SCB121 CHEMISTRY 2

Introduction to Chemistry

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Source Material: Blackman et al., Chemistry, Wiley, 2008. Brown, LeMay, et al., Chemistry: The Central Science, Pearson, 2006. Chang, R., General Chemistry; The Essential Concepts 3rd Ed., McGraw-Hill, 2003. Zumdahl, S. and Zumdahl S., Chemistry 6th Ed., Houghton Mifflin Company, NY, 2003. Lecture notes courtesy of Dr John McMurtrie.

Kathryn Fairfull-Smith

Lecture Set 1: Blackman et al. Chapters, 1 & 2

The Scientific Method

A systematic approach to solving problems

Matter
Anything that has mass and takes up space. Exists in three states Solid rigid, definite shape Liquid fluid, able to assume shape of container Gas fluid, expands indefinitely to fill a volume

gas liquid solid

Hierarchy: Hypothesis Law Theory

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Matter

Matter

Atoms are the building blocks of matter. Each element is made of the same kind of atom. 6 A compound is made of two or more different kinds of elements.

Pure Substances, Elements & Compounds

Elements
Element A substance that cannot be decomposed into simpler substances e.g. oxygen gas, O2

Pure substance

Matter that has distinct properties and a composition that doesnt vary from sample to sample e.g. table salt, sodium chloride, NaCl

A substance that contains atoms of only one element 113 elements currently known

Pure substances are either elements or compounds 83 occur naturally on earth (the rest are man made e.g. plutonium)

Check out www.webelements.com

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Elements

Title

NON-METALS

METALS

From Brown, LeMay et al. Pearson, 2006.

Symbol 1st letter (capital), 2nd letter (lower case) METALLOIDS Latin Natrium (Na) = sodium, Ferrum (Fe) = iron, Aurum (Au) = gold Arranged in periodic table
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Compounds
Compound H2 hydrogen H2 + oxygen The elements hydrogen and oxygen combine (or react) to produce water A substance that is composed of two or more different elements i.e. two or more different kinds of atoms, e.g. water, H2O

Compounds
sodium + chlorine sodium chloride

O2

water

H 2O

H 2O

element compound

The elemental composition of a pure compound is always the same. This is known as the Law of Constant Composition (or Law of Definite 11 Proportions) Joseph Proust (1754 - 1826)

element

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Mixtures
mixture combination of two or more substances in which each substance retains its own chemical identity and can be separated from each other

Classification of Matter

There are two types: - heterogeneous: a mixture which does not have the same composition, properties and appearance throughout, e.g. muesli, oil in water - homogeneous: a mixture which is uniform throughout, e.g. vanilla ice-cream, scotch in water a homogeneous (solution)
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heterogeneous

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Classification of Matter

Classification of Matter

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Properties of Matter
Intensive Properties Independent of the amount of the substance that is present. Density, temperature, boiling point, colour, etc. Consider the final temperature when a beaker of water at 50C is added to another beaker of water also at 50C Extensive Properties Dependent upon the amount of the substance present. Mass, volume, energy, etc. Consider the energy released when 1 kg of TNT explodes compared to the energy released when 2 kg explodes

Properties of Matter
Physical Properties Can be observed without changing a substance into another substance. Boiling point, density, mass, volume, etc. Chemical Properties Can only be observed when a substance is changed into another substance. Flammability, corrosiveness, reactivity with acid, etc.

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Changes of Matter
Physical Changes Changes in matter that do not change the composition of a substance. Changes of state, temperature, volume, etc. Water in ice (solid) is the same substance (H2O) as liquid water and water in steam (gas) Chemical Changes Changes that result in new substances. Combustion, oxidation, decomposition, etc. Bonds between atoms are broken and new bonds are formed
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Chemical Reactions (Chemical Change)

In the course of a chemical reaction, the reacting substances are converted to new substances.

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SI Units

Metric System
Prefixes convert the base units into units that are appropriate for the item being measured.

Systme International dUnits Uses a different base unit for each quantity Metric

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SI Units: Length and Mass

The SI base unit of length is the metre (m) Mass is a measure of the amount of material in an object. The SI base unit of mass is the kilogram (kg). Chemists generally work with grams of material 1 kg = 1000 g = 1 103 g

Mass vs. Weight

Mass is a measure of the quantity of matter in an object Weight is the force that gravity exerts on an object Mass is measured using scales or a balance (ironically in a procedure called weighing) The terms mass and weight are often used interchangeably and therefore incorrectly!

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Mass vs. Weight

The mass of a man on the moon is equal to the mass of the same man on earth.

SI Units: Temperature (Kelvin)

The Kelvin is the SI unit of temperature The Celsius scale divides the range between the freezing point (0C) and boiling (100C) of water into 100 degrees Kelvin is an absolute scale Relationship between C and K K = C + 273.15 0 K is absolute zero = -273.15C What are 25 and 100 C C in units of Kelvin?

The weight of a man on the moon is less than the weight of the 25 same man on earth due to the lower gravitational pull of the moon

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Derived SI Units: Volume

volume is length (m) cubed SI Unit for volume = cubic metres (m3) In chemistry we typically work with volumes in less than a cubic meter 1 cm3 = (1 10-2 m)3 = 1 10-6 m3 1 dm3 = (1 10-1 m)3 = 1 10-3 m3 A common non-SI Unit is the Litre (L) A Litre is the volume occupied by one cubic decimetre (i.e. 1 dm3 = 1 L) 1L=1 dm3 = 1000 mL
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Derived SI Units: Density

density mass of an object divided by its volume mass volume

density =

= m
V
SI Unit is the kilogram per cubic metre (kg m-3) In chemistry we typically use grams per cubic centimetre (g cm-3) Recall that 1 g cm-3 = 1 g mL-1
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1 cm3 = 1 mL

Uncertainty in Measurements
Different measuring devices have different uses and different degrees of accuracy.

Uncertainty in Measurements
Measured quantities are reported in such a way that only the last digit is uncertain. All digits of a measured quantity, including the uncertain one, are called significant figures. The greater the number of significant figures the greater is the certainty of the measurement.

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Significant Figures
All nonzero digits are significant, e.g. 123.45 Zeros between two significant figures are themselves significant, e.g. 103.405 Zeros at the beginning of a number are never significant, e.g. 00123.45 = 123.45 Zeros at the end of a number are significant if a decimal point is written in the number, e.g. 123.450 has six significant figures but 123450 has only five significant figures

Significant Figures
When addition or subtraction is performed, answers are rounded to the least significant decimal place. 2.343 + 3.2 = 5.5 When multiplication or division is performed, answers are rounded to the number of digits that corresponds to the least number of significant figures in any of the numbers used in the calculation. 5.45 2.447 = 13.3

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Significant Figures

Accuracy and Precision

Accuracy refers to the proximity of a measurement to the true value of a quantity. Precision refers to the proximity of several measurements to each other.

6 mL 6 1 mL

1 significant figure

i.e. true value is between 5 and 7 mL

6.0 mL 6.0 0.1 mL

2 significant figures

i.e. true value is between 5.9 and 6.1 mL

6.00 mL 6.00 0.01 mL

3 significant figures

i.e. true value is between 5.99 and 6.01 mL

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Tutorial Exercises
CHELP: TUTORIAL SET A - MODULE 1 Definitions, scientific notation, SI units, unit conversions

Natural Abundance of the Elements

earths crust

living systems The following slides contain additional information on: Natural abundance of the elements. Separation of mixtures. Handling numbers, scientific notation, unit conversions. Atomic structure and radioactivity.
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of the elements in earths crust, only oxygen is abundant in living systems

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Separation of Mixtures
1. Distillation Separates homogeneous mixture on the basis of differences in boiling point.

Separation of Mixtures
2. Filtration Separates solid substances from liquids and solutions.

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Handling Numbers
Chemists often use very large and very small numbers e.g. 1 gram of hydrogen contains 602 200 000 000 000 000 000 000 hydrogen atoms

Scientific Notation
All numbers can be expressed in the form

N 10n
N is a number between 1 and 10 n is an exponent that can be a positive or negative integer

and each hydrogen atom has a mass of 0.00000000000000000000000166 grams It is cumbersome and impractical to use numbers in this way
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568.7 = 5.687 102 0.00000772 = 7.72 10-6 Practice addition, subtraction, multiplication and division
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Scientific Notation
Ambiguity when the trailing numbers are zeros
e.g. How many significant figures in the quantity 600 mL? 600 100 (1 s. f.) 600 10 (2 s. f.) 600 1 (3 s. f.)

Unit Conversions: Unit Factors

1 mile = 1.6093 km dividing through by 1 mile gives 1 mile 1 mile cancelling gives = 1.6093 km 1 mile

Ambiguity is removed by use of scientific notation 6.00 102 mL implies 3 significant figures 6.0 102 mL implies 2 significant figures 6 102 mL implies 1 significant figure
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1.6093 km unit factor = 1 1 mile we say, 1.6093 km per mile

the reciprocal is

1 mile = 1 1.6093 km

also a unit factor

we say, 1 mile per 1.6093 km

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Unit Conversions using Unit Factors

see previous slide e.g. Convert 55 miles to km 55 miles = ? km unit factor 1.6093 km = 1 1 mile

Unit Conversions
Exercise: Convert 57.8 m to cm.

Multiplying the quantity in miles by the unit factor gives 55 miles 1.6093 km = 86 km (2 sig. fig.) 1 mile 55 miles = 86 km

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