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Contents
General
Info: Definitions of IES Roadway Luminaire Classifications (Types I, II, III, IV, V and VS) Info: Color and Reflectance Info: Type A, Type B and Type C photometry Info: Differences between Uniformity Gradient (UG) and Max-to-Min Ratio Info: Illuminance, Exitance, and Luminance Info: Definitions of IESNA Luminaire Classification System (LCS) and BUG Ratings Info: European photometric testing conventions and compatibility with North American standards (IESNA) Info: Photopic, Mesopic and Scotopic: Definitions and Relevance to Lighting Calculations Info: Transmission of light through water

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General

Info: Definitions of IES Roadway Luminaire Classifications (Types I, II, III, IV, V and VS)

Summary: The Illuminating Engineering Society of North America (IESNA) defines roadway and area lighting fixtures by their photometric properties and distance to the half maximum candela trace and the maximum candela value. The classifications allow designers to choose the proper product for their requirements. More Information: The definitions of the IES classifications follow: IES Classifications - The lateral classification describes the lateral light distribution with regards to the lighted area width described as multiples of the mounting height (MH). The width of the halfmaximum candela trace within the longitudinal distribution range (Short, Medium or Long) is used. The boundaries for each classification in terms of Longitudinal Roadway Lines (LRL, running along the roadway) are as follows: Type I - Half-maximum candela trace falls between 1 MH LRL on the House side and 1 MH LRL on the Street side Type II - Half-maximum candela trace on the Street side is beyond the 1 MH LRL but not beyond the 1.75 MH LRL Type III - Half-maximum candela trace on the Street side is beyond the 1.75 MH LRL but not beyond the 2.75 MH LRL Type IV - Half-maximum candela trace on the Street side is beyond the 2.75 MH LRL Type V - Has circular symmetry being essentially the same at all lateral angles around the luminaire Type VS - Zonal lumens (below 90-degress vertical) for each of the eight horizontal octants (0-45, 45-90, 90-135, 135,180, 180-225, 225-270, 270-315, 315-360) are within +-10% of the average zonal lumens of all octants In addition to these types, the light distribution can be classified as Short (S), Medium (M), or Long (L). This refers to the luminaire's vertical light distribution and is based on where the maximum intensity (candela value) points to in the grid in the figure below, given in Transverse Roadway Lines (TRL, running across the roadway) as a multile of mounting height (MH). The vertical distribution categories are defined as follows: Very Short (VS): The maximum intensity points to a point in the VS zone of the grid, 0-1.0 MH TRL Short (S): The maximum intensity points to a point in the S zone of the grid, 1.0 - 2.25 MH TRL Medium (M): The maximum intensity points to a point in the M zone of the grid, 2.25 - 3.75 MH TRL Long (L): The maximum intensity points to a point in the L zone of the grid, 3.75 - 6.0 MH TRL Very Long (VL): The maximum intensity points to a point in the VL zone of the grid, > 6.0 MH TRL The image below is Figure 22-7 from the IESNA Lighting Handbook, 9th Edition, 2000, and is used with permission. LRL = Longitudinal Roadway Lines, running along the roadway TRL = Transverse Roadway Lines, running across the roadway In this example, the luminaire is a Type III -- Medium distribution.

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Applies To: AGi32 - All Versions (Type VS was implemented in AGi32 v2.17) Toolbox - All versions (Type VS was implemented in Toolbox 1.79)

Info: Color and Reflectance

Summary: The calculated (and measured) illuminance values for two rooms with the same surface reflectances will vary, depending on the color of the surfaces. The values will be considerably higher for strongly colored surfaces. More Information: Here is a simple experiment with a surprising answer: 1. Model an empty room with room surface reflectances of 20%. Make all room surfaces gray in color. Calculate the floor illuminance values on a grid. 2. Without changing the surface reflectances, change the surface color to red. Repeat the floor illuminance calculation. Question: Will the illuminance values be the same or different? If you said "obviously the same," it is time to take a closer look at interreflections and color. An Infinite Room To simplify the explanation, imagine we have an infinitely large room with an infinite array of direct lighting. (We can think of this as a luminous ceiling.) The light emitted by the luminaires will directly illuminate the floor. Of this light, 20% will be reflected upwards to the ceiling, while the rest will be absorbed. The ceiling will reflect 20% of the indirect light towards the floor, which will reflect 20% back towards the ceiling … and so on, until all of the light is absorbed. Calculating the total illuminance ET of the floor is simple. Given a surface reflectance r, and direct illuminance ED due to the luminaires, it is: ET = (1 + r + r2 + r3 + r4 + …) * ED = ED / (1 - r) For our example of r = 0.20, this becomes ET = 1.25 * ED. In other words, 20% of the total illuminance of the floor is due to interreflected light between the floor and the ceiling. It is important to remember that this answer applies only to infinitely large rooms. Consequently, it is not exactly useful for everyday lighting design. However, it is useful when we consider color interreflections. Seeing Color We see color because our eyes are sensitive to three separate color bands of the visible spectrum: red, green, and blue. By combining various amounts of these three primary colors, we can simulate

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the appearance of almost any color. (Look closely at your color monitor or television screen and you will see a mosaic of red, green, and blue pixels.) Our eyes are more sensitive to green light than they are to red and blue light. In terms of the primary colors produced by color monitors, the values are approximately: Red: 21% Green: 72% Blue: 7% That is, given a "white" light source that has equal amounts of red, green, and blue light, 72% of its apparent brightness is due to the green component. An additional 21% is due to the red component, and 7% is due to the blue component. (Illuminance meters are designed to have the same spectral response as our eyes.) Like most computer graphics programs, AGi32 models surfaces as having three separate spectral reflectances - red, green, and blue. For example, we can model a red surface as having 95% red reflectance and no reflectance of green or blue light. Taking the average of these values, this produces a surface reflectance of: (0.95 * 0.21) + (0.0 * 0.72) + (0.0 * 0.07) = 20% From the above calculation, you might think that it will not make any difference whether the room surfaces are gray or red. As long the surface reflectance is 20%, the total floor illuminance ET should logically be 25% more than the direct illuminance ED. This however is incorrect. The crucial difference is that the room surfaces have different reflectances for red, green, and blue light. We need to calculate the total spectral irradiance for each color, and then calculate the total illuminance according to the sensitivity of our eyes to these colors. For the three color bands, we have: ET(red) = ED * 0.21 / (1.00 - 0.95) = 4.20 * ED ET(green) = ED * 0.72 / (1.00 - 0.00) = 0.72 * ED ET(blue) = ED * 0.07 / (1.00 - 0.00) = 0.07 * ED This gives the total floor illuminance due to direct white light illuminance from the luminaires and interreflections from the red surfaces as: ET = 4.99 * ED In other words, the interreflections from the red room surfaces contribute 80% to the total floor illuminance, even though the surface reflectances are only 20%. If this seems surprising, imagine a room with white surfaces that have 95% reflectance. Doing the same calculations, we get: ET(red) = ED * 0.21 / (1 - 0.95) = 4.20 * ED ET(green) = ED * 0.72 / (1 - 0.95) = 14.40 * ED ET(blue) = ED * 0.07 / (1 - 0.95) = 1.40 * ED In this case, the total floor illuminance is 20.0 * ED - the interreflections account for 95% of the total floor illuminance. As another example, we can consider a room with 95% blue reflectance and no reflectance of red or green light. This gives a surface reflectance of: (0.0 * 0.21) + (0.0 * 0.72) + (0.95 * 0.07) = 6.7% and thus: ET(red) = ED * 0.21 / (1 - 0.00) = 0.21 * ED ET(green) = ED * 0.72 / (1 - 0.00) = 0.72 * ED ET(blue) = ED * 0.07 / (1 - 0.95) = 1.40 * ED In this case, the total floor illuminance is 2.33 * ED - the interreflections account for 57% of the total floor illuminance, even though the surface reflectances are only 6.7%.

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An Intuitive Explanation Ignoring the mathematics above, it is still fairly easy to see what is happening. In the gray room, 80% of the incident white light is absorbed on each reflection. It is reasonable then that the room surfaces contribute a relatively small amount to the total floor illuminance. In the case of a red room, all of the incident blue and green light is immediately absorbed on the first bounce, but only 5% of the red light is absorbed. On each bounce from the ceiling, it contributes more light to the total floor illuminance. While our eyes are relatively insensitive to red light, there is a far greater amount compared to the room with the gray surfaces. To answer the question then, the calculated (and measured) illuminance values for two rooms with the same surface reflectances will vary, depending on the color of the surfaces. As shown above, the values will be considerably more for strongly colored surfaces. 1 ANSI/IESNA RP-16-1996, Nomenclature and Definitions for Illuminating Engineering, defines the reflectance of a surface as "the ratio of the reflected flux to the incident flux," where flux may be either radiant flux (measured in watts) or luminous flux (measured in lumens). AGI32 performs its lighting (that is, radiosity) calculations using radiant flux. However, reflectance is calculated in terms of luminous flux, in order that the calculated values are in accordance with what we perceive. Thanks to Ian Ashdown for this terrific and very informative article. If you would like to contact Ian, you may email him at ian@agi32.com. Applies To: AGi32 - All versions

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Info: Type A, Type B and Type C photometry

Summary: This article discusses the three photometric data categories: Type A, Type B and Type C. These types describe the photometric web surrounding the light source and were designed to match the type of source being measured or tested. At present, AGi32 and Toolbox only support Type B and Type C photometry. More Information: Type A – Used primarily for automotive lighting and optical systems (e.g. headlights). Coordinate System:

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Polar axis is vertical. Point (0,0) is located on the equator of the sphere. The luminaire is generally aimed at (0,0). Vertical angles range from -90 degrees (nadir) to 90 degrees (zenith). Horizontal angles range in value from -90 degrees to 90 degrees. The actual angle set used in a Type A photometric report depends on the luminaire distribution and symmetry. Type B – Used primarily for floodlights. Coordinate System:

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The Type B coordinate system looks like a Type A coordinate system that has been turned on its side (polar axis is horizontal instead of vertical). Point (0,0) is located on the equator of the sphere. The luminaire is generally aimed at (0,0). Vertical angles range from -90 degrees (nadir) to 90 degrees (zenith). Horizontal angles range in value from -90 degrees to 90 degrees. The actual angle set used in a Type B photometric report depends on the luminaire distribution and symmetry. Type C – Most popular and widely recognized format. The majority of photometry is presented in Type C format. Coordinate System:

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The Type C coordinate system varies little from the Type A system. Polar axis is vertical. The luminaire is generally aimed at nadir (0V, 0L) or zenith (180V, 0L). Vertical angles range from 0 degrees (nadir) to 180 degrees (zenith). Lateral angles range in value from 0 degrees to 360 degrees. The actual angle set used in a Type C photometric test report varies depending on the luminaire distribution and symmetry. For example: A symmetrical downlight may only include one lateral angle (0), and vertical angles from 0 to 90 degrees.

Info: Differences between Uniformity Gradient (UG) and Max-to-Min Ratio

Summary: In some cases the Uniformity Gradient (UG) and Max-to-Min Ratio look like they should/could be the same. However the calculated values are different. More information:

The basis for this article comes from a situation where only four points are used in a two by two calculation grid. The example points are shown below: +9.6 +12.2 +8.0 +9.4

Max-to-Min Ratio = 12.2/8.0 = 1.525

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At first examination, the max-to-min ratio and the UG appear as though they should be the same in this case. However, UG is more than the maximum value compared to the minimum value over a set of points. The UG is weighted based on distance between adjacent points. Diagonal points are generally weighted less because they are further apart. This is because the gradient is reduced the further it travels, so the gradient is less over a greater distance. In this case, the point spacing left-to-right (LR) and top-to-bottom (TB) are the same. Therefore, they are weighted equally, or the weighting factor is 1 between these points. The diagonal spacing is greater than the other spacings (i.e., 1.41). Since this distance is greater, the weighting factor is smaller since the gradient covers more distance. In this case, the weighted factor is 0.707 (1/1.41) when compared to the other two distances. So, the UG for the diagonal points = 12.2 / 8 * 0.707 = 1.078 which is less than the UG for the bottom two LR points = 12.2 / 9.4 * 1 = 1.30. Therefore, the resultant UG = 1.30. Applies To: All Versions

Info: Illuminance, Exitance, and Luminance

Summary: Illuminance is a measure of light incident on a surface (or at a point). Exitance is a measure of light leaving a point or a surface. Luminance directly relates to perceived 'brightness' and varies with viewing direction. Luminance is responsible for 'what we see.' We cannot see Illuminance, Exitance, or Intensity. The Luminance of an object produces an image on the retina of your eye, allowing you to see. More Information: Both Illuminance and Exitance are area densities (of luminous flux) and have units of: lumens/ft2 lumens/m2 For Illuminance, we use the terms 'footcandle' and 'lux' instead of lumens/ft2 and lumens/m2 (respectively). However, we do not use these terms when referring to Exitance (Exitance is only expressed as lumens/ft2 or lumens/m2). In most cases Illuminance and Exitance are related this way: Exitance = Illuminance * Surface Reflectance The Exitance of a surface also depends on its transmissive or emissive (luminous) properties if any. Before we can define Luminance, is helps to understand Luminous Intensity. Luminous Intensity is a measure of the spatial density of luminous flux and is direction dependent. Imagine a cone starting at a point and extending to infinity. Intensity is the density of lumens in the cone (i.e., the number of lumens in the cone divided by the size of the cone). Luminous Intensity has units of: lumens/steradian - also called 'candelas' (steradians are a measure of solid angle and express the size of the cone). Luminance is expressed in: candelas/ft2

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candelas/m2 AGI32 only expresses Luminance in cd/m2, the industry standard. If the luminance of a surface varies with viewing direction, that surface is not diffuse. Since luminance is dependent on direction of view, the position of the "observer" must be specified. One would state that the surface has a luminance of (X) when seen from a specific position (or direction). The Luminance of a diffuse surface can be related to its Exitance: Luminance (diffuse, cd/m2) = Exitance (lumens/m2) / π By definition, the Luminance of a diffuse surface does NOT vary with viewing direction, and in this case the observer position is irrelevant. All surfaces in AGI32 are considered diffuse. What if a surface isn't diffuse? Many real-world surfaces are nearly diffuse, and assuming that they are for the sake of the calculations works well. However, if a surface is not diffuse, meaning that it reflects light differently depending on the direction of the incoming light rays, then more data are needed in order to determine precisely how much light is reflected in various directions. That information would be in the form of a Bidirectional Reflectance Distribution Function (BRDF). Unfortunately, BRDFs are not available for most materials, thereby necessitating the assumption of diffuse reflection. One exception to this is for roadway pavements. Many types of pavement have been measured for their reflection characteristics, beyond simply the percentage of light that they reflect (reflectance). This information is available in the form of R-Tables, which are used in roadway lighting design and analysis. The R-Tables are based on the Observer (vehicle driver) being a specific distance from the calculation points, at specific height, and looking in a specific direction, usually horizontal or just below horizontal. (The distance, height and viewing direction depend on the particular roadway standard applied.) For a given pavement type (R-Table), the pavement luminance that an observer perceives will vary with the location of the luminaires emitting the light. Applies To: AGI32 - All versions (calculation of diffuse luminance was added in v2.0)

Info: Definitions of IESNA Luminaire Classification System (LCS) and BUG Ratings
Summary: The Illuminating Engineering Society of North America (IESNA) defines the light distribution and optical control of roadway and area lighting luminaires by the number of zonal lumens expressed as a percentage of the total lamp lumens. These classifications allow designers to choose the proper product to control spill light, light trespass, and sky glow. The LCS replaces the older IESNA Cutoff Classification System. The BUG Rating system categorizes luminaires according to the amount of Backlight, Uplight and Glare that they have, and is calculated based on the number of lumens in the various LCS secondary zones. A luminaire's BUG Rating may be used to evaluate its optical performance related to light trespass,sky glow, and high-angle brightness control. More Information: Luminaire Classification System (LCS) There are three major zones that designers need to reference when creating an outdoor lighting design. These three zones are the Front Lighting Zone, Back Lighting Zone and Upper Lighting Zone. These three areas are further divided into secondary zones to allow the designer to control unwanted light while selecting luminaires with the proper distribution to put light where it is needed. These zones are described below:

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FL (Forward Low) – This zone ranges from nadir (0) to 30 degrees vertical and counterclockwise from 270 to 90 degrees horizontal (in front of the luminaire). The light emitted in this zone reaches from directly below the luminaire to 0.6 mounting heights from the luminaire. FM (Forward Medium) – This zone ranges from 30 to 60 degrees vertical and counterclockwise from 270 to 90 degrees horizontal (in front of the luminaire). The light emitted in this zone reaches from 0.6 to 1.7 mounting heights from the luminaire. FH (Forward High) – This zone ranges from 60 to 80 degrees vertical and counterclockwise from 270 to 90 degrees horizontal (in front of the luminaire). The FH can contribute to light trespass. However, it can be used to illuminate larger areas. The light emitted in this zone reaches from 1.7 to 5.7 mounting heights from the luminaire. FVH (Forward Very High) – This zone ranges from 80 to 90 degrees vertical and counterclockwise from 270 to 90 degrees horizontal (in front of the luminaire). The light emitted in this zone reaches beyond 5.7 mounting heights from the luminaire. The FVH can contribute to light trespass if near the site perimeter. This is also the angle range most responsible for glare.

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BL (Back Low) – This zone ranges from nadir (0) to 30 degrees vertical and counterclockwise from 90 to 270 degrees horizontal (behind the luminaire). The light emitted in this zone reaches from directly below the luminaire to 0.6 mounting heights from the luminaire. BM (Back Medium) – This zone ranges from 30 to 60 degrees vertical and counterclockwise from 90 to 270 degrees horizontal (behind the luminaire). The light emitted in this zone reaches from 0.6 to 1.7 mounting heights from the luminaire. BH (Back High) – This zone ranges from 60 to 80 degrees vertical and counterclockwise from 90 to 270 degrees horizontal (behind the luminaire). The BH can contribute to light trespass especially from perimeter fixtures. However it can be used to illuminate larger areas. The light emitted in this zone reaches from 1.7 to 5.7 mounting heights from the luminaire. BVH (Back Very High) – This zone ranges from 80 to 90 degrees vertical and counterclockwise from 90 to 270 degrees horizontal (behind the luminaire). The light emitted in this zone reaches beyond 5.7 mounting heights from the luminaire. The BVH can contribute to light trespass, especially from perimeter fixtures. This is also the angle range most responsible for glare. UL (Up Low) – This zone ranges from 90 to 100 degrees vertical and 360 degrees around the luminaire. The UL is responsible for contributing the most to sky glow, especially as observed from great distances. UH(Up High) – This is the highest uplight value and ranges from 100 to 180 degrees vertical and 360 degrees around the luminaire. Light emitted more directly upward affects sky glow directly above a city.

The values for these different zones are determined by the following equation for zonal lumens:

2π (cos θL – cos θH) * Φavg L,H Where: θL is the lower bound of the zone calculated θH is the upper bound of the zone calculated Φavg L,H is the average candela value of the angles located between θL and θH When the zonal lumens are calculated, they are then compared to the total lamp lumens, producing a percentage and value for that zone.

Backlight, Uplight, Glare (BUG) Rating System The Backlight, Uplight, and Glare ratings may be used to evaluate luminaire optical performance related to light trespass, sky glow, and high-angle brightness control. These ratings are based on zonal lumen calculations for the LCS secondary solid angles. Each rating, B, U & G, has six ranges, numbered 0 - 5. The lowest rating value, 0, is the strictest, and a rating of 5 essentially means no restrictions. For example, a Backlight rating of B0 is very restrictive, while B5 means no restrictions on the backlight emitted from the luminaire. B2-U0-G1 would be an example of a complete luminaire BUG Rating.

Additional information can be found in the IESNA document TM-15-07, Luminaire Classification System for Outdoor Luminaires. Addendum A of this document contains details on the BUG Ratings. Applies To:

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AGi32 ≥ v2.0 Toolbox ≥ v1.6

Info: European photometric testing conventions and compatibility with North American standards (IESNA)
Summary: With the increasing availability of European manufactured luminaires in the North American market, it is essential that users of computation software understand possible differences in photometric testing conventions that can lead to incorrect application of European data (and vice versa). More Information: The main photometric data formats used in north America and Europe are: CIBSE TM-14, (British) Standard File Format for the Electronic Transfer of Luminaire Photometric

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Data EULUMDAT Photometric Format, the de facto European standard (not officially documented) IESNA LM-63-02, the North American Standard File Format for the Electronic Transfer of Luminaire Photometric Data.

There are two conventions used in European testing procedures for Type 1 (IESNA Type C) that are typically different than their North American counterparts: the geometric convention for the testing of Roadway luminaires and the geometric convention for the testing of indoor luminaires. The second (indoor) convention can apply to a very diverse group of products and does not always come into conflict (more below). However, the differing convention for roadway luminaires is almost without exception. When speaking of roadway luminaires, it should be noted that this may encompass most pole mounted and exterior lluminaires, not simply those suited for roadways. Exceptions can exist, and there is no substitute for a close inspection of the data. Graphical representations such as those provided by the Photometric Toolbox software can be extremely valuable. Roadway Conventions: The European convention assumes the zero degree horizontal plane of photometric data (C=0) to be parallel to an imaginary curb line out the right side of the luminaire. Subsequent C-planes (horizontal angles in IESNA terms) are in counterclockwise rotation around the luminaire. Gamma angles are vertical displacements from Nadir (straight down) as measured in each C-plane. See Figure 1 below. Figure 1 - European Roadway Luminaire Testing Convention

The IESNA or North American convention places the zero degree horizontal plane of photometric data (H=0) perpendicular to the same imaginary curb line mentioned above, essentially defining the direction of the front of the luminaire. Vertical values are measured the same as gamma in European

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standard, from nadir to 180 degrees (straight down to straight up) in each H-plane. See Figure 2 below. Figure 2 - IESNA Roadway Luminaire Testing Convention

Why is this a concern? The ninety degree difference between the location of the C=0 and H=0 planes in the two standards is problematic for most North American designers expecting IESNA standards. Software programs will align the zero degree plane (C=0 or H=0) identically in accordance with the programs' use of angular positioning (IESNA document LM-72). In the case of AGi32 using the CCE (counter clockwise east) angular positioning system, the C=0 and H=0 planes will both point East. However, the European standard luminaire will actually be facing North while the IESNA standard luminaire will face East. Software users expecting the European standard luminaire to point into the street will actually have the luminaire pointing along the curb line. If not detected, all computations will produce unexpected results. The problem becomes worse should the user attempt to apply a Tilt or Roll angle to a luminaire tested with European convention. By definition in the CCE system, Tilt occurs in the H=0 plane. When applied in the C=0 plane, a Tilt value will actually Roll the luminaire (rotation about the opposite axis). The calculation of various metrics common to outdoor lighting applications by North American standards are also misapplied for European road standard data by software such as Photometric Toolbox. The IESNA assumes street side angles to be 0-90 for bilateral symmetry, and if asymmetric, including 270-360 as well. The House Side of the light distribution is then from H=90 to H=270. For European standard road data, Street Side is C=0 to C=180 and House Side data is C=180 to C=360. You can imagine the variance of reported information when the luminaire is actually 90 degrees counter clockwise from what is expected. Common logic would ask why doesn’t the software just recognize the data and treat it appropriately? The answer is unfortunately not that simple. The problem lies in the fact that both roadway and indoor photometry are commonly reported in Type 1 (Euro) or Type C (IES) format. Therefore, there is no easy way to recognize one from the other. This brings us to a brief discussion of indoor testing conventions. It is here that standards cease to

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be standards, or perhaps, given the diversity of today’s luminaires, testing conventions have been modified to accommodate product application. By European standard (CIBSE TM-14), the C=0 plane is typically referenced across the short axis of the luminaire. This would be perpendicular to a typical four foot fluorescent lamp. This practice is found in some North American files as well, wall wash distributions for example. However, standard IESNA fluorescent testing convention places H=0 parallel to the lamp in a fluorescent with quadrilateral symmetry. The bottom line here is that European and North American standards may, or may not agree for indoor luminaires. There are no hard and fast rules to apply. Solutions for North American software users: owning a license for Photometric Toolbox is almost a necessity. Using Photometric Toolbox you can examine the location of the C=0 plane in 3D or 2D to determine if the file requires manipulation. If the photometric file follows European standard roadway conventions, it can be rotated 270 degrees and saved in IESNA standard position. If applying the data in AGi32 without rotating as mentioned above, use the Photometric Web feature to assist in understanding the orientation of the light distribution and plan accordingly. Applies To: AGi32 - All versions Toolbox - All versions

Info: Photopic, Mesopic and Scotopic: Definitions and Relevance to Lighting Calculations
Summary: The terms photopic, mesopic and scotopic refer to three ranges of human vision adaptation level, which differ in anatomical response, spectrum and their effect on visual acuity. At this time, the Illuminating Engineering Society of North America (IESNA) has not incorporated these effects into its lighting recommendations. More information: The terms photopic and scotopic have been getting a lot of play in recent years, though sometimes they have been used inaccurately. They are important concepts, and their understanding may influence lighting design and perhaps calculations. Definitions: These terms refer to the primary use of the cones and/or rods, light sensitive cells on the retina of the human eye. The cones cover most of the retina, but their greatest concentration is at the fovea, the center back of the eye. They are packed very closely there, giving us fine visual acuity when we look directly at something, analogous to high pixel concentration on your computer monitor. They are less dense away from the fovea, giving us less precise peripheral vision. There are three kinds of cones, designated the long-wavelength, medium-wavelength and short-wavelength cones, formerly call the red, green and blue cones, respectively. In combination they are responsible for giving us color vision. The cones are most active in medium and high light levels. As the general environmental brightness drops, the cones become less effective and it becomes difficult for us to discern fine details and colors. The rods are primarily responsible for giving us peripheral vision and providing information about contrast and movement. There are no rods at the fovea of the eye, but they cover the rest of the retina in greater concentration than the cones. The rods become overwhelmed with high light levels, but at low light levels, they are more active than the cones are. Photopic: This term refers to cone vision and generally covers adaptation levels of 3 cd/m2 and higher. Adaptation level is the overall brightness of your environment that your eyes have adjusted to. Translated into illuminance, if the average reflectance of your environment is 30%, an adaptation level of 3 cd/m2 (candelas per square meter) would result from illuminance of approximately 3 footcandles (30 lux). The combined peak sensitivity of the cones is at 555 nm, in the yellow-green part of the visible spectrum. (See red curve in figure.) The lumen, the basic metric of visible light, is defined by the combined cone response only.

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Mesopic: This term refers to a range of human vision with both rods and cones active. There is no hard-line transition at either end, but for most intents and purposes the mesopic range is generally considered to be from 3 cd/m2 down to 0.01 cd/m2. Scotopic: This term refers to rod vision and corresponds to an adaptation level below 0.01 cd/m2. The peak sensitivity of the rods is at 507 nm, in the blue-green part of the visible spectrum. (See blue curve in figure.) While there may be some (very little) cone activity at 0.01 cd/m2, once the light level drops to 0.001 cd/m2, only the rods are active. At this point, the ability to discern colors is gone. In addition, since there are no rods at the fovea and the cones there are not receiving enough light to be stimulated, the ability to discern fine details is gone. This light level is what you will find on a moonless night out in the desert, far from any town or highway luminaires. Drive out, turn off the car lights, and wait for your eyes to adapt. With light only from the stars overhead, you will be able to see large objects like boulders and shrubs and perhaps a rabbit scampering by. But no colors, and you can't read the newspaper! Because of this difference in spectral sensitivity, the lumen, defined according to the cone response only, is not a very good measure of visibility at low light levels. As the light level drops, our peak visual sensitivity shifts toward the blue end of the visible spectrum. For most nighttime applications, it is in the mesopic range, with the peak being somewhere between yellow-green and blue-green. The lower the light level, the greater shift away from the photopic sensitivity curve. Applicability to lighting design: Research has found that white light that is "cool" in appearance, with more energy in the shortwavelength (blue-violet) part of the spectrum, appears to be brighter than white light that is "warm" in appearance, with more energy in the longer (orange-red) part of the spectrum. In general, the higher the Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) of a light source, the "cooler" it appears. Sometimes this kind of light source is called "scotopically enriched," meaning there is greater stimulation of the rods. An example of this effect is that, given equal illuminance, a space lighted with metal halide (MH) will appear brighter to human eyes than the same space lighted with high pressure sodium (HPS). Research has also shown that it is easier to discern small details under a light source that has more blue in the spectrum (cooler in appearance). This effect may be helpful for people doing inspection, surgery, sewing, and other detail oriented visual tasks. It turns out, however, that these effects aren't due to the rods after all, but to a different kind of lightsensitive cell on the retina, called intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs), which have a peak sensitivity in the blue part of the spectrum, not far from the rods' peak sensitivity. Finally, in several experiments researchers have compared foveal vision and peripheral vision under HPS and MH luminaires. They found that the color of the light source didn't affect direct vision, the ability to see details when looking directly at the object. However, in a simulated roadway application (no vehicles to run over the subjects!) where they tested peripheral vision, they found that the subjects had faster reaction times under MH than under HPS, all other conditions being equal. This is because the rods, most responsible for our peripheral vision, are more sensitive to the "cooler" wavelengths of the MH lamp. All of this can, therefore, affect a designer's selection of light source. In addition to considering "how much light?", he or she needs to consider "how bright in appearance?", "is the ability to see fine details important?", and "is peripheral vision important?", not to mention the many esthetic considerations that may be relevant to the project. Applicability to lighting calculations: At this time, the IESNA has not modified any of its recommended illuminance levels with respect to the color or color temperature of the light source. Photometric reports from luminaire manufacturers provide lumen and candela values that are, by definition, based on the photopic response only. Some lighting designers and other specifiers are designing to lower illuminance levels when using high-CCT (5000K+) light sources. Some end users have found these designs acceptable, while others have found the appearance to be "cold." Obviously, when humans are involved, it can be difficult to find one solution that suits everyone. The balance of visibility, energy, cost, esthetics, and all the other factors to be considered in lighting design is a complicated one to achieve.

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Info: Transmission of light through water

Summary: While AGi32 cannot exactly simulate the propagation of light through participating media such as cloudy (“turbid”) water, it is quite capable of accurately simulating the absorption of light in, for example, swimming pools. More Information: Light is scattered in turbid water, but this is a neglibible effect in swimming pools. This leaves absorption, which is wavelength dependent. Figure 24-1 of the IESNA Lighting Handbook Ninth Edition plots spectral transmittance per meter for various bodies of water. For filtered swimming pool water, let's assume that it is similar in transparency to “ Morrison Springs, Florida ,” whose spectral transmittance per meter is roughly: 450 nm (blue): 95% 530 nm (green): 97% 600 nm (red): 84% Displayed on a computer, it is this color:

As an aside, why did we choose these wavelengths? Well, these are the “primary color” wavelengths for blue, green, and red light respectively. If the spectral power distribution is relatively smooth (which in this case it is), then the spectral transmittance at these wavelengths is a good approximation of the corresponding color bands. So, now we know the spectral absorption at one meter. What about other distances? For this we need Beer’s Law (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beer%27s_law). Rather than asking our clients to remember how to calculate logarithms, I will restate the spectral transmittance per foot: Blue 0.984 Green 0.991 Red 0.944 This is a very pale color. For the mathematically inclined: Beer’s Law explains how absorption in a transparent (but not translucent) medium such as glass or water works. Mathematically, it is: I / Io = 10ad where Io is the intensity of the light beam incident on the medium (such as a glass filter), I is the intensity of the light beam exiting the medium, a is the extinction coefficient, and d is the distance

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the light travels through the medium. If you remember your high-school mathematics, we have: Log10(I / Io) = ad If we have, for example, I/Io = 0.84 and d = 1.0 meter (3.2808 feet), then a = log10(0.84) / 3.2808 = -0.0231 units per foot for red light. This gives I / Io = 10-0.0231 = 0.944 for a distance of one foot. We can think of this as a color filter. As we descend into the water, it is equivalent to adding filters to a stack of filters, one filter for each foot of water depth. At three feet, we have: Blue: Green: Red: 0.984 * 0.984 * 0.984 = 0.95 0.991 * 0.991 * 0.991 = 0.97 0.944 * 0.944 * 0.944 = 0.84

At 100 feet, we have (by multiplying the per-foot values together 100 times): Blue Green Red 0.196 0.389 0.003

Which is this color on a computer screen:

But this is not ocean blue, you say! This is true, it is not – it is the proverbial “sea green.” Remember that the ocean typically reflects a clear blue sky, and that the light is being diffusely reflected from all depths due to slight turbidity. The calculations above are for the color and intensity of the light illuminating an object at a given depth. They do NOT take into account: Reflections from the water surface. Reflections from various depths due to turbidity. Reflections from swimming pool walls and floor. Absorption of light reflected from a submerged object back to the surface. But at least this provides an answer to the question, “What is the light level X number of feet below the surface?” Remember the equation for calculating illuminance from RGB values: E = 0.2125 * R + 0.7154 * G + 0.0721 * B. Applying this to the spectral transmittance per foot, we have: Transmittance at one foot = 0.2125 * 0.944 + 0.7154 * 0.991 + 0.0721 * 0.984 = 0.981 In other words, we lose about 1.9% in light level for every foot we descend below the surface. At two feet, the light level drops to 0.981 * 0.981 = 0.962. In other words, a meaningless 3.8% light loss. Some background: Our color vision is most sensitive to yellow-green light (peaking at 555 nm), and falls off towards the blue and red limits of the visible spectrum – the CIE photopic curve (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luminosity_function). For properly calibrated CRT and LCD display monitors, the standard equation for calculating the relative luminous intensity of a given pixel is: Luminous intensity I = 0.2125 * red intensity + 0.7154 * green intensity + 0.0721 * blue intensity As a general rule, the light loss in a swimming pool is going to be irrelevant. If you assume an average depth of five feet, you can model the pool surface as a transparent color filter with spectral transmittances:

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Blue: Green: Red:

0.984 * 0.984 * 0.984 * 0.984 * 0.984 = 0.92 0.991 * 0.991 * 0.991 * 0.991 * 0.991 = 0.95 0.944 * 0.944 * 0.944 * 0.944 * 0.944 = 0.75

and let the interreflections from the pool walls and floor do the rest. (The light loss at five feet will be 7 percent.) Note that this approach also correctly models the amount of light reflected from the pool bottom – there is an additional 7 percent loss when the light traverses the water back to the surface, but this is accounted for by its having to go through the color filter again before leaving the pool. What will be much more important is the reflection of light from the water surface. This is the leading complaint of life guards; the reflection of overhead ceilings and distracting lights obscures the presence of a person lying on the bottom of the pool.

Thanks to Ian Ashdown for this terrific and very informative article. If you would like to contact Ian, you may email him at ian@agi32.com. Applies To: AGi32 - All versions

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