship and store huge numbers of ultimately unsold books, the additional printing costs would probably be not be an impediment. In any event, publishers setting their sights on the one-off production of books eagerly await the perfection of devices already in use across the country-devices that might one day make the act of browsing in a bookstore a cause for nostalgia. 47. It can be inferred from this passage that with the advent of on demand publishing A. customers will not embrace the new technology, as they will prefer browsing a selection of already-printed books

B. fewer books would be pulped due to a lack of demand for them C. publishers would compete on the basis of the speed of their printing machines D. ornate or creatively designed book covers would become obsolete E. individuals would have the capacity to print books at home

48. According to the passage, each of the following is a cost factor that on-demand publishing would spare the book industry, EXCEPT A. taxes on inventory B. warehouse rental C. high ink costs D. shipping to bookstores E. destruction of excess inventory

49. According to the passage, the basis of the on-demand publishing revolution would be A. a device that binds books more efficiently than any currently known B. a new paradigm in the methodology for shipping books to stores C. machines that generate individual books rather than thousands at a time D. the capacity of publishers to market specific books to specific readers E. fewer returns from bookstores when books fail to sell