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Give the function and mechanism of secretion of salivary juice? Salivary juice is secreted by 3 pairs of salivary gland i.e. parotid, sub maxillary and sublingual. Parotid is completely serous, submandibular is completely mucus and sublingual is 50% mucus and 50% serous i.e. mixed. Mucus secretion means secretion of thick saliva with mucus while serous secretion means watery secretion containing the enzyme ptyalin. Total secretion 1500 cc/day. Water 99.5 % Solid 0.5 % Inorganic solid 0.2 % i.e. chlorides, carbonates, phosphates and potassium thiocyanate Organic solid 0.3 % i.e. mucin, urea & enzyme ptyalin Function 1. Digestive Function: This is done by the enzyme ptyalin which will be acting on carbohydrate called amylase. Stages of breakdown: Boiled starch Erythrodextrine Acrodextrine Stable dextrin + Maltose (disaccharide) Mechanical Function a. For taste sensation of food by dissolving them. b. Helps for swallowing the food. c. It will help for speech d. It helps for washing away the food particles therefore keeps the mouth clean 227

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3.

Excretory Function Certain waste matter such as urea and potassium thiocynate is given away.

Mechanism of Secretion of Saliva The whole process is a reflex process as follows 1. Unconditional Reflex i.e. any thing in the mouth produces reflex secretion unconditionally. 2. Conditional Reflex which is developed by habit as follows a. By sight b. By smell c. Even by sound As it is reflex action it is produced by reflex pathway which will consist of 1) Sensory pathway from tongue. 2) Salivary center in brain. 3) Motor pathway (parasympathetic and sympathetic). This pathway is shown in the figure (next page) As in the diagram, stimulation of parasympathetic will give serous secretion with enzyme while stimulation of sympathetic will give mucus secretion.

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DEGLUTITION (SWALLOWING) Short Note

The act of swallowing is a reflex phenomenon which occurs in 3 stages as follows 1. Voluntary Stage here the masticated food is rolled backwards by the movements of the tongue upward and backward against the palate. 2. Pharyngeal Stage (Reflex Stage Involuntary)

As shown above in the diagram as it is a reflex action brought about reflexively by the sensory path, the center, and the motor path giving rise to the following events A. The soft palate is pulled upwards to prevent the food from going into posterior nares. B. The palatopharyngeal folds come close to each other medially to form a slit so food passes through it easily. C. The vocal cords are strongly approximated so that epiglottis covers the opening of larynx preventing food to go into the trachea. The sphincter at the junction of pharynx and oesophagus is relaxed so that food passes downward by peristaltic movement. In between at some time there is reflex apnea. 3. Oesophageal Stage from here the food passes into the stomach by primary and secondary peristaltic movement.

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GASTRIC JUICE
Give the composition, function and mechanism of secretion of gastric juice? Gastric juice is secreted by gastric glands which are formed by folding of the mucous membrane of the stomach. Here some digestion of carbohydrates, proteins & fats will take place. Total secretion 1500cc in 24 hrs Ph is highly acidic-about 1.3 Water-99.5% Solid-0.5% Inorganic salt-0.1% Organic - 0.4% HCL & enzymes Enzymes as follows Pepsin for protein Lipase for fat & Renin for milk protein (only in infants) Intrinsic factor (R.B.C. maturating factor) Function of Stomach as a Whole 1) Storage of food for digestion. 2) Secretion of gastric juice. 3) Digestion of food. 4) Absorption of water only. 5) Movement mainly peristaltic to drive digested food forward. 6) Maturation of R.B.C by intrinsic factor. Digestive Functions 1. Digestion of Proteins -This is by the enzyme pepsinogen as follows Pepsinogen is converted into pepsin by HCL

Pepsinogen (Inactive)

HCL

Pepsin (Active) 231

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM Proteins Pepsin Primary Proteose

Secondary Proteose

Peptone So protein is broken down only halfly. 2. Lipase: Fat is acted upon by enzyme lipase and broken down into Fatty acid & Glycerol. Though fat is broken down completely only 25% is digested. Fat Lipase Fatty Acid 3. Glycerol

4.

Rennin acts on milk protein known as Casein. Casein is a milk protein that is acted upon by rennin in presence of Ca & forms Ca caseinate Functions of HCL. a. Converts pepsinogen into pepsin b. It kills the bacteria of diet therefore protective in function. c. Acid ph is helpful &useful for the action of other enzymes.

Mechanism of Secretion Paulav was a great scientist who studied the mechanism on dog by the following 2 preparations. False Feeding: When a fistula is made in the neck so that the feeding is not real but false.

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Paulav Pouch: When a small separate pouch is made from the stomach from where we can collect the gastric juice not mixed up with food as shown below.

The different phase of gastric juice secretion is as follows 1 Nervous or reflex phase 2 Chemical or humoral phase 1. Reflex Phase: it is similar in nature as the reflex phase of salivary juice which is as follows A. Conditional reflex by sight, smell or sound. B. Unconditional reflex: This is by the stimulation of the vagus nerve therefore also called as nervous phase. Proof: if this nerve is cut reflex phase will be absent. Secretion of gastric juice is only for 1st an hour for this phase. 2. Chemical or Humoral Phase: This phase is more important as gastric juice will continue to be secreted for next 2 hours, even after cutting the vagus nerve. This can be explained as follows Digested food + mucous membrane of stomach, a chemical substance formed called as gastrin which is a powerful stimulant to the gastric glands after circulating in the blood.

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ENTEROGASTRON (Viva)
If a heavy fatty meal is taken, because of formation of enterogastron which is a chemical or humoral substance it will have following 3 bad effects. 1. 2. 3. Gastric juice secretion becomes very less Therefore digestion of food is hampered with formation of gases. Closer of pyloric sphincter for a long time thereby delaying important function of the stomach and the whole digested material is vomited out & then the person gets relief.

CERTAIN IMPORTANT TERMS (Viva) Hyperchlorhydria - i.e. more HCL in gastric juice E.g. gastric or peptic ulcer Hypochlorhydria - Less HCL in gastric juice E.g indigestion & cancer of stomach Achlorhydria - Total absence of HCL e.g. Pernicious anaemia where the whole mucous membrane of the stomach is destroyed.

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PANCREATIC JUICE
Give the composition, functions & mechanism of secretion of pancreatic juice? Structure of pancreas is just like salivary glands i.e. compound racimose gland. The secretion is taken by the duct called as duct of wisberg which opens into the duodenum in common with common bile duct. Composition Total secretion is 1500cc in 24 hrs Ph-8.4 i.e. alkaline Water 98.5% Solid 1.5% Inorganic solid 1% Organic solid 0.5% Following Enzymes Trypsin (Chymotrypsin) for proteins Lipases (steapsin) for fats Amylase (Amylopsin) & maltase for carbohydrates Functions of Enzymes It should be remembered that all the 3 enzymes acting on carbohydrates, proteins & fats are very powerful i.e. they will digest from beginning to end product. 1. Proteins Trypsin Primary proteose

Secondary proteose

Polypeptides

Amino acid

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DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 2. Fat Lipase Fatty Acid 3. Starch Glycerol

Amylase
Glucose Mechanism of Secretion There are following 2 phases 1. Nervous or reflex phase 2. Chemical or humoral phase. Reflex Phase: Here the secretion occurs reflexly from the presence of food in stomach .the secretory nerve again is the vagus as shown in the diagram.

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Chemical or Humoral Phase This is studied by the theory Villo fistula; here a loop of intestine is cut & stitched to the abdomen. Here digested food particle + mucous membrane of intestine produces a chemical substance called as secretin which is a powerful stimulant for pancreatic juice through blood as shown in the figure

Note Pancreozymin -It is a part of secretin & mainly responsible for enzyme part of secretion of pancreatic juice Amylase carbohydrate Trypsin protein Lipase fat

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INTESTINAL JUICE (Saccus Entericus)

Describe composition function & mechanism of secretion of intestinal juice? Food is practically fully digested, Intestinal juice is only required for digestion of some food remaining undigested. Therefore though this juice contains large number of enzymes they are not very strong. This juice is secreted by intestinal glands formed by folding of mucous membrane of the intestine. These glands are known as lieberkuhns follicle. Composition Total secretion 1500cc in 24 hrs Ph alkaline i.e. 8 Inorganic substance 0.7% Organic substance---0.8% where mucous is there& also enzymes Proteins Trypsin (Erepsin group of peptidases) Fats Lipase Carbohydrates Amylase For disaccharides 1. Sucrase for sucrose Sucrose Sucrase Glucose Fructose

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2. Maltase for Maltose Maltose Maltase Glucose 3. Lactase for Lactose Lactose Lactase Glucose 4. Enzymes for Nucleoproteins Nuclease Nucleosidase Nucleotidase Mechanism of Secretion The two phases are 1. Nervous phase 2. Chemical phase This is studied by tiny villo fistula as studied in pancreatic juice. Nervous Phase The glands are supplied by parasympathetic of vagus nerve which is secretory nerve because stimulation of this nerve produced secretion. This phase is not a reflex phase but rather a mechanical phase i.e. here the glands are directly stimulated mechanically by the food stuff. Galactose Glucose

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DIGESTIVE SYSTEM Chemical or Humoral Phase Digested food + mucous membrane of intestine a chemical substance called entrocrinin is produced which on circulation will stimulate the intestinal glands. The two phases are shown in the diagram.

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BILE
Bile is formed in the liver & stored in the gall bladder & whenever required i.e. after 2 hours bile will be released by the contraction of gall bladder for digestion of fats only. Composition of Bile 90 % water 10 % solids out of which, 1 % inorganic solid & 9 % organic solid where Bile salt is 6 % Bile pigment is 2 % Cholesterol & lecithin is 1 %. Total amount is about 1000 cc/day. It is greenish yellow viscous liquid extremely bitter in taste. Ph is slightly acidic. Specific gravity is 1.026. Functions of Bile The main function of bile is by the bile salts except the excretory functions Bile salts are Sodium glycocholate i.e. sodium +glycine +cholic acid Sodium taurocholate i.e. sodium + taurine + cholic acid & it contains sulphur Digestive Functions It will help digestion of fats only by following 3 processes. Emulsification: By which we mean large fat droplets, is converted into large number of small droplets. By this surface area of the fat is very much increased so that enzyme action will be better. The enzyme lipase becomes 4 times strong. Hydrotropic Action: Which means insoluble fat is dissolved in bile salts therefore enzyme action is better. 241

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM Absorption of fats (digested fats) of fat soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K) & of iron & calcium. Laxative Action: It means by pressure of bile there will be proper movement of liver due to presence salts therefore constant constipation will mean liver is not functioning well. Cholagogue Function This means bile salts itself will stimulate the secretion of bile by the liver. The above 4 action will be due to bile salts except the following action i.e. excretion of waste product of bile pigment & cholesterol Bile Pigment They are (1) bilirubin (2) biliverdin & this we get by breakdown of Hb from R.B.C. by reticulo endothelial cells. Circulation & fate of bile pigment is shown below.

Jaundice This means yellow colouration of the skin & the mucous membranes of the body & this are due to large amount of bile pigment circulating in the blood & therefore the bile pigment is thrown into the tissue spaces (conjunctiva & finger nails are the best place for appearance of jaundice) 242

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There are 3 types of jaundice. 1. Haemolytic Jaundice: Due to excessive destruction of R.B.C. in the body e.g. malaria. 2. Obstructive Jaundice: Due to obstruction of common bile duct by means of a stone. 3. Toxic Jaundice: Due to infection of liver cells e.g. infective hepatitis.

GALL BLADDER
Functions 1. Storage of bile about 70cc 2. Absorption of water & salts thereby concentrating the bile 10 times. 3. Secretion of mucus for protection of the wall of gall bladder. 4. Movement for driving the bile into the intestine for digestion. 5. Excretory function; cholesterol, lecithin, bacteria, toxic heavy metals e.g. Pb&Hg. Mechanism of Expulsion of Bile Bile is required after the food passes from stomach into the intestine i.e. after 2 hours. This is done by the contraction of gall bladder off & on which is known as mechanism of expulsion of bile. This is divided into 2 phases as follows. Nervous or reflex phase Chemical or humoral phase Nervous or Reflex Phase: This is due to reflex mechanism starting from the wall of stomach by the digested food. Chemical or Humeral Phase: This is due to digested food + mucous membrane of intestine , forms a chemical substance called cholecystokinin which after circulation & coming to gall bladder will contract the muscles , so finally by this double action of above two phases the gall bladder will contract powerfully thereby raising the pressure in the bile passage about 500mm of 243

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM water thereby opening the sphincter of Oddi & bile being released in the intestine with each contraction .This goes on, off & on i.e. time to time for the release of bile. The two phases are shown in the diagram.

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LIVER
Describe in detail different function of liver? Liver is a very important organ having following functions. 1. Storage of blood. 2. Storage of glycogen (carbohydrate) 3. Storage of iron & Calcium. 4. Storage of vitamin A & D. 5. Storage of haematinic principle (extrinsic factor B12 in food + intrinsic factor.) 6. Formation & destruction of R.B.C. only in first 6 months of foetal life liver can form R.B.C. & after that throughout life old R.B.C. are destroyed. This is because of reticulo endothelial cells of the liver. 7. Formation of bile by the liver which is required for digestion of fats. 8. Synthesis of blood protein i.e.albumin, globulin, fibrinogen & prothrombin & also heparin which is intravascular anticoagulant. 9. Metabolism of carbohydrates, Proteins & Fats. a. Metabolism of carbohydrates i. Glycogenesis i.e. formation of glycogen from glucose. Storing them in muscles & liver. ii.Glycogenolysis i.e. breakdown of glycogen into glucose from the liver so as to supply more energy than necessary. iii.Neoglycogenesis i.e. formation of glucose from amino acids of proteins & glycerol of fat i.e. other than carbohydrates. b. Metabolism of Proteins: Amino acids formed after digestion of proteins are diminished in the liver & the NH2 part is converted into waste product & excreted in the urine. The other part is converted into glucose. c. Metabolism of Fats: In liver fat is oxidized by beta oxidation & converted into ketone bodies (which are 1/2oxidation). 10. Detoxicating or Protective Function: This is done by the following methods. a) By direct destruction by the liver cells. b) By macrophage cells (reticulo endothelial cells e.g. bacteria)

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DIGESTIVE SYSTEM c) Fixation & gradual excretion of heavy metals e.g. Hg, lead, arsenic. They are temporarily fixed or stored in the liver & then gradually excreted in the urine. d) Conjugation; Benzoic acid (toxic) + glycine hippuric acid (non toxic) Other toxic substances will combine with glyconic acid to form non toxic substances e) By oxidation & reduction process.

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LARGE INTESTINE
Functions of Large Intestine Here there is no digestive juice formed because all the food has already been digested. The main purpose or function will be absorption of large amount of water to form semisolid stool. Different Functions Are As Follows 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Secretion of mucus for protection of the mucous membrane from hard stool. Absorption of about 80% water, also some glucose & salts are absorbed. Excretion of heavy metals e.g. Hg, Pb & arsenic. Movements of large intestine which are of two types (a) rhythmic (b) mass peristalsis Bacterial digestion; by this we mean presence of large number of bacteria in normal stool is essential for the following purpose. a Presence of bacteria is essential for life as proved by animal experiments b Certain vitamins are produced by these bacteria e.g. vitamin K.

Time Taken for the Passing of Food in the G.I. Tract (viva) 2 To 3 hours for emptying the stomach. 3 To 5 hours for junction of small & large intestine. 6 Hours hepatic flexure. 9 Hours for spleenic flexure. 12 To 15 hours for pelvic colon.

Describe the movements of large & small intestine & their nervous control? The movements take place for 1) Mixing the food with the digestive juices. 2) For driving the digested food onward. Methods of studying their movements as follows 247

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 1) We can directly study them in animals after opening the abdomen. 2) In human beings it can be studied by taking X-ray of these movements after taking meal which will make the intestine opaque to X-ray. The Movements Are Classified Into Type I, Type II, type III as shown in the figure.

Type I Here length is 10mm & rhythmic rate is 1/10 sec. Type II Here length is 20mm & (segmented pendulum) rate is 1/20 sec. Type III Here length is 30mm & (peristaltic) rate is 1/60 sec. Movements of Small Intestine Are As Follows 1 Segmental movement 2 Pendular movement 3 Peristaltic movement Other Minor Movement 1. Antiperistaltic movement 2. Movement of villi Segmental Movement

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The loop of intestine will suddenly divide into a large number of segments as shown above & these segments will again go on dividing in the middle of the segment thereby always forming new segments continuously. These are type II movements as already mentioned. Purpose of these movements is mixing the food with digested food. Pendular Movement

As shown in the figure a constriction will appear at (A) which will drive the food onward for about only 5cm & then again backward like the pendulum of a clock therefore called as pendular movement. As this is a local movement the purpose is mixing the food with the digestive food. This is also type II movement. Peristaltic Movements

This movement is also formed exactly the same way as pendular movement as shown but for driving the food onward only therefore purpose of this movement is to dilute the digested food. Here peristalsis is divided into two types. Slow peristalsis where the rate of movement is 2cm/sec. Fast peristalsis called peristaltic rush where the rate is 20cm/sec (10 times)

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Antiperistalsis This movement normally occurs at the region of sphincters i.e. pyloric sphincter of stomach & sphincter at the junction of small & large intestine i.e. iliocolic junction, the purpose being not to allow the digested food onward.Antiperistalsis is vigorous during vomiting. Movements of Large Intestine They are only two as follows. 1. Rhythmic also known as Kneeding movement. These are short, local, rhythmic contraction.This is of type I movement & purpose is mixing the food. 2. Mass peristalsis These occur only 2 to 3 times in a day where the whole digested food after absorption of water in the colon is driven quickly as a mass to the pelvic colon where it is stored as faeces. Movement of villi These movements are side to side & pumping action movement by which it will help not only absorption but also for driving the food onward in circulation. This movement is helped by the hormone called villinin. Nervous Control of the Movements Segmental & pendular movement is not under nervous control .These movements are myogenic in origin. Peristaltic Movement They are supplied by following nerves. Intrinsic Plexus in between the muscles as Meissner & Aurbach plexus but there exact role is not known. They are mostly controlled by extrinsic nerve i.e. parasympathetic nerve supply when stimulated will produce contraction of muscles & relaxation of sphincter all throughout e.g. the drug acetylcholine. Sympathetic supply which when stimulated will produce appropriate effect i.e. relaxation of muscles & constriction of the sphincter e.g. the drug adrenalin.

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