IMU Manoeuvring

-BNA - 051 SHIP MANOEUVRING AND FUTURE ISSUES
Block
MANOEUVRING
UNIT I Ship Manoeuvring, Ship Propulsion and Control UNIT 2 Ship Hydrodynamics and Hull Design UNIT 3 Manoeuvring in Shallow Waters UNIT 4 Tugs and Towing 69 5
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SHIP MANOEUVRING AND FUTURE ISSUES

Ship handling is an art as well as science with more emphasis on the latter. For an efficient and safe manoeuvring of ships it is necessary to understand basics of ship hydrodynamics, hull design, factors that affect manoeuvring, anchoring, interaction between ships, and tugs etc. Marine insurance is an important activity in shipping as the sums involved are very high. Hull and machinery insurance, protective and indemnity insurance are two major insurance policies in vogue. Vetting of ships makes an in depth assessment of suitability of vessel to its owner/operator so as to ensure compliance of international legislations. This course has three blocks namely, Manoeuvring, Marine insurance and vetting inspections, and Future Issues. Block-1 has four units dealing with ship manoeuvring, ship propulsion and control, ship hydrodynamics and hull design, ship manoeuvring in shallow waters and tugs and towing. Block-2 has two units dealing with marine insurance and vetting inspections. Block-3 on Future Issues has 8 units. These includes ballast water and sediment management, Marpol annexure-IV and VI covering prevention and regulations of pollution by sewage from ships and air pollution, issues related to fuel conservation, double hull, place of refuse and green passport.
MANOEUVRING
This block has four units. Unit I "Manoeuvring" deals with handling of ships, various factors that affect manoeuvring, manoeuvring booklet, advantages and disadvantages of different ship propulsion plants. Unit 2 "Ship Hydrodynamics and Hull Design" describes the stability of ships, ship manoeuvring under different conditions with or without tugs, planning for anchorage. Unit 3 "Manoeuvring in Shallow Waters" deals with issues related to ship handling in shallow waters. The terms such as shallow water effect, keel clearance, ship squat are also explained in this unit. Hydrodynamic interactions between ships and tug ship interaction are also briefly explained.
Z~
Unit 4 "Tugs and Towing" describes w,rious types of tugs and their limitations, uses of tugs in manoeuvring of ships. The precautions that must be taken while using tugs for manoeuvring of ships are also listed in this unit.
UNIT I SHIP MANOEUVRING SHIP PROPULSION AND CONTROL

structure
1.1 Introduction
Objectives
1.2 Definitions/Terms Used in Ship Handling Theory 1.3 Factors Affecting Manoeuvring Capabilities/Limitations 1.4 Introduction to Theoretical Aspects 1.5 Hull Parameters that Influence Manoeuvrability 1.6 Fronde Number 1.7 The Coefficient of Wave Making Resistance (C,) 1.8 Basic Manoeuvring 1.9 Manoeuvring Information 1.10 Effect of Wind during Manoeuvring 1.11 Evaluate and to Allow for the Effect of Current 1.12 Manoeuvring Booklet 1.13 Ship Propulsion and Control 1.14 Propulsion Plants 1.15 Power Plants, Horsepower, etc. 1.16 Propeller Action 1.17 Steering Gear 1.18 Summary 1.19 Answers to SAQs
1.1 INTRODUCTION
many masters develop ship handling as 'art' whereby they instinctively respond and react the movement of the ship, without the full understanding of the science behind those actions and reason for their need.
objectives
While ship handling and manoeuvring appears as an art and skill wherein the experienced lip handler instinctively responds and reacts from the experience to the movement of the ship, there is need to understand the science behind those reactions. understanding of the science (theory) of ship handling will help ship handler to be more roactive instead of being only reactive. after studying this unit, you shall be able to: define various terms related to ship handling, list and explain various factors which affect manoeuvring of ships, state the contents of manoeuvring booklet, state characteristics, advantages and disadvantages of different population plants.
Manoeuvring
1.2 DEFINITIONS/TERMS USED IN SHIP HANDLING THEORY

Various term used in ship handling and their meaning are given in table 1.1 C Table 1.1: Terminology in Ship Handling
Acceleration Drift angle Force Inertia Leverage Mechanical Work Moment
Rate of change of velocity change of velocity in unit time expressed as centimetres per second. This is the angle between the F & A line and the tangent to the turning circle at the pivot point. That which can alter the state of rest or motion of a body or change direction of body. Tendency of a body to remain at rest or in a state of uniform motion. Mechanical advantage gained by using le\ er. C Work done by force acting on a body. It is the product of the force and the distance moved by a body in the direction of the force. Symbol M. 'A measure of the tendency of a force to rotate the body to which if is applied about point P' M = force times the perpendicular distance from P to the line of action of the force. (Linear momentum) Sympol p is the product of the mass of the body m and its velocity v. p = my Or it is the quantity of motion measured by mass x velocity. Movement, moving Form of mechanical energy used to drive machinery. Short shaft or pin on which something turns or rotates. Hindrance, impeding or stopping effect. Symbol 'v'. Distance travelled in a given direction in unit time expressed as centimetres per second. It is the rate of change of distance and is a vector quantity.
Momentum
Motion Motive Power -Pivot Resistance Velocity
The above terms are expressed in either foot pound seconds units or centimetres grams seconds units. For bigger quantities, these may be expressed in tonnes (e.g. in case of thrust).
Relevance of these Definitions/Terms in Ship Handling

While ship handling we are concerned with momentum when we want to slow down or stop the ship. We understand the importance of momentum specially when we don't want to have it, e.g. excessive headway when berthing, picking up pilot, anchoring, etc. (Longitudinal momentum) or when the ship is setting too fast on to berth while being pushed by the tugs (Lateral momentum) or swinging too fast (rotational momentum). It will therefore be seen that most of the ship handling efforts are directed in having correct speed in the desired direction and to avoid unnecessary movements.
Note:
Loaded ship has more momentum than the light ship. Big ship carries more momentum than a small ship.
Same ship will carry more momentum at higher speed than at a slower
speed.
Effects of inertia make the work of controlling momentum difficult. Initially when starting a ship from a position dead in water, it takes a good effort of propulsion to overcome inertia. Larger ships have relatively low horse powers, they take long time to overcome inertia to come up to desired speed compared to, say container ship with relatively high Horsepower to Dead-weight ratio.
Ship Manoeuvring, Ship Propulsion and Control
1.3 FACTORS AFFECTING MANOEUVRING CAPABILITIES/LIMITATIONS 1.3.1 Physical Characteristics

Physical Characteristics of ship such as Length, Breadth, Depth/Draft, Deadweight, Displacement, Block-Coefficient, Coefficient of fineness, Wind Draft, . Under Keel
Clearance at relevant time Weight-Power Ratio, Horse Power of Engines, Type of Engines, Speed, Number and type of propeller(s), Type of rudder, if fitted with lateral thrusters or not, Type, quantity and disposition of cargo and/or ballast.
1.3.2 Environmental Factors

Environmental Factors such as Depth of water, Width of channel, Channel Alignment, Tides, Currents, Winds, Visibility (Rain, Fog) Ice over navigable water.
1.3.3 Behaviour and Handling Characteristics

Behaviour and handling characteristics, stopping distances and turning abilities of ships change on every occasion that the ship is manoeuvred.
Manoeuvring
Note: In studying these modules, we are using the ships manoeuvring characteristics and the manoeuvring booklet. It will help if you can have copies of these handy with you. Manoeuvring as suggested above is both a combination of skill and practice. The skills are gained when you are actually handling a ship. Even a small alteration of course gives you knowledge of some aspects of manoeuvring only if you watch them and note them.
1.4 INTRODUCTION TO THEORETICAL ASPECTS

1.4.1 Ship Hydrodynamics and Design of Hull
Ships are planned, designed, constructed and operated for carrying out an identified function such as commerce, port operations and maintenance, offshore exploration or defence. Merchant ship designs are influenced by pattern of trade, area of operation and the cargoes to be carried. Except for passenger ships and the special purpose built ships handling characteristics of merchant ships are not primary factors.
1.4.2 Basic Design of the Ship

In finalising the design of a particular ship, many conflicting parameters have to be taken into account. In the first instant, the type of the ship and its trading pattern needs to be identified as these determine the basic dimensions, i.e. Length, Breadth, Depth and Draught. The naval architect now has a complex task to take into account these factors, keep the cost down and to ensure that the ship meets its trading requirements including speed, fuel and water consumption, etc. Many of these factors often conflict with each other. Ease of Construction Merchant ships tend to be box shaped for ease of construction and to maximise the earning capacity. Passenger ships and naval ships on the other hand, need speed and have more streamlined hulls. Adequate Transverse Stability Adequate transverse stability (wide/beamy ship) Merchant ships need to cater to varying distribution of loads. Passenger ships and naval ships have a comparatively constant weight disposition. Streamlining Naval ships have finer lines and higher power to weight ratio to provide manoeuvrability and ease of handling. Longitudinal Strength Longitudinal strength is built in-to face the rigours of the sea. Economical Power Plant Economical power plant balances power and fuel consumption fora given trade.
1.5 HULL PARAMETERS THAT INFLUENCE MANOEUVRABILITY

As stated in the earlier module, length, breadth, depth, draft, trim, block coefficient, lateral area of hull, superstructure dimensions and rudder area are all contributory factors that influence manoeuvrability. Although manoeuvrability is not the main consideration in merchant ships, this aspect cannot be ignored. Manoeuvrability allows:
Quick/short turn around time, Safe docking and berthing of ships, Sea-keeping qualities, which influence safety of the ship and the lives on board.
Let us therefore look at the various parameters that affect manoeuvrability. We shall first look at them independently and then collectively.
1.5.1 Hydrodynamics
This is the dynamic interactions of the hull with water. Dynamic interactions govern resistance of the hull to steady forward motion. The choice of propulsive power is dependent upon this resistance. These interactions are dependent on the shape and dimension of the hull.
1.5.2 Resistance to Steady Forward Motion

Frictional Resistance Friction between the water and the Lull surfaces is dependent upon: Water density and viscosity, Area of the hull in contact with water, speed of water relative to the ship (Normally square of the speed), and Friction coefficient. Thus, it would be possible to reduce this resistance by reducing the area of wetted surface (not possible in practice), and making the wetted surface as smooth as possible. Similarly, friction coefficient is not controllable as it depends upon water density, ship's speed, ship's length and water viscosity. These values are taken from standardised values given by International Towing Tank Conference. (A body that has developed the methods of testing various characteristics of a ship in the design stage). Residuary Resistance Residuary resistance includes Wave making resistance, and Eddy making resistance. Wave Making Resistance Wave making resistance is the larger component. This is the energy expended in creating the wave system caused by the hull. In designing the shape of the hull, this component receives the biggest attention. Wave making resistance increases rapidly as the ship's speed. It eventually requires more power to overcome than is practicable to build into ship. Note Fora conventional ship, it is virtually impossible to operate at a speed to length ratio higher than 1.3 (speed in knots/sq. root of water line length in feet). (Water line length means length between perpendiculars.) See Table 1.2
1.5.3 Ship-Generated Wave

A significant feature of waves generated by the passage of a ship is that they travel at the same speed as the ship and their speed is proportional to the square root of their length. Ship-generated waves originate at different parts of the hull (bow wave, stern wave, shoulder waves, etc.)
Wave-making resistance is a function of: Beam to Length ratio, Displacement, Shape of the hull, and A dimensionless quantity called Froude Number.
Formula Froude Number = V

~ 9-1
where,
V is the speed,
V is the acceleration of gravity, and

`I' is the waterline length.
1.6 FROUDE NUMBER

Froude number is the ratio between inertia forces to gravitational forces. The power required to propel a ship is proportional to its speed times the resistance to its movement. The ability to predict resistance is therefore the essential ingredient in predicting the propulsive power to be required by a prospective ship. For many years, hydrodynamic researchers have sought a method for calculating this resistance from first principles, but so far, they have not produced a generally practicable method. Estimates can be made based on experience with existing ships or standard models, but the favoured way of making a prediction during design is to test a model of the proposed ship. Model testing consists of towing a precisely made model of the hull at a precisely controlled speed, in calm water, while measuring the force required towing it. The essential link between model and ship is obtained by operating the model at the same Fronde number as the ship. This number, named after the English naval architect William Froude, is a dimensionless ratio given as
V.
F___7
gl in which V is the speed, g the
acceleration of gravity, and I the waterline length. At this common reference point, the wave patterns developed by the ship and by the model are the same, and residuary resistances per ton of displacement are the same. Steps in model testing to find total resistance are (a) (b) (c) (d) The total resistance of the model is measured. Frictional resistance of the model is calculated using data and technique given by the international Towing Tank Conference. Residuary resistance for the model is found, which is the same per ton displacement as model. Frictional resistance for the ship is calculated.
Total resistance for the ship is found (c + d) above.
1.7 THE COEFFICIENT OF WAVE MAKING RESISTANCE (Cw)

is the coefficient of wave making resistance. A body travelling at or near the surface will create waves. The creation of wave requires energy. Any energy used for making waves represents lost energy, which could have been used to make the ship go faster.
Cw
10
Wave making resistance is much less at slow speeds, but becomes the major component of resistance at high speeds. Divergent stern wave Divergent bow waves First bow
ransverse wavesWave length I Wave
Water line plane
length
Figure 1.1: Wave Patterns
This pattern of waves consists of two types of waves. First, there are the divergent waves which start at the bow and stern, and angle aft. Note that the lines of the wave crests are not straight, they curve somewhat aft. Next, there are the transverse waves which are originally perpendicular to the ship's line of motion, although the further away from the ship they get the more they tend aft due to friction. Note that a line originating at the bow, heading aft, and at an angle of 19.5 (20 is fine for modelling) to the ship's centreline, defines the intersection of all divergent and transverse wave crests. All displacement type surface ships, except those operating in very shallow (i.e., ship almost aground) or in very narrow channels, will make this type of wave pattern.
1.7.1 Reducing the Coefficient of Wave Making Resistance

A greater length will lower the wave making resistance. One of Froude's earliest observations was that when two similarly shaped bodies of differing lengths are moved through water they both produce the same pattern of waves but at differing speeds. Thus, for example, a 5.5 metre hull will produce the same pattern of waves at 9 knots that a 22 metre hull will produce at 18 knots. Example 1.1 A ship of length 408 feet has Hull speed at 1.0 = 20 knots and at 1.3 = 27 knots. Beyond this speed, every knot of speed requires greater horsepower. Another vessel, Length 1045 feet, the hull speed is about 32.23 knots and at 1.3 = 41.7 knots. This ship at 30 knots is in the flat region of its resistance curve. Therefore, an extra knot does not require appreciably higher horsepower. Refer to Table 1.2 Because of increased wave making resistance at speeds above hull speed, longer ships use proportionately smaller engines to attain the same speed as smaller ships. (It requires less horsepower per ton to make a longer ship steam at 30 knots than it does to make a smaller ship at 30 knots. Only difficulty is overcoming Inertia starting and stopping! Longer and larger ships with relatively smaller horsepower are difficult to control compared to a smaller ship or a ship with relatively larger horsepower). 1.7.2 Eddy Making Resistance This is produced by appendages such as rudders, brackets supporting propellers, propeller shafting, bilge keels, etc. They add to the hull resistance to forward motion. This can be minimised by giving them airfoil shapes and suitable orientation so that approaching water will have low angle of attack. Appendages account for 2 to 14% of total resistance.
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Manoeuvring
1.7.3 Aerodynamic Resistance

Aerodynamic Resistance is offered by above water part of the hull including housing, superstructure, etc. This component is affected by area and shape of the ship above waterline. It has two components. Air Resistance is due to flow of air over the ship. Wind resistance is due to wind and depends on its velocity and direction. With wind speed exceeding 20 knots, the resistance increases significantly.
Resistance from air and wind may be typically 4 to 8% of total resistance but may be as much as 10% in high-sided ships such as aircraft carriers, passenger ships or container ships.
1.7.4 Change in Total Resistance

The change in total resistance is directly proportional to the ship speed. On a practical level, getting from point A to point B in a short time will cost an increasing amount of energy and practical fuel consumption limits the speed of the ship largely.
1.7.5 Components of Total Hull Resistance

The total resistance of a ship's hull RT moving through calm water can be divided into three components as shown in the next equation.
RT = R
V
+ R
+ R AA
where, R, is viscous resistance, Rw is wave-making resistance, and

R
AA
is resistance caused by the air.
At low speeds, viscous resistance dominates; while at higher speeds, the wave making resistance begins to dominate. Ship resistance in air is a function of the surface area of the hull and superstructure above the waterline.
1.7.6 Flow of Water

The flow of fluids can be roughly divided into laminar and turbulent flow. Laminar flow is the condition where the fluid flows in layers in an orderly fashion. Turbulent flow is the condition where the flow is chaotic and well mixed. As the water flows from the bow to the stern, the flow undergoes a transition from laminar to turbulent to flow separation. All three-flow types are shown in the figure below. The transverse wave system travels at approximately the same speed as the ship, since the ship is producing the wave. At slow speeds, the waves are short and several crests are seen along the ship's length. As the ship speeds up, the length of the transverse wave increases. The wave making resistance increases very rapidly as the length of the transverse wave approaches the length of the ship. The ship in effect must power itself through this wave if it is to go any faster. At this point, the energy expenditure increases more rapidly than the increase in speed. This is the main reason for the dramatic increase in the total resistance as the speed increases.
1.7.7 Residuary Resistance

Wave-making and eddy-making resistance components are often referred to as a single "residuary resistance", especially when resistance measurements are extrapolated from model testing. Wave making is usually by far the larger component of residuary resistance; it is therefore given more attention in research and in the designing of a hull. Indeed, wave-making increases so rapidly as ship speed increases that it eventually requires more power to overcome than is practicable to build into a ship. Even a trivial increase in speed, beyond 1.3 x hull speed requires a virtually infinite increase in power to fulfill the energy demand of the wave system. Small craft can escape
this limitation by planning, but the amount of power required for the transition to a planning mode is beyond practicality for conventional ships.
1.7.8 Hull Speed

The transverse wave created by the ship equals the length of the ship at this speed. Going faster than the hull speed results in a transverse wave longer than the ship, however the crest of the wave is still attached to the bow since the ship is creating the wave. At any faster speed, the ship stops behaving like a displacement ship and starts behaving like a planning craft. If hull speed is to be exceeded, then the power will have to be increased which becomes uneconomical as the fuel consumption also increases at an alarmingly high rate If we assume the speed to square root of LBP ratio to be 1, then the hull speed could be approximated to sq. root of length.
Table 1.2: 'Hull Speed' for Ships of Different Lengths
Ships LBP in Feet 100 200 300 400 600 800 1000 1100
Square Root of LBP (Hull Speed)
1.2 x Hull Speed 12 knots 16.97 20.8 24 29.38 33.93 37.94 39.8
1.3 x Hull Speed
10 knots 14.14 17.32 20 24.49 28.28 31.62 33.16
13 knots 18.38 22.51 26 31.38 36.76 41.10 43
SAQ 1
(a) (b) (c) (d) Why is it necessary to refer to Froude number when determining the power requirement? What is the difference between a transverse wave and a divergent wave? What measures are taken to reduce the wave resistance? What is hull speed and how is it determined approximately?
1.8 BASIC MANOEUVRING

In manoeuvring and handling involves various aspects. In this module, we are going to look at the effect of the wind and currents on ship handling and ship manoeuvring. International Maritime Organisation recommends the provision and display of manoeuvring data on board ships as set out in the annex to this module. By the end of this module, the student shall be able to appreciate the effect of wind and the currents on ship handling and the process of using the same to their advantage. The student shall be able to visualise diagrammatically (concept), plot (practice) and decide how to take advantage of the wind and currents, whenever the same is feasible (application). In particular, the student shall be able to evaluate diagrammatically, the effect of wind in different directions relative to the ship's head.
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Manoeuvring
1.9 MANOEUVRING INFORMATION

Pilot Card (see 1.12) (a) The pilot card, wheelhouse poster and manoeuvring booklet shall be provided on all new ships of 100 meters in length and over, and all new chemical tankers and gas carriers regardless of size; and The pilot card, wheelhouse poster and manoeuvring booklet shall be provided on all new ships that may pose a hazard due to unusual dimensions or characteristics.
(b)
Note : "New ship" means a ship the keel of which is laid or which is at a similar stage of construction on or after 1st January, 1992. The manoeuvring information should be amended after any modification or conversion of the ship, which may alter its manoeuvring characteristics or extreme dimensions. The pilot card, to be filled in by the master, is intended to provide information to the pilot, on boarding the ship. This information should describe the current condition of the ship, with regard to its loading, propulsion, manoeuvring equipment and other relevant equipment. Wheelhouse Poster The wheelhouse poster should be permanently displayed in the wheelhouse. It should contain general particulars and detailed information describing the manoeuvring characteristics of the ship, and be of such a size to ensure ease of use. Note : The manoeuvring characteristics are determined by conducting special manoeuvring drills, by computer simulation techniques, or by estimation. The master should bear in mind that the manoeuvring performance of the manoeuvring ship may differ from that shown on the poster due to environmental. hull and loading conditions. Manoeuvring Booklet The manoeuvring booklet should be available on board and should contain comprehensive details of the ship's manoeuvring characteristics and other relevant data. The manoeuvring booklet should include the information shown on the wheelhouse poster together with other available manoeuvring information. (Please refer to 1.12 for details).
1.10 EFFECT OF WIND DURING MANOEUVRING

Manoeuvring is an essential part of watchkeeping. You shall be required to correct a course, alter course fora ship or alter the course in accordance with the passage plan. In these manoeuvre process you need to know the principles of ship handling. Ensure that you make full use of the information that you have on your ship. Effect of Wind Effect of wind must always be taken into account while carrying out manoeuvres. Passenger ships, container ships and Ro-Ro ships have large areas above water. The area thus exposed to wind is called 'windage'. The effect of wind on such ships is therefore more pronounced than on deep loaded bulk carriers or tankers, which have less windage.
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The same ship in different loaded conditions viz. light, intermediate draft and full load conditions will be affected differently. A wind force of 3-4. on the Beaufort scale will have same effect in light condition as with wind force of 7-8 when the ship is down to her marks. The wind affects the ship when she is at sea, as well as when she is manoeuvring in port. At slow speeds, findin g the direction of the wind is relativel y simple, however, at sea it is not so. The direction of the wind perceived when standing on deck is its relative direction. This is the resultant of the true direction of the wind and the course steered by the ship. We, do not intend to go into resolution of the relative motion diagrams but shall leave you to work the same out for yourselves. In this module, we are mainly looking at the effect of the wind when manoeuvring a ship. We shall therefore indicate the various conditions and assess its effects. The effect of the wind at sea creates leeway, which needs to be accounted also, and the process has been covered in Chart work.
Ship Underway with Wind from Right Ahead

Visualise yourself walking against a strong wind! Wind slows you down and may sometimes take you backwards. Ships are no exception. Such wind can be used as excellent brakes as long as the ship is heading into the wind. Now let us visualise a ship in ballast steering a course with the wind 30 on her port bow. The ship in ballast is normally trimmed heavily by the stem. This means her windage forward is larger than her windage in the after section. The wind therefore shall continue to push the ship away from the wind till the wind is almost abaft. Can you now visualise the effect when the ship is loaded, that is her bow is well down and the accommodation in the stern is providing a larger windage area? If such a ship now swings 20 to port, will the bow continue to swing or try and bring her back heading into the wind again? Here we are only considering the effect of wind. You can therefore see that with this knowledge we can use the wind : As a good brake As a device for making a tight turn. AZ) To manoeuvre comparatively easily as long as the wind remains about two to three points on the bow.
Caution
You will also notice that under certain conditions though steering is easy, the
C
ship's head has a tendency to go off course and it is difficult to bring the ship's head back on course, particularly in a strong wind.
Ship Underway with Wind from Right Astern

With the wind from right astern, steering once again is easy but like in the case of head wind, the stern has tendency to pay off on either side. It is difficult to get her back on course again. Can you see the reason for this? This effect is more on a ship where the accommodation is aft. You can also see that the wind in this case has no braking effect. Given a choice between head wind and wind from right astern, the head wind is preferred for berthing.
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Manoeuvring
Ship Underway with Wind from Abeam When the ship is underway with the wind from abeam, steering is not affected. However, depending on the strength of the wind, the ship drifts sideways due to leeway and this has to be accounted for.
LA
Ship Underway with Wind on the Bow Here again in light condition the effect on the stem being larger the ship's head tends to swing away from the wind (leeward), hence continuous weather helm (helm on the side of the wind) is needed to steer. Ship Underway with Wind on Quarter -With the wind pushing the stern away to leeward, the stern tends to swing to leeward. The ship is therefore steered towards the wind and the ship requires to be given Lee helm.
C~
Vessel Under Sternway When the ship is going astern, it rarely goes at any great speed. When going astern most ships also tend to swing to starboard. The effect of the wind is therefore a little more complex. In ballast condition where the wind catches the bow, which it often does, the stern is pulled into the wind. This effect is quite definite and rapid. Note: This effect must be remembered while manoeuvring for anchoring, berthing, etc. All ships turn around a pivoting point. The point is an imaginary point and is fixed from observations of the ship turning around. It is known that when going astern the pivoting point moves aft.
1.11 EVALUATE AND TO ALLOW FOR THE EFFECT OF CURRENT

The effect of the currents, though not dramatic in the open seas, affects safe navigation in the coastal waters and when handling ships in rivers or harbours. Some of the aspects of diagrammatic plotting are dealt with in chart work. In this module, the student is given a general idea of the effects of the currents and the way of counteracting that effect. What are Currents and Tides? Upper layers of water mass are in constant motion w.r.t. seabed. This movement is due to sea, swell, tidal stream or a current. The effect of sea and swell in a horizontal direction is negligible. Strong winds blowing for some time do create a drift, which is not predictable. Tidal streams occur due to tidal phenomenon and so change direction as per the state of the tide. Current is a long-term phenomenon and changes seasonally. For our purpose, we shall call all such movement as 'currents', for brevity. Currents affect all floating objects equally. Currents actually do not affect 'ship handling' in the open seas because. all floating objects move over water in the same direction with the current. The currents however could affect the safety of navigation. Particular Circumstances Off Shore
It is because of this reason that the effect of the current shall not be felt when handling a ship in open sea. However the effect of current must be considered when handling ships in waters with on shore winds or near off shore platforms, or 16 when manoeuvring in narrow channels even in open seas or in inland waters or
In harbours or in inland waters if the current is at constant strength and direction, the ship handling becomes considerably easier. Such conditions exist only in the comparatively narrow channels of the rivers. However, we should take into account the following: Different current streams exist over a small area, within which the vessel has to manoeuvre.
Currents with varying different strength or direction may act upon different parts of the ship.
Locks
Co ,inter current
Figure 1.2: Flood tide
Ship when manoeuvring in the vicinity of fixed objects e.g. a wharf or clearing dangers off shore may be severely affected by the currents.
Use of Currents when Manoeuvring
Currents do not always hinder movement; they can be used quite effectively. Next time you see a pilot bringing a ship alongside, watch how he slowly uses the currents and the helm and brings the ship alongside very gently. The process he follows is very simple. Let us assume that the wharf you are going alongside is north/south and the current is setting south. You are naturally heading into the current. The pilot brings the ship about 100 meters off the wharf and ensures that the ship has no headway in relation to the wharf. Assuming the wharf to be on your port side he puts the helm at 10 to port. However, the ship has no real headway she is making way through the water and the helm swings the head to port. The current catches the ship on its starboard side and starts pushing it on to the jetty. Gentle slow ahead movements keep the ship's headway through water and the bow creeps towards the wharf. As the bow comes about 10 meters from the jetty the pilot orders dead slow astern which swings the bow to starboard and swings the stern alongside. All that now needs to be done is to send the lines ashore and make fast. In a riverine port, the pilot also makes use of the current to drift astern without having to turn around. He drops an anchor underfoot (i.e. with one shackle in the water) and with judicious use of astern movements he manages to bring the ship astern. The pilots know the details of the currents in their pilotage waters. Even though this information is available in the relevant publications, it becomes difficult to know all the details. We therefore rely on the pilots for their local knowledge. All ships carry a manoeuvring booklet in addition to the wheel house posters. Such booklet would contain the following information. Check the information on your ship.
Manoeuvring
SAQ 2
(a) (b) (c) What would be the effect of wind on a ship steaming with a strong wind on her port beam? Identify the publications, which provide the information on winds in port and in a particular sea area. Ascertain the relationship between the wind force and state of the sea and swell. Narrate the procedure that your pilot or the berthing master used to bring the ship alongside a jetty. Indicate specifically the use of current. You are stemming the current (Current is against you). If a 90 turn is to be made around a buoy, indicate with sketches and reason as to which of the following would you prefer? (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) Little before usual position as would be in absence of current. Little after usual position as would be in absence of current. At usual position as if there is no current. The current may be ignored, as it would not have any effect.
(d)
(e)
1.12 MANOEUVRING BOOKLET

Manoeuvring booklet contents are as follows. Such booklets are on board, all ships and cadets should study the same to understand the basic characteristics.
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) General description and Ship's and engine particulars. Manoeuvring characteristics in deep water. Stopping and speed control characteristics in deep water. Manoeuvring characteristics in shallow water including squat. Manoeuvring characteristics in wind. Manoeuvring characteristics at low speed.
TACTICAL DIAMETER TRANSFER 9 _________ %
1
0
180' change of heading
I' l l
(4,
An Ile
Dr ft
Rudder Execute Approach Course
Distance
Figure 1.3: Definitions Used on Turning Circle Test
PILOT CARD Ship's name___________________________________ Date _____________ Call sign _________ Deadweight __________ tonnes. Year built ____________ Draught Aft_______ m/ ____ ft___ in, Forward ______ m/ ____ ft in, Displacement _____ tonnes SHIP'S PARTICULARS Length overall _____ m Breadth _______ m Moulded breadth _______ m shackles Stern ______ shackles Anchor Chain Port ___ shackles, Stbd____ fathoms) Bulbous bow Yes/No (I shackle = m/ ____
*
air draft
Parallel body at W/L. Loaded : ___________ m Ballast :____________ M
19
Manoeuvring
Type of Engine Manoeuvring Engine Order Full ahead Half ahead Slow ahead Dead slow ahead Dead slow astern Slow astern _________ Half astern Full astern
Maximum Power rpm/Pitch
kW Speed (knots) Loaded
HP)
Ballast
Time limit astern min. Full ahead to full S. astern Starts knots Max. Nos. of Astern power % ahead
STEERING PARTICULARS Type of rudder Hard-over to hard-over Rudder angle for neutral Thruster Bow CHECKED IF ABOARD AND READY Anchors Whistle Radar 3 cm Radar 10 cm ARPA Speed Log Doppler Water speed Ground speed Dual Axis Engine telegraph Steering gear Y/N Y/N Y/N Y/N Y/N YIN Y/N Y/N Y/N Y/N Y/N Y/N Compass system Gyro error VHF Elec. Pos. Fixing system Y/N type Y/N
0
Maximum angle Seconds effect

0
H Stern
kW
HP)
various indicators Rudder RPM / Pitch Rate of Turn Y/N Y/N Y/N
Number of power units of steering gear operating 1/2/3/4 Turning circle at full rudder
20
at c
ou 0 iC a ee
41~1
21~
Manoeuvring
1.13 SHIP PROPULSION AND CONTROL

Manoeuvring is firstly dependent on the type of the propulsion as well as the steering systems provided. Let us look at the different systems and their advantages and disadvantages. Students are advised that for the explanation of engineering terms they should refer to a textbook on Marine Power plants.
1.14 PROPULSION PLANTS

Steam Ships Reciprocating Steam Engines : Single Propeller This was common for most of the merchant ships, naval ships. tugs, and dredgers, etc. for first half of 20th century. It was simple, reliable and easy to operate. Advantages Advantages from ship handling point of view are: Disadvantages Disadvantages are High cost of maintenance., Needed higher fuel at higher speeds, Water, fuel and machinery occupied lot of space. Good response, Could be readily stopped and reversed, and Developed full power in very short time.
These, therefore, were not very suitable for larger and higher speed ships (passenger and warships), which preferred steam turbine ships. Twin or multi-propeller ships were further variants of steam reciprocating engine ships. Steam Turbine Ships These engines are found on very large vessels where sustained high speeds are required, such as tankers, passenger ships and container ships. Turbines need less maintenance and use of cheaper fuels possible. They can use any fuel in their boilers. On turbine ships, boiler rooms and engine rooms are separate and the engine room remains cleaner. On tankers, turbines are used on larger ships as they have turbo pumps and boilers to run them. Same boilers then can run the propulsion turbines too. The boilers provide the flue gas without the use of a flue gas boiler. Advantages The advantages are The steam turbine engine is less heavy than its diesel counterpart, It is more reliable, Turbine ship is smooth running and more reliable in the mechanical sense, Needs less maintenance, and Uses economical fuel.
.22
Drawbacks of Turbine !f
Drawbacks of turbine ships from handling point of view are: Turbine ships build up engine revolutions slowly and hence build up speed sluggishly. When going astern the turbine needs to be stopped in its ahead revolution and charged to astern revolution. A separate turbine is therefore introduced for stern power with its output between 60% to 50% of ahead power.
Motor Ships
Motor ships (Diesel ships) are perhaps the most common type met at sea now. Up to the 1960's, this type of engine was not available for larger ships (tankers and bulk carriers). Such large ships were mostly equipped with steam turbine. Now the larger ships also have motor engines, as they are less expensive to run. From ship handling point of view, they
present advantages over steam turbines.
They can be started quickly. They respond to changes and develop power quickly. They have more stern power and consequently stronger transverse thrust than turbine ships. They are therefore easier to turn short turn around to starboard for a right-handed propeller.
Disadvantages of Diesel Engines

As compressed air is used for starting the engines, the air supply may get exhausted in case of a number of engine starts. An upper limit on stops and starts of the engine used to be necessary. However now higher capacity compressors are fitted and this is no more a problem. Difficulties may be experienced in reversing the engines from full ahead to full astern.
Comparison of Various Propulsion Systems

Table 1.3: Types of Propulsion Engine Response Start Stop Steam Turbine Fixed Pitch
slow Slow
Steam Reciprocating Fixed Pitch

Fair Good
Diesel (Motor) Fixed Pitch

Good Good
Diesel or Turbo Electric

Good Good
Controllable Pitch Propeller

Good Loose steerage, residual speed remains Good
Changes in speed when manoeuvring Full power ahead changes in speed Stern power
Good
Slow
Good
Good
Good No Good
Slow to develop No Poor but good if provided with astern turbine Necessary For stopping and crash Stops
Good No Good
Good Possible Good
Good Possible Good
Precautions
No special precautions
For crash stops, number of stops and starts Extensive maintenance needed.
Nil
For stopping and crash stops
Maintenance
Reciprocating engine needs maintenance
Turbines need only regular monitoring at surveys
Diesel requires maintenance
Routine
23~
Manoeuvring
1.15 POWER PLANTS, HORSEPOWER, ETC.

One of the important considerations for a naval architect is the propulsion power requirement for a ship. Once the hull form is decided upon, it is necessary to determine the engine power that will enable the ship to meet its operational requirements of speed and fuel consumption. The total resistance of ship cannot be predicted by calculations alone. The complex shape of the ship's hull form forces the naval architect to rely on model tests data to predict Engine size, Effective horsepower needed to move the hull to a given speed, and Specified consumption.
Prime Mover or Main Engine produces the power required to drive the propeller shaft at designed speed. (Horsepower produced at the prime mover stage is known as Brake Horse Power). There are some losses during transmission to the shaft and the power available at the propeller shaft is termed Shaft Horse Power. Further, during the passage of the shaft through bearings, seals and struts if any, there may be further losses and lesser horsepower is delivered to the propeller. This is called Delivered Horse Power. Ultimately, when the propeller operates in its normal environment, what is actually produced is the thrust and this is expressed as Thrust Horse Power. BHP > SHP > DHP > THP The Ship Drive Train Brake Horsepower (BHP) Shaft Horsepower (SHP) Prime Mover Seals Thrust Horsepower (THP) Delivered Horsepower (DHP)
Figure 1.5: Schematic Drive Train
Strut Reduction Gear
Before ship resistance and power required can be examined in any detail. the definitions and relationships between the power used along the ship's drive train must be quantified. Figure above shows a simplified picture of the drive train. Brake Horsepower (BHP) Brake Horsepower (BHP) is the power output at the shaft coming out of the engine before the. reduction gears. Sometimes the size of the engine required to satisfy the design criteria is specified in terms of BHP but in most cases Shaft Horsepower (SHP) is used instead. The- engine is considered the first element in the drive train and in most merchant ships; the engine will be a diesel engine, or steam turbine. On navy ships gas turbine is also often used Shaft Horsepower (SHP) Shaft Horsepower (SHP) is the power output after any reduction gears. Reduction gears are necessary to convert the high revolutions per minute of the engine to slower revolutions per minute required for efficient screw propeller operation. There is only a few percent loss of efficiency between BHP and SHP-SHP being always smaller value than BHP.
.24
NB: The reduction gears can be relatively small components as they are in some gas turbines or extremely large as they are in some steam turbines. Effective Horsepower (EHP)
1000 4 800
600
400
200
0 0 2 4
F
10
12
14
16
Ship Speed, Vs (Knots)

Figure 1.6: Power Curve Yard Patrol Craft
Effective Horsepower (EHP) is defined as follows: "The horsepower required to move the ship to a given speed in the absence of propeller action. " EHP is determined from model data that is obtained from tow tank experimentation. The model test data is scaled up to find the EHP of the full-scale ship using a technique called a Froude Expansion. By performing this procedure a number of times at different carriage speeds, the EHP for a range of ship speeds can be determined and plotted on a power curve. Figure 1.6 shows a typical power curve. It is clear to see that the EHP requirement for any ship speed can be found and that the EHP increases exponentially as the speed. Propulsive Coefficient (PC) Having established that the link between THP and EHP is the hull efficiency (CH), it is now possible to establish the BHP requirement fora ship from the magnitude of EHP obtained from the power curve. Figure below displays the block diagram of the various drive train elements and the power at each interface, which can aid this calculation. Prime Mover
BHP
Reduction -SHP Shafting & Bearings Gears ---0'
Instead of having to deduce the effect of all the separate efficiencies down the ship drive train, the separate efficiencies are often amalgamated into one called the propulsive efficiency (CP) or more often the propulsive coefficient (PC). The propulsive coefficient is the ratio of EHP to SHP. Typically, a well-designed propeller and drive train would produce a propulsive coefficient of about 0.6. Provided the power curve and the propulsive coefficient for a ship are known, it is possible for the prime mover to be sized at an early stage in the ship design process.
25
Manoeuvring
Example 1.2
Assuming a Patrol Craft has a propulsive coefficient of 0.59; calculate the SHP requirement of its prime mover if it has an operational requirement to reach 14 knots. Solution EHP at 14 knots is 530 HP (Reference Figure 13) EHP Propulsive Coefficient !-.h - - 1. SHP EHP 530 HP SHP = ______________ 9 5 . 0 Pc SHP = 900 HP Hull Propeller Interaction In certain hull designs, the flow pattern caused by the hull can reduce the effectiveness of propeller in which case hull efficiency can have a value of < 1. If the hull is designed well, the flow pattern created by the hull can increase the effectiveness of the propeller in which case, the hull efficiency will have a value > I. Propulsive Coefficient is the ratio of EHP to SHP. Typically, well-designed propellers and drive trains can produce coefficient of about 0.6 Controlling Momentum on Larger Ship Let us take the case of two tankers, one 25,000 tons DWT and other 250,000 tons DWT (10 times bigger than the' first one). Now compare their Shaft horsepower (12000 and 31000). Tanker, which is ten times as large (DWT) the first one. has propulsion power 2.58 times only. Sea speed of both the tankers is 16 knots. The momentum at sea speed however will be 25000 x 16 and 250000 x 16. Relatively low horsepower of larger ship (VLCC) can give the same speed at sea as that of smaller tanker. Steering these ships poses no special problem at sea as the speed; the rudder area and the hull configuration are matched. However, in restricted waters and shallow waters when vessel has to reduce speed, stop, alter courses or carry out any emergency or sudden manoeuvres that this difference in their power capabilities needs to be kept in mind. Note the differences in respect of this aspect on these types of ships.
Table 1.4
Ship type
Tanker
DWT
Tonnage 25000 50000 100000 250000 380000
Engine
Motor
Shaft Horse Power

12000 16000 22000 31000 45000
Turbine
Bulk carriers
20000
60000 120000 190000
Motor
9000
15000 23000 24000 30000 26200 10400
Container Car Carrier General Cargo
23000
29000
Motor Motor
12500 12000 20000
Motor
11000
17000
26
SAQ 3
(a) (b) (c) Why does a container ship have higher shaft horse power than a similar size tanker? Increase in deadweight does not necessarily need higher horse power. Explain the statement. What is the reason that ships are fitted with steam turbine; e.g. large tankers?
1.16 PROPELLER ACTION

For both ships and aircraft, the principle of propeller propulsion is the same. There are several theories of propeller action/operation. Of these, the momentum theory is simplest and gives insight into the operation of propeller. Rapidly rotating blades develop a lift force having a component in the direction of axis of rotation (Fore and Aft or Longitudinal) that results into thrust in fore and aft direction. The rotating blades cause the water to accelerate in the axial direction, so that the water that has passed through the propeller moves at higher speed than at which it approached the vessel. This increase in momentum of the propelled water equals the propeller thrust. The propeller acts like a pump to increase the pressure of the water flowing through it by an amount 'p-out' minus 'p-in' thereby increasing the speed of flow from forward of propeller to abaft of it in the form of wake. As the flow accelerates, the streamlines converge to preserve the mass of the constant fluid flow rate passing through the propeller. Flow of Water Through the Propeller (a)
(b)
Cross sectional area along the control volume (see below) decreases (Forward to aft).
T
he speed of water increases as the cross sectional area decreases.
(c)
The pressure variation of water flowing through the propeller decreases as velocity increases.
Analysis of the Propeller (Water) Flow (a) Let us imagine a controlled Volume of water surrounding the propeller alone. This is the area enclosed by streamlines flowing past the propeller just forward and abaft of it, touching propeller diameter. (See Figure 1.8). Streamlines that pass the propeller tips enclose the water that passes through the propeller. It can be seen that width of this control volume decreases. As the flow of water increases due to reducing cross sectional area, the streamlines converge to preserve the constant mass of water passing through the propeller. When ship is moving forward, the forward side of the blade of the propeller is low-pressure side of the blade. This is also known as the suction face. The after face of the blade is the high-pressure side of the blade. Most of the pressure differences developed across a propeller blade occurs on the lowpressure side.
(b)
(c)
27
Manoeuvring
When water is flowing through a propeller, the water which is forward of propeller, is accelerated to a high speed as it flows through the propeller. This acceleration creates a low-pressure condition forward of the propeller than surrounding pressure. The water acted upon by the propeller experiences a pressure rise. In the wake region abaft of the propeller, as the-pressure falls compared to that of surrounding water, the water accelerates to even higher speeds. The Screw Propeller Definitions The theory behind the design of screw propellers is very complicated and a whole subject in itself.- However, a few definitions and screw propeller characteristics should be known. Diameter (D) Twice the distance from the propeller axis to the blade tip. Hub The connection between the blades and the propeller shaft. Blade Tip The furthest point on the blade from the propeller hub. Blade Root The point where the blade meets the propeller hub. Pitch (P) 'The horizontal distance that would be travelled ideally if the screw advanced one revolution like a sheet metal screw. Pitch Angle The pitch can also be quantified as a pitch, angle, which is the angle of the blade from perpendicular to the flow.
Figure 1.7: Definition Sketch fora Screw Propeller
Speed of Advance {VA) As a ship moves through the water, it drags the surrounding water with it. At the stem of the ship, this causes the wake to follow the ship with a wake speed (Vw). Consequently, the screw propeller is experiencing a flow speed less than the ship speed (Vs). The flow speed the propeller is experiencing is called the speed of advance (VA).
VA =
VS
- VW
Example 1.3 What is the speed of advance of a ship traveling at 22 knots that is creating a wake with a wake speed of 3.2 knots? '_ Solution 22 -r7,3.Z,;r-.,Y-,A = 18.8 knots Transverse Thrust of a Propeller (a) Working of a Screw Propeller Under the action of a propeller, as the ship moves forward some water flows aft to create 'Wake'. The propeller operates in this flow and accelerates water aft to propel the vessel. The propeller works more effectively in this wake flow (compared to when engines/propeller is working astern) and this is the reason for preferring single screw ship to twin screw ship as with single, screw ship a greater proportion of the wake flows through the propeller. Though the popular concept of propeller action is that of pushing the vessel .9 Forward because of high pressure induced on the down stream faces of the blade, in fact, almost two thirds. of the thrust force arises from low-pressure acting on the backs or upstream faces of the blades. (b) Transverse Thrust Transverse thrust is a-phenomenon, which is particularly noticeable when starting from rest until there is wake flow through the propeller. This is because the forces generated by the propeller have a large 'athwart shipst ; the result of this is wheelingeffect in the direction of rotation of propeller. A right handed propeller when going ahead will turn the stern to starboard and the bow to port. When engines are reversed (going astern) the bow will swing to starboard and stern to port. Transverse thrust is also known as 'Starting Bias' and 'Wheeling Effect' or Wheel Effect'. (c) Because the wake flow moves best over the hull shape when engine is going ahead, "the bias reduces as ship increases speed and rudder becomes effective. When going astern, there is little wake strength at the propeller and It may hot be possible to correct the bias and steer astern. The thrust of upper blades against the rudder may produce a somewhat greater transverse force than the thrust of the lower blades as the lower blades encounter more resistance. The maximum effect is on a ship starting from dead in the water when the initial pivot point is forward and the transverse thrust has maximum leverage. Under headway, this effect can be corrected by small correcting rudder. (e) The propeller working astern produces a strong transverse thrust because helical discharge is directed against the stern where it hits the hull, in part, almost at right angles. Large diameter propeller of low revolution push back greater amount of water under steeper angle against the stern and produce a strong transverse thrust when working astern.
29
Manoeuvring
(f)
The effect of transverse thrust of propeller working astern is greater when pivot point is forward i.e. when ship is under forward motion. The transverse thrust loses out in leverage when pivot point moves aft when ship gathers sternway propeller with duct. A propeller duct prevents water from reaching the stern under a steep angle, thus producing less transverse thrust. Comparatively, the effect of Transverse thrust while moving ahead is less noticeable than thrust produced when going astern. Right Handed Propeller Moving Ahead Moving Astern The helical discharge splits and passes towards either side of the hull and on port quarter it is inclined down and away from the hull. Whilst on starboardquarter. it is
(g)
Action of Propeller Transverse Thrust
The helical- discharge from the propeller creates a larger pressure on the port side of rudder.
A slight upward flow from the hull into the directed up and on the hull. propeller area puts slightly more pressure on This flow of water striking the starboard the down sweeping blades (Stbd side). quarter can be a substantial force (in The speed or the flow of water into tonnes) that is capable of swinging stern to uneven velocity. port giving the classic 'Kick round'. The net tendency for a right-handed propeller is to give a small swing to port when going ahead. Controllable Pitch Propeller Conventional Fixed Pitch Propeller On a ship with conventional fixed pitch propeller, going ahead, stopping and going astern are distinct operation as the change of direction of rotation of propeller shaft is involved. Time lag in the changes is significant. Stopping also takes time. Number of starts and stops on motor ships may be limited and astern power may be less than ahead power. Speeds can be increased in steps only i.e. dead slow, slow, half and full. (Intermediate speeds fine tuning is difficult). On some ships minimum speed dead slow ahead is 5 to 6 knots, which is far in excess of speed necessary for maintaining just steerage way. These disadvantages of Fixed Pitch Propeller are largely reduced/ eliminated by use of Controllable Pitch Propellers. Controllable Pitch Propeller (CPP) rotates continuously in the same direction irrespective of the direction the ship is required to travel (ahead or astern). Only the pitch angle of the blades is changed to control the direction and speed of travel or to stop the ship. The main engine is set and operated at-normal speeds and is clutched in to propeller shaft which thus keeps turning at constant (high) speed continuously. A mechanism called combinator automatically balances engine revolutions against propeller pitch so that it is not necessary to run the engines continuously at excessively high speed. The blades of these propellers can be altered to set whatever pitch is required across the whole power band from full ahead to full astern this is achieved by hydraulic pumps or pistons. The hydraulic pumps are activated by an electric motor operated when bridge controls are activated.
Advantages
(a) A ship with CPP is not restricted to 'step by step' speed increases (dead slow-slow-half-full). Any intermediate speed can be selected and operated immediately and maintained.
30
(b) (c)
Even at extremely slow speed, it is possible to have steerage. Fixed pitch propellers do not permit such slow speeds. It is possible to turn a CPP ship (Left hand turning propeller short round to port, using the port cant when going astern (as opposed to starboard cant of FPP- right handed propeller- to starboard) as many of the CPP shafts rotate anticlockwise (left handed)
Ship Manoeuvring, Ship

Propulsion and Control
Caution On a CPP ship at very low speeds or even at Stop, the blades of CPP are set with a very fine angle and pitch. They appear like fan blades when viewed from astern and the propeller looks like closed disc or wheel. Due to 'Disc' shape of the propeller if ship's speed is too high and does not match the propeller speed (low), the flow of water is restricted and turbulence develops behind the propeller, which will adversely affect the rudder functioning. The rudder gets shielded and steering becomes erratic. Of course, of against this it may be remembered that CPP is. instantly available for corrective action without the necessity of starts or stops. Transverse Thrust of CPP CP Propellers normally turn in a left-handed (anti clock wise) direction continuously when going ahead or astern. Therefore, when a CPP is set for astern movement the bow will cant to starboard like conventional ship but going ahead. It may not turn to port. (If CPP turns clockwise, opposite effect may take place and ships head may cant to port when CPP is moving astern. Transverse thrust of CPP may therefore be weak or unreliable). Maximum stern power and its effect of a CPP ship may not be as much as that of conventional FPP ship. Due to poor maintenance or wrong operation, when control mechanism on bridge is set for stop with zero pitch, the propeller may not be aligned to zero pitch and some residual thrust may exist. Ship may still creep ahead or astern when stop is ordered. If along side, the ropes must be kept tight. Resulting wash may also disturb moorings of ships in adjoining berths. Wash may also get in between the hull and the berth and brining the ship alongside may be difficult while berthing. Care is also necessary to ensure that tugs and mooring boats are warned to take precautions while coming near the propeller to take stern ropes. CPP ships are provided an emergency stop control on the bridge which should either declutch the propeller or stop the engine in an emergency particularly when propeller pitch at high ahead or astern mode gets out of control.
SAQ 4
(a) (b) (c) (d) Describe the flow water past the propeller pushes the ship ahead. What is speed of advance and the wake speed? What is the effect of the transverse thrust on ship manoeuvring? What are the advantages of a CPP?
1.17 STEERING GEAR

Rudder as we all know is part of the mechanism that we call steering gear. It is a device to maintain a course or to change it at command. A device for directional control. It is a 31
Manoeuvring
passive control device and provides a force only when a flow of water passes over the rudder surface and when it is moved out of the fore and aft alignment. Description Rudder is an appendage that has cross section much like an airfoil that develops a lift. when it is turned to produce non-zero angle of attack relative to water. The lift produces a turning moment some where long the mid length of the hull. By deflecting the propeller thrust, the rudder extends a force at after end of ship. For a given angle of attack, rudder lift is proportional to the square of the water velocity relative to the rudder. Therefore, the rudder is positioned within the high velocity flow generated by propeller(s). The turning properties of a ship depend upon the s an 116, shape d the position of the oc ~~ rudder. The relationship between the rudder and propeller is important because each is affected by the position of the other. Limitations on Rudder Angle In most of the ships, the maximum possible angle is 35 on either side, which gives optimum range of manoeuvring capabilities without overstressing the rudder and the rudderstock. Some specially designed ships can give 45 of rudder angle, which gives faster rate of turn. On sea passages, rudder is in operation with successions of small angles needed for course keeping. At moderate speeds, large alterations of courses are easily achieved by helm of 15 to 20. Very large alterations required for manoeuvring in port or in emergency at sea would need the use of hard over helm. The rudder is not hydrodynamically efficient beyond 35. At slow speeds and confined areas 35 is less effective for manoeuvering purposes, At any stage, up to the designed maximum angle, the rudder retains smooth flow across both the faces and this creates positive pressure on one side and equally important, negative pressure on the opposite side. This gives ,the rudder its lateral lift. At any angle exceeding the maximum angle the water flow across the rudder, particularly on low pressure side becomes more turbulent and rudder becomes ineffective.
stall Angle
:.i (I
"t ~
= 30
15
45
Figure 1.8: Different Rudder Angles
32
Rudder Types: Definitions and Explanatory Terms Simple rudder is a rudder plate hinged around the rudderpost. All the area of the rudder is abaft the rudderpost and stock whether a rudder is balanced or not is dependent upon the relationship of the center of pressure of the rudder and the position of the rudder stock. When the rudder stock is at the leading edge the rudder is unbalanced. When they are vertically aligned, the rudder is "fully balanced". This arrangement greatly reduces the torque required by the tiller mechanism to turn the rudder. The spade rudder in Figure 1.8 is semi-balanced. This is a sensible arrangement as it limits the amount of torque required by the tiller mechanism yet should ensure the rudder returns to midships after the occurrence of a tiller mechanism failure. The Chord Fore and aft (maximum) length of the rudder. It is limited by the position of the propeller and the edge of thee stern. The Span Vertical height (and clearance above the keel) is limited by the hull and the need to remain above the keel level to avoid grounding damage. Roof Section ----Roof Chord
Hull Line
I
Sweep Back Angl 1/4 Chord Line----4 Mean Geometri Chord 4,
' f
Mean Span Leading Edge
Trailing Edge
The Chord
Figure 1.9: Definition Snatch of a Rudder
Aspect Ratio It is the ratio of rudder span (Rudder height) to the chord length i.e, maximum rudder length in fore and aft direction. If the rudder is tall i.e. height is large in comparison to its length, then the aspect ratio will be greater than the gradient of lift curve. Lift coefficient versus angle of attack depends mainly on the aspect ratio. Stall (angle) occurs earlier when aspect ratio increases above a certain value. The most common rudder type for merchant ships is semi spade type with an aspect ratio of 1.5. Earlier merchant ships bad simple plate rudder with
33
Manoeuvring
higher aspect ratio. Navy vessels and high-speed craft use spade rudder with aspect ratio of around 1. Section shape of rudder: This also influences the rudder performance. It is described as ratio of thickness of rudder/chord length The values vary between 0.005 for a plate rudder to 0.15 to 0.25 for spade types. Rudder dimensions and therefore aspect ratio, section, shape and ratio depends upon various factors such as: Propeller type, Dimensions, Its height above the keel, Type of the stern, and The particular service requirement with reference to the ship. Bow Thrusters and Their Use Lateral thrusters can be fitted in the bow or the stern. Lateral thrusters are most effective when a ship has neither headway nor stern way. They create a turning effect by providing a side force at their location. Their effectiveness will depend upon the distance between the thruster and ship's pivot point. When berthing a ship that has a single bow thruster, and no stern thruster, it is important not to become too focused on the bow, because this can be controlled with the thruster. Plan to get the stern alongside as a priority. Remember that pure rotation can only be induced by two lateral thrusters, one forward and one aft, opposing each other, and that a tug may be needed to control the stern of a large ship. Bow thrusters are used when it is required to 'breast' on to or off a berth or to move the ship's head from a jetty. Modern ships fitted with a bow thruster will often berth without tug assistance. However, a bow thruster will lose its effectiveness as a ship's speed increases. Depending on the hull and thrust tunnel design, thrust effectiveness can be lost at between 2 and 5 knots. The reason for this is the merging of the slipstream from the thruster with the general flow around a forward moving hull. When speed increases above two knots, local loss of pressure over the hull, downstream from the thruster, creates a turning moment opposite to the moment produced by the thruster. The thruster may become ineffective. Thrusting when Stopped - When stopped and thrusting, a ship's pivot point is likely to be aft. If a bow thruster is put to starboard on a stopped ship, the ship will turn to starboard. Thrusting with Headway - The pivot point will be forward, so thrusting will not be very effective, especially at high speeds. Thrusting with Sternway - The pivot point is aft and when the bow thruster is put to starboard, the ship's bow will swing to starboard. The thruster will be effective, and will act as a form of 'rudder'. Rudder Response - The time it takes for the rudder to respond to a helm order will determine how rapidly a ship gets into a turn. The quicker the rudder responds, the sooner the ship will begin to turn. Single Rudders and Twin-screw Ships - Manoeuvring characteristics at low speeds will generally be poor on twin screw ships fitted with a single centre line rudder. This is because the single centre line rudder may have to be moved to large angles before any part of it becomes immersed in the slipstream of one of the
34
propellers. When not immersed, the lift produced by the rudder at low speeds will be very small, resulting in large turning circles and poor response to helm.
Post Simple Type Rudder Post
(a)
b) Compound Butt
Figure 1.10: Simple type of Rudder
Figures (a) and (b) above show simple type of rudder older conventional type (not balanced). Here all the rudder area is abaft its axis of rotation (rudder shaft). The rudder is supported by and hinged on rudderpost and by sole piece/heel pintle and bearing. In some ships in place of rudderpost, there may be solid butt (Figure 1.10 b). There may be in the closed stern type of ships balanced rudders also where rudder shaft/stock rests on ships structure i.e. on sole piece with heel pintle and stern pintle on top or balanced rudder resting on fixed structure abaft the propeller. Or the rudder may be under hung on deep horn or under hung on shallow horn.
SAQ 5
(a) (b) (c) (d) Inspect and sketch your rudder and describe its main features. Describe the actions which cause the ship to change course when the rudder is moved a few degrees. Why are ruder angles limited to 35"? What is aspect ratio in a rudder?
1.18 SUMMARY
Ships are planned designed and constructed for carrying out identified trades or function. They are of different dimensions, shapes and size. Length, breadth, depth, draft, trim, block coefficient, hull superstructure, rudder area and the ships propulsive power influence their manoeuvrability. Dynamic interactions govern resistance of the hull to steady forward motion of the ship. Frictional resistance is interalia dependent on water density, viscosity, area of the hull in contact with water and friction coefficient. Residual resistance, which includes wave making and eddy making resistance, is also an important factor. Aerodynamic resistance is offered by, 'above water' part of the hull. Manoeuvring booklet is available on board every ship. It contains details of ship's manoeuvring characteristics and other relevant data. Effect of wind must always be taken into consideration when carrying out ship manoeuvres. 35
Manoeuvring
Effect of the current may not be very significant in the open sea, but can effect safe navigation in coastal water and harbours. Manoeuvring is dependent on the type of the propulsion as well as the steering systems provided on board ship. Each of these systems have their advantages and disadvantages. Rapidly rotating blades develop a lift force having a component in the direction of the axis of rotation, that results in a thrust in fore and aft direction. Forces generated by a propeller also have a large athwart ship component which causes a wheeling effect in the direction of rotation of the propeller.
1.19 ANSWERS TO SAQs

Froude number is an approximation of the resistance force experienced by the ship arrived at by the ship model testing. It is a dimensionless ratio given below in which V is the speed, g the acceleration of gravity, and L the waterline length. (b) The divergent waves which start at the bow and stern, and angle aft. The lines of the wave crests are not straight, they curve somewhat aft. Next, there are the transverse waves which are originally perpendicular to the ship's line of motion, although the further away from the ship they get the more they tend aft due to friction. (c) Wake resistance can be reduced by building a bulbous bow which changes the pattern of waves. Reduction )f the Displacement/Length ratios and narrow beams also improves wake resistance. (d) Hull speed is the limit to which the ship could move through water. It is approximated as the square root of the length but other factors such as the hull hydrodynamics, resistance and the streamlines also play an important part. SAQ 2 (a) There would be two components, the ship would drift bodily to starboard and as the accommodation is normally aft the head shall tend to swing into the wind. (b) The sailing directions and port information books give this information in addition to the climatic charts for the areas. (c) The sea is generated by the local winds while the swell is generated by winds at distances far from the current position. (d) The ship is heading the current and is brought abreast of the jetty at a distance of about 50 meters. The ship maintains just enough steerage and passes the head line. As the headline is hove tight, the helm is put on the other side of the jetty and the ship shall mode bodily alongside. This manoeuvre is possible only if there is no substantial wind. (e) In order to allow for the current it would be advisable to alter course little after the alteration course point which was planned without the current. SAQ 3 (a) Container ships are faster ships and hence they need more power than a tanker, which does not need high speeds. (b) The propulsion power is provided to get over the friction and the friction does not increase in relation to the tonnage. Friction is dependent on many factors such as ships shape underwater, its length and smoothness of the hull. (c) Tankers use steam turbines for propulsion because cargo pumps need boilers to operate turbine cargo pumps and the same boilers can provide steam at sea and the flue gas when needed. The boilers can burn cheaper fuels and therefore are economical. SAQ 4 (a) Rapidly rotating blades develop a lift force having a component in the direction of axis of rotation (Fore and Aft or Longitudinal) that results into 36 SAQ I (a)
(b)
(c) (d) (e)
thrust in fore and aft direction. The rotating blades cause the water to accelerate in the axial direction, so that the water that has passed through the propeller moves at higher speed than at which if approached the vessel. This increase in momentum of the propelled water equals the propeller thrust. As a ship moves through the water, it drags the surrounding water with it. At the stern of the ship, this causes the wake to follow the ship with a wake speed (VW). Consequently, the screw propeller is experiencing a flow speed less than the ship speed (VS). The flow speed of flow experienced by the propeller is called the speed of advance (VA). VA = VS VW Transverse Thrust is a phenomenon, which is particularly noticeable when starting from rest until there is wake flow through the propeller. This is
because the forces generated by the propeller have a large- 'athwart ships component'; the result of this is a wheeling effect in the direction of rotation of propeller. A right handed propeller when going ahead will turn the stem to starboard and the bow to port. (d) Advantages of CPP: A ship with CPP is not restricted to 'step by step' speed increases (dead slow- slow- half- full). Any intermediate speed can be selected and operated immediately and maintained. Even extremely slow speed, which is useful/necessary to have steerage, is possible. Fixed pitch propellers do not permit such slow speeds. It is possible to turn a CPP ship (Left hand turning propeller) short round to port, using the port cant when going astern (as opposed to starboard cant of FPP right handed propeller to starboard) as many of the CPP shafts rotate anticlockwise (left handed). SAQ 5 (a) To be answered by the students. (b) Rudder is a device to maintain a course or to change it at command a device for directional control. It is a passive control device and provides a force only when a flow of water passes over the rudder surface and when it is moved out of the fore and aft alignment. Rudder is an appendage that has cross section much like an airfoil that develops a'lift'when it is turned to produce non-zero angle of attack relative to water. The lift produces a turning moment some where along the mid length of the hull. By deflecting the propeller thrust, the rudder extends a force at after end of ship. For a given angle of attack, rudder lift is proportional to the square of the water velocity relative to the rudder. Therefore, the rudder is positioned within the high velocity flow generated by propeller(s). (c) In most of the ships, the maximum possible angle is 35 on either side, which gives optimum range of manoeuvring capabilities without overstressing the rudder and the rudderstock. Some specially designed ships can give 45 of rudder angle, which gives faster rate of turn. Aspect Ratio: It is the ratio of rudder span (Rudder height) to the chord length (maximum) rudder length in fore and aft direction.
(d)
35
38
UNIT 2 SHIP HYDRODYNAMICS AND HULL DESIGN

Structure
2.1 Introduction
Objectives
2.2 Yactors that Affect Handling of a Ship 2.3 Pivot Point 2.4 Position of Pivot Point 2.5 Directionally Stable Ship 2.6 Speeial Manoeuvres 2.7 Man Overboard 2.8 Anchoring 2.9 Summar y 2.10 Answers to SAQs
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Having learnt the basics of ship manoeuvring, let us now look at actual manoeuvres that you may be a part of when on bridge watches.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to explain the factors that affect manoeuvres, describe directionally stable ships, explain ship manoeuvres under varying conditions with or without the use of tugs and plan for an anchorage and to understand the process of anchoring.
.2.2 FACTORS THAT AFFECT HANDLING OF A SHIP

As seen in the previous modules; handling characteristics vary from ship type to ship type and from ship to ship. Handling qualities are determined by ship design, which in turn depends on the ship's intended function. Typically, design ratios, such as a ship's length to its beam or beam to draft, determine the ships willingness to turn. Desirable handling qualities are achieved only when there is a balance between directional stability and directional instability. Underwater Hull Geometry The following factors give an indication of how a ship will handle : Length to Beam (L/B) Ratio
High values of L/B are associated with good course directional stability, e.g. the container ships have a L/B of 8 andtherefore have a good directional stability while tugs with a L\13 ratio of 2.5 to 3 has good turning ability.
39
Manoeuvring
Beam to Draught (BIT) High values of B/T increase leeway and the tendency for such a ship in a beam wind would be to 'skate across the sea surface'. Merchant ships have a B/T ratio in the range of 2.75 to 3.75. Block Coefficient and Prismatic Coefficient (ratios of the ship's volume of displacement against the volume of a rectangular block or a prism). Ships with large block and prismatic coefficients have poor course stability and a readiness to turn. When turning, they will do so easily. Large tankers have these characteristics. Ships with a large protruding bulbous bow are likely to have their longitudinal centre of buoyancy far forward. As a result, the ship will show a tendency to turn. Longitudinal Centre of Buoyancy It is the point around which the ship trims.
2.3 PIVOT POINT

A ship rotates about a point situated along its length, called the 'pivot point'. When a force is applied to a ship, it results in causing the ship to turn. The ship will turn around a vertical axis, which is conveniently referred to as the pivot point. With headway, the pivot point lies between 1/4 and 1/3 of the ship's length from the bow, and with sternway, it lies a corresponding distance from the stern. In the case of a ship without headway through the water but turning, its position will depend on the magnitude and position of the applied force(s), whether resulting from the rudder, thrusters, tug, wind or other influence. The pivot point traces the path that the ship follows.
Figure 2.1 : Ship Moving Along Longitudinal Avis
Characters-of the Ship Motion Longitudinal Motion Ships in order to fulfil their assigned roles are on the move most of the times, from waypoint to waypoint. This motion of this ship is in a fore and aft direction in other words Longitudinal Motion. The Longitudinal travel is achieved by ship's propulsion system through propeller thrust. Longitudinal Resistance Longitudinal resistance is experienced when the ship is moving in fore and aft direction. When propulsion force and water resistance balances a steady speed or hydrodynamic equilibrium is achieved. Lateral Motion Lateral motion takes place when a ship is moved bodily sideways (athwartships) either intentionally or unintentionally, for example: Intentionally When a ship is being berthed including: The use of tugs to push or pull ship bodily Use of bow and stern thrusters, Use of ship's mooring ropes to bring ships alongside.
40
Unintentionally Ship being (bodily) set by currents, tides or being pushed by winds. Except in the case of a ship being carried sideways by currents or tidal streams, ship's lateral motion also meets resistance (Lateral Resistance) when being pushed by tugs or wind. However when pushed by a tug the movement shall be opposed by resistance.
Tide
Ship Hydrodynamics and Hull Design
I
-- X No Resistance Because Water Mass Moves
Y
Figure 2.2: Ships Lateral Motion
Rotational Movement This takes place while changing courses at sea or while manoeuvring in ports, ships are required to change direction. This is a turning movement or Rotational Movement. This Rotational Movement may consist of: Along longitudinal axis, when altering course at sea or in ports. Along transverse or lateral axis when caused by tugs or thrusters. Only Rotational Movements: such as a ship being turned around in dock turning basin with use of tugs or shore lines.
Rotational Resistance Rotational movement meets resistance, which is directly propositional to the rate of turn. It is mainly in the study of rotational movement of ships that the concept of pivot point and the turning levers needs to be studied as an important aspect for understanding ships behaviour. The position of the pivot point, the force applied on the ship, and its direction and the length of the levers determine the effect of the same. Larger the length of the lever or the force increases the effect. On big ships (VLCCs, ULCCs, Bulk Carrier), the distance from the point of impact of force to pivot point can be very large. As you shall see the shift of pivot point due to changes in ahead to astern movement are also very large. Such shift in the position of pivot point by a couple of hundred meters affects the moment of the rotational force (Product of length of Lever x Force expressed as feet tonnes or m/tonnes) the larger is the lever of that force, the greater its effective leverage. Frictional Resistance When moving from position of rest in water to ahead or astern, propulsion power overcomes ship's inertia and overcomes the frictional Resistance. Even though this resistance is felt all along the ship's sides equally (and though it is taken into account for determining propulsion power), it is not considered for determining the position of Pivot Point. Residual Resistance This is mainly longitudinal resistance. This forms an important component in determining the position of Pivot Point and there is relationship between the position of Pivot Point and the ratio of the longitudinal resistance to the propulsion force and the direction of travel.
41
Manoeuvring
Lateral Resistance However, this does not come into play for straight-line travel as the component of ship's transverse thrust is small and is overcome as soon as ship gathers momentum. It, however, affects the position of the Pivot Point when ship starts turning under the action of rudder and propeller.
Rotational axis Z (Z,Z) X Longitudinal axis (X,X) Y Lateral axis (Y,Y) (a) Three axis of Movement (b) Rotational Movement
Rotational axis (Vertical Z,Z) (c) Rotational movement

Figure 2.3
(d) Rotational axis
2.4 POSITION OF PIVOT POINT

As pivot point shifts during ship manoeuvres, it is important to have an idea about the possible position of the pivot point under different conditions to anticipate the changes in rotational motion. Ships rotational moment is about a vertical axis situated along the length of a ship. The position of this axis is influenced by: Shape of ships hull, Direction and velocity of ships motion. Point of impact and The magnitude of the forces acting on ship.
Broadly, the axis moves with a change of the direction of the motion and its magnitude changes as the magnitude and the distance from the pivot point. Pivot Point therefore is not a fixed but a wandering point. (Peripatetic Point). Let us see how a Pivot Point moves with "circumstances" and its effects on "Turning lever". The Position of the Pivot Point under Different Conditions When Stationary In the case of a loaded ship stationary in water, on even keel the Pivot Point is very close to the centre of gravity i.e. almost at mid length.
Figure 2.4
Just After Ahead Movement is Given A ship underway under the effect of the propeller (after inertia has been overcome and before the longitudinal resistance is felt) has its pivot point pushed in the direction of travel-forward or aft and this new position is temporarily 1/8 L from bow or stern as the case may be depending on the direction of ships movement (or direction of propeller rotation). This temporary position of pivot point well ahead, gives a good turning lever and is used for kick-start manoeuvres. Ship Underway with Ahead/Astern Movement When ship starts moving through water and as soon as the longitudinal resistance is felt at the fore (or after) part of the ship, the Pivot Point moves in the direction of the force (resistance) i.e aft when ship is moving ahead or ahead when ship is moving astern. At constant speed, pivot point settles about 1/4 L from the bow when ship is making headway or 1/4 L from the stem when ship is making sternway. If at the same time, the ship also has lateral (side ways) moment, this can affect the position at the pivot point due to lateral forces and lateral resistance. This is important particularly when the ship is turning Position When Turning The centre of the rotational motion of turning ship depends upon length to beam ratio of the vessel. It is generally assumed that the pivot point on a ship under headway and turning under rudder lies about 1/3 L from forward due to Lateral pushing back the pivot point further (from 1/4 L at constant speed).'
Table 2.1
L/B ratio Pos. Pivot Point from bow
9 0.33L
8 0.34L
7 0.35L
6 D.37L
5 0.4L
Vessel Stopped and Commencing the Turn with Engines Ahead. (No Environmental Factor Affecting) Ship starts turn with rudder hard over and with engines ahead (either slow, halt or full).
43
Manoeuvring
This rudder and engine action will attempt to turn the ship as well as propel it ahead and in doing so: (a) (b) Forward moment is resisted because of inertia. Pivot point moves ahead about 1/8 L from the bow because of the propeller thrust (force).
00
Position 2
Ship moves ahead pivot point moves to a point 1/8 from bow initially (Position 2)
Position 1
Figure 2.5
This gives good lever for turning movement to start before the ship gathers forward momentum or just as the ship starts making headway. As the ship moves ahead after overcoming inertia, the water resistance on the bow eventually balances the forward propulsion force at a steady speed and the pivot point shifts aft to a position 1/4 from the bow. At a steady speed, while turning, the lateral resistance (at the bow on the side which the ship is turning and the stern in opposite direction) also comes into play pushing the pivot point further aft to about 1/3 L from the bow. Because of this, turning lever is reduced and rudder force becomes less efficient. As the ship starts turning she slides sideways through the water, both initially and during the turn and meets water resistance all along the shipside towards which the stem is turning. This also reduces rudder force. This is the lateral resistance when turning.
Turning at Constant Speed
Rudder force and lateral resistance achieve balance in a turn at constant RPM. Thus, turning circle areas at slow, half or full RPM are comparable. Only thing that differs is time taken to complete the turn and therefore the rate of turn.
6
44
Ship Hydrodynamics and Hull Design SHIP STOPPE D SHIP ON EVEN KEEL
(a) Position of pivot point stationary ship
rir
+
X ,H+ SHIP MAKING A+ HEADWAY 1/4L
X c
PIVOT POINT SHIFTS AHEAD OF ORIGINAL POSITION
(c) Position of pivot point ship making headway at steady speed
SHIP MAKING STEARN WAY ______X PIVOT POINT SHIFTS AFT
(e) Position of pivot point ship making stern way at steady speed Figure 2.6: Position of Pivot Point when Turning with Propeller and Rudder
Speed Loss During the Turn
V Speed during a turn always suffers a marked reduction because during a turn, ship is moving ahead and sideways so she experiences resistance on the side, whichacts as a bra" Speed reduction may be as much as 30% to 50%. This fact may be used for speed reduction (by rudder cycling or turning full circle) if sufficient manoeuvring area is available.
Standing Turns and "Kick Ahead"
Minimising lateral resistance and maximising rudder force achieves standing turn. Initially the turn is started with the vessel stopped or moving at very slow speed. Engines are then 'kicked ahead'. The rudder force would now be at its maximum, turning lever the best and therefore faster turn. As the ship turns 90, the lateral forces tends to slow the turn and rudder force will be less effective because the pivot point would move from1/8 L to 1/4 -1/3 L. In order to maintain the leverage, it would be then necessary to slow down and again give a kick ahead to get the maximum rudder force and reduced lateral resistance.
45
Manoeuvring
/ posn.4
I*
/posn.3 3. As ships start turning pivot point moves to about 1/3 L from the bow (0.3 to OAL)
posn.2
2. At steady speed ahead steady course

P 1/4 L from bow
posn.1
1. Intilal position of pivot point Mid ship (near c of g)
Figure 2.7
Practical Use of the Shifting Nature of Pivot Point Shifting nature of pivot point affects turning forces and therefore the process of handling of a ship. For example, when the ship has headway, the pivot point is forward at about 1/4 L from the bow. If a ship under this condition is either pushed or pulled by tugs laterally or by use of bow thrusters, the distance between the pivot point and force applied (turning lever) is reduced and the turning effect shall be reduced. In such a case, it would be more effective to use rudder than the bow thrusters. Whenever a ship has headway, the pivot point is well forward and the distance between Pivot point and Rudder force is at its maximum. Rudder is therefore most effective. This fact is made use of in kick-start manoeuvres. Ships propulsion Power (Thrust) is expressed as SHP. (Shaft Horse Power) from which this force can be converted in tonnes. Similarly, Tugs propulsion power is expressed as SHP and Bow/Stem Thrust power is expressed as SHP.
2.5 DIRECTIONALLY STABLE SHIP

Ship is directionally stable if deviation from a set course increases only when an external b force or moment is acting to cause the deviation. On the other hand, ship is said to be directionally unstable if a deviation in course begins or continues even in the absence of an external cause. Directionally unstable ship is not easy to manoeuvre. Stable ship requires less energy expenditure in maintaining its set course. Broadly, directional stability or instability can be determined by examination of ship's under water profile. If the area of the hull and its appendages is concentrated towards the
46
after end and if they are disposed equally on either side of the centre line then the ship is likely to be directionally stable. Hydrodynamic stability is related to the following hull parameters. If ship's length is increased, her directional stability would be increased Increase in beam and block coefficient will reduce yawing. 4, Deepening draft improves directional stability and trim by stern improves it still further. A ship with poor directional stability can bring about some improvement by enlarging rudder area to a maximum of 2% of the lateral underwater area. Ships with finer lines are more easily handled. Large ships such as super tankers tend to be directionally unstable. Pivot
Tug
ce
F.oini n ,
in
Tog SHIP STOPPED TUGS EXERT EQUAL

FORCE
TUGS PUSHING (OR
PULLING)
EQ UA L DIS TA NCE M MIDSHIPS
AND SHIP MOVES

BODILY
& PARALLEL
(a) Pivot point when ship is stopped in water
~ S H I P M A KI NG H EA D WA Y P 1/4 L FROM BOW AFT TUG AWAY 3/4 L FROM P. EXERTS MORE STERN LEVERAG E - PRESSURE WILL S TERN SWINGS FARTH ES T SWING BOW SWINGS LESS MORE
\ 4
-
4 - ~
LEVER FOR FORD TUG (LESS ER)
I.EVER FOR AFT TUG (GREA TER)
( b ) P ivo t po int whe n s h ip is mo v in g ah e ad ( headway )

SHIP MAKING T SF RN WAY P 1/4 L FROM STERN FORD TUG FARTHEST AWAY FROM P EXERTS MORE PRESSURE AFT TUG EXERTS LESS PRESSURE BOW SWINGS FARTHEST STERN SWINGS LESS
LEVER FOR FORWARD TUG (TREATER THAN AFT TUG
LEVER FOR AFT TUG LESS
(c) Pivot point when ship has stren away.
Figure 2.8 Table 2.2 : Relationship between the Length and Other Manoeuvring Parameters L/B Ratio Pivot Point from Fow 1/3 L 21/321, Turning Circle Diameter 4L 3.8 L 3.6 L
3 . 3
Turning Circle Circumference 12.6 L 12 L 11.3 L
Drift
A n g l e
Degrees 14 15 16
9 8 7
6
5
5/14 L
3/8 L
10.5 L 9.4 L
17 19
.2/5L
3L
SAQ I
(a) (b) (c) What are the factors that affect manoeuvring? What are the various forces acting on the ship just as the ship gets underway? How does the pivot point move as a force is applied? Is the amount of shift dependent on the aspect and the quantum of the applied force? 47
Manoeuvring
(d) (e)
Under what circumstances are the bow thrusters most effective to start a rotational motion? Two tugs are positioned at the forward and after stations. If the ship gives a kick astern which of the tugs shall have the more effect?
2.6 SPECIAL MANOEUVRES

This module aims at understanding and planning the manoeuvres and the procedures, such as man overboard and anchoring which may have to be initiated by a OOW on his own till the master arrives on the bridge. Cadets,should take into account that these types of manoeuvres cannot possibly be practised in real life situations, for obvious reasons. It is therefore essential that the procedures to be followed be thoroughly understood.
2.7 MAN OVERBOARD

Immediate Actions Watchkeeping officers are required to take certain actions immediately on being informed of, or actually seeing, a man falling overboard. However, on such occasions any other consideration only delays the effectiveness of the actions. The initial actions provide the most effective measures and should not cause damage to the ship. On being informed of man overboard, following immediate actions should be taken Put the wheel hard over to the side on which man has fallen. This will reduce the hazard of the person getting caught into the suction current of propeller. It will also help in reducing the speed and keep the ship close to the MOB position. Throw the man-overboard (MOB) life buoy secured with the MOB light and the smoke float. This shall identify the position of the incident with a fair accuracy. If the life buoy is released quickly, it ,may even allow the person to get hold of it. Many GP$ systems have the provision to "Mark" the man overboard position manually. (Does your ship have one?) Inform Master and the engine room and put the engines on stand by. Call out the rescue boat crew and prepare for lowering. Preferably lower the boat to the embarkation deck. Do not lower further, till the Master orders the same. Preparing the rescue boat to recover the person overboard may be done in the mean time. Engine room must be ready for immediate manoeuvring. Ascertain the following Information that the Master would have to take into account. .A Identity of the person if possible. Was the person a swimmer? Was the person wearing life jacket or warm clothing's, etc.? State of the wind and swell. Wind and Swell may be strong making I. recovery by a lifeboat difficult.
I
48
The position of the MOB, if ascertained immediately after the incident. Was a life buoy thrown to mark the position? If the time and position where the man may have fallen overboard is not known, when was he last seen?
Visibility. Ship
Manoeuvres to Effect a Rescue It is not possible to state a perfect single manoeuvre, which will be suitable in all situations. What is important is that : The action taken should have regard to the prevailing conditions. It should be aimed to save the life or lives as far as practicable. The procedure or manoeuvre adopted should not endanger more lives.
International Aeronautical Merchant Ship Search and Rescue Manual (LAMSAR) gives details of the manoeuvres which allows the ship to return as near as possible to the position where the man was assumed to have fallen overboard. These manoeuvres are explained in very simple terms and we would like you to read them and work of the following task.
Single Tom;';'"
2.8 ANCHORING
Ship Anchoring Procedures
Al
After a long sea voyage, a ship arrives in a port or near a port area and may have to anchor the ship. This maybe because of customs, immigration and cargo formalities or due to non-availability of a berth. A ship may be required to anchor for receiving stores, provisions, bunkers, crew change, surveys, and repairs, awaiting port clearance. A ship may also be forced to take shelter at an anchorage due to unfavourable weather in the open sea. Anchoring involves the following processes: Removing cement from the spurling pipes and clearing the hawse pipe covers. Lashing and unlashing of the anchor securing system. securing Engaging and disengaging system for the windlass gears. 49
Manoeuvring
Anchoring terminology. Anchoring and heaving up operation at forward station.
Manoeuvring for Anchoring Involves Deciding anchorage position. Bringing the ship to a predetermined position for anchorage. Letting got anchor.
Approaching Identified Anchorage Appraisal In order to select the position to anchor in given area, study should be made regarding the anchorage choice with the help of appropriate Nautical Publication at passage planning stage itself. Publications such as sailing Direction 'pilots', guide to port entry, port hand books - circulars, appropriate largest scale charts, tide tables, meteorological data, etc. may indicate the areas in approaches to port which should be earmarked as anchorage for ships before entering port/pilotage waters. In addition, Ship-Port exchange (Master-pilot Exchange) - Port Passage plan - would also result in Port Authorities suggesting anchorage position. However, the Master must consider the following factors when choosing anchorage for his ship. (a) Depth : At least 1.5 times the deepest draft of the ship with due allowance for range of tides, Sea and Swell Condition. This depth reduces due to shallow water effect to some extent. Adequate clearance at low water spring needs to be taken into account to avoid excessive current force when the tide drops. Small UKC at Swing Tides (Low Water) would require paying out too much of chain leaving inadequate length for further use. (Depth/Draft ration not more than 2). This will depend upon how much of cable is on each anchor and size of the ship. Holding Qualities of Seabed : Mud, soft mud and clay Seabed is considered to have good holding qualities. Rocky and sandy beds are not. Adequate Swinging and Manoeuvring Area. Approaches to and exit from anchorage should have adequate depths and widths - with enough sea room to manoeuvre in case the anchorage plan is to be changed/aborted. Underwater obstructions (Pipelines, cables). Distance from passing traffic to avoid interaction. Facilities for position fixing should be available to detect dragging. Ease of communication with shore (including launches, etc). Likely weather during the stay at anchorage.
(b)
(c)
(d) (e)
(f) (g) (h) (i)
Additional Factors (a) Purpose of stay (laid up, Repairs, orders, Bunkers, Stores.
50
M duration
of stay (Crew change berth not vacant). ( c )
ship
Season (fair-weather/foul).
I
Hydrodynamics and Hull Design
Need for physical/personal contact (Provision, F.W., quarantine, medical, cargo work repairs survey, etc). CAUtion (k) (1) Avoid choosing anchorage spot close to prohibited anchorage (In case of vessel dragging, etc). Prepare an alternate anchorage plan.
(m) Prepare a Contingency plan, (Sudden change in any of the above may need one) Preparation of Anchoring Plan Anchoring plan along with manoeuvring plan will have to be drawn up along with a checklist for preparation to anchor after studying relevant publications and deciding on the spot (or alternate spot) for anchoring the ship.
a Be completely familiar with ships manoeuvre data (Booklet)/characteristics especially as appropriate for current condition of load, draft, trim and likely depths and UKC through which ship will have to be handled. Direction and strength of wind and tide. Allowance must be made in the plan for weather conditions, tides and sea/swell conditions expected when approaching the anchorage. Elements of the Plan If possible, plan to arrive at end of ebb tide (low water slack) with vessel on hand steering. Approach courses (tracks) and speed. Waypoints (with bearings/distance from objects ashore) at which to reduce speeds to stop/reverse engines in order to check headway: Position to drop anchor. Depth of Water. Determine the required length of chain. Preparing to Anchor Time to start preparation 2 hours/1 hour before arrival Factors to take into account Weather, Traffic Density, Day or Night Echo sounder to be put "ON". People to Call Master, Bridge Team. C/O, Bosun, ER personnel. Machinery to be ready: Windlass, (Power "ON" operate), gears, steering to be tested, Anchor lashing to be removed, gypsy brakes, 0 anchor signals, communications equipment to be in readiness. Tools to be handy. Instructions to be given to person on forecastle including Which anchor, Walking back/how much, How much to pay out initially, how much total length, and
.40
Is turning short with anchor contemplated.
5i
Manoeuvring
Approaching Anchorage Before anchoring, it is necessary to judge that the ship is stopped (over the ground). Taking visual Bearing of objects abeam or a near the beam are preferable such as Transits, Land objects or lighthouses or Beacons is preferable. Bearings of Buoys and ships nearby are not reliable and hence not recommended. Bridge watch shall monitor ships way through water and keep the master informed. If the bearing is steady, (does not change) ship is stopped. A check is kept on the compass heading to determine if the ship is swinging. If the ship is not heading the current, the ship shall swing to align itself to it. At the same time, remember: That the ship swings to starboard if you are going astern. Flow of water past the ship indicates that the ship is moving forward.
C7
In shallow water when the engines are put astern in muddy waters the muddy waters seem to move forward. A sure method is to drop a lead line (Hope you have one on board). Radar bearings also can give you indications whether the ship has stopped. Modern ships have Doppler logs to quantify the ship's motion over ground or over water in a Ahead Astern direction, additionally they also give a athwartship motion of the bow and stern. See module on ("Speed Log"). Remember that if the ship is swinging at the same time it may be difficult to ascertain whether the ship is dead stopped. Anchorage Position Position obtained on anchoring will be the position of the bridge. Position of the bridge or of the anchor can be drawn from this to know the position of anchor (in case this is lost) and to prove that you did not anchor in prohibited area. Such fixing of position shall also allow you : To draw the ship's swinging circle using the amount of chain brought up. This is also a requirement at certain ports and must be practised after every anchoring. To know if vessel has dragged. To assure the watch keeper that sufficient distance is available from nearby objects on chart. Many GPS systems have the provision to "Mark" the anchor position and setting up of a "anchor watch" feature. (Has your ship's GPS been provided this feature?). Use of Anchor Buoys Anchor buoy/buoys is a device that is available on board or can also be made on board the ship, to indicate the position of the anchor/anchors when they are dropped. (a) The buoy can be made of hardwood /Hard piece of wood 2" thick and say 3x3 approximately shaped as a circle or cone and with a hole in a corner big enough to take a small shackle pin through it. The buoy can be painted suitably so that it can be identified as an anchor readily. A wire/Nylon rope with an eye can be attached to the buoy with the shackle. This rope must be sufficiently long (Depth of water and tidal
(b)
52
rise and swell height and allowance for tidal current, etc. Attachment to the anchor can be through the ring or shackle of the anchor by means of an eye or loop. First, the connection to the anchor is made with the rope and adequate length joined to the buoy. (c) (d) SAQ 2 (a) (b) (c) (d) Describe the immediate actions that should be taken when a man is seen falling overboard. What is the main intention in the special manoeuvres for MOB described? How is the position of the anchor marked and why? Why are anchor watches necessary? What routine is to be followed on such watches? The buoy with adequate slack is taken up on the rail/bulwark on forecastle and lightly lashed. When order is given to let go the anchor the buoy is also thrown over the side?
2.9 SUMMARY
Underwater hull geometry, such as a ship's length to beam ratio, or beam to draft ratio determine the ship's willingness to turn. A ship rotates about a point situated along her length which is known as 'pivot point'. It lies between 1/4 and 1/3 of the ship's length from the bow when going ahead. When going astern it lies a corresponding distance from the stern. The pivot point traces the path that ship follows. A pivot point may change its position under different conditions. For example, just after the ahead movement is given, it may be as close as 1/8 ship's length from the bow, while in case of a loaded ship stationary in water, on even keel, the pivot point is very close to the centre of gravity i.e. at mid length. ship is directionally stable if a deviation from a set course increases only when an external force or moment is acting to cause the deviation. If a deviation is caused or continues in the absence of such an external force, the ship is said to be directionally unstable. After a long sea voyage it may be necessary for a ship to anchor, in which case, it is necessary to draw up an anchoring plan, study relevant publications, decide on the spot where to anchor, and get familiar with the manoeuvring data characteristics. Direction of the wind and tide also must be taken into consideration. After anchoring, position of the ship should be obtained by taking visual bearings of land objects, lighthouses, beacons or objects which are abeam or nearer the beam. Position obtained is the position of the bridge. Watch keeping officer must draw on the chart the ship's swinging circle and ensure that she is at a safe distance from the nearby objects on the chart.
53
Manoeuvring
2.10 ANSWERS TO SAQs

SAQ I (a) Underwater hull geometry is the major factor which include Length to beam ration, Beam to draught ration, Block coefficient and prismatic coefficient, and Longitude centre of buoyancy.
(b) As the ship gets underway, resistance is experienced in the forward part and the thrust given by the propeller is experienced aft. Its only when the two balance that the ship moves at a steady motion. (a) (b) (c) SAQ 2 (a) Raise an alarm. Call the master, throw the MOB lifebuoy overboard. Use the "mark" feature on the GPS if available. Keep a look out to keep the man in sight, follow one of the manoeuvres mentioned, inform engine room to prepare for manoeuvring. The other actions that could be taken but not immediately are increase lookouts, hoist signal "0" and send urgency message on radio to ships in the vicinity, etc. Main intention of the special manoeuvre for MOB is to return to the spot where the man fell overboard. The position of the anchor should be marked with an anchor buoy. It can also approximately be marked by fixing the ships position and by calculating the length paid out on the cable in the direction the ship is heading. The anchor buoy is accurate and in case the cable parts the anchor can be recovered by spotting the anchor buoy. Anchor watches are necessary to ensure principally that (i) (ii) (iii) The ship is not dragging. No unauthorised persons approaches and/or boards the ship. No other ship is dragging on to own ship. The pivot point moves in the direction of the force applied, the direction depends on the direction but not on the magnitude of the force. Bow thruster shall be effective when the ship is moving astern as the pivot point is abaft and the bow thrusters have a large lever. As the pivot point is aft the forward tug shall be more effective.
(b) (c)
(d)
54
UNIT 3 MANOEUVRING IN SHALLOW WATERS

Structure
3.1 Introduction
Objectives
3.2 Shallow Water Effect

3.2.1 Under Keel Clearance 3.2.2 Factors Affecting Manoeuvrability 3.2.3 Hydrostatic Equilibrium 3.2.4 Hydrodynamic Equilibrium
3.3 What is Ship Squat?

3.3.1 What Causes Squat? 3.3.2 The Main Factors Affecting Ship Squat 3.3.3 Shallow Water Indications 3.3.4 Block Co-efficient (Cb) 3 .3.5 Width o f In flu ence 3.3.6 Blockage Factor 3 . 3 . 7 E ffe c t s o f S q u a t 3.3.8 Estimating Squat
3.4 Hydrodynamic Interaction

3.4.1 Interaction between Ships and Bank 3.4.2 Bank Cushion 3.4.3 Interaction between Ships
3.5 Tug Ship Interaction 3.6 Summary 3.7 Answers to SAQs
3.1 INTRODUCTION
We are now coming to the end of the theory portion of manoeuvring. The phenomena of interaction including squat and making due allowance for interaction while manoeuvring shall now be introduced. While a number of new ports are operating to meet the increasing demands of larger and deeper ships, many continue to operate with small under keel clearances. Coastal waterways also have not undergone corresponding improvements in terms of depth and width requirements of the larger/deeper ships. As a result a navigator is required to navigate, manoeuvre or handle his ship with lesser under keel clearance, channel widths, etc. than needed for safe manoeuvring.
Objectives
After learning this unit, the student will be able to explain the factors affecting maneuverability in shallow waters, explain the phenomena of squat and state its effect, and describe the causes of interaction between ships and ships, and between ships and banks.
55
Manoeuvring
3.2 SHALLOW WATER EFFECT

Shallow water is experienced as follows: Not noticeable in depths more than 4 times the deepest draft. Felt in depths less than 2 times the deepest draft. Significant in depths less than 1.5 times the deepest draft. Predominant in depths less than 1.2 times the deepest draft.
3.2.1 Under Keel Clearance

Safe depths under the keel, known as under keel clearance (UKC) can be measured in absolute units, such as feet or meters but some times, it becomes necessary to show under keel clearance in terms of draft. Therefore it is customary, to refer to relationship as 4 times D or 2 times D, etc. or to refer to under keel clearance as percentage of draft i.e. 10 17%, 20 %, 50%, of the deepest draft as UKC. Under Keel Clearance is specific for a particular ship arrived at by considering the deadweight, speed, Coefficient of fineness, length and other parameters. Though some deadweight solutions are now available, each ship allows safety factors as learnt from experiences.
3.2.2 Factors Affecting Manoeuvrability

In addition to depth, another factor, which affects the manoeuvring capabilities of a ship is, whether the waters are restricted in both vertical and horizontal dimensions. (a) In vertical sense, available depths including the shoals or bars and channel slopes affect the manoeuvring characteristics as these factors restrict the water area around the ship. In horizontal sense, waterways widths, channel widths, steepness of banks, presence of other obstructions, different widths of the canal/channel at bed and at water levels also influence the manoeuvres. Presence of other ships, especially those passing close by, can affect the ship's behaviour.
(b)
(c)
These effects are studied under the heading of hydrodynamic interaction on vessel manoeuvrability.
3.2.3 Hydrostatic Equilibrium

When a ship is at rest in the water, it is in a state of balance. The total hydrostatic force pushing up exactly balances weight of the ship pushing down and the ship is in a state of hydrostatic equilibrium.
3.2.4 Hydrodynamic Equilibrium

Interaction is a hydrodynamic phenomenon. It occurs due to the movement of the ship through the water relative to cross sectional area of the navigable channel. When a ship moves through water, in addition to static pressures of water, dynamic pressures are exerted on the ship. These act on the hull and give rise to the resistance to motion resulting in the characteristic pattern of divergent and transverse surface waves, which accompany a ship under motion. Ship underway displaces waters, which is replaced by water flowing around the hull and under the hull. The lateral symmetry of the hull to port and starboard causes hydrodynamic pressures to be symmetrical and the forces and moments they cause are balanced. Thus, a hydrodynamic equlilibrium is reached at constant speed in open sea. Any thing that upsets this balance will cause a force to act in the opposing direction. 56
Manoeuvring in Shallow Water

11
tilt}
Figure 3.1
The hydrodynamic equilibrium may be affected or disturbed by many things including Waves, Presence of another ship even at moderate distance on account of its own pressure field, Presence of banks, shoals, other obstructions in the vicinity of the ship, and Depth of water in shallow waters in which under keel clearance is small the water flowing past the vessel cannot easily pass under the hull and must go round the sides and under the hull at greater speed reducing the pressure under the hull causing squat.
In summary, a change in relative cross sectional area of the navigable channel would create a hydrodynamic instability. This process of changing the equilibrium of the hydrodynamic pressure acting on the hull is known as hydrodynamic interaction, which may cause the ship to move bodily sideway and/or turn. Interaction is Affected by
(i) Speed through water. Greater the speed Greater the interaction Interaction proportional to square of speed. Greater the distance smaller the effect or smaller the distance greater the effect proportionate to cube of distance.
(ii)
Distance/closeness of the objects such as ships, banks, shoals seabed canals, channels, etc. I Water depth UKC. Ship type and shape Block coefficient, coefficient of fineness. Blockage factor.
(iii) (v)
Smaller the UKC greater the effect As squat is directly proportionate to 'block coefficient' Tankers and bulk carriers are more prone to squat and Krim by head. Squat is affected by blockage factor (explained later in the module).
(v)
57
Manoeuvring
3.3 WHAT IS SHIP SQUAT?

Squat is the reduction in under keel clearance resulting from bodily sinkage and change of trim, which occurs when ship moves through water. The algebraic sum of bodily sinkage and the change in trim forward or aft is the "ship squat". It must be emphasised that for any draught, squat is NOT the difference in the draft when a vessel is stationary and when she is underway. This misconception is inaccurate and misleading. For example, the difference in bow draught readings due to forward motion might be 2m, whilst the decrease in under keel clearance might only be 0.40m. Actual observation shall indicate that the draft increases to some extent even in unrestricted water due to wave action. A moored vessel experiences the squat also, in a strong tide, alongside a jetty. Tide flow of the strong tide past the stationary vessel produces, as before., components of bodily sinkage and trimming effects. The two combined give ship squat fora stationary vessel. OOWs taking draught readings say, for a draught survey, should keep this in mind lest it leads to erroneous calculations of the quantity of cargo loaded. Super tankers of > 2150,000 t DWT became common. They were almost too deep drafted for the then existing ports, resulting in static under keel clearances as much as 1.0 m to 1.5 m. At the same time, container ships were replacing many of the older general cargo Ships .Service speeds-for these container ships gradually increased from 16 knots up to 27 knots. As under keel clearances decreased and design service speeds rose, squats gradually increased until they were in the order of 1.5 m to 1.75 m. However, research and understanding of the causes and effects of squat allowed mathematical analysis of the phenomenon and permitted consideration of a safety factor.
3.3.1 What Causes Squat?

When a ship gets underway from rest, it first overcomes and then starts to push water ahead of displacing water and causing wave action. This creates a void in the water, which is filled up by surrounding water mainly from ahead. The flow of water is speeded up under the hull of the ship. In shallow waters, this flow of water under the hull moves at faster speeds causing reduction in pressure under the hull thus ship experiences bodily sinkage in water. Faster the ship moves, greater the sinkage and consequently less under keel clearance.
C~
3.3.2 The Main Factors Affecting Ship Squat

(a) (b) The speed of the ship (V) over the ground. This is the most important factor because ship squat varies directly as V2. The block co-efficient CB. This also is important. Squat varies directly with the Cb. In other words, oil tankers and OBOs will have comparatively more squat than passenger liners and container ships. The relationship between the depth of water (H) and the static mean draught of the ship (T). As H/T decreases, squats increase. The presence of river or canal banks. The closer the banks are to the sides of a moving vessel, the greater will be the squat. The presence of another ship in a river in a crossing or passing manoeuvre. The presence of the second ship increases the squats on both vessels.
(c) (d) (e)
58
Bow wave pushing through water
Stern wave water /rushing to fill the void ii Less flow in shallow water
Figure 3.2: Effect of Bow and Stern Wave
Water speeds up under the hull and pressure reduces this causes sinkage squat.
3.3.3 Shallow Water Indications

Shallow water indications are : (a) (b) (c) (d) Wave making increases at the forward end of the ship; Vessel becomes more sluggish to manoeuvre; Ship may start to vibrate suddenly because of trapped water under the keep causing resonance; Rolling, pitching and heaving motions decrease due to the cushion of water beneath the vessel.
3.3.4 Block Co-efficient (Cb)

Squat is apparent at the bow or stern more predominantly. A vessel will usually (a) (b) (c) Trim by the head if her Cb is greater than 0.700; (Most tankers and bulk carriers). Trim by the stem if her Cb is less than 0.700; (Passenger ship, container ships and general cargo ship).
Will not change trim if her Cb is 0.700. Her squat will consist only of the mean bodily sinkage component. Informatively average co-efficient of fineness Cb for various types of ships is ULCC 0.850, Super tanker 0.825, Tanker 0.800 Bulk Carrier >0.750, General Cargo 0.700 or less Passenger ships 0.625, Container ships 0.575 It can thus be seen : For full-form vessels, squat will occur at the bow; For fine-form vessels, squat will occur at the stem; and For medium form vessels, squat will occur at the stem, bow and amidships, i.e. all along the bottom shell of the ship.
However, the extent of squat shall also be affected by the trim that the ship has in static condition.
59
Manoeuvring
3.3.5 Width of Influence

In open water conditions, having no adjacent banks and for determining the width when squat may occur an artificial width of water is calculated to represent the riverbanks. This is known as a "width of influence" (FB) such width is about 8 to 12 times the breadth of the ship. Any width of water less than FB will produce Increased resistance, Loss of speed, Loss of propeller revolutions and Increase in ship squat.
3.3.6 Blockage Factor

As the ship enters shallow and/or restricted water, the flow of water becomes increasingly restricted due to reduced clearance, both under and on one or both sides of the hull. This Degree of restriction is the blockage factor. Blockage is the relation of the cross sectional 'area of the ship to the cross sectional area of the channel. Blockage factor = b T / B H. where,
b = beam of the ship, T = draught of the ship, B = width of the channel and
H = depth of water in the channel. According to accepted standards for port designs the width of the channel should be ideally at least 5 times the width of the largest ship using the channels.
3.3.7 Effects of Squat

Reduction in under keel clearance may cause the ship to (a) (b) (c) (d) Touch ground. Flow of water at rudder is restricted causing steering to be erratic or less effective. Bank effects may be intensified and lead to uncontrollable sheers and insufficient corrective action. Interaction between ships may also be uncontrollable resulting in serious collisions.
It is therefore necessary that while planning and executing a voyage in coastal and shallow waters it is necessary to be aware of (a) (b) (c) Reduction of under keel clearance. Change of trim and resulting net under keel clearance at all stages of voyage. Speeds, which should not be exceeded in order to minimise the effects of squat or other interactions.
3.3.8 Estimating Squat

Most ships now have a manoeuvring booklet, which allows working out the squat on the available data relating to draft and depth under keel. These use calculation based on the design and the tank tests. However, some simple methods are available and they are given below. When using either the data in the booklet or the methods given below, it is a good practice to err on the safe side and allow more for the squat and to keep the speed low.
60
Cb
Speed
5 knots 02 m 0.175 m 0.15m 7 knots 0.39 m 0.34 m 0.29 m 10 knots
0.8m 12 knots 1.5 m
0.8 0.7 0.6

Combined curves for various
0.7m 0.6 m
1.08m 0.86 m
Depth
ft ratios from 1.1 to 1.3, for various speeds. Draf
Squat for Container vessels in open water when C is 0.600 V = Ship Speed . in Knots
12 2
16 2
20
0.5
1.0
1.5 2.0
V= Ship speed, relative to the water H = Water Depth T= Ship's static even - keel draft C= is a constant value of 0.600 V and H / T are variable
Figure 3.3
SAQ I
(a) Explain why the ship experiences less water under her keel in shallow waters but not in deeper waters. How does knowing the width of influence help? Explain the effect of block co-efficient, blockage factor and the ratio of depth to draft in the squat phenomena.
(b) (c)
3.4 HYDRODYNAMIC INTERACTION

We have seen in the earlier section, how hydrodynamic equilibrium is reached when a ship is moving through water and noted that this hydrodynamic equilibrium may be altered among other things by pressure of another ship even at a moderate distance. We shall look into this in detail in this module. Let us consider a simple hypothetical example.
Flo.
Turbulent Flo 100 % L
Flow
61
Manoeuvring
A\
'If
Zero Velocity
Zero Velocity
1.
11
I~1
~;,~
1~
\ ~ \ ~ \~
it
~ ~
Figure 3.5: Stream Line: Flow of Water Around the Hull of Moving Ship
Direction i /A\ Waves Net pressure force on Forefoot P,

4\
1,+A
Net pressure on hull Hull resistance R
Ii I t I
1! l i
/ I/ I/ 1
! I
I
/I
R = P , - PA
I\ I \ 1 \\ \ +
/I
Waves + Ve pressure - Ve pressure
Net pressure force On alelrbody - Pq no side force
Figure 3.6: Pressure Zones around the Hull
3.4.1 Interaction between Ships and Bank

When two identical ships are proceeding on identical course (parallel to each other) and speed, each ship has her streamlines and water flows in them forward to aft. When these ships are far away, these water flows are not disturbed. However, when these ships come close to each other with each other's streamlines overlapping, it causes reduction in pressure on their quarters. Positive pressure zone on each ship towards forward part remains intact. Now there are two different pressure zones on inboard side of each ships hull:
62
(a) (b)
Positive pressure zone forward. Negative (lower) pressure zone along ships hull.
This imbalance of pressure zone will cause bows to repel each other with both areas having positive pressure, and mid ships areas tend to draw close to each other. The stern gets sucked close to each other.
Bows turn away
waterun between the hulls of two ships
__
Figure 3.7: Interaction at Constant Speed
We may use this analogy to explain interaction between a ship and a bank.
3.4.2 Bank Cushion

Ship passing along the centre of the channel-alone. Normal pressure zones in this condition are higher-pressure zones forward and lower pressure zones on both sides midships up to the stern. Since the ship is in centre of the channel, the flow of water is even an each side and ship continues to maintain her course (No disturbance No forces No turning moment) (a) If the ship for any reason leaves the centre of the channel and gets closer to one bank, the hydrodynamic equilibrium is disturbed. Consider the bank as an image mirror image of the ship. The forward portion of the ship, which is creating waves and meeting the resistance, maintains positive pressure. Ships bow will experience a sheer away from the bank. This is called bank cushion or bank rejection. Due to ship coming to one bank, the area of water flow between the ship and closer bank is reduced. It is increased between the opposite side of the ship and opposite bank. Lowering of water flow area between the ship and the nearest bank causes flow to speed up and thus reduce the pressure between the ships side (niidships to aft) and the bank. (c) This will result in ship being sucked towards the bank Bank Suction. This is accompanied by a build up of pressure near the bow seen as enhanced wave between the bow and the bank with a cushion effect. This tends to push the bow away with consequence of stern being drawn towards the bank. (d) If there is sufficient speed, the bow cushion can dominate the bank effect to such an extent that both the bow and the ship are pushed away. This may result in violent sheer.
(b)
63
Manoeuvring
3.4.3 Interaction between Ships

In narrow channels, where two-way traffic is permitted or overtaking is possible and allowed, there exists possibility of interaction between the ships and with banks if one of the ships goes too close to the bank. Therefore, knowledge of how to pass or overtake another ship is important. Head on (End on)/Reciprocal Course Passing When two ships are approaching on reciprocal course, their combined and relative velocity is comparatively high and they overlap for comparatively short period. If there is time to act, the pressure zones help ship handler to pass clear and regain centre of channel quickly, as shown in the diagrams below : Correct Positioning For End on Encounter Incorrect Positioning For End on Encounter
Pressure build up on bow
Pressure build up on bow
Ship
I I ~
Mirror image/
I I ~ ~
Mirror image Bank on port side
Ship Lowering of pressure on the side closer to bank
Lowering of Bank on pressure on the stbd side side closer to bank
(Flow speed up near the bank) reducing the pressure RESULT Bow Cushion pushes bow away VIOLENT SHEER & lower i nboar d pres sure sucks stern (& mid body) towards the bank
Correct Positioning for End On Encounter
1--t Positioning fai, End
On
En.
Figure 3.8: Correct Positioning for End of Encounter
64
Figure 3.9: Ship-to-ship Interaction while Passing on Reciprocal Courses
Caution for reasons explained below, it is advisable not to alter course to starboard side of the channel too early or too fast. If done too early the ship may experience bank effect and may get violent sheer away across the path of approaching ships. Interaction tends to help the ship handler because when close (a) (b) (c) Overtaking Ship created wave travels at the same speed as the ship. Therefore, interaction may take place even when ships are some distance away. When overtaking on parallel or nearly parallel course, their relative velocities are low. Therefore, if ships are in close proximity for some time interaction has time to affect both the vessels. Caution The ship to be overtaken should not move over to the starboard side of the channel without first considering the consequences of bank effect and the danger of sheering across the path of the overtaking vessel. This particularly applies to small vessels, which will be influenced by bow wave pressures zones of the larger ship. In some cases, the overtaken vessel may gradually turn across the path of overtaken vessel because of pressure imbalance caused by overtaking vessel on the after body of overtaken vessel. When both the ships are abeam of each other they may sheer apart with violence because of the high pressure areas in the after parts. It may be noted that the interaction explained above may take place in the open seas also if overtaking in close proximity. Interaction When a Ship is Overtaking Another When overtaking, both ships experience not only lateral forces but also increase in resistance. Stages When Overtaking (a) As overtaking begins, the overtaking ship experiences reduced resistance and accelerates ahead. Bows tend to be pushed away from each other prior to and at passing. The ships may be sucked together, as they pass. They may be pushed apart with their sterns passing each other thus helping to regain the course.
65
Manoeuvring
(b) (c)
At the same time, overtaken ship experiences an increase in resistance and hangs back. As the manoeuvre progress opposite occurs, overtaken ship speeds up and overtaking ship hangs back.
In extreme case, the overtaking ship may not be able to complete the overtaking manoeuvre and this effect is called being trapped. Solution : If channel width permits, the ships should keep larger distance between them and move apart to reduce the magnitude of the trapping effect.
Encounter A Encounter B
VB Ship B Ship B VA Ship A
T
VA
Ship A
Figure 3.10: Ship-to-ship jnteraction while Overtaking
Contact Trapping A special form of trapping between a large ship and a small ship takes place when the two ships are close alongside while moving ahead. This is termed contact trapping. This can occur if the small ship is near the fore body of the large ship and is in the region of increased resistance. In this region, a suction force is felt by smaller ship, which holds the smaller vessel against the larger. Because of the contact, the rudder of smaller vessel becomes ineffective in breaking away from larger vessel. Even if the bow of the small vessel swings out the flow in the narrow gap between the ships accelerates the flow and the small ship is sucked back alongside.
3.5 TUG SHIP INTERACTION

Of the various types of interactions experienced by a ship handler interaction between a tug making fast with ships/tugs rope pe on a bow of a ship is most common and can at times be dangerous resulting in capsizing of the tug under the bow of the ship. This danger is more likely inxase of conventional tugs than the case of modern tractor or reverse tractor tugs (which can manoeuvre themselves out of dangerous situations). The interaction usually is more pronounced in the fore body of the ship though it is present at the stern of the vessel also. SAQ 2 (a) 66 Explain how a ship. overtaking another could get itself in difficulties when passing close.
(b) - What precautions are necessary for the safety of a tug made fast at the bow?
(c)
When in transit along a canal how does the interaction between the banks affect the ship?
3.6 SUMMARY ,
When a ship moves through water, the water she displaces is replaced by the water flowing around the hull and under the hull. The lateral symmetry of the hull to port and starboard causes hydrodynamic pressures exerted on the ship to be symmetrical. Thus the forces and the moments they cause are balanced. When the ship is in the open sea and steaming at a constant speed. The balance is however disturbed due to Waves Presence of another ship nearby Presence of banks, shoals e.g. in canals, rivers In shallow water with small under keel clearance
Such hydrodynamic interaction may cause the ship to move bodily, sideways and turn. When a ship gets underway from rest, particularly in shallow water, she experiences a reduction in under keel clearance (UKC) resulting from bodily sinkage and change of trim, which is known as 'squat'. Such a reduction in UKC may cause a ship to touch ground, experience erratic steering and intensification of bank effects. In a narrow channel if a ship leaves the centre of the channel and gets closer to one bank, the hydrodynamic equilibrium is disturbed and the ship's bow will experience a phenomena known as 'bank cushion'. When passing another vessel or overtaking another vessel in a narrow channel, there exists a possibility of interaction between ships and with banks if one of the ships goes too close to a bank. When handling a ship in narrow channel or shallow water the navigator has to exercise due diligence and care.
3.7 ANSWERS TO SAQs

SAQ 1
(a)
The ship experiences less water under her keep because of a phenomenon called squat. It is the reduction in under keel depth resulting from bodily sinkage and change of trim, which occurs when ship moves through water. The algebraic sum of bodily sinkage and the change in trim forward or aft is the "ship squat". When the available width of channel reduces, the ship experiences a drag. It is almost nil when the width is more than 8 to 12 times that breadth. Knowing the width of influence allows the master to anticipate the interaction between two ships or the bank and the ship. Squat occurs due to obstruction made to the flow water when the hip is moving. Coefficient of fineness is the criteria of the fullness of the hull form. The greater the Cb. the larger the obstruction. Blockage is the relationship between the cross section area of the ship and the cross section area of the
(b)
(c)
67
Manoeuvring
channel. The smaller the cross section of the channel in relation to the ship the larger the obstruction. When the depth is shallow, there is not much clearance under the keel and this restriction for water passage brings about of the reduction of the clearance even further. SAQ 2 (a) When ships are overtaking at close range, interaction between ships affects both the ships. When the ship is parallel to the other both sips pushes the other, when the stern of the overtaking ship comes abreast of the overtaken vessel the stern gets pushed and the bow swings toward the other. This may cause an accident. Tugs made fast forward may get involved in interaction and come across the bow of the towed ship. Ship should be ready to release the tug instantaneously if needed. In narrow channel if the ship gets closer bodily to the bank the effect called bank cushion takes place, which pushes the ship toward the centre of the channel. However if the bow of the ship gets closer the bow would be pushed but the stern would get in under the influence of bank suction. If the ship is proceeding at sufficient speeds then a violent sheer may take place.
(b)
(c)
68
UNIT 4 TUGS AND TOWING

Structure
4.1 Introduction
Objectives
4.2 Definitions 4.3 Towage Requirements 4.4 Types of Tugs

4.4.1 European Conventional Tugs 4.4.2 American Tugs 4.4.3 Tractor Tugs
4.5 Methods of Tug Assistance

4.5.1 Modern Towing Operations 4.5.2 Factors Determining Tug Performance 4.5.3 Bollard Pull 4.5.4 Tug Stability 4.5.5 Girding of the Tug
4.6 Types of Tugs : Tractor Tugs

4.6.1 Types 4.6.2 Description of Tractor Tugs 4.6.3 Reverse Tractor or Pusher Tugs 4.6.4 Azimuth Stern Drive Tugs (ASD Tugs)
4.7 Emergency Towing Arrangement (ETA) 4.8 Summary
4.1 INTRODUCTION
A tug is a mobile, versatile thrust unit, designed to provide its thrust in various ways to a ship, barge or other floating objects. Development of tugs has been parallel to ship development. Earlier tugs were steam tugs with stern or side paddle wheels. Then came steam screw propeller tugs with single screw or twin screws. Diesel engines have now replaced steam engines. In the last three decades 360 rotatable propellers (Azimuth propellers) and cycloid propulsion (Voith) has been used extensively. Other improvements have also taken place-making tugs suitable for different roles. Several basic types of tugs have evolved and the variation in tug types has tended to split along somewhat on the geographical lines- e.g. i) European/ English, ii) American and iii) Japanese. Tugs are also classified according to the function they perform and the place of operation. For example
L_
Deep-sea towage, Escort, Berthing and unberthing.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to state the various types of tugs and their limitations, list the use of tugs in ship manoeuvring, and explain the precautions to be taken when the tugs are used for manoeuvring. 69
Manoeuvring
4.2 DEFINITIONS
Bollard Pull (BP) Breaking Load (BL) Ocean towing Documented continuous bollard pull Documented minimum breaking load Towing operations where the distance between designated ports of designate or safe anchoring along the route is more than 24 hours, taken into account weather conditions. The towing vessel, including towing vessel equipment and the towed object including its towing equipment, cargo and cargo'securing The complete towing operation All towing equipments on the towing vessel and the towed object used to effect the towage The manager responsible for the towage. A Tug master may be designated as Towing master Tug master The master of a towing vessel
Tow Towage Towing equipment Towing master
4.3 TOWAGE REQUIREMENTS

The requirement for towage assistance is normally needed when the ships reduce speed and she is no longer under total self control, does not have sufficient sea room to manoeuvre safely without external assistance. This period however may be somewhat extended by the modern requirement for escort services for ships carrying dangerous cargoes in restricted waters. However, from the tractor's point of view this escort requirement is merely an extension of the normal service though up to much higher speeds than in the past. This question of speed not only applies to escort services. Many ships at sea today have very high minimum speeds, which may be above safe operating speeds for some tugs, leaving the ship in limbo until the speed is reduced sufficiently. The sight of a tug in the vicinity of the ships bow or stem should not be taken as reassurance that practical assistance is immediately available. The trend in modem tractor desi g n is towards being capable of assistance at speeds in the region of 10 knots and above rather than the lower speeds of the past. This means real assistance, not just for show, as the vicinity of a ship moving at 10-11 knots is a much more arduous working environment than near a ship moving at half that speed. Not only do things happen twice as fast but forces involved generally also increase with the square of the speed. The question arises then that if the tug is not capable of providing the required assistance at that speed then should it be made fast in the first place, whether on a slack line or not? As we have seen earlier that except for small to moderate size of specially built ships, ships propulsion and rudder systems alone are not adequate to perform manoeuvres in narrow restricted areas like in ports, narrow channels and berthing and unberthing, etc. Present day ships possess immensp mass; have thin skins (ship sides), which require gentle landing while berthing. Such ships can have bigger damage on grounding, etc. The gentl to environment can be disastrous in case of an accident. Failure of ship's own propulsion and or rudder system is not acceptable. Positive control is needed in port channels; manoeuvring areas therefore, escort tugs are required for LNG ships, large petroleum tankers, and ships carryin g hazardous cargoes. Some ships have disadvantages such as their engines can not run below certain speeds and which cannot steer adequately with engines stopped. Thus for the safety of ships, and port installations and the safety of the environment tugs are necessary. Quick turn round of ships is necessary for both ships and ports so that the terminals can be used to maximum capacity to lower the transport costs.
70
4.4 TYPES OF TUGS

4.4.1 European Conventional Tugs
These have evolved mostly from 'On the hook towing astern' Towing point amidships just slightly abaft the centre of buoyancy
Tugs and Towing
American Tugs
These have evolved from traditional towing alongside. Towing point (hook) is farther aft than European type.
4.4.3 Tractor Tugs

Tractor tug is designed to pull from its stern or push with its stem. These tugs have ability to direct their thrust through 360 of azimuth and have the propeller units located forward in the hull and tow point at stern of the tug so that the tug renders the strain on the towline but can pull in any direction. They have a skeg or vertical fin aft to pivot on.
4.5 METHODS OF TUG ASSISTANCE ,

4.5.1 Modern Towing Operations
There are four main positions around a ship where a tug will exert a towing force (a) Line tow forward, (c) Push/pull quarter, and (b) Push/pull shoulder, (d) Line tow aft.
Forward Traditionally this has been the position for the first tug to be made fast. Although new research has backed up modern thought that this is really the least effective position in that the steering forces that can be exerted with a stem propelled tug are minimal until the way is almost off a ship. Braking forces are nil until the tug can either come around through 180 degrees or pull the ship into a tight turn to reduce its speed. Not only is the bow the most difficult position for the tug at speed, it is also the least effective point to apply a turning moment through the lever arm being short and the applicable force being limited. A pilot's comment on being faced with this dilemma was that he felt comfortable seeing the mast of the tug under the focsle, he could not see the stem tug without going out to the bridge wing. Only in the final approach to a berth or lock when the speed is minimal does this tug come into its own. Evidence of the limited help of the bow tug was noticed in one of Europe's busiest container ports when the conventional single screw tug was attempting to pull a modest sized first generation container vessel into a starboard turn of approx. 70 degrees with an ebb tide of approx. three knots on the starboard bow. The 40 tonne bollard pun tug was holding a safe position on the starboard bow for fifteen minutes and pulling at maximum power to make the turn. In order that the tug was not put into a girding situation the ship was unable to use more than the occasional burst at dead slow to overcome the ebb tide. As already stated these problems were the driving force behind the development of the tractor, with the forward propulsion reducing the dangers of girding. However, the limitations of pulling on a short lever arm still apply. Because there are circumstances when a strong pull on the bow is the best alternative, the thrust distribution of the Voith Schneider propeller is now arranged to permit relatively high steering forces to be used without loss of forward thrust. This permits turning forces at larger towline angles and quicker movement from one bow to the other without slacking the line. Shoulder This was a secondary position forward but is used to reduce the danger to the tug and simplify the towing gear and crew requirements. Push/pull operations were developed particularly in USA, Japan and Australia where lock systems did not complicate the 71
Manoeuvring
towing operation. However, the effectiveness of trying to turn a vessel from here is somewhat similar to the forward position but several special points need addressing. To turn a vessel, a tug positioned on the inside of the turn (i.e. acting as a back spring against the ships motion) will assist the turn much more than pushing from the outside of the turn. Indeed the pusher may initially drag the ship into a turn the wrong way due to the resistance of the tug inducing a back spring effect. Swell conditions are the enemy of this operation as not only is the tug likely to range up and down the ship's side, the short towlines used minimising any spring properties. However, off the berth the push on the shoulder is invaluable. Modern ships with enormous flare and overhang often mean the tug is positioned so far aft to be pushing at the pivot point meaning there is no turning lever, merely a push bodily through the water. Quarter Again, flare and overhang influence the effectiveness of a tug working in this position as to how far aft the effective push may be applied. Obviously, the further aft the better but then the tug is both drawn into the low pressure zone but may also become perilously close to the rotating propeller. Fora safe approach, it is often necessary for the tug to land amidships and then move aft to the towing lead. Often the lead is near the bridge front which means that for a 30 metre tug the safest position is to lie forward of the towline until required. However once in this position good turning forces are achievable but only when positioned on the inside of the turn. Aft Line towing at the stem is now well recognised as the most effective towing position with respect to both braking and steering assistance, but only since the advent of modern manoeuvrable tractors such as the Voith Water Tractor has this become day-to-day practice, since conventional tugs are only effective in this area at minimal speeds. The single biggest advance in modern towing, that of indirect towing came about through the hull design of the tractor with the skeg under the after body. It was found that with careful positioning of the towing point above the skeg, the tractors hull resistance (aided by the large skeg) when being pulled through the water at oblique angles to the towline, could generate massive towline forces far in excess of the nominal bollard pull. Furthermore, in contrast to other towing methods the towline force actually increased with the ships speed. Considerable research and development has gone into refining this towing method particularly with escort towage becoming today's catchword with its demands for dynamic assistance in potentially catastrophic circumstances of steering and or engine failure in confined waters. In this operation, the hull and skeg resistance generate the towline force with the propellers merely aligning the hull to the correct towline angle both to itself and the ship. It is erroneous to say that any modern omni-directionally propelled tug can perform effective high speed indirect towing, even any Voith water tractor without due consideration of the speed and other circumstances, such as towing gear, tractor stability, hull form, control systems, etc. Coincidentally the factors leading to a good indirect towing vessel also minimise the perceived problems of working the skeg close to the ships propeller wash. However, in escort operations normally no assistance is required from the tractor so to minimise the workload on the tractors helmsman during long passive periods, a second towing point at the outboard end of the skeg can pin the tractor under the line and reduce the steering effort required. This towing point can either be fixed as with a Panama lead or removable so that the point of contact can be moved back to the centre of the skeg when required. The only drawback to towing through a fixed point in the end of the skeg is that higher steering forces are required to place the tractor in the correct attitude to obtain maximum towline forces. In practice though, this causes no problem, as the highest achievable forces need only approximately half the tractors installed power to hold the required attitude. The other significant towing operation at a ships stem is applying braking forces to the ship. Again, the tractor permits such operation from zero up to the highest speed,,. " This is mainly due to the controllable pitch characteristic of the Voith Schneider propeller with its open attitude to inflow from any direction. Using full engine speed, reverse pitch can
72
be applied until full power is absorbed from the engine without fear of excessive overload. Thus when arresting the ship's movement the nominal bollard pull is exceeded due to the propeller thrust being augmented by the resistance of the hull being pulled through the water. Any fixed pitch propeller whether on a conventional shaft or in a Z-drive unit suffers from the very real problem of stalling once speeds are above six knots in this operation. Simplicity is a key attribute of the Voith Water tractor. In all four of the towing positions discussed, the tractor's one towing point is at the most effective end, hence there is no embarrassment in sending her to any of these positions and certainly no need to consider lettin g go and reconnecting the towline through another lead. This is of particular significance to pilots and ships masters who have much else to consider when in close proximity to a berth, and are often relying on deck crews of limited number and/or strength and co mp etence. T he co ntro l o f the tr actor is also the simp lest system. Whichever way the tractor is moving the skipper have a logical control system of wheel and levers to turn or push in the natur al direction, limiting the chances of mistakes due to controls applied in unwanted directions. The simple towing arrangement and the precise manoeuvrability allows the tug to move to and from bow to shoulder or stem to quarter during one operation without any problem. C,
Tugs and Towing
4.5.2 Factors Determining Tug Performance

These are: Stability of the tug, Weight of the tug, Engine power (bollard pull), Type of propulsion, Location of the propeller with regard to the point of application of towing force, and Method of rendering assistance.
4.5.3 Bollard Pull

As we have seen earlier, a tug is a mobile thrust unit. T hrust is produced by tugs propulsion unit. Performance of propulsion is measured on normal ship by horsepower of the en gi ne However, o n tugs horsepower does not indicate its performance for various reasons. SO t unit called static Bollard Puil is used as indicator of tugs power to push or pull. It is a measure of tugs thrust at zero speed through water. Different types of tugs produce different bollard pull for given horsepower depending upon location of the propeller with regard to the point of application of towing force. The two main reasons for moving to an all or part rope system for modern towing methods arc: (a) (b) The weight of the towline to be handled by the ship's deck crew. If 180 tonne BS wire were used then this could be almost impossible to handle. Stretch is needed. When working push/pull on the shoulder or quarter, only short towline lengths are used so there is never any catenary spring effect. Another significant point is that connecting the tow in these positions must often be done by hand, as there is no lead to a winch on the ship's deck.
Typically a modern tow winch will need a brake capacity of at least three times the nominal bollard pull with simple brake/clutch control adjacent to the skipper, a very high light load recovery speed (e.g. 90 metres/min.) and a drum designed to limit spooling problems.
4.5.4 Tug Stability

While towing a ship, a tug may get "girded" when she is towed broadside by the towing line and is unable to manoeuvre out of this position.
73
Manoeuvring
Ship Towline .
Towing point Transverse Force
Water level Centre of Gravity Centre of lateral pressure
vertical Heeling lever
Figure 4.1
4.5.5 Girding
of the Tug
In simple words, this means while the tug is pulling the ship and the tug comes parallel to the ship, and then the towing line would be perpendicular to the length of the tug. Girding is a transverse overturning moment. It can heel the tug to the waterline. Flooding can then take place through any unsecured openings on the tug's deck, thereby causing the tug to capsize. The risk is greatest when the tug is towing on the beam of the ship. A small movement of the towed ship can place her in a helpless position and possibly capsize her. The magnitude of girding or transverse moment is the product of transverse force (F) and the vertical heeling lever (V) between centre of lateral pressure and the towing point. Maximum moment occurs when the towline is leading in a direction perpendicular to the fore and aft line of the tug. Perfect co-ordination of movements between the ship and the tug is therefore of great importance in order to avoid this happening. If the ship is putting too much weight on the tug, the hawser will have to be slipped quickly to prevent the tug from capsizing.
4.6 TYPE OF TUGS: TRACTOR TUGS

4.6.1 Types
(a) (b) (c) (a) (b) Voith (vertical blades-in cycloidal propulsion), Schottel right angle drive 360' degrees steerable propeller with kort nozzles, and Compass similar to Schottel but with Controllable pitch propeller. Twin Voith Schneider propellers are arranged athwartship no more than 30% of the length from forward. A nozzle or guard plate, which acts both to augment thrust and protect the propeller blades from grounding or contact with another vessel's hull. The construction of the supporting struts is such that a modern guardarrangement should be able to withstand very high impact forces without the propeller blades suffering damage or the watertight integrity of the hull being compromised. A stabilising fin aft, which was originally conceived and designed as an aid to course stability but in the early development it was found that this fin has significant uses in towing. Indeed special towing concepts and procedures were developed to utilise the effects of the fin!
4.6.2 Description of Tractor Tugs
(c)
74
(d) One set of towing gear, paid out almost exclusively from a winch (tractor crews never trust ships lines) through a towing bollard or staple situated over
the centre of the fin. (In practical terms, this point is a compromise position, for towing ahead of a vessel the ideal point is nearer the inboard end of the skeg. As a stem tug, it would ideally be nearer the outboard end). In escort service for most of the time the tractor follows the ship passively but makes fast with a slack line, a second towing point may be arranged in the bulwark over the outboard end of the skeg to reduce the helmsman's efforts during a routine operation. (e) Reduced tug manning and the need for all-round visibility during towing operations has led to the small central wheelhouse, in some cases for one man operation with all propeller engine and winch controls arranged on a central control stand. Since the propellers extend bellow the hull of the tug, tractor tugs have a draft more than the tugs with propeller in normal position at the stern of the tug. This is sometimes a disadvantage. A third type of tug is available which combines the advantages of both the p conventional type and the tractor type. This type is used in Japan and some other countries. These tugs are known as Z peller or Duckpeller. These tugs have rudder propeller (azimuthing propeller) fitted at the stem, which is cut away to take the propellers at the stern. This way the draft of the propelling units is reduced to very near that of the deepest part of the hull. These tugs are known as Azimuth Stem Drive tugs and they can manoeuvre better than conventional tugs without the disadvantages of that type and are suitable for towing on line as well as for push pull methods. This type is further subdivided in to reverse tractor type and Azimuth Stem drive.
Tugs and Towing
(f)
(g)
4.6.3 Reverse Tractor or Pusher Tugs

These have two azimuth propellers under the stem. They are specially designed for assisting over the tugs bow. They have a large towing winch forward and only a smaller towing hook aft. The towing point aft is too far aft hence, not effective if the tug has to tow on a line at a speed like conventional tugs. The propulsion units are located approximately 0.1 L from aft and the pushing point and forward towing point is at the forward point of the bow. Because of the two azimuth thrusters aft and the towing point forward, these tugs are highly manoeuvrable and safe. They can turn on the spot and move sideways. The name Reverse tractor tug denotes that the tugs operate similar to tractor tugs but in the opposite way. Tractor tugs always operate with towing and pushing point, i.e. the stem of the tug, towards the assisted ship and the propulsion units away from the assisted ship. Reverse tractor tugs do the same heading the reverse way. Push or pull with bow towards the assisted ship and propulsion away from the assisted ship. They can tow on line or assist at ship's side. They can easily change position when towing over the tug's bow to a pushing position at ships side for push/pull while berthing. When operating at ship's side, these tugs are very effective at speed. However as tug on the bow when towing on line they are less effective in steering a ship having headway. As stern tug. they are very suitable for steering and speed control of ships at speed.
4.6.4 Azimuth Stern Drive Tugs (ASD Tugs)

These tugs combine certain advantages of conventional tug and reverse tractor tug. They can operate like conventional tug as well as reverse tractor type. ASD tugs have a towing winch forward as well as towing winch or hook aft. The aft towing point is in suitable location for towing on a line (0.35 to 0.4 L from the stern). Like reverse tractor tugs they have two azimuth propellers fitted under the stem about 0.1 L from the stem. Disadvantage Risk of girding exits like conventional tug when towing on line aft.
75
Manoeuvring
4.7 EMERGENCY TOWING ARRANGEMENT (ETA)

The Emergency Towing Arrangement is fitted on a tanker and is to facilitate towing of the ship in an emergency. As per the requirements, the aft ETA should be pre-rigged and capable of being deployed in a controlled manner in harbour conditions by one person within 15 minutes. The forward ETA should be capable of being deployed in harbour conditions in not more than one hour. ETAS should be clearly marked to facilitate safe and effective use even in darkness and poor visibility. Fire Wires: Towing-off wires commonly referred to as fire wires are rigged on tankers while they are at a terminal except when tugs are not available in the particular. These wires are used if fire on board or at the terminal the ship needs to be pulled off the terminal. Fire wires should be of adequate strength and condition, and should be made fast to bollards on the tanker, forward and aft. The eye of the fire wire is run out and maintained at the waterline or about 2 meters above it. In order that sufficient wire can pay out to enable the tugs to tow effectively, enough slack should be retained between the bollard and the fairlead. To prevent the wire slack form running out it should be seized with rope yarn or other easily broken means. The wires should be hung in positions, usually the off shore side where tugs can reach them without difficulty. There are various means of rigging fire wires presently in use and ships should be guided by the terminal's instructions. The size of the wire to be used depends on the DWT of the ship.
SAQ 1
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Describe the conventional.tug with particular reference to the tugs that you have actually seen assisting. Describe the three types of tugs described above. What is girding? How is it avoided by the ship towed and when designing a tug? How is the power of tug determined? What are the principle features of the tractor tugs and how are such tugs useful?
4.8 SUMMARY'
Tug assistance is normally required when the ships reduce speed, are not in total selfcontrol and when there is not sufficient room to manoeuvre safely. Different types of tugs offer different types of assistance. Performance of a tug is determined by stability of the tug, weight of the tug, engine power (bollard pull), type of propulsion, and location of the propeller and point of application of the towing force. European conventional tugs have evolved, mostly from 'on the hook astern' type. American tugs have evolved from traditional 'towing alongside' type. Tractor tugs are designed to pull from its stern or push with its stern. They have ability to direct their thrust through 3600 of azimuth.
FURTHER READINGS
SOLAS, Chapter 11-1 Construction Structure, Stability Installations, Reg. 3.4. ISGOTT, Emergency Towing Off Wires (Fire Wires).
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-BNA - 051 SHIP MANOEUVRING AND FUTURE ISSUES

SHIP MANOEUVRING AND FUTURE ISSUES

UNIT I SHIP MANOEUVRING SHIP PROPULSION AND CONTROL

1.2 DEFINITIONS/TERMS USED IN SHIP HANDLING THEORY

Acceleration Drift angle Force Inertia Leverage Mechanical Work Moment

Motion Motive Power -Pivot Resistance Velocity

Relevance of these Definitions/Terms in Ship Handling

Ship Manoeuvring, Ship Propulsion and Control

1.3 FACTORS AFFECTING MANOEUVRING CAPABILITIES/LIMITATIONS 1.3.1 Physical Characteristics

1.3.2 Environmental Factors

1.3.3 Behaviour and Handling Characteristics

1.4 INTRODUCTION TO THEORETICAL ASPECTS

1.4.2 Basic Design of the Ship

1.5 HULL PARAMETERS THAT INFLUENCE MANOEUVRABILITY

Ship Manoeuvring, Ship Propulsion and Control

1.5.2 Resistance to Steady Forward Motion

1.5.3 Ship-Generated Wave

Formula Froude Number = V

V is the acceleration of gravity, and

1.6 FROUDE NUMBER

gl in which V is the speed, g the

Total resistance for the ship is found (c + d) above.

1.7 THE COEFFICIENT OF WAVE MAKING RESISTANCE (Cw)

Ship Manoeuvring, Ship Propulsion and Control

ransverse wavesWave length I Wave

Water line plane

Figure 1.1: Wave Patterns

1.7.1 Reducing the Coefficient of Wave Making Resistance

1.7.3 Aerodynamic Resistance

1.7.4 Change in Total Resistance

1.7.5 Components of Total Hull Resistance

where, R, is viscous resistance, Rw is wave-making resistance, and

is resistance caused by the air.

1.7.6 Flow of Water

1.7.7 Residuary Resistance

Ship Manoeuvring, Ship Propulsion and Control

1.7.8 Hull Speed

Square Root of LBP (Hull Speed)

1.3 x Hull Speed

10 knots 14.14 17.32 20 24.49 28.28 31.62 33.16

13 knots 18.38 22.51 26 31.38 36.76 41.10 43

1.8 BASIC MANOEUVRING

1.9 MANOEUVRING INFORMATION

1.10 EFFECT OF WIND DURING MANOEUVRING

Ship Manoeuvring, Ship Propulsion and Control

Ship Underway with Wind from Right Ahead

Ship Underway with Wind from Right Astern

1.11 EVALUATE AND TO ALLOW FOR THE EFFECT OF CURRENT

Ship Manoeuvring, Ship Propulsion and Control

1.12 MANOEUVRING BOOKLET

TACTICAL DIAMETER TRANSFER 9 _________ %

180' change of heading

Rudder Execute Approach Course

Figure 1.3: Definitions Used on Turning Circle Test

Parallel body at W/L. Loaded : ___________ m Ballast :____________ M

Maximum Power rpm/Pitch

kW Speed (knots) Loaded

Maximum angle Seconds effect

1.13 SHIP PROPULSION AND CONTROL

1.14 PROPULSION PLANTS

Ship Manoeuvring, Ship Propulsion and Control

present advantages over steam turbines.

Disadvantages of Diesel Engines

Parallel body at W/L. Loaded : _ m Ballast :__ M