Contents

Preface List of Principal Symbols Visual Preview xvii xxiii xxvii

1.
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16 1.17 1.18 1.19 1.20 1.21 1.22 1.23 1.24 1.25 1.26

Introduction
A Brief History of Refrigeration 1 Systeme International dUnites (SI Units) 4 Thermodynamic Systems, State, Properties, Processes, Heat and Work 8 First Law of Thermodynamics 9 Second Law of Thermodynamics 11 Non-flow Processes 11 Steady-Flow Processes 12 Thermodynamic State of a Pure Substance 13 Heat Exchange Processes 16 Production of Low Temperatures 18 Saturation Pressure versus Saturation Temperature Relationship 22 The Gaseous Phase: Equation of State 23 Clapeyron Equation 26 Property Relations 27 Thermodynamic Properties of Refrigerants 27 Modes of Heat Transfer 35 Laws of Heat Transfer 36 Electrical Analogy 39 Steady-State Conduction 42 Heat Transfer from Extended Surface 49 Unsteady-State Conduction 53 Forced Convection Correlations 54 Free Convection Correlations 55 Design of Heat Exchangers 55 Mass Transfer 57 Analogy between Momentum, Heat and Mass Transfer References 60 Revision Exercises 61

58

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Contents

2.
2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8

Refrigerating Machine and Reversed Carnot Cycle

Refrigerating Machines 64 A Refrigerating MachineThe Second Law Interpretation Heat Engine, Heat Pump and Refrigerating Machine 67 Best Refrigeration Cycle: The Carnot Principle 71 Vapour as a Refrigerant in Reversed Carnot Cycle 80 Gas as a Refrigerant in Reversed Carnot Cycle 82 Limitations of Reversed Carnot Cycle 84 Actual Refrigeration Systems 85 Revision Exercises 86 64

64

3.
3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9

Vapour Compression System

Modifications in Reversed Carnot Cycle with Vapour as a Refrigerant 87 Vapour Compression Cycle 89 Vapour Compression System Calculations 91 Ewings Construction 99 Standard Rating Cycle and Effect of Operating Conditions 103 Actual Vapour Compression Cycle 114 Standard Rating Cycle for Domestic Refrigerators 118 Heat Pump 121 Second Law Efficiency of Vapour Compression Cycle 122 References 123 Revision Exercises 124

87

4.
4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13

Refrigerants
A Survey of Refrigerants 128 Designation of Refrigerants 129 Comparative Study of Methane Derivatives in Use Before the Year 2000 133 Comparative Study of Ethane Derivatives in Use Before the Year 2000 134 Refrigerants in Use after the Year 2000 135 Selection of a Refrigerant 136 Thermodynamic Requirements 137 Chemical Requirements 147 Physical Requirements 150 Ozone Depletion Potential and Global Warming Potential of CFC Refrigerants 153 Substitutes for CFC Refrigerants 154 Substitutes for CFC 12 157 Substitutes for CFC 11 169

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4.14 4.15 4.16 4.17 4.18 4.19 4.20 4.21 4.22 4.23 4.24 4.25 4.26

Substitutes for HCFC 22 170 Substitutes for CFC R 502 171 Atmospheric Gases as Substitutes for CFC Refrigerants 171 Using Mixed Refrigerants 174 Binary Mixtures 174 Classification of Mixtures 180 Evaluation of Thermodynamic Properties of R 290/R 600a Mixtures 188 Azeotropic Mixtures 191 Use of Minimum and Maximum Boiling Azeotropes 193 Non-isothermal Refrigeration 195 Refrigerant Piping and Design 201 Lubricants in Refrigeration Systems 207 Secondary Refrigerants 208 References 210 Revision Exercises 212

5.
5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7

Multipressure Systems
Introduction 214 Multistage or Compound Compression 214 Multi-Evaporator Systems 222 Cascade Systems 226 Solid Carbon DioxideDry Ice 228 Manufacture of Solid Carbon Dioxide 228 System Practices for Multi-stage Systems 233 References 234 Revision Exercises 234

214

6.
6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13

Refrigerant Compressors
Types of Compressors 236 Thermodynamic Processes During Compression 239 Volumetric Efficiency of Reciprocating Compressors 242 Effect of Clearance on Work 246 Principal Dimensions of a Reciprocating Compressor 247 Performance Characteristics of Reciprocating Compressors 248 Capacity Control of Reciprocating Compressors 253 Construction Features of Reciprocating Compressors 256 Rotary Compressors 256 Screw Compressors 257 Scroll Compressors 259 Centrifugal Compressors 260 Performance Characteristics of a Centrifugal Compressor 268

236

Contents

6.14 Alternatives to R 11 (CFC 11) 274 6.15 Comparison of Performance of Reciprocating and Centrifugal Compressors 281 References 282 Revision Exercises 283

7.
7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4

Condensers
Heat Rejection Ratio 286 Types of Condensers 286 Heat Transfer in Condensers Wilsons Plot 300 References 301 Revision Exercises 302

286

288

8.
8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4

Expansion Devices
Types of Expansion Devices 303 Automatic or Constant-Pressure Expansion Valve Thermostatic-Expansion Valve 305 Capillary Tube and Its Sizing 311 References 317 Revision Exercises 317 303

303

9.
9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5

Evaporators
Types of Evaporators 319 Heat Transfer in Evaporators 322 Extended Surface Evaporators 329 Augmentation of Boiling Heat Transfer Pressure Drop in Evaporators 340 References 347 Revision Exercises 348

319

334

10.
10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6

Complete Vapour Compression System

The Complete System 349 Graphical Method 349 Analytical Method 352 NewtonRaphson Method 355 Optimal Design of Evaporator 358 Installation, Service and Maintenance of Vapour Compression Systems 359 References 365 Revision Exercises 366

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11.
11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6

Gas Cycle Refrigeration

Limitations of Carnot Cycle with Gas as a Refrigerant 367 Reversed Brayton or Joule or Bell Coleman Cycle 367 Application to Aircraft Refrigeration 371 RanqueHilsch Tube 383 The JouleThomson Coefficient and Inversion Curve 385 Reversed Stirling Cycle 389 References 399 Revision Exercises 400

367

12.
12.1 12.2

VapourAbsorption System
Simple VapourAbsorption System 402 Maximum Coefficient of Performance of a Heat Operated Refrigerating Machine 403 12.3 Common Refrigerant-Absorbent Systems 405 12.4 Modifications to Simple Vapour-Absorption System 406 12.5 Actual Vapour-Absorption Cycle and its Representation on Enthalpy-Composition Diagram 411 12.6 Representation of Vapour Absorption Cycle 1 on ln p Diagram 419 T 12.7 Practical Single-effect WaterLithium Bromide Absorption Chiller 423 12.8 Double-effect H2O LiBr2 Absorption System 428 12.9 Electrolux Refrigerator 431 12.10 New Mixtures for Absorption System 432 References 434 Revision Exercises 435

402

13.
13.1 13.2 13.3

Ejector-Compression System
Water as a Refrigerant 437 Steam Ejector System 438 Theoretical Analysis of the Steam Ejector 439 References 445 Revision Exercises 445

437

14.
14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4

Properties of Moist Air

Brief History of Air Conditioning 446 Working Substance in Air Conditioning Psychrometric Properties 452 Wet Bulb Temperature (WBT) 459 447

446

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Contents

14.5 14.6 14.7

Thermodynamic Wet Bulb Temperature or Temperature of Adiabatic Saturation 461 Psychrometric Chart 464 Application of First Law to a Psychrometric Process References 472 Revision Exercises 472

469

15.
15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 15.6

Psychrometry of Air-Conditioning Processes

Mixing Process 474 Basic Processes in Conditioning of Air 477 Psychrometric Processes in Air-Conditioning Equipment 482 Simple Air-Conditioning System and State and Mass Rate of Supply Air 493 Summer Air Conditioning-apparatus Dew Point 497 Winter Air Conditioning 508 Revision Exercises 511

474

16.
16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5 16.6

Design Conditions
Choice of Inside Design Conditions 514 Comfort 519 Outside Design Conditions 521 Choice of Supply Design Conditions 522 Critical Loading Conditions 526 Clean Spaces 528 References 528 Revision Exercises 528

514

17.
17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4 17.5 17.6 17.7 17.8 17.9 17.10 17.11

Solar Radiation
Distribution of Solar Radiation 530 Earth-Sun Angles and their Relationships 535 Time 541 Wall Solar Azimuth Angle and Angle of Incidence 543 Direct Solar Radiation on a Surface 543 Diffuse Sky Radiation on a Surface 545 Heat Gain through Glass 547 Shading from Reveals, Overhangs and Fins 551 Effect of Shading Device 555 Tables for Solar Heat Gain through Ordinary Glass 556 The Flat-Plate Solar Collector 568 References 571 Revision Exercises 572

530

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18.
18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 18.5 18.6 18.7 18.8

Heat Transfer through Building Structures

Fabric Heat Gain 574 Overall Heat-Transmission Coefficient 574 Periodic Heat Transfer through Walls and Roofs 581 Finite Difference Approximation of One-Dimensional Heat Transfer Through Wall 584 Empirical Methods to Evaluate Heat Transfer through Walls and Roofs 594 Natural Ventilation through Infiltration 606 Passive Heating and Cooling of Buildings 611 Water Vapour Transfer through Structures 614 References 618 Revision Exercises 618

574

19.
19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4

Load Calculations and Applied Psychrometrics

Preliminary Considerations 621 Internal Heat Gains 622 System Heat Gains 625 Break-up of Ventilation Load and Effective Sensible Heat Factor 627 19.5 Cooling Load Estimate 628 19.6 Heating Load Estimate 629 19.7 Psychrometric Calculations for Cooling 635 19.8 Selection of Air-Conditioning Apparatus for Cooling and Dehumidification 640 19.9 Evaporative Cooling 651 19.10 Building Requirements and Energy Conservation in Air Conditioned Buildings 653 References 659 Revision Exercises 659

621

20.
20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 20.5

Design of Air-Conditioning Apparatus

Air-Conditioning Apparatus 662 Heat and Moisture Transfer in Air-Conditioning Apparatus 662 Coil EquipmentDesign of Cooling and Dehumidifying Coils 668 Optimal Design of Cooling and Dehumidifying Coils 682 Spray EquipmentDesign of Air Washers and Cooling Towers 683 References 694 Revision Exercises 694

662

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21.
21.1 21.2 21.3 21.4 21.5 21.6 21.7 21.8

Transmission and Distribution of Air

Room Air Distribution 697 Total, Static and Velocity Pressures 705 Friction Loss in Ducts 709 Dynamic Losses in Ducts 713 Air Flow through a Simple Duct System 726 Air-duct Design 729 Processing, Transmission and Distribution of Air in Clean Rooms 741 Air Locks, Air Curtains and Air Showers 744 References 744 Revision Exercises 744

696

22.
22.1 22.2 22.3 22.4 22.5 22.6

Fans
Types of Fans 747 Fan Characteristics 747 Centrifugal Fans 748 Axial-Flow Fans 752 System Characteristics 753 Fan Arrangements 759 References 764 Revision Exercises 764

747

23.
23.1 23.2 23.3 23.4 23.5 23.6 23.7

Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Control

Basic Elements of Control 766 Detecting Elements 767 Actuating Elements 771 Electric Motors and Controls 775 Controls in Refrigeration Equipment 780 Controlling Room Conditions at Partial Load Induction System 789 References 795 Revision Exercises 795

766

783

24.
24.1 24.2 24.3 24.4

Applications in Food Refrigeration/Processing and Industrial Air Conditioning

Typical Examples of Food Processing by Refrigeration and Storage 797 Transport Refrigeration 806 Cooling and Heating of Foods 810 Freezing of Foods 814

797

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24.5 24.6 24.7 24.8 24.9

Freeze Drying 825 Heat Drying of Foods 834 Tunnels Ventilation 843 Station Air Conditioning 844 Mine Air Conditioning and Ventilation 845 References 847 Revision Exercises 848

Appendix A
A.1 A.2 A.3 A.4 A.5

Thermodynamic Properties Correlations for Refrigerants

850

Correlations for Thermodynamic Properties of R 12 850 Correlations for Thermodynamic Properties of R 134a 852 Correlations for Thermodynamic Properties of R 152a 854 Correlations for Thermodynamic Properties of R 22 856 Correlations for Thermodynamic Properties of R 290 and R 600a 858

Appendix B
B.1 B.2 B.3 B.4 B.5 B.6 B.7 B.8 B.9 B.10 B.11 B.12 B.13 B.14 B.15 B.16 B.17 B.18 B.19 B.20 B.21 B.22 B.23 B.24

Tables

861

Thermophysical Properties of Air at Atmospheric Pressure 861 Thermophysical Properties of Saturated Water and Steam 862 Thermophysical Properties of Refrigerants 863 Thermodynamic Properties of R 744 (Carbon Dioxide) 865 Thermodynamic Properties of R290 (Propane) 867 Thermodynamic Properties of R 22 871 Thermodynamic Properties of R717 (Ammonia) 875 Thermodynamic Properties of R12 878 Thermodynamic Properties of R134a 879 Thermodynamic Properties of R 152a 882 Thermodynamic Properties of R 600a (Isobutane) 886 Thermodynamic Properties of R 123 (Trifluoro Ethane) 890 Thermodynamic Properties of R 245 fa (Pentafluoro Propane) 891 Thermodynamic Properties of R 404A [R125/R143a/R134a(44/52/4)] 892 Thermodynamic Properties of R407C [R32/R125/R134a(23/25/42) 893 Thermodynamic Properties of R410A [R32/R125/(50/50)] 894 Thermodynamic Properties of R507A [R125/R143a(50/50)] 895 Thermodynamic Properties of Saturated R11 896 Thermodynamic Properties of R290/R600a Mixture 897 Thermodynamic Properties of Water-Lithium Bromide Solutions 902 Thermodynamic Properties of R718 (Water) 903 Outdoors Design Data 914 The Error Function 915 Conversion Tables 916

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Appendix C
C.1 C.2 C.3 C.4 C.5 C.6 C.7 C.8 C.9 C.10 Index

Chart Ex. Sheets

Pressure Enthalpy Diagram for R 123 Pressure Enthalpy Diagram for R 134a Pressure Diagram of R 22 Vapour Pressure Enthalpy Diagram of R 717 (Ammonia) Vapour Pressure Enthalpy Diagram of R 11 Vapour Pressure Enthalpy Diagram for CO2 Psychrometric Chart Barometric Pressure 101.325 kPa Inp-1/T Diagram for H2O-LiBr2 Solutions Enthalpy-Concentration Diagram for H2O-LiBr2 Solutions Enthalpy-Composition Diagram for NH3-H2O System 918