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6 Maxwell’s Equations, Microscopic Electromag-
netism, Conservation Laws
Maxwell’s Equations in Gaussian Units
~ ~
~ ⊗H
∇ ~ = 4π J + 1 ∂ D (6.2)
c c ∂t
Source Independent Equations:
~
∇ ~ = − 1 ∂B
~ ⊗E (6.3)
c ∂t
~ ·B
∇ ~ =0 (6.4)
~ and Magnetic field H
Electric Displacement D ~ in Free Space:
~ =E
D ~ + 4π P~ (6.5)
~ =B
H ~ − 4π M
~ (6.6)
~ and Magnetic field H
Electric Displacement D ~ in Permeable Media:
~ = E
D ~ + 4π P~ (6.7)
~
~ = B − 4π M
H ~ (6.8)
µ
Maxwell’s Equations in SI Units
~ ~
~ ⊗H
∇ ~ = 4π J + 1 ∂ D (6.10)
c c ∂t
Source Independent Equations:
~
∇ ~ = − 1 ∂B
~ ⊗E (6.11)
c ∂t
~ ·B
∇ ~ =0 (6.12)
~ and Magnetic field H
Electric Displacement D ~ in Free Space:
~ = 0 E
D ~ + P~ (6.13)
~
~ = B −M
H ~ (6.14)
µ0
~ and Magnetic field H
Electric Displacement D ~ in Permeable Media:
~ = E
D ~ + P~ (6.15)
~
~ = B −M
H ~ (6.16)
µ
Continuity Equation (same in both units)
∂ρ
∇ · J~ + =0 (6.17)
∂t
Lorentz Force Law
∂~v ~ + q ~v ⊗ B
~
m = qE (6.18)
∂t c
F ~ + n ~v ⊗ B
~ = nq E ~ (6.19)
c
~ = ρE
F ~ + 1 J~ ⊗ B~ (6.20)
c
where,
n is the number of charge carriers per unit volume
F~ is the force per unit volume i.e. force density
~ and Φ
Potentials, A
From equation (6.4) we can immediately see that B ~ can be written as the Curl
of some vector potential (since, we know that the Divergence of a Curl is zero)
~ =∇⊗A
B ~ (6.21)
Substitute this equation into the source-independent equation (6.3) to get:
" #
1 ∂ ~
A
∇⊗ E ~+ =0 (6.22)
c ∂t
We know that the Curl of a Gradient is zero so the square bracketed term can
be written as a gradient of some scalar field i.e.
~
~ + 1 ∂ A = −∇Φ
E (6.23)
c ∂t
~
~ = −∇Φ − 1 ∂ A
E (6.24)
c ∂t
~ and E
Thus, in equations (6.21) and (6.24), we have written B ~ in terms of
~
vector potential A and scalar potential Φ.
Gauge Transformation:
A~0 = A~ + ∇ψ
~ (6.25)
1 ∂ψ
Φ0 = Φ − (6.26)
c ∂t
~ 0 and Φ0 give the same electrid field E
A ~ and magnetic induction B
~ as A
~ and Φ
do. ψ is called the Gauge Field.
Lorentz Gauge:
~ ·A
∇ ~ = − 1 ∂Φ (6.27)
c ∂t
This is a constraint equation on A~ and Φ.
Wave Equations
1 ∂2
∇2 − 2 2 Φ = −4πρ (6.28)
c ∂t
1 ∂2 ~
4π
∇2 − 2 2 A = − J~ (6.29)
c ∂t c
Remember, back in Chapter 1, the solution to Poisson equation ∇2 Φ = −4πρ
(In SI Units, the right hand side becomes, ρ/0 ) is:
ρ(x0 ) d3 x0
Z
Φ(~x) = (6.30)
|~x − ~x0 |
where,
~x is the observation point and ~x0 is the source point.
[..] is the bracketed term in equations (6.28) and (6.29), ρ represents the scalar
potential Φ or the vector potential A~ and f represents the charge density ρ or
~
the current density J over c on the right hand side of the mentioned equations.
eikR
Gk + (R) = (6.37)
R
e−ikR
Gk − (R) = (6.38)
R
AGk + (R) + BGk − (R) = Gk (R), A+B =1 (6.39)
Now, 0
G± (R, ω) = Gk ± (R)eiωt (6.40)
Using Inverse Fourier Transformation, we get:
Z ∞
± 1
G (R, τ ) = e−iωt G± (R, ω)dω (6.41)
2π −∞
1
G± (R, τ ) =δ(τ ∓ R/c) (6.42)
R
This equation represents the 4D Green’s function.
From equations (6.46) and (6.47),we immediately see that Mechanical Power
Density, dumech /dt is:
dumech
= J~ · E
~ (6.47)
dt
Now,
Electromagnetic Energy Density, uem :
1 h~ ~ ~ ·H
~
i
uem ≡ E·D+B (6.48)
8π
Total Electromagnetic Energy or Field Energy(Total in the sense that it’s Elec-
trostatic and Magnetic): Z
Eem = uem d3 x (6.49)
V
Z
1 2
E + B 2 d3 x
Eem = (6.50)
8π V
~
Poynting Vector, S(Energy/Area ·time i.e Rate of Energy Flow):
~≡ c E
S ~ ⊗H
~ (6.51)
4π
Poynting Theorem:
∂uem ~ ~
+ ∇ · S = −J~ · E
~ (6.52)
∂t
Now, using equation (6.47), we get:
d ~ ·S
~=0
[uem + umech ] + ∇ (6.53)
dt
Notice how this equation is similar to the continuity equation (6.17).
where,
p~em is the Electromagnetic Momentum
~g is called the Electromagnetic Momentum Density
Z Z Z
1 ~ ~ 3 1 ~
p~em = E⊗B d x= 2 S d x = ~g d3 x
3
(6.59)
4πc c