Anti-lock braking system

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An anti-lock braking system (ABS, from German: Antiblockiersystem) is a safety system that allows the wheels on a motor vehicle to continue interacting tractively with the road surface as directed by driver steering inputs while braking, preventing the wheels from locking up (that is, ceasing rotation) and therefore avoiding skidding. An ABS generally offers improved vehicle control and decreases stopping distances on dry and slippery surfaces for many drivers; however, on loose surfaces like gravel or snow-covered pavement, an ABS can
[1] significantly increase braking distance, although still improving vehicle control.

Since initial widespread use in production cars, anti-lock braking systems have evolved considerably. Recent versions not only prevent wheel lock under braking, but also electronically control the frontto-rear brake bias. This function, depending on its specific cap abilities and implementation, is known as electronic brakeforce distribution (EBD), traction control system, emergency brake assist, or electronic stability control (ESC).

Operation The anti-lock brake controller is also known as the CAB (Controller Anti-lock Brake).[9] A typical ABS includes a central electronic control unit (ECU), four wheel speed sensors, and at least two hydraulic valves within the brake hydraulics. The ECU constantly monitors the rotational speed of each wheel; if it detects a wheel rotating significantly slower than the others, a condition indicative of impending wheel lock, it actuates the valves to reduce hydraulic pressure to the brake at the affected wheel, thus reducing the braking force on that wheel; the wheel then turns faster. Conversely, if the ECU detects a wheel turning significantly faster than the others, brake hydraulic pressure to the wheel is increased so the braking force is reapplied, slowing down the wheel. This process is repeated continuously and can be detected by the

dri r i rake edal l ati . S e anti l k release raking pressure 6 times per second. [ 0]

tem an appl

eE is programmed to disregard differences in eel rotati e speed elow a critical t reshold, ecause when the car is turning, the two wheels towards the center of the curve turn slower than the outer two. or this same reason, a differential is used in virtuall all roadgoing vehicles. If a fault develops in any part of the ABS, a warning light will usually e illuminated on the vehicle instrument panel, and the ABS will e disabled until the fault is rectified. he modern ABS applies individual brake pressure to all four wheels through a control system of hub-mounted sensors and a dedicated micro-controller. ABS is offered or comes standard on most road vehicles produced today and is the foundation for ES systems, which are rapidly increasing in popularity due to the vast reduction in price of vehicle electronics over the years. [ ] Modern electronic stability control ES or ESP) systems are an evolution of the ABS concept. Here, a minimum of two additional sensors are added to help the system work: these are a steering wheel angle sensor, and a gyroscopic sensor. he theory of operation is simple: when the gyroscopic sensor detects that the direction taken by the car does not coincide with what the steering wheel sensor reports, the ES software will brake the necessary individual wheel s) up to three with the most sophisticated systems), so that the vehicle goes the way the driver intends. he steering wheel sensor also helps in the operation of ornering Brake ontrol B ), since this will tell the ABS that wheels on the inside of the curve should brake more than wheels on the outside, and by how much. he ABS equipment may also be used to implement a traction control system(TCS) on acceleration of the vehicle. If, when accelerating, the tire loses traction, the ABS controller can detect the situation and take suitable action so that traction is regained. More sophisticated versions of this can also control throttle levels and brakes simultaneously.

[edit]Components

There are four main components to an ABS: speed sensors, valves, a pump, and a controller. Sp d The anti-lock braking system needs some way of knowing when a wheel is about to lock up. The speed sensors, which are located at each wheel, or in some cases in the differential, provide this information. V lv There is a valve in the brake line of each brake controlled by the ABS. n some systems, the valve has three positions: In position one, the valve is open; pressure from the master cylinder is passed right through to the brake.  In position two, the valve blocks the line, isolating that brake from the master cylinder. This prevents the pressure from rising further should the driver push the brake pedal harder.  In position three, the valve releases some of the pressure from the brake. Pump Since the valve is able to release pressure from the brakes, there has to be some way to put that pressure back. That is what the pump does; when a valve reduces the pressure in a line, the pump is there to get the pressure back up. C ll The controller is an ECU type unit in the car which receives information from each individual wheel speed sensor, in turn if a wheel loses traction the signal is sent to the controller, the controller will then limit the brakeforce (EB ) and activate the ABS modulator which actuates the braking valves on and off. [edit]Use


There are many different variations and control algorithms for use in an ABS. ne of the simpler systems works as follows: [ 0] . The controller monitors the speed sensors at all times. It is looking for decelerations in the wheel that

are out of the ordinary. ight before a wheel locks up, it will experience a rapid deceleration. If left unchecked, the wheel would stop much more quickly than any car could. It might take a car five seconds to stop from 60 mph (96.6 km/h) under ideal conditions, but a wheel that locks up could stop spinning in less than a second. 2. The ABS controller knows that such a rapid deceleration is impossible, so it reduces the pressure to that brake until it sees an acceleration, then it increases the pressure until it sees the deceleration again. It can do this very quickly, before the tire can actually significantly change speed. The result is that the tire slows down at the same rate as the car, with the brakes keeping the tires very near the point at which they will start to lock up. This gives the system maximum braking power. 3. hen the ABS system is in operation the driver will feel a pulsing in the brake pedal; this comes from the rapid opening and closing of the valves. This pulsing also tells the driver that the ABS has been triggered. Some ABS systems can cycle up to 6 times per second. [edit]Brake types Anti-lock braking systems use different schemes depending on the type of brakes in use. They can be differentiated by the number of channels: that is, how many valves that are individually controlledand the number of speed sensors.[ 0] S Four-channel, four-sensor This is the best scheme. There is a speed sensor on all four wheels and a separate valve for all four wheels. ith this setup, the controller monitors each wheel individually to make sure it is achieving maximum braking force. Three-channel, four-sensor S

There is a speed sensor on all four wheels and a separate valve for each of the front wheels, but only one valve for both of the rear wheels. Three-channel, hree-sensor S This scheme, commonly found on pickup trucks with four-wheel ABS, has a speed sensor and a valve for each of the front wheels, with one valve and one sensor for both rear wheels. The speed sensor for the rear wheels is located in the rear axle. This system provides individual control of the front wheels, so they can both achieve maximum braking force. The rear wheels, however, are monitored together; they both have to start to lock up before the ABS will activate on the rear. ith this system, it is possible that one of the rear wheels will lock during a stop, reducing brake effectiveness. This system is easy to identify, as there are no individual speed sensors for the rear wheels. S One-channel, one-sensor This system is commonly found on pickup trucks with rear-wheel ABS. It has one valve, which controls both rear wheels, and one speed sensor, located in the rear axle. This system operates the same as the rear end of a three-channel system. The rear wheels are monitored together and they both have to start to lock up before the ABS kicks in. In this system it is also possible that one of the rear wheels will lock, reducing brake effectiveness. This system is also easy to identify, as there are no individual speed sensors for any of the wheels. [edit]Effectiveness A 2003 Australian study by Monash University Accident esearch Centre found that ABS:[ ]


educed the risk of multiple vehicle crashes by 8 percent, educed the risk of run-off-road crashes by 35 percent.

n high-traction surfaces such as bitumen, or concrete, many (though not all) ABSequipped cars are able to attain braking distances better (i.e. shorter) than those that

would be easily possible without the benefit of ABS. In real world conditions even an alert, skilled driver without ABS would find it difficult, even through the use of techniques like threshold braking, to match or improve on the performance of a typical driver with a modern ABS-equipped vehicle. ABS reduces chances of crashing, and/or the severity of impact. The recommended technique for nonexpert drivers in an ABS-equipped car, in a typical full-braking emergency, is to press the brake pedal as firmly as possible and, where appropriate, to steer around obstructions. In such situations, ABS will significantly reduce the chances of a skid and subsequent loss of control. In gravel, sand and deep snow, ABS tends to increase braking distances. n these surfaces, locked wheels dig in and stop the vehicle more quickly. ABS prevents this from occurring. Some ABS calibrations reduce this problem by slowing the cycling time, thus letting the wheels repeatedly briefly lock and unlock. Some vehicle manufacturers provide an "off-road" button to turn ABS function off. The primary benefit of ABS on such surfaces is to increase the ability of the driver to maintain control of the car rather than go into a skid, though loss of control remains more likely on soft surfaces like gravel or slippery surfaces like snow or ice. n a very slippery surface such as sheet ice or gravel, it is possible to lock multiple wheels at once, and this can defeat ABS (which relies on comparing all four wheels, and detecting individual wheels skidding). Availability of ABS relieves most drivers from learning threshold braking.

A June 999 National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) study found that ABS increased stopping distances on loose gravel by an average of 22 percent.[ 2] According to the NHTSA, "ABS works with your regular braking system by automatically pumping them. In vehicles not equipped with ABS, the driver has to manually pump the brakes to prevent wheel lockup. In vehicles equipped with ABS, your foot should remain firmly planted on the brake pedal, while ABS pumps the brakes for you so you can concentrate on steering to safety." hen activated, some earlier ABS systems caused the brake pedal to pulse noticeably. As most drivers rarely or never brake hard enough to cause brake lock-up, and a significant number rarely bother to read the d d] car's manual, [citati this may not be discovered until an emergency. hen drivers do encounter an emergency that causes them to brake hard, and thus encounter this pulsing for the first time, many are believed to reduce pedal pressure, and thus lengthen braking distances, contributing to a higher level of accidents than the superior emergency stopping capabilities of ABS would otherwise promise. Some manufacturers have therefore implemented a brake assist system that determines that the driver is attempting a "panic stop" (by detecting that the brake pedal was depressed very fast, unlike a normal stop where the pedal pressure would usually be gradually increased, Some systems additionally monitor the rate at the accelerator d d] was released) [citati and the system automatically increases braking force where

not enough pressure is applied. Hard or panic braking on bumpy surfaces, because of the bumps causing the speed of the wheel(s) to become erratic may also trigger the ABS. Nevertheless, ABS significantly improves safety and control for drivers in most on-road situations. Anti-lock brakes are the subject of some experiments centred around risk compensation theory, which asserts that drivers adapt to the safety benefit of ABS by driving more aggressively. In a Munich study, half a fleet of taxicabs was equipped with antilock brakes, while the other half had conventional brake systems. The crash rate was substantially the same for both types of cab, and ilde concludes this was due to drivers of ABS-equipped cabs taking more risks, assuming that ABS would take care of them, while the non-ABS drivers drove more carefully since ABS would not be there to help in case of a dangerous situation.[ 3] A similar study was carried out in slo, with similar d d] results.[citati
[edi ]

  

Diesel engine
A diesel engine (also known as a compression-igni ion engine ) is an internal combustion engine that uses the heat of compression to initiate ignition to burn the fuel, which is injected into the combustion chamber. This is in contrast to spark-ignition engines such as a petrol engine (gasoline engine) or gas engine (using a gaseous fuel as opposed to gasoline), which uses a spark plug to ignite an air-fuel mixture. The engine was developed by udolf Diesel in 893. The diesel engine has the highest thermal efficiency of any regular internal or external combustion engine due to its very high compression ratio. Low-speed Diesel engines (as used in ships and other applications where overall engine weight is relatively unimportant) often have a thermal efficiency which exceeds 50 percent.[

][2] [3] [4]

Diesel engines are manufactured in two stroke and four stroke versions. They were originally used as a more efficient replacement for stationary steam engines. Since the 910s they have been used insubmarines and ships. Use in locomotives, large trucks and electric generating plants followed later. In the 1930s, they slowly began to be used in a few automobiles. Since the 1970s, the use of diesel engines in larger on-road and off-road vehicles in the USA increased. As of 2007, about 50 percent of all new car sales in Europe are diesel.
[5]

about 108,920 hp (81,220 kW) @ 102 rpm [6] output.[7

How diesel engines work


The diesel internal combustion engine differs from the gasoline powered tto cycle by using highly

compressed, hot air to ignite the fuel rather than using a spark plug (compression ignition rather than spark ignition). In the true diesel engine, only air is initially introduced into the combustion chamber. The air is then compressed with a compression ratio typically between 15:1 and 22:1 resulting in 40-bar (4.0 MPa; 580 psi) pressure compared to 8 to 14 bars (0.80 to 1.4 MPa) (about 200 psi) in the petrol engine. This high compression heats the air to 550 C (1,022 ). At about the top of the compression stroke, fuel is injected directly into the compressed air in the combustion chamber. This may be into a (typically toroidal) void in the top of the piston or a pre-chamber depending upon the design of the engine. The fuel injector ensures that the fuel is broken down into small droplets, and that the fuel is distributed evenly. The heat of the compressed air vaporizes fuel from the surface of the droplets. The vapour is then ignited by the heat from the compressed air in the combustion chamber, the droplets

The world's largest diesel engine is currently a

rtsil Sulzer

T96-C Common

ail marine diesel of

continue to vaporise from their surfaces and burn, getting smaller, until all the fuel in the droplets has been burnt. The start of vaporisation causes a delay period during ignition and the characteristic diesel knocking sound as the vapor reaches gnition temperature and causes an abrupt increase in i pressure above the piston. The rapid expansion of combustion gases then drives the piston downward, supplying power to the crankshaft.[

the Diesel principle but premix fuel and air via a carburation system external to the combustion chambers. As well as the high level of compression allowing combustion to take place without a s eparate ignition system, a high compression ratio greatly increases the engine's efficiency. Increasing the compression ratio in a spark-ignition engine where fuel and air are mixed before entry to the cylinder is limited by the need to prevent damaging pre-ignition. Since only air is compressed in a diesel engine, and fuel is not introduced into the cylinder until shortly before top dead centre ( DC), T premature detonation is not an issue and compression ratios are much higher.

Major a

antages

Diesel engines have several advantages over other internal combustion engines: They burn less fuel than a petrol engine performing the same work, due to the engine's higher

mechanical energy. 

[ 7]

They have no high-tension electrical ignition system to attend to, resulting in high reliability and easy adaptation to damp environments. The absence of coils, spark plug wires, etc., also eliminates a source of radio frequency emissions wh can interfere with navigation and ich communication equipment, which is especially important in marine and aircraft applications.

They can deliver much more engine.

[citation nee e ]

[quantify]

of their rated power on a continuous basis than a petrol

[ The life of a diesel engine is generally about twice as long as that of a petrol engine ] due to the

increased strength of parts used. Diesel fuel has better lubrication properties than petrol as well.

)(

%$

percent efficient while diesel engines can convert over

percent of the fuel energy into

temperature of combustion and greater expansion ratio. Gasoline engines are typically

[1]

"

Engines for scale-model aeroplanes use a variant of

&

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Diesel fuel is considered safer than petrol in many applications. Although diesel fuel will burn in open air using a wick, it will not explode and does not release a large amount of flammable vapor. The low vapor pressure of diesel is especially advantageous in marine applications, where the accumulation of explosive fuel-air mixtures is a particular hazard. or the same reason, diesel engines are immune to vapor lock.

engine remains nearly constant, as opposed to petrol and turbine engines which use proportionally more fuel with partial power outputs.  
[29][30][31][32]

They generate less waste heat in cooling and exhaust.[1] Diesel engines can accept super- or turbo-charging pressure without any natural limit, constrained only by the strength of engine components. This is unlike petrol engines, which inevitably suffer detonation at higher pressure.

The carbon monoxide content of the exhaust is minimal, therefore diesel engines are used in underground mines.[33]

Biodiesel is an easily synthesized, non-petroleum-based fuel (through transesterification) which can run directly in many diesel engines, while gasoline engines either need adaptation to run synthetic fuels or else use them as an additive to gasoline (e.g., ethanol added to gasohol).

or any given partial load the fuel efficiency (mass burned per energy produced) of a diesel

Mechanical and electronic injection

Many configurations of fuel injection have been used over the past century (19012000). Most present day (2008) diesel engines make use of a camshaft, rotating at half crankshaft speed, lifted mechanical single plunger high pressure fuel pump driven by the engine crankshaft. or each cylinder, its plunger measures the amount of fuel and determines the timing of each injection. These engines use injectors that are very precise spring-loaded valves that open and close at a specific fuel pressure. or each cylinder a plunger pump is connected to an injector with a high pressure fuel line. uel volume for each single combustion is controlled by a slanted groove in the plunger which rotates

only a few degrees releasing the pressure and is controlled by a mechanical governor, consisting of weights rotating at engine speed constrained by springs and a lever. The injectors are held open by the fuel pressure.

n high speed engines the plunger pumps are together in one unit.

[34]

Each fuel line

should have the same length to obtain the same pressure delay. A cheaper configuration on high speed engines with fewer than six cylinders is to use an axial-piston distributor pump, consisting of one rotating pump plunger delivering fuel to a valve and line for each cylinder (functionally analogous to points and distributor cap on an tto engine).

[26]

This contrasts with

the more modern method of having a single fuel pump which supplies fuel constantly at high pressure with a common rail (single fuel line common) to each injector. Each injector has a solenoidoperated by an electronic control unit, resulting in more accurate control of injector opening times that depend on other control conditions, such as engine speed and loading, and providing better engine performance and fuel economy. This design is also mechanically simpler than the combined pump and valve design, making it generally more reliable, and less loud, than its mechanical counterpart. Both mechanical and electronic injection systems can be used in either direct or indirect injection configurations.

lder diesel engines with mechanical injection pumps could be inadvertently run in reverse, albeit

very inefficiently, as witnessed by massive amounts of soot being ejected from the air intake. This was often a consequence of push starting a vehicle using the wrong gear. Large ship diesels can run either way.

Injection pump
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. (Consider using more specific clean up instructions.) Please improve this article if you can. The talk page may contain suggestions. (February 2008)

Injection pump for a 1 -cylinder diesel engine

An Injection P m is the device that pumps fuel into the cylinders of a diesel engine or less typically, a gasoline engine. Traditionally, the pump is driven indirectly from the crankshaft by gears, chains or a toothed belt (often the timing belt) that also drives the camshaft on overhead-cam engines ( O C ). It rotates at half crankshaft speed in a conventional four-stroke engine. Its timing is such that the fuel is injected only very slightly before top dead centre of that cylinder's compression stroke. It is also common for the pump belt on gasoline engines to be driven directly from the camshaft. In some systems injection

Contents
[hide]

1 Safety 2 Construction 3 New types 4 References

[edit]Safety
Because of the need for positive injection into a very high-pressure environment, the pump develops great

care when working on diesel systems; escaping fuel at this sort of pressure can easily penetrate skin and

B AA

A AA @

pressuretypically 1 ,

psi (1

988 7

pressures can be as high as

p a.

P a) or more on newer systems. This is a good reason to take great

5 4

clothes, and be injected into body tissues with medicalconsequences serious enough to warrant amputation. [1]

[edit]Construction

Inline diesel injection pump

Earlier diesel pumps used an in-line layout with a series of cam-operated injection cylinders in a line, rather like a miniature inline engine. The pistons have a constant stroke volume, and injection volume (ie, throttling) is controlled by rotating the cylinders against a cut-off port that aligns with a helical slot in the cylinder. When all the cylinders are rotated at once, they simultaneously vary their injection volume to produce more or less power from the engine. Inline pumps still find favour on large multi-cylinder engines such as those on trucks, construction plant, static engines and agricultural vehicles.

Distributor diesel injection pump

For use on cars and light trucks, the rotary pump or distributor pump was developed. It uses a single injection cylinder driven from an axial cam plate, which injects into the individual fuel lines via a rotary distribution valve. ater incarnations such as the Bosch VE pump vary the injection timing with crank speed to allow greater power at high crank speeds, and smoother, more economical running at slower revs. Some VE variants have a pressure-based system that allows the injection volume to increase over normal to allow a turbocharger or supercharger equipped engine to develop more power under boost conditions.

Inline diesel metering pump

All injection pumps incorporate a governor to cut fuel supply if the crank speed endangers the engine - the heavy moving parts of diesel engines do not tolerate overspeeding well, and catastrophic damage can occur if they are over-revved.

ROTARY PUMP
General Description An external view of a typical pump is shown in ig. 1 and an internal section in ig. 2. The main rotating components are the drive shaft (1), distributor rotor (2), transfer pump blades (5), and governor components (11). The drive shaft engages the distributor rotor in the hydraulic head. The drive end of the rotor incorporates two pumping plungers. The plungers are actuated toward each other simultaneously by an internal cam ring through rollers and shoes which are carried in slots at the drive end of the rotor. The number of cam lobes normally equals the number of engine cylinders.
Fig. 1 Pump Fig. 2 Sectional view

The transfer pump at the rear of the rotor is the postive displacement vane-type and is enclosed in the end cap. The end cap also houses the fuel inlet strainer and transfer pump pressure regulator. Transfer pump pressure is automatically compensated for viscosity effects due to both temperature changes and various fuel grades. The distributor rotor incorporates two charging ports and a single axial bore with one discharge port to serve all head outlets to the injection tubings. The hydraulic head contains the bore in which the rotor revolves, the metering valve bore, the charging ports and the head outlet fittings. The high pressure injection tubings leading to the nozzles are fastened to these fittings. Distributor pumps contain their own mechanical governor capable of close speed regulation. Both all-speed and min-max types are available. The centrifugal force of the weights in their retainer is transmitted through a sleeve to the governor arm and through a linkage to the metering valve. The metering valve can be closed to shut off fuel through the linkage by an independently operated shut-off lever.
Components:
1. Drive Shaft 2. Distributor otor 3. Hydraulic Head 4. Delivery Valve 5. Transfer Pump 6. Pressure egulator 7. Discharge itting 8. Metering Valve 9. Pumping Plungers 10. Internal Cam ing 11. overnor 12. overnor Weights 13. Advance 14. Drive Shaft Bushing 15. Housing 16. ollers

egulating piston Inlet side egulating slot egulating spring egulator Thin plate rifice

F E

G G E

I H H

Spring Adjusting Plug Discharge side Fig. 3 Transfer pump regulator Shoe

The automatic speed advance is a hydraulic mechanism which advances or retards the beginning of fuel delivery from the pump. This can respond to speed alone, or to a combination of speed and load changes. A more detailed description of each pump area will be covered in the following pages. Transfer pump pressure regulation efer to ig. 3 for the following description. iltered, low pressure fuel from an overhead tank or a lift pump passes through the transfer pump inlet screen. This vane-type pump consists of a stationary liner and four spring loaded blades, which are carried in the rotor slots. Excess fuel is recirculated to the transfer pump inlet by means of the pressure regulator piston, spring, and ported sleeve. uel pressure from the transfer pump forces the piston in the regulator sleeve against the spring. The pressure curve is controlled by the pump displacement, spring rate and preload, and regulating slot configuration. Therefore, pressure increases with speed. The transfer pump operates consistently over a wide viscosity range determined by different grades of diesel fuels and also when affected by varying temperatures. A thin plate incorporating a sharp-edged orifice is located in the spring adjusting plug. low through an orifice of this type is virtually unaffected by viscosity changes. An additional biasing pressure is exerted against the spring side of the piston and is determined by the linear flow around the regulating piston and the flow through the orifice. With cold or viscous fuels a reduced flow occurs through the piston and sleeve
Plunger otor Leaf spring

clearance, and the additional biasing pressure is slight. With hot or low viscosity fuels the clearance flow increases and the pressure within the spring chamber increases. The regulating spring and higher biasing pressure forces combine to control the slot area. This control maintains a nearly constant transfer pump pressure over a broad range of fuel viscosities and thus maintains stable automatic advance operation over various fuel types and temperatures. H draulic head and rotor ig. 4 shows an exploded view of the rotor and the pumping plungers. The cam rollers contact the inner surface of the cam ring form and push the plungers toward each other for injection. The shoes act as tappets between the rollers and plungers.

Cam roller Leaf spring screw Fig. 4 Rotor and plunger

efer to ig. 5. As the rotor revolves, its two inlet passages register with the charging annulus ports in the hydraulic head. Transfer pump fuel controlled by the metering valve opening, flows into the pumping chamber forcing the plungers apart. The plungers move outward for a distance proportional to the amount of fuel required for the next injection stroke. If only a small amount is admitted, as at idling, the plungers move out a short distance. If half-load is required, approximately half the pumping chamber is filled. This process is known as inlet metering. 5 ull-load delivery is controlled by the maximum plunger travel. This plunger travel is limited by the leaf spring as it is contacted by the edge of the shoes.
oller between cam lobes Plunger Metering valve Circular fuel passage otor Leaf spring Cam Shoe Inlet passages Charging passage Iranster pump

cam lobe
Cam otor utlet fitting Delivery oller contacts valve Discharge port Pumping chamber

Fig. 5 Plunger charging

efer to ig. 6. The leaf spring contacts two points near the outer ends of the rotor. As the adjusting screw is turned inward, the center of the leaf spring moves in and its ends extend outward. This increases the maximum plunger travel. Turning the adjusting screw out has the reverse effect. The adjustment set point is retained by the screw head-to-leaf spring
Cam ring Leaf spring Plungers

Fig. 6 Cam, plungers and leaf spring

friction and the coating material on the screw threads. As the rotor continues to revolve (Fig. 7), the inlet ports move out of registry and the rotor discharge port indexes with one of the head outlets. The rollers then contact opposing cam lobes which force the shoes inward against the plungers. At this point high pressure pumping begins. Further rotation of the rotor moves the
Fig. 7 Plunger discharging

rollers along the cam ramps forcing the plungers

U U

T T U V V V

together. During the discharge stroke the fuel between the plungers is displaced into the axial passage of the rotor through the delivery valve to the discharge port. The pressurized fuel then passes through the outlet fitting, enters the injection tubing and opens the nozzle. Delivery continues until the rollers travel over the cam noses and begin to move outwardly. The pressure in the axial passage is then reduced, allowing the nozzle to close. 6

Common rail
Common rail irect uel injection is a modern variant of direct fuel injection system for petrol and diesel engines.

Common rail fuel injector

individual solenoid valves, as opposed to low-pressure fuel pump feeding unit injectors (Pumpe/Dse or pump no l es). Third-generation common rail diesels now feature pie oelectric injectors for

In gasoline engines, it is utilised in gasoline direct injection engine technology.

Principles

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increased precision, with fuel pressures up to 1,

bar/26,

psi.

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On diesel engines, it features a high-pressure (over 1,

bar/1 ,

psi) fuel rail feeding

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Solenoid or piezoelectric valves make possible fine electronic control over the fuel injection time and quantity and the higher pressure that the common rail technology makes available provides better fuel atomisation. In order to lower engine noise, the engine's electronic control unit can inject a small amount of diesel just before the main injection event ("pilot" injection), thus reducing its explosiveness and vibration, as well as optimising injection timing and quantity for variations in fuel quality, cold starting and so on. Some advanced common rail fuel systems perform as many as five injections per stroke.
[6]

Common rail engines require very short (< 1 s) or no heating up time at all lower engine noise and emissions than older systems.

[citation needed]

and produce

Diesel engines have historically used various forms of fuel injection. Two common types include the unit injection system and the distributor/inline pump systems (See diesel engine and unit injector for more information). While these older systems provided accurate fuel quantity and injection timing control, they were limited by several factors:  They were cam driven and injection pressure was proportional to engine speed. This typically meant that the highest injection pressure could only be achieved at the highest engine speed and the maximum achievable injection pressure decreased as engine speed decreased. This relationship is true with all pumps, even those used on common rail systems; with the unit or distributor systems, however, the injection pressure is tied to the instantaneous pressure of a single pumping event with no accumulator and thus the relationship is more prominent and troublesome.  They were limited in the number and timing of injection events that could be commanded during a single combustion event. While multiple injection events are possible with these older systems, it is much more difficult and costly to achieve.  For the typical distributor/inline system, the start of injection occurred at a pre-determined pressure (often referred to as: pop pressure) and ended at a pre-determined pressure. This characteristic resulted from "dummy" injectors in the cylinder head which opened and closed at

pressure in the injector reached a pre-determined level, the plunger would lift and injection would start. In common rail systems, a high pressure pump stores a reservoir of fuel at high pressure up to and above 2,000 bars (29,000 psi). The term "common rail" refers to the fact that all of the fuel injectors are supplied by a common fuel rail which is nothing more than a pressure accumulator where the fuel is stored at high pressure. This accumulator supplies multiple fuel injectors with high pressure fuel. This simplifies the purpose of the high pressure pump in that it only has to maintain a commanded pressure at a target (either mechanically or electronically controlled). Thefuel injectors are typically ECU-controlled. When the fuel injectors are electrically activated, a hydraulic valve (consisting of a

pressures determined by the spring preload applied to the plunger in the injector.

nce the

nozzle and plunger) is mechanically or hydraulically opened and fuel is sprayed into the cylinders at the desired pressure. Since the fuel pressure energy is stored remotely and the injectors are electrically actuated, the injection pressure at the start and end of injection is very near the pressure in the accumulator (rail), thus producing a square injection rate. If the accumulator, pump and plumbing are sized properly, the injection pressure and rate will be the same for each of the multiple injection events.

Basic Engine Parts

The core of the engine is the cylinder, with the piston moving up and down inside the cylinder. The engine described above has one cylinder. That is typical of most lawn mowers, but most cars have more than one cylinder (four, six and eight cylinders are common). In a multi-cylinder engine, the cylinders usually are arranged in one of three ways: inline, V or flat (also known as horizontally opposed or boxer), as shown in the following figures.

Figure . Inline - he cylin ers are arrange in a line in a single bank.

Figure . V - he cylin ers are arrange in two banks set at an angle to one another.

Different configurations have different advantages and disadvantages in terms of smoothness, manufacturing cost and shape characteristics. These advantages and disadvantages make them more suitable for certain vehicles.

et's look at some key engine parts in more detail.

S ark lug The spark plug supplies the spark that ignites the air/fuel mixture so that combustion can occur. The spark must happen at just the right moment for things to work properly.

pp

Figure . Flat - he cylin ers are arrange in two banks on o

osite si es o the engine.

Valves The intake and exhaust valves open at the proper time to let in air and fuel and to let out exhaust. Note that both valves are closed during compression and combustion so that the combustion chamber is sealed. Piston A piston is a cylindrical piece of metal that moves up and down inside the cylinder. Piston rings Piston rings provide a sliding seal between the outer edge of the piston and the inner edge of the cylinder. The rings serve two purposes: They prevent the fuel/air mixture and exhaust in the combustion chamber from leaking into the sump during compression and combustion. y They keep oil in the sump from leaking into the combustion area, where it would be burned and lost. Most cars that "burn oil" and have to have a quart added every 1,000 miles are burning it because the engine is old and the rings no longer seal things properly.

Connecting rod The connecting rod connects the piston to the crankshaft. It can rotate at both ends so that its angle can change as the piston moves and the crankshaft rotates. Crankshaft The crankshaft turns the piston's up and down motion into circular motion just like a crank on a jack-in-the-box does. Sump The sump surrounds the crankshaft. It contains some amount of oil, which collects in the bottom of the sump (the oil pan). Next, we'll learn what can go wrong with engines.

Automotive battery
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

An automoti e battery is a type of rechargeable battery that supplies electric energy to an automobile.[1] Usually this refers to an SLI battery (startin , li htin , i nition) to power the starter motor, the lights, and the ignition system of a vehicles engine. An automotive battery may also be a traction battery used for the main power source of an electric vehicle. Automotive S I batteries are usually lead-acid type, and are made of six galvanic cells in series to provide

highway trucks or tractors, often equipped with Diesel engines, may have two batteries in series for a 24 volt system, or may have parallel strings of batteries. ead-acid batteries are made up of plates of lead and separate plates of lead dioxide, which are % sulfuric acid and 65% water. [2] This causes a chemical

reactionthat releases electrons, allowing them to flow through conductors to produce electricity. As the battery discharges, the acid of the electrolyte reacts with the materials of the plates, changing their surface to lead sulfate. When the battery is recharged, the chemical reaction is reversed: the lead sulfate reforms into lead oxide and lead. With the plates restored to their original condition, the process may now be repeated. Battery recycling of automotive batteries reduces resources required for manufacture of new batteries and diverts toxic lead from landfills or improper disposal.

submerged into an electrolyte solution of about

a 12 volt system. Each cell provides 2.1 volts for a total of 12.6 volt at full charge.

x x

x x

12 V,

Ah ead-acid car battery

eavy vehicles such as

Contents

1 Ty es 2 Use and maintenance

o o o o o

2.1 Fluid level 2.2 Charge and discharge 2.3 Storage 2.4 Changing a battery 2.5 Freshness

3 Failure 4 Exploding batteries 5 Terms and ratings 6 Terminal voltage 7 See also 8 Re erences 9 External links

[edit]Types
Lead-acid batteries for automotive use are made with slightly different construction techniques, depending on the application of the battery. The "flooded cell" type, indicating liquid electrolyte, is typically inexpensive and long-lasting, but requires more maintenance and can spill or leak. Flooded batteries are distinguished by the removable caps that allow for the electrolyte to be tested and maintained. More costly alternatives to flooded batteries are "Sealed" or "Valve regulated" battery of the absorbed glass mat (A M) type which uses a glass mat separator, and a "gel cell" uses fine powder to absorb and immobilize the sulfuric acid electrolyte. These batteries are not serviceable (typically termed "maintenance free") and do not require replenishment of electrolyte under normal use. Both types of sealed batteries may be used in vehicular applications where leakage is a concern. However, this article deals with the classic, flooded-type of car battery. The starting (cranking) or shallow cycle type is designed to deliver large bursts of power for a short time,

charging system. Starting batteries are intended to have a low depth of discharge on each use. They are constructed of many thin plates with thin separators between the plates, and may have a higher specific gravity electrolyte to reduce internal resistance. [1] The deep cycle (or motive) type is designed to continuously provide power for long periods of time (for example in a trolling motor for a small boat, auxiliary power for a recreational vehicle, or traction power for

as is needed to start an engine.

e]

nce the engine is started, the battery is recharged by the engine -driven

a golf cart or other battery electric vehicle). They can also be used to store energy from a photovoltaic array or a small wind turbine. Deep-cycle batteries have fewer, thicker plates and are intended to have a greater depth of discharge on each cycle, but will not provide as high a current on heavy loads The thicker plates .

hours per kilogram. Some battery manufacturers claim their batteries are dual purpose (for both starting and deep cycling). This may include m arine type batteries that may be labeled d eep discharge , which is slightly different than d eep cycle . Some cars use more exotic starter batteries- the 2010 Porsche 911 GT RS offers a lithium-ion battery as

[2]

[edit]Use [edit]Flui

and maintenance
le el

Filling a (flooded lead-acid type) car battery with distilled water

Car batteries using lead-antimony plates would require regular watering to replace water lost due to electrolysis on each charging cycle. By changing the alloying element to calcium, more recent designs

and may not provide caps for addition of water to the cells. Such batteries include extra electrolyte above the plates to allow for losses during the battery life. If the battery has easily detachable caps then a top -up with distilled water may be required from time to time. Prolonged overcharging or charging at excessively high voltage causes some of the water in the electrolyte to be broken up into hydrogen and oxygen gases, which escape from the cells. If the electrolyte liquid level drops too low, the plates are exposed to air, lose capacity, and are damaged. The sulfuric acid in the battery normally does not require replacement since it is not consumed even on overcharging. Impurities or additives in the water w reduce the life and ill

since even potable tap water can contain high levels of minerals.

[edit]Charge

an

ischarge

In normal automotive service the vehicle's charging system powers the vehicle's electrical syst ms and e restores charge used from the battery during engine cranking. When installing a new battery or recharging

performance of the battery.

anufacturers usually recommend use of deminerali ed or distilled water,

have lower water loss, unless overcharged.

odern car batteries have reduced maintenance requirements,

an option to save weight over a conventional lead-acid battery.[

survive a higher number of charge/discharge cycles. The specific energy is in the range of

-40 watt-

a battery that has been accidentally discharged completely, one of several different methods can be used to charge it. The most gentle of these is called trickle charging. Other methods include slow-charging and quick-charging, the latter being the harshest. The voltage regulator of the charge system does not measure the relative currents charging the battery and for powering the car's loads. The charge system essentially provides a fixed voltage of typically 1 . to 14.4 V (Volt), adjusted to ambient temperature, unless the alternator is at its current limit. A dis charged battery draws a high current of typically 20 to 40 A (Ampere). As the battery gets charged the charge current typically decreases 2 A to 5 A. A high load results when multiple high -power systems such as ignition, radiator fan, heater blowers, lights and entertainment system are running. In this case, the battery voltage will decrease and the charge current as well. Some manufacturers include a built-in hydrometer to show the state of charge of the battery. This acrylic eye has a float immersed in the electrolyte. When the battery is charged, the specific gravity of the

electrolyte increases (since all the sulfate ions are in the electrolyte, not combined with the plates), and the colored top of the float is visible in the window. When the battery is discharged (or if the electrolyte level is too low), the float sinks and the window appears yellow (or black). The built-in hydrometer only checks the state of charge of one cell and will not show faults in the other cells. In a non-sealed battery each of the cells can be checked with a portable or hand-held hydrometer.

products visible on top of battery. This BCI Group 24F battery claims 525 cold cranking amperes and 125 minutes reserve capacity. A battery this si e weighs about 20 kg (44 lbs).

In emergencies a vehicle can be jump started by the battery of another vehicle or by a portable battery booster. Whenever the car's charge system is inadequate to fully charge the battery, a battery charger can be used. Simple chargers will not regulate the charge current and the user needs to stop the process or lower the

implementing the 3-step char e profile, also referred to as IUoU, charge the battery fully and safely in a short time without requiring user intervention. Desulfating chargers are also commercially available for charging all types of lead-acid batteries.

charge current to prevent excessive gassing of the battery.

umper cable connected to battery post.

ydrometer window visible by jumper clamp. White powdery corrosion

ore elaborate chargers, in particular those

[edit]Storage
Batteries last longer when stored in a charged state. Leaving an automotive battery discharged will shorten a battery's life or make it unusable if left for an extended period (usually over several years); sulfationeventually becomes irreversible by normal charging. Batteries in storage may be monitored and periodically charged, or attached to a "float" charger to retain their capacity. Batteries are prepared for storage by charging and cleaning the posts deposits. Batteries are stored in a cool, dry environment for best results since high temperatures increase the self discharge rate and plate corrosion.

[edit]Changing

a attery

When changing a battery, battery manufacturers recommend disconnecting the ground connection first to prevent accidental short-circuits between the battery terminal and the vehicle frame. A study by the National Highway Traffic Safety Association estimated that in 1994 more than 2000 people were injured in the United States while working with automobile batteries. The majority of automotive lead-acid batteries are filled with the appropriate electrolyte solution at the manufacturing plant, and shipped to the retailers ready to sell. Decades ago, this was not the case. The retailer filled the battery, usually at the time of purchase, and charged the battery. This was a timeconsuming and potentially dangerous process. Care had to be taken when filling the battery with acid, as acids are highly corrosive and can damage eyes, skin and mucous membranes. Fortunately, this is less of a problem these days, and the need to fill a battery with acid usually only arises when purchasing a motorcycle or ATV battery.

[edit]Freshness
Because of "sulfation", lead-acid batteries stored with electrolyte slowly deteriorate. Car batteries are date coded to ensure installation within one year of manufacture. In the United States, the manufacturing date is printed on a sticker. The date can be written in plain text or using an alphanumerical code. The first character is a letter that specifies the month (A for January, B for February and so on).[4] The letter "I" is skipped due to its potential to be mistaken for the number 1. The second character is a single digit that indicates the year of manufacturing (for example, 6 for 2006). When first installing a newly purchased battery a "top up" charge at a low rate with an external battery charger (available at auto parts stores) may maximize battery life and minimize the load on the vehicle charging system.

[edit]Failure
Common battery faults include: Shorted cell due to failure of the separator between the positive and negative plates Shorted cell or cells due to build up of shed plate material below the plates of the cell Broken internal connections due to corrosion Broken plates due to vibration and corrosion Low electrolyte level

    

  

Cracked or broken case Broken terminals Sulfation after prolonged disuse in a low or ero charged state

Corrosion at the battery terminals can prevent a car from starting due to electrical resistance. The white powder sometimes found around the battery terminals is usually lead sulfate which is toxic by inhalation, ingestion and skin contact. The corrosion is caused by an imperfect seal between the plastic battery case and lead battery post allowing sulfuric acid to react with the lead battery posts. The corrosion process is also expedited by over charging. Corrosion can also be caused by factors such as salt water, dirt, heat, humidity, cracks in the battery casing or loose battery terminals. Inspection, cleaning and protection with a light coating of dielectric grease are measures used to prevent corrosion of battery terminals. Sulfation occurs when a battery is not fully charged. The longer it remains in a discharged state the harder it is to overcome sulfation. This may be overcome with slow, low-current (trickle) charging. Sulfation is the formation of large, non-conductive lead sulfate crystals on the plates; lead sulfate formation is part of each cycle, but in the discharged condition the crystals become la rge and block passage of current through the electrolyte. The primary wear-out mechanism is the shedding of active material from the battery plates, which accumulates at the bottom of the cells and which may eventually short-circuit the plates. Early automotive batteries could sometimes be repaired by dismantling and replacing damaged separators,

internal fault generally requires replacement of the entire unit. [1]

[edit]Exploding

batteries

Car battery after explosion

plates, intercell connectors and other repairs.

odern battery cases do not facilitate such repairs; an

Any lead-acid battery system when overcharged will produce hydrogen gas (gassing) by electrolysis of water. If the rate of overcharge is small, the vents of each cell allow the dissipation of the gas. However, on severe overcharge or if ventilation is inadequate, or the battery is faulty, a flammable concentration of hydrogen may remain in the cell or in the battery enclosure. An internal spark can cause a hydrogen and oxygen explosion, which will damage the battery and its surroundings and which will disperse acid into the surroundings. Anyone close to the battery may be injured. Sometimes the ends of a battery will be severely swollen, and when accompanied by the case being too hot to touch, this usually indicates a malfunction in the charging system of the car. eversing the positive and negative leads will damage the battery. When severely overcharged, a lead-acid battery produces high levels of hydrogen and the venting system built into the battery cannot handle the high level of gas, so the pressure builds inside the battery, resulting in the swollen ends. An unregulated alternator can quickly ruin a battery by excessive voltage. A swollen, hot battery is dangerous. Persons handling car batteries should wear protective equipment (goggles, overalls, gloves) to avoid injury by acid spills. Any open flame or electric sparks in the area also present a danger of ignition of any hydrogen gas emanating from a battery.

Brake
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2010)

This article is about the ehicle component. For other uses, see Brake ( isambi uation).

Disc brake on a motorcycle

A brake is a mechanical device which inhibits motion. Its opposite component is a clutch. The rest of this article is dedicated to various types of vehicular brakes. ost commonly brakes use friction to convert kinetic energy into heat, though other methods of energy

conversion may be employed. For example regenerative braking converts much of the energy to electrical energy, which may be stored for later use. Other methods convert kinetic energy into potential energy in such stored forms as pressuri ed air or pressuri ed oil. Still other braking methods even transformkinetic energy into different forms, for example by transferring the energy to a rotating flywheel. Brakes are generally applied to rotating axles or wheels, but may also take other forms such as the surface of a moving fluid (flaps deployed into water or air). Some vehicles use a combination of braking mechanisms, such as drag racing cars with both wheel brakes and a parachute, or airplanes with both wheel brakes and drag flaps raised into the air during landing. Since kinetic energy increases quadratically with velocity (K =

mv2 / 2), an object traveling at 10 meters

per second has 100 times as much energy as one traveling at 1 meter per second, and consequently the theoretical braking distance, when braking at the traction limit, is 100 times as long. In practice, fast vehicles usually have significant air drag, and energy lost to air drag rises quic with speed. kly Almost all wheeled vehicles have a brake of some sort. Even baggage carts and shopping carts may have

them for use on a moving ramp.

o st fixed-wing aircraft are fitted with wheel brakes on theundercarriage.

Some aircraft also feature air brakes designed to reduce their speed in flight. Notable examples include gliders and some World War II-era aircraft, primarily some fighter aircraft and many dive bombers of the era. These allow the aircraft to maintain a safe speed in a steep descent. The Saab B 17 dive bomber used the deployed undercarriage as an air brake. Friction brakes on automobiles store braking heat in the drum brake or disc brake while braking then conduct it to the air gradually. When traveling downhill some vehicles can use their engines to brake. When the brake pedal is pushed a piston pushes the pad towards the brake disc which slows the wheel

slows the wheel down.

Contents
[hide]

1 Types 2 Characteristics

2.1 Brake boost

3 Noise 4 Ine iciency 5 See also 6 Re erences 7 External links

[edit]Types

several principles: for example, a pump may pass fluid through an orifice to create friction: Frictional rakes are most common and can be divided broadly into "shoe" or "pad" brakes, using an explicit wear surface, and hydrodynamic brakes, such as parachutes, which use friction in a working fluid and do not explicitly wear. Typically the term "friction brake" is used to mean pad/shoe brakes and excludes hydrodynamic brakes, even though hydrodynamic brakes use friction. Friction (pad/shoe) brakes are often rotating devices with a stationary pad and a rotating wear surface. Common configurations include shoes that contract to rub on the outside of a rotating drum, such as a band brake; a rotating drum with shoes that expand to rub the inside of a drum, commonly called a "drum brake", although other drum configurations are possible; and pads that pinch a rotating disc,

example, PCC trolley brakes include a flat shoe which is clamped to the rail with an electromagnet; the Murphy brake pinches a rotating drum, and the Ausco Lambert disc brake uses a hollow disc (two

commonly called a "disc brake".

ther brake configurations are used, but less often. For

Brakes may be broadly described as using friction, pumping, or electromagnetics.

down.

n the brake drum it is similar as the cylinder pushes the brake shoes towards the drum which also

rr

ne brake may use

parallel discs with a structural bridge) with shoes that sit between the disc surfaces and expand laterally. Pumping rakes are often used where a pump is already part of the machinery. For example, an internal-combustion piston motor can have the fuel supply stopped, and then internal pumping losses of the engine create some braking. Some engines use a valve override called aJake brake to greatly increase pumping losses. Pumping brakes can dump energy as heat, or can be regenerative brakes that recharge a pressure resivoir called an hydraulic accumulator. Electromagnetic rakes are likewise often used where an electric motor is already part of the machinery. For example, many hybrid gasoline/electric vehicles use the electric motor as a generator to charge electric batteries and also as a regenerative brake. Some diesel/electric railroad locomotives use the electric motors to generate electricity which is then sent to a resistor bank and dumped as heat. Some vehicles, such as some transit buses, do not already have an electric motor but use a secondary "retarder" brake that is effectively a generator with an internal short-circuit. elated types of such a brake are eddy current brakes, and electro-mechanical brakes (which actually are magnetically driven friction brakes, but nowadays are often just called electromagnetic brakes as well).

[edit]Characteristics
Brakes are often described according to several characteristics including: Peak force The peak force is the maximum decelerating effect that can be obtained. The peak force is often greater than the traction limit of the tires, in which case the brake can cause a wheel skid.

Continuous power dissipation Brakes typically get hot in use, and fail when the temperature gets too high. The greatest amount of power (energy per unit time) that can be dissipated through the brake without failure is the continuous power dissipation. Continuous power dissipation often depends on e.g., the temperature and speed of ambient cooling air.

Fade As a brake heats, it may become less effective, called brake fade. Some designs are inherently prone to fade, while other designs are relatively immune. Further, use considerations, such as cooling, often have a big effect on fade.

Smoothness A brake that is grabby, pulses, has chatter, or otherwise exerts varying brake force may lead to skids. For example, railroad wheels have little traction, and friction brakes without an anti skid mechanism often lead to skids, which increases maintenance costs and leads to a "thump thump" feeling for riders inside. Power Brakes are often described as "powerful" when a small human application force leads to a braking force that is higher than typical for other brakes in the same class. This notion of "powerful" does not relate to continuous power dissipation, and may be confusing in that a brake may be

"powerful" and brake strongly with a gentle brake application, yet have lower (worse) peak force than a less "powerful" brake.

Pe al eel Brake pedal feel encompasses subjective perception of brake power output as a function of pedal travel. Pedal travel is influenced by the fluid displacement of the brake and other factors.

Drag Brakes have varied amount of drag in the off-brake condition depending on design of the system to accommodate total system compliance and deformation that exists under braking with ability to retract friction material from the rubbing surface in the off-brake condition.

Durability Friction brakes have wear surfaces that must be renewed periodically. Wear surfaces include the brake shoes or pads, and also the brake disc or drum. There may be tradeoffs, for example a wear surface that generates high peak force may also wear quickly.

Weight Brakes are often "added weight" in that they serve no other function. Further, brakes are often mounted on wheels, and unsprung weight can significantly hurt traction in some circumstances. "Weight" may mean the brake itself, or may include additional support structure.

Noise Brakes usually create some minor noise when applied, but often create squeal or grinding noises that are quite loud.

[edit]Brake

ost modern vehicles use a vacuum assisted brake system that greatly increases the force applied to the

vehicle's brakes by its operator.[1] This additional force is supplied by the vacuum generated by the running engine, but this force is greatly reduced when the engine is running at full throttle and the available vac uum is diminished. Because of this, reports of unintended acceleration are often accompanied by complaints of failed or weakened brakes, as the high-revving engine is unable to provide enough vacuum to power the brake booster. This problem is exacerbated in vehicles equipped with automatic transmissions as the vehicle will

available braking power while increasing the engine's effective torque.

[edit]

oise

Brake lever on a horse-drawn hearse

automatically downshift upon application of the brakes, thereby further eleva ting engine RP

{ z

boost

and reducing

Main article: Roadway noise Although ideally a brake would convert all the kinetic energy into heat, in practice a significant amount may be converted into acoustic energy instead, contributing to noise pollution. For road vehicles, the noise produced varies significantly withtire construction, road surface, and the magnitude of the deceleration.[2] Noise can be caused by different things. These are signs that there may be issues with brakes wearing out over time.

[edit]Inefficiency
A significant amount of energy is always lost while braking, even with regenerative braking which is not perfectly efficient. Therefore a good metric of efficient energy use while driving is to note how much one is braking. If the majority of deceleration is from unavoidable friction instead of braking, one is sque ezing out most of the service from the vehicle. Minimizing brake use is one of the fuel economy-maximizing behaviors. While energy is always lost during a brake event, a secondary factor that influences efficiency is "off-brake drag", or drag that occurs when the brake is not intentionally actuated. After a braking event, hydraulic pressure drops in the system , allowing the brake caliper pistons to retract. However, this retraction must accommodate all compliance in the system (under pressure) as well as thermal distortion of components like the brake disc or the brake system will drag until the contact with the disc, for example, knocks the pads and pistons back from the rubbing surface. During this time, there can be significant brake drag. This brake drag can lead to significant parasitic power loss, thus impact fuel economy and vehicle performance.

Drum brake
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article relies largely or entirely upon a single source. Please help improve this article by introducing appropriate citations to additional sources. (July 2008)

operated parking brake uses the service shoes.

A drum brake is a brake in which the friction is caused by a set of shoes or pads that press against a rotating drum-shaped part called a brake drum. The term "drum brake" usually means a brake in which shoes press on the inner surface of the drum. When shoes press on the outside of the drum, it is usually called a clasp brake. Where the drum is pinched between two shoes, similar to a conventional disk brake, it is sometimes called a "pinch drum brake", although such brakes are relatively rare. A related type of brake uses a flexible belt or "band" wrapping around the outside of a drum, called a band brake.

Components The Drum Brake has a large number of components depending upon the type of vehicle, in which it is used. Some of the major components of the Drum brake are:
    

Back Plate Brake Drum Wheel cylinder Brake shoe Springs and pins

A drum brake with the drum removed as used on the rear wheel of a car or truck.

ote that in this installation, a cable -

[edit]Back

Plate

The Back Plate serves as the base on which all the components are assembled. It attaches to the axle and forms a solid surface for the wheel cylinder, brake shoes and assorted hardware. Since all the braking operations exert pressure on the back plate, it needs to be very strong and resistant to any wear and tear or corrosion. A good back plate hardly creates any problem. Apart from these parts, ever for Emergency or Parking brake, and Automatic Brake-shoe adjuster are also present in the brakes of the recent years.

Back plate made in the pressing shop.

[edit]Brake

Drum

The brake drum is generally made of a special type of cast iron. It is positioned very close to the brake shoe without actually touching it, and rotates with the wheel and axle. As the lining is pushed against the inner surface of the drum, friction heat can reach as high as 600 degrees F. The brake drum must be: 1. Accurately balanced. 2. Sufficiently rigid. . Resistant against wear. 4. ighly heat-conductive. 5. ightweight.
[edit]Wheel

Cylinder

One wheel cylinder is used for each wheel. Two pistons operate the shoes, one at each end of the wheel cylinder. When hydraulic pressure from the master cylinder acts upon the piston cup, the pistons are pushed toward the shoes, forcing them against the drum. When the brakes are not being applied, the piston is returned to its

original position by the force of the brake shoe return springs. The parts of the wheel cylinder are as follows:

Cut-away section of a wheel cylinder.

     

Piston Compression spring Dust cap Protective plug Bleed screw Self - locking screw.
shoe

[edit]Brake

Brake shoes are made of two pieces of sheet steel welded together. The friction material is attached to the ining table either by adhesive bonding or riveting. The crescent shaped piece is called the Web and contains holes and slots in different shapes for return springs, holddown hardware, parking brake linkage and self-adjusting components. All the application force of the wheel cylinder is applied through the web to the lining table and brake lining. The edge of the lining table generally has three V" shaped notches or tabs on each side called ibs. The nibs rest against the support pads of the backing plate to which the shoes are installed. Each brake assembly has two shoes, a primary and secondary. The primary shoe is located toward the front of the vehicle and has the lining positioned differently than the secondary shoe. Quite often the two shoes are interchangeable, so close inspection for any variation is important.

Brake shoe assembly

inings must be resistant against heat and wear and have a high friction coefficient. This coefficient must be as unaffected as possible by fluctuations in temperature and humidity. aterials which make up the brake shoe include,
    

Friction modifiers, Powdered metal, Binders, Fillers and Curing agents.

Friction modifiers such as graphite and cashew nut shells, alter the friction coefficient. Powdered metals such as lead, inc, brass, aluminium and other metals increase a materials resistance to heat fade. Binders are the glues that hold the friction material together. Fillers are added to friction material in small quantities to accomplish specific purposes, such as rubber chips to reduce brake noise.
[edit]S

rings and Pins

The various springs and accompanying components present in the drum brake are as follows,
    

Spring plate Retaining pin ower return spring older pin older spring

The brakes are held against the backing plate by retaining clips and springs. The hold down spring is used to retain the brake shoe in

position in relation to the backing plate. During vehicle operation it keeps the brake shoe in position.
[edit]Automatic

Brake Sel Adjuster

This Adjuster consists of the following components

  

Push rod male and female ut adjuster ever pawl

It is used to adjust the distance between the brake shoe and the drum automatically, in the case of brake shoe wear.
[edit]Working: [edit]Normal

Braking

eration

When you apply the brakes, brake fluid is forced under pressure from the Tandem aster Cylinder (T C) into the wheel cylinder, which in turn pushes the brake shoes into contact with the machined surface on the inside of the drum. This rubbing action reduces the rotation of the brake drum, which is coupled to the wheel. ence the speed of the vehicle is reduced. When the pressure is released, return springs pull the shoes back to their rest position.
[edit]Automatic

Brake Sel -Adjuster

As the brake linings wear, the shoes must travel a greater distance to reach the drum. When the distance reaches a certain point, a selfadjusting mechanism automatically reacts by adjusting the rest position of the shoes so that they are closer to the drum. ere, the adjusting lever rocks enough to advance the adjuster gear by one tooth. The adjuster has threads on it, like a bolt, so that it unscrews a little bit when it turns, lengthening to fill in the gap. When the brake shoes wear a little more, the adjuster can advance again, so it always keeps the shoes close to the drum.

Sectional layout showing the push rods,

ut adjuster and ever pawl.

[edit]Emergency

Brake

The parking brake (emergency brake) system controls the brakes through a series of steel cables that are connected to either a hand lever or a foot pedal. The idea is that the system is fully mechanical and completely bypasses the hydraulic system so that the vehicle can be brought to a stop even if there is a total brake failure. Here the cable pulls on a lever mounted in the brake and is directly connected to the brake shoes. This has the effect of bypassing the wheel cylinder and controlling the brakes directly.
[edit]Self-applying

characteristic

Drum brakes have a natural "self-applying" characteristic, better known as "self-energizing." [1] The rotation of the drum can drag either or both of the shoes into the friction surface, causing the brakes to bite harder, which increases the force holding them together. This increases the stopping power without any additional effort being expended by the driver, but it does make it harder for the driver to modulate the brake's sensitivity. It also makes the brake more sensitive to brake fade, as a decrease in brake friction also reduces the amount of brake assist. Disc brakes exhibit no self-applying effect because the hydraulic pressure acting on the pads is perpendicular to the direction of [1] rotation of the disc. Disc brake systems usually have servo assistance ("Brake Booster") to lessen the driver's pedal effort, but some disc braked cars (notably race cars) and smaller brakes for motorcycles, etc., do not need to use servos. [1] Note: In most designs, the "self applying" effect only occurs on one shoe. While this shoe is further forced into the drum surface by a moment due to friction, the opposite effect is happening on the other shoe. The friction force is trying to rotate it away from the drum. The forces are different on each brake shoe resulting in one shoe wearing faster. It is possible to design a two-shoe drum brake where both shoes are self-applying (having separate actuators and pivoted at opposite ends), but these are very uncommon in practice.

[edit]Drum

brake designs

Rendering of a drum brake

Drum brakes are typically described as either leading/trailing or twin leading.[1] Rear drum brakes are typically of a leading/trailing design(For on Servo Systems), or [Primary/Secondary] (For Duo Servo Systems) the shoes being moved by a single double-acting hydraulic cylinder and hinged at the same point.[1] In this design, one of the brake shoes will always experience the self-applying effect, irrespective of whether the vehicle is moving forwards or backwards.[1] This is particularly useful on the rear brakes, where the parking brake (handbrake or footbrake) must exert enough force to stop the vehicle from travelling backwards and hold it on a slope. Provided the contact area of the brake shoes is large enough, which isn't always the case, the self-applying effect can securely hold a vehicle when the weight is transferred to the rear brakes due to the incline of a slope or the reverse direction of motion. A further advantage of using a single hydraulic cylinder on the rear is that the opposite pivot may be made in the form of a double lobed cam that is rotated by the action of the parking brake system. Front drum brakes may be of either design in practice, but the twin leading design is more effective.[1] This design uses two actuating cylinders arranged so that both shoes will utili e the self-applying characteristic when the vehicle is moving forwards.[1] The brake shoes pivot at opposite points to each other.[1] This gives the maximum possible braking when moving forwards, but is not so effective when the vehicle is traveling in reverse.[1]

The optimum arrangement of twin leading front brakes with leading/trailing brakes on the rear allows for more braking force to be deployed at the front of the vehicle when it is moving forwards, with less at the rear. This helps to prevent the rear wheels locking up, but still provides adequate braking at the rear when it is needed. [1] The brake drum itself is frequently made of cast iron, although some vehicles have used aluminum drums, particularly for front-wheel applications. Aluminum conducts heat better than cast iron, which improves heat dissipation and reduces fade. Aluminum drums are also lighter than iron drums, which reduces unsprung weight. Because aluminum wears more easily than iron, aluminum drums will frequently have an iron or steel liner on the inner surface of the drum, bonded or riveted to the aluminum outer shell.
[edit]Advantages

Drum brakes are used in most heavy duty trucks, some medium and light duty trucks, and few cars, dirt bikes, and ATV's. Drum brakes are often applied to the rear wheels since most of the stopping force is generated by the front brakes of the vehicle and therefore the heat generated in the rear is significantly less. Drum brakes allow simple incorporation of a parking brake. Drum brakes are also occasionally fitted as the parking (and emergency) brake even when the rear wheels use disk brakes as the main brakes. In this situation, a small drum is usually fitted within or as part of the brake disk also known as a banksia brake. In hybrid vehicle applications, wear on braking systems is greatly reduced by energy recovering motor-generators (see regenerative braking), so some hybrid vehicles such as the MC Yukon hybrid and Toyota Prius (except the third generation) use drum brakes. Disc brakes rely on pliability of caliper seals and slight runout to release pads, leading to drag, fuel mileage loss, and disc scoring. Drum brake return springs give more positive action and, adjusted correctly, often have less drag when released. Certain heavier duty drum brake systems compensate for load when determining wheel cylinder pressure; a feature unavailable when disks are employed. ne such vehicle is the Jeep Comanche. The

Comanche can automatically send more pressure to the rear drums depending on the size of the load, whereas this would not be possible with disks. Due to the fact that a drum brakes friction contact area is at the circumference of the brake, a drum brake can provide more braking force than an equal diameter disc brake. The increased friction contact area of drum brake shoes on the drum allows drum brake shoes to last longer than disc brake pads used in a brake system of similar dimensions and braking force. Drum brakes retain heat and are more complex than disc brakes but are often the more economical and powerful brake type to use in rear brake applications due to the low heat generation of rear brakes, a drum brakes self applying nature, large friction surface contact area, and long life wear characteristics(%life used/kW of braking power). Although drum brakes are often the better choice for rear brake applications in all but the highest performance applications, vehicle manufactures are increasingly installing disc brake system at the rear wheels. This is due to the popularity rise of disc brakes after the introduction front ventilated disc brakes. Front ventilated disc brakes performed much better than the front drum brakes they replaced. The difference in front drum and disc brake performance caused car buyers to purchase cars that also had rear disc brakes. Additionally rear disc brakes are often associated with high performance race cars which has increase their popularity in street cars. ear disc brakes in most applications are not ventilated and offer no performance advantage over drum brakes. Even when rear discs are ventilated, it is likely that the rear brakes will never benefit from the ventilation unless subjected to very high performance racing style driving.
[edit]As

a tailshaft parking/emergency brake

Drum brakes have also been incorporated on the transmission tailshaft as parking brakes (e.g. Chryslers through 1956), with the an advantage that it is completely independent of the service brakes, but having a severe disadvantage in that when used with a bumper jack (common in that era) on the rear (without proper wheel blocks) the differential's action can allow the vehicle to roll off the jack.

[edit]Disadvantages

Drum brakes, like most other types, are designed to convert kinetic [1] energy into heat by friction. This heat is intended to be further transferred to atmosphere, but can just as easily transfer into other components of the braking system. Brake drums have to be large to cope with the massive forces that are involved, and they must be able to absorb and dissipate a lot of heat. Heat transfer to atmosphere can be aided by incorporating cooling fins onto the drum. However, excessive heating can occur due to heavy or repeated braking, which can cause the drum to distort, leading to vibration under braking. The other consequence of overheating is brake fade.[1] This is due to one of several processes or more usually an accumulation of all of them. 1. When the drums are heated by hard braking, the diameter of the drum increases slightly due to thermal expansion, this means the brakes shoes have to move farther and the brake pedal has to be depressed further. 2. The properties of the friction material can change if heated, resulting in less friction. This can be a much larger problem with drum brakes than disk brakes, since the shoes are inside the drum and not exposed to cooling ambient air. The loss of friction is usually only temporary and the material regains its efficiency when cooled, [1] but if the surface overheats to the point where it becomes glazed the reduction in braking efficiency is more permanent. Surface glazing can be worn away with further use of the brakes, but that takes time. 3. Excessive heating of the brake drums can cause the brake fluid to vaporize, which reduces the hydraulic pressure being applied to the brake shoes.[1] Therefore less retardation is achieved for a given amount of pressure on the pedal. The effect is worsened by poor maintenance. If the brake fluid is old and has absorbed moisture it thus has a lower boiling point and brake fade occurs sooner.[1] Brake fade is not always due to the effects of overheating. If water gets between the friction surfaces and the drum, it acts as a lubricant

and reduces braking efficiency. [1] The water tends to stay there until it is heated sufficiently to vaporize, at which point braking efficiency is fully restored. All friction braking systems have a maximum theoretical rate of energy conversion. nce that rate has been reached, applying greater pedal pressure will not result in a change of this rate, and indeed the effects mentioned can substantially reduce it. Ultimately this is what brake fade is, regardless of the mechanism of its causes. Disc brakes are not immune to any of these processes, but they deal with heat and water more effectively than drums. Drum brakes can be grabby if the drum surface gets light rust or if the brake is cold and damp, giving the pad material greater friction. rabbing can be so severe that the tires skid and continue to skid even when the pedal is released. rab is the opposite of fade: when the pad friction goes up, the self-assisting nature of the brakes causes application force to go up. If the pad friction and self-amplification are high enough, the brake will stay on due to self-application even when the external application force is released. Another disadvantage of drum brakes is their relative complexity. A person must have a general understanding of how drum brakes work and take simple steps to ensure the brakes are reassembled correctly when doing work on drum brakes. And, as a result of this increased complexity (compared to disk brakes), maintenance of drum brakes is generally more time-consuming. Also, the greater number of parts results in a greater number of failure modes compared to disk brakes. Springs can break from fatigue if not replaced along with worn brake shoes. And the drum and shoes can become damaged from scoring if various components (such as broken springs or self-adjusters) break and become loose inside the drum.
[edit]

Disc brake
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2008)

Close-up of a disc brake on a car

On automobiles, disc brakes are often located within the wheel

The disc brake or disk brake is a device for slowing or stopping the rotation of a wheel while it is in motion. A brake disc (or rotor in U.S. English) is usually made of cast iron, but may in some cases be made of composites such as reinforced carbon-carbon or ceramic matrix composites. This is connected to the wheel and/or the axle. To stop the wheel, friction material in the form of brake pads (mounted on a device called a brake cali er) is forced mechanically, hydraulically, pneumatically or electromagnetically against both sides of the disc. Friction causes the disc and attached wheel to slow or stop. Brakes convert motion to heat, and if the brakes get too hot, they become less effective, a phenomenon known as brake fade.

Discs

A cross-drilled disc on a modern motorcycle

The design of the disc varies somewhat. Some are simply solid cast iron, but others are hollowed out with fins or vanes joining together the disc's two contact surfaces (usually included as part of a casting process). The weight and power of the vehicle will determine the need for ventilated discs.[10] The "ventilated" disc design helps to dissipate the generated heat and is commonly used on the more-heavily-loaded front discs. any higher performance brakes have holes drilled through them. This is known as cross-drilling and was originally done in the 1960s on racing cars. For heat dissipation purposes, cross drilling is still used on some braking components, but is not favored for racing or other hard use as the holes are a source of stress cracks under severe conditions. Discs may also be slotted, where shallow channels are machined into the disc to aid in removing dust and gas. Slotting is the preferred method in most racing environments to remove gas, water, and degla e brake pads. Some discs are both drilled and slotted. Slotted discs are generally not used on standard vehicles because they quickly wear down brake pads; however, this removal of material is beneficial to race vehicles since it keeps the pads soft and avoids vitrification of their surfaces. As a way of avoiding thermal stress, cracking and warping of the disc these are sometimes mounted in a half loose way to the hub with coarse splines. This allows the disc to expand in a controlled symmetrical way and with less unwanted heat transfer to the hub.

On the road, drilled or slotted discs still have a positive effect in wet conditions because the holes or slots prevent a film of water building up between the disc and the pads. Crossdrilled discs may eventually crack at the holes due to metal fatigue. Cross-drilled brakes that are manufactured poorly or subjected to high stresses will crack much sooner and more severely.
[edit]On

motorcycles

otorcycle disc brakes have become increasingly sophisticated, partly through marketing. Their discs are usually drilled and occasionally slotted. Calipers have evolved from simple "single-pot" units to 2-, 4- and even 6-pot items. It is debatable whether the modern fashions of "radially-mounted calipers" and "wavy discs" significantly improve braking. Since (compared to cars) motorcycles have a higher centre of gravity:wheelbase ratio, they experience more weight transference when braking. A modern sports bike will typically have twin front discs of large diameter, but only a single rear disc that is very much smaller (or even a small rear drum brake). The front brake(s) provide most of the required deceleration; the rear brake serves mainly as to "balance" the motorcycle during braking. If too much braking force is applied to the rear brake, the rear wheel is liable to lock up; so motorcycles should not have oversi e rear brakes.
[edit]On

bicycles

See also: Bicycle brake#Disc brakes.

A mountain bike disc brake

ountain bike disc brakes range from simple, mechanical (cable) systems, to expensive and powerful, 6-pot (piston) hydraulic disc systems, commonly used on downhill racing bikes. Improved technology has seen the creation of the first vented discs for use on

mountain bikes, similar to those on cars, introduced to help avoid heat fade on fast alpine descents. Although less common, discs are also used on road bicycles for all-weather cycling with predictable braking, although drums are sometimes preferred as harder to damage in crowded parking, where discs are sometimes bent. ost bicycle brake discs are made of stainless steel, although some lightweight discs are made of titanium or aluminium. Discs are thin, often about 2 mm. Some use a two-piece floating disc style, others use a floating caliper, others use pads that float in the caliper, and some use one moving pad that makes the caliper slide on its mounts, pulling the other pad into contact with the disc. Because the "motor" is small, an uncommon feature of bicycle brakes is pads that retract to eliminate residual drag when the brake is released. In contrast, most other brakes drag the pads lightly when released.
[edit]On

other ehicles

Disc brakes are increasingly used on very large and heavy road vehicles, where previously large drum brakes were nearly universal. One reason is the disc's lack of self-assist makes brake force much more predictable, so peak brake force can be raised without more risk of braking-induced steering or jackknife on articulated vehicles. Another is disc brakes fade less when hot, and in a heavy vehicle air and rolling drag and engine braking are small parts of total braking force, so brakes are used harder than on lighter vehicles, and drum brake fade can occur in a single stop. For these reasons, a heavy truck with disc brakes can stop in about 120% the distance of a passenger car, but with drums stopping takes about 150% the distance.[14] In Europe, stopping distance regulations essentially require disc brakes for heavy vehicles. In the U.S., drums are allowed and are typically preferred for their lower purchase price, despite higher total lifetime cost and more frequent service intervals.

A railroad bogie and disc brakes

Yet larger discs are used for railroads and some airplanes. Passenger rail cars and light rail often use disc brakes outboard of the wheels, which helps ensure a free flow of cooling air. In contrast, some airplanes have the brake mounted with very little cooling and the brake gets quite hot in a stop, but this is acceptable as the maximum braking energy is very predictable. For auto use, disc brake discs are commonly manufactured out of a material called grey iron. The SAE maintains a specification for the manufacture of grey iron for various applications. For normal car and light truck applications, the SAE specification is J431 3000 (superseded to 10). This specification dictates the correct range of hardness, chemical composition, tensile strength, and other properties necessary for the intended use. Some racing cars and airplanes use brakes with carbon fiber discs and carbon fiber pads to reduce weight. Wear rates tend to be high, and braking may be poor or grabby until the brake is hot.
[edit]

Suspension (vehicle)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2010)

The front suspension components of a Ford

The rear suspension on a truck: a leaf spring.

odel T.

Part of car front suspension and steeringmechanism: tie rod, steering arm, king pin axis (usingball joints).

Van Diemen RF01 Racing Car Suspension.

Sus ension is the term given to the system of springs, shock absorbers and linkages that connects a vehicle to its wheels. Suspension systems serve a dual purpose contributing to the car's roadholding/handling and braking for good active safety and driving pleasure, and keeping vehicle occupants comfortable and reasonably well isolated from road noise, bumps, and vibrations,etc. These goals are generally at odds, so the tuning of suspensions involves finding the right compromise. It is important for the suspension to keep the road wheel in contact with the road surface as much as possible, because all the forces acting on the vehicle do so through the contact patches of the tires. The suspension also protects the vehicle itself and any cargo or luggage from damage and wear. The design of front and rear suspension of a car may be different. This article is primarily about four-wheeled (or more) vehicle suspension. For information on two-wheeled vehicles' suspensions see the suspension (motorcycle), motorcycle fork, bicycle suspension, andbicycle fork articles.

GEAR BOX

Automoti e basics
The need for a transmission in an automobile is a consequence of the characteristics of the internal combustion engine. Engines typically operate over a range of 600 to about 7000 revolutions per minute (though this varies, and is typically less for diesel engines), while the car's wheels rotate between 0 rpm and around 1 00 rpm. Furthermore, the engine provides its highest torque outputs approximately in the middle of its range, while often the greatest torque is required when the vehicle is moving from rest or traveling slowly. Therefore, a system that transforms the engine's output so that it can supply high to rque at low speeds, but also operate at highway speeds with the motor still operating within its limits, is required. Transmissions perform this transformation. any transmissions and gears used in automotive and truck applications are contained in a cast

iron case, though more frequently aluminium is used for lower weight especially in cars. There are usually three shafts: a mainshaft, a countershaft, and an idler shaft. The mainshaft extends outside the case in both directions: the input shaft towards the engine, and the output shaft towards the rear axle (on rear wheel drive cars- front wheel drives generally have the engine and transmission mounted transversely, the differential being pa of the transmission rt assembly.) The shaft is suspended by the main bearings, and is split towards the input end. At the point of the split, a pilot bearing holds the shafts together. The gears and clutches ride on the mainshaft, the gears being free to turn relative to the mainshaft except when engaged by the clutches. Types of automobile transmissions inc lude manual, automatic or semi-automatic transmission. [edit]Manual

A five-speed gearbox.

Main article: Manual transmission Manual transmission come in two basic types:

a simple but rugged sliding-mesh or unsynchronized / non-synchronous system, where straightcut spur gear sets are spinning freely, and must be synchronized by the operator matching engine revs to road speed, to avoid noisy and damaging "gear clash",

and the now common constant-mesh gearboxes which can include non-synchronised, or synchronized / synchromesh systems, where diagonal cut helical (and sometimes doublehelical) gear sets are constantly "meshed" together, and a dog clutch is used for changing gears. n synchromesh boxes, friction cones or "synchro-rings" are used in addition to the dog clutch.

The former type is commonly found in many forms of racing cars, older heavy-duty trucks, and some agricultural equipment. Manual transmissions are the most common type outside North America and Australia. They are cheaper, lighter, usually give better performance, and fuel efficiency (although automatic transmissions with torque converter lockup and advanced electronic controls can provide similar results). It is customary for new drivers to learn, and be tested, on a car with a manual gear change. In Malaysia and Denmark all cars used for testing (and because of that, virtually all those used for instruction as well) have a manual transmission. In Japan, the Philippines, the UK,
[3][4]

Ireland, Sweden, Estonia, France, Spain, Switzerland, the Australian states of Victoria, ueensland, Finland and Lithuania, a test pass using an automatic car does
[citation

not entitle the driver to use a manual car on the public road; a test with a manual car is required.
needed]

Manual transmissions are much more common than automatic transmissions

in Asia, Africa, South America and Europe. Many manual transmissions include both synchronized and unsynchronized gearing; it is not uncommon for the first/reverse gear to lack synchros. Those gears are meant to be shifted into only when the vehicle is stopped. Some manual transmissions have an extremely low ratio for first gear, which is referred to as a "creeper gear" or "granny gear". Such gears are usually not synchronized. This feature is common on pickup trucks tailored to trailer-towing, farming, or construction-site work. During normal on-road use, the truck is usually driven without using the creeper gear at all, and second gear is used from a standing start. [edit]Non-synchronous Main article: Non-synchronous transmissions There are commercial applications engineered with designs taking into account that the gear shifting will be done by an experienced operator. They are a manual transmission, but are known as nonsynchronized transmissions. Dependent on country of operation, many local, regional, and national laws govern the operation of these types of vehicles (see Commercial

may include commercial, military, agricultural, or engineering vehicles. Some of these may use

Western Australia and

ermany, Poland, Italy, Israel, the Netherlands, Belgium, New Zealand, Austria,Bulgaria,
[4]

river's License). This class

combinations of types for multi-purpose functions. An example would be a power take-off (PTO) gear. The non-synchronous transmission type requires an understanding of gear range, torque, engine power, and multi-functional clutch and shifter functions. Also see Double-clutching, and Clutchbrake sections of the main article. [edit]Automatic Main article: Automatic transmission

Epicyclic gearing or planetary gearing as used in an automatic transmission.

Most modern

apanese cars have an automatic transmission that will select an appropriate gear ratio without any

operator intervention. They primarily use hydraulics to select gears, depending on pressure exerted by fluid within the transmission assembly. Rather than using a clutch to engage the transmission, a fluid flywheel, ortorque converter is placed in between the engine and transmission. It is possible for the driver to control the number of gears in use or select reverse, though precise control of which gear is in use may or may not be possible.

have had a number of problems; they were complex and expensive, sometimes had reliability problems (which sometimes caused more expenses in re pair), have often been less fuel-efficient than their manual counterparts (due to "slippage" in the torque converter), and theirshift time was slower than a manual making them uncompetitive for racing. With the advancement of modern automatic

Attempts to improve the fuel efficiency of automatic transmissions include the use of torque converters which lock up beyond a certain speed, or in the higher gear ratios, eliminating power loss, and overdrive gears which automatically actuate above certain speeds; in older transmissions both technologies could sometimes become intrusive, when conditions are such that they repeatedly cut in and out as speed and such load factors as grade or wind vary slightly. Current comput ri ed e transmissions possess very complex programming to both maximi e fuel efficiency and eliminate any intrusiveness.
[citation nee e ]

For certain applications, the slippage inherent in automatic transmissions can be advantageous; for e instance, in drag racing, the automatic transmission allows the car to be stopped with the engin at a

transmissions this has changed.[citation nee

e ]

Automatic transmissions are easy to use.

orth American and Australian and many larger, high specification European and

owever, in the past, automatic transmissions of this type

high rpm (the "stall speed") to allow for a very quick launch when the brakes are released; in fact, a common modification is to increase the stall speed of the transmission. This is even more advantageous for turbocharged engines, where the turbocharger needs to be kept spinning at high rpm by a large flow of exhaust in order to keep the boost pressure up and eliminate the turbo lag that occurs when the engine is idling and the throttle is suddenly opened. [edit]Semi-automatic Main article: Semi-automatic transmission The creation of computer control also allowed for a sort of cross-breed transmission where the car handles manipulation of the clutch automatically, but the driver can still select the gear manually if desired. This is sometimes called a "clutchless manual," or "automated manual" transmission. Many of these transmissions allow the driver to give full control to the computer. They are generally designed using manual transmission "internals", and when used in passenger cars, have synchromesh operated helical constant mesh gear sets.

A "dual-clutch" transmission uses two sets of internals which are alternately used, each with its own clutch, so that only the clutches are used during the actual "gearchange".

There are also sequential transmissions which use the rotation of a drum to switch gears.

Specific type of this transmission includes: Direct-Shift

e arbox.
[5

Specific type of this transmission includes: Easytronic, and

eartronic.

Turbocharger
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"Turbo" re irects here. For other uses, see Turbo ( isambi uation).

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2010)

It has been suggested that Superturbocharging be merged into this article or section. (Discuss) Proposed since July 2011.

Cut-away view of an air foil bearing-supported turbocharger made by Mohawk Innovative Technology

A turbocharger, or turbo (colloquialism), is a centrifugal compressor powered by a turbine which is driven by an engine's exhaust gases. Its benefit lies with the compressor increasing the pressure of air entering the engine (forced induction) thus resulting in greater performance (for either, or both, power & efficiency). They are popularly used with internal combustion engines(e.g. four-stroke engines like Otto cycles and Diesel cycles). Turbochargers have also been found useful compounding external combustion engines such as automotive fuel cells. [1]

Operating principle
This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this sectionby adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2010)

All naturally aspirated Otto and diesel cycle engines rely on the downward stroke of a piston to create a low-pressure area (less than atmospheric pressure) above the piston in order to draw air through the intake system. With the rare exception of tuned induction systems, most engines cannot inhale their full displacement of atmospheric density air. The measure of this loss or inefficiency in four stroke engines is called volumetric efficiency. If the density of the intake air above the piston is equal to atmospheric, then the engine would have 100% volumetric efficiency. Unfortunately, most engines fail to achieve this level of performance. This loss of potential power is often compounded by the loss of density seen with elevated altitudes. Thus, a natural use of the turbocharger is with aircraft engines. As an aircraft climbs to higher altitudes the pressure of the surrounding air quickly falls off. At 5,486 m (18,000 ft) the air is at half the pressure of sea level, which means that the engine will produce less than halfpower at this altitude. The objective of a turbocharger, just as that of a supercharger, is to improve an engine's volumetric efficiency by increasing the intake density. The compressor draws in ambient air and compresses it before it enters into the intake manifold at increased pressure. This results in a greater mass of air entering the cylinders on each intake stroke. The power needed to spin thecentrifugal compressor is derived from the high pressure and temperature of the engine's exhaust gases. The turbine converts the engine exhaust's potential pressure energy and kinetic velocity energy into rotational power, which is in turn used to drive the compressor. A turbocharger may also be used to increase fuel efficiency without any attempt to increase power. It does this by recovering waste energy in the exhaust and feeding it back intothe engine intake. By using this otherwise wasted energy to increase the mass of air it becomes easier to ensure that all fuel is burnt before being vented at the start of the exhaust stage. The increased temperature from the higher pressure gives a higher Carnot efficiency. The control of turbochargers is very complex and has changed dramaticall over the 100 plus years of y its use. A great deal of this complexity stems directly from the control and performance requirements of various engines with which it is used. In general, the turbocharger will accelerate in speed when the turbine generates excess power and decelerates when the turbine generates deficient power. Aircraft, industrial diesels, fuel cells and motor -sports are examples of the wide range of performance requirements.

Turbo lag
All turbocharger applications can be roughly dividedinto 2 categories, those requiring rapid throttle response and those that do not. This is the rough division between automotive applications and all others (marine, aircraft, commercial automotive, industrial, locomotives). While important to varying degrees, turbo lag is most problematic when rapid changes in engine performance are required. Turbo lag is the time required to change speed and function effectively in response to a throttle change. For example, this is noticed as a hesitation inthrottle response when accelerating from idle as compared to a naturally aspirated engine. Throttle lag may be noticeable under any driving condition, yet becomes a significant issue un acceleration. This is symptomatic of the time needed der for the exhaust system working in concert with the turbine to generate enough extra power to accelerate rapidly. A combination of inertia, friction and compressor load are the primary contributors to turbo lag. By eliminating the turbine, the directly driven compressor in asupercharger does not suffer from this problem. ag can be reduced in a number of ways: 1. by lowering the rotational inertia of the turbocharger; for example by using lighter, lower radius parts to allow the spool-up to happen more quickly. Ceramic turbines are of benefit in this regard and or billet compressor wheel. 2. by changing the aspect ratio of the turbine. . by increasing the upper-deck air pressure (compressor discharge) and improving the wastegate response; this helps but there are cost increases and reliability disadvantages that car manufacturers are not happy about. 4. by reducing bearing frictional losses; by using afoil bearing rather than a conventional oil bearing. This reduces friction and contributes to faster acceleration of the turbo's rotating assembly. 5. Variable-no le turbochargers (discussed below) greatly reduce lag. 6. by decreasing the volume of the upper-deck piping. 7. by using multiple turbos sequentially or in parallel.

Key components and installation

On the left, the brass oil drain connection. On the right are the braided oil supply line and water coolant line connections.

Compressor impeller side with the cover removed.

Turbine side housing removed.

A wastegate installed next to the turbocharger.

The turbocharger has three main components. First, a turbine, which is almost always a radial inflow turbine. Second, a compressor, which is almost always a centrifugal compressor. These first two components are the primary flow path components. Third, the center housing/hub rotating assembly (C RA). Then, depending upon the exact installation and application, numerous other parts, features and controls may be required.

housing and rotating assembly [edit]Com ressor

 Impeller/diffuser/volute housing

[edit]Center

Main article: entrifugal compressor  Ported shroud/map width enhancement

Main article: ompressor map The flow range of a turbocharger compressor can also be increased by allowing air to bleed from a ring of holes or a circular groove around the compressor at a point slightly downstream of the compressor inlet (but far nearer to the inlet than to the outlet). The ported shroud is a performance enhancement which allows the compressor to operate at significantly lower flows. It achieves this by forcing a simu lation of impeller stall to occur continuously. Allowing some air to escape at this location inhibits the onset of surge and widens thecompressor map. While peak efficiencies decrease, areas of high efficiency may notably increase in si e. Increases in compressor efficiency result in slightly cooler (more dense) intake air, which improves power. In contrast to compressor exhaust blow off valves, which are electronically controlle this is a d, passive structure which is constantly open. The ability of the compressor to accommodate high mass flows (high boost at low rpm) may also be increased marginally (because near choke conditions the compressor draws air inward through the bleed path). This technology is widely used by turbocharger manufacturers such as oneywell Turbo Technologies, Cummins Turbo Technologies, and GReddy. When implemented appropriately, it has a reasonable impact on compressor map width while having little effecton the maximum efficiency island.  Charge air cooler/Intercooler

Illustration of inter-cooler location.

For all practical situations, the act of compressing air increases the air's temperature along with pressure. This temperature increase can cause a number of problems when not expected or when installing a turbocharger on an engine not designed f r forced induction. Excessive charge air o temperature can lead to detonation, which is extremely destructive to engines. When a turbocharger is installed on an engine, it is common p ractice to fit the engine with an intercooler (also known as a charge air cooler, or CAC), a type of heat exchanger which gives up

heat energy in the charge to the ambient air. To assure the intercooler's performance, it is common practice to leak test the intercooler during routine service, particularly in trucks where a leaking intercooler can result in a 20% reduction in fuel economy.  Fuel-air mixture ratio

Main article: Air-fuel ratio In addition to the use of intercoolers, it is common practice to introduce extra fuel into the charge for the sole purpose of cooling. The amount of extra fuel varies, but typically reduces the air-fuel ratio to between 11 and 13, instead of the stoichiometric 14.7 (in gasoline engines). The extra fuel is not burned, as there is insufficient oxygen to complete the chemical reaction, and instead undergoes a phase change from vapor (liquid) to gas. This reaction absorbs heat (the latent heat of vaporization), and the added mass of the extra fuel reduces the average kinetic energy of the charge and exhaust gas. The gaseous hydrocarbons generated are oxidized to carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and water in the catalytic converter. A method of generally coping with this problem is in one of several ways. The most common one is to add an intercooler or aftercooler somewhere in the air stream between the compressor outlet of the turbocharger and the engine intake manifold. Intercoolers and aftercoolers are types of heat exchangers allow the compressed air to give up some of its heat energy to the ambient air. In the past, some aircraft featured anti-detonant injection for takeoff and climb phases of flight, which performs the function of cooling the fuel/air charge before it reaches the cylinders. In contrast, modern turbocharged aircraft usually forego any kind of temperature compensation, because the turbochargers are generally small and the manifold pressures created by th e turbocharger are not very high. Thus the added weight, cost, and complexity of a charge cooling system are considered to be unnecessary penalties. In those cases the turbocharger is limited by the temperature at the compressor outlet, and the turbocharger and its controls are designed to prevent a large enough temperature rise to cause detonation. Even so, in many cases the engines are designed to run rich in order to use the evaporating fuel for charge cooling. [edit]Turbine The housings fitted around the compressor impeller and turbine collect and direct the gas flow through the wheels as they spin. The size and shape can dictate some performance characteristics of

manufacturer with multiple housing choices for the turbine and sometimes the compressor cover as well. This allows the designer of the engine system to tailor the compromises between performance, response, and efficiency to application or preference. Twin-scroll designs have two valve-operated exhaust gas inlets, a smaller sharper angled one for quick response and a larger less angled one for peak performance.

the overall turbocharger.

ften the same basic turbocharger assembly will be available from the

The turbine and impeller wheel si es also dictate the amount of air or exhaust that can be flowed through the system, and the relative efficiency at which they operate. Generally, the large the turbine r wheel and compressor wheel, the larger the flow capacity. Measurements and shapes can vary, as well as curvature and number of blades on the wheels. Variable geometry turbochargers are further developments of these ideas. The center hub rotating assembly (C RA) houses the shaft which connects the compressor impeller and turbine. It also must contain a bearing system to suspend the shaf , allowing it to rotate at very t high speed with minimal friction. For instance, in automotive applications the C RA typically uses a thrust bearing or ball bearing lubricated by a constant supply of pressuri ed engine oil. The C RA may also be considered "water cooled" by having an entry and exit point for engine coolant to be cycled. Water cooled models allow engine coolant to be used to keep the lubricating oil cooler, avoiding possible oil coking (the destructive distillation of the engine oil) from the extreme heat found in the turbine. The development of air-foil bearings has removed this risk. Adaptation of turbochargers on naturally aspirated internal combustion engines, either on petrol or diesel, can yield power increases of 0% to 40%.  Variable geometry

Garrett variable-geometry turbocharger on DV6TED4 engine

Instead of using two turbochargers in different si es, some engines use a single turbocharger, called variable-geometry or variable-no le turbos; these turbos use a set of vanes in the exhaust housing to maintain a constant gas velocity across the turbine, the same kind of control as used on power plant turbines. Such turbochargers have minimal lag like a small conven tional turbocharger and can achieve full boost as low as 1,500 engine rpm, yet remain efficient as a large conventional turbocharger at higher engine speeds. In many setups these turbos do not use a wastegate. The vanes are controlled by a membrane identic to the one on a wastegate, but the mechanism al operates the variable vane system instead. These variable turbochargers are commonly used in diesel engines.
[7]

[edit]Wastegate Main article: Wastegate

View of a turbocharger from the turbine exhaust side, showing the integral wastegate to the right

To manage the pressure of the air coming from the compressor (known as the "upper deck air pressure"), the engine's exhaust gas flow is regulated before it enters the turbine with a wastegate that bypasses excess exhaust gas entering the turbocharger's turbine. A wastegate is the most common mechanical speed control system, and is often further augmented by an electronic or manual boost controller. The main function of a wastegate is to allow some of the exhaust to bypass the turbine when the set intake pressure is achieved. This regulates the rotational speed of the turbine and thus the output of the compressor. The wastegate is opened a closed by the nd compressed air from the turbo and can be raised by using a solenoid to regulate the pressure fed to the wastegate membrane. This solenoid can be controlled by Automatic Performance Control, the engine's electronic control unit or a boost control computer. Most modern automotive engines have wastegates that are internal to the turbocharger, although some earlier engines (such as the Audi Inline-5 in the UrS4 and S6) have external wastegates. External wastegates are more accurate and efficient than internal wastegates, but are far more expensive, and thus are generally only found in racing cars (wh precise control of turbo boost is a ere necessity and any efficiency increase is welcomed). Aircraft waste-gates and their operation are similar to automotive installations, however there are notable differences as well. Even within aircraft applications t ere are 2 distinctions, h military/performance and non-performance. [edit]Anti-surge/dum Main article: Blowoff al e
[9] [8]

/blow o

al es

A recirculating type anti-surge valve

Turbocharged engines operating at wide open throttle and high rpm require a large volume of air to flow between the turbo and the inlet of the engine. When the throttle is closed compressed air will flow to the throttle valve without an exit (i.e. the air has nowhere to go). This causes a surge which can raise the pressure of the air to a level which can damage the tur o. If b the pressure rises high enough, a compressor stall will occur, where the stored pressuri ed air decompresses backwards across the impeller and out the inlet. The rever e flow back across the s turbocharger causes the turbine shaft to reduce in speed more quickly than it would naturally, possibly damaging the turbocharger. In order to prevent this from happening, a valve is fitted between the turbo and inlet which vents off the excess air pressure. These are known as an anti-surge, diverter, bypass, blow-off valve (BOV) or dump valve. It is basically a pressure relief valve, and is normally operated by the vacuum in the intake manifold. The primary use of this valve is to maintain the turbo spinning at a high speed. The air is usually recycled back into the turbo inlet (diverter or bypass valves) but can also be vented to the atmosphere (blow off valve). Recycling back into the turbocharger inlet is required on an engine that uses a mass airflow fuel injection system, because dumping the excessive air overboard downsream of the mass t airflow sensor will cause an excessively rich fuel mixture (this is because the mass -airflow sensor has already accounted for the extra air which is no longer being used). Valves which recycle the air will also shorten the time needed to re-spool the turbo after sudden engine deceleration, since the load on the turbo when the valve is active is much lower than if the air charge is vented to atmosphere.

Intercooler
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For the Australian rock group, see Intercooler (ban ).

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It has been suggested that Charge air cooler be merged into this article or section. (Discuss) Proposed
since October 2009.

An intercooler (original UK term, sometimes a tercooler in US practice), or charge air cooler, is an air-toair or air-to-liquid heat exchange device used on turbocharged and supercharged (forced induction) internal combustion engines to improve theirvolumetric efficiency by increasing intake air charge density through nearly isobaric (constant pressure) cooling, which removes the heat of compression (i.e., the tempera ture rise) that occurs in any gas when its pressure is raised or its unit mass per unit volume (density) is increased. A decrease in intake air charge temperature sustains use of a more dense intake charge into the engine, as a result of supercharging. The lowering of the intake charge air temperature also eliminates the danger of pre-detonation (knock) of the fuel air charge prior to timed spark ignition. Thus preserving the benefits of more fuel/air burn per engine cycle, increasing the output of the engi e. Intercoolers increase n the efficiency of the induction system by reducing induction air heat created by the turbocharger and promoting more thorough combustion. They also eliminate the need for using the wasteful method of lowering intake charge temperature by the injection of excess fuel into the cylinders' air induction chambers, to cool the intake air charge, prior to its flowing into the cylinders. This wasteful practice (when intercoolers are not used) nearly eliminated the gain in engine efficiencyfrom supercharging, but was necessitated by the greater need to prevent at all costs the engine damage that pre -detonation engine knocking causes.[1] The inter prefix in the device name originates from historic compressor designs. In the past, aircraft engines were built with charge air coolers that were installed between multiple stages of

designated a tercoolers because of their placement at the end of supercharging chain. This term is now considered archaic in modern automobile terminology since most forced induction vehicles have single stage superchargers or turbochargers although "aftercooler" is still in common use in the piston engined aircraft industry. In a vehicle fitted with two-stage turbocharging, it is possible to have both an intercooler (between the two turbocharger units) and an aftercooler (between the second-stage turbo and the engine). The CB Dieselmax land speed record-holding car is an example of such a system. In general, an intercooler or aftercooler is said to be a charge air cooler.

supercharging,[citation nee

e ]

thus the designation of inter. Modernautomobile designs are technically

Intercoolers can vary dramatically in size, shape and design, depending on the performance and space requirements of the entire supercharger system. Common spatial designs are front mounted intercoolers (FMIC), top mounted intercoolers (TMIC) and hybrid mount intercoolers (HMIC). Each type can be cooled with an air-to-air system, air-to-liquid system, or a combination of both.

Exhaust system
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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Exhaust manifold (chrome plated) on a car engine

Muffler and tail pipe on a car

An exhaust system is usually tubing used to guide reaction exhaust gases away from a controlled combustion inside an engine or stove. The entire system conveys burnt gases from the engine and includes one or more exhaust i es. Depending on the overall system design, the exhaust gas may flow through one or more of: Cylinder head and exhaust manifold A turbocharger to increase engine power. A catalytic converter to reduce air pollution. A muffler ( orth America) / silencer (Europe), to reduce noise.

   

Catalytic converter
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Catalytic converter on a 1996 Dodge Ram Van

A catalytic con erter (colloquially, "cat" or "catcon") is a device used to reduce the toxicity of exhaust emissions from an internal combustion engine. Inside a catalytic converter, a catalyst stimulates a chemical reaction in which noxious byproducts of combustion carbon monoxide, unburned hydrocarbons, and oxides of nitrogen are converted to less-toxic or inert substances such as carbon dioxide, hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen.[1] First widely introduced on series-production automobiles in the United States market for the 1975 model year to comply with tightening U.S. Environmental Protection Agency regulations on auto exhaust emissions, catalytic converters are still most commonly used in motor vehicle exhaust systems. Catalytic converters are also used on generator sets, forklifts, mining equipment, trucks, buses, trains, airplanesand other engine-equipped machines.

Muffler
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about the exhaust system component. For other uses, see Muffler ( isambiguation).

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This article may contain original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding references. Statements consisting only of original research may be removed. More details may be available on the talk page. (March 2011)

Muffler(silver) and exhaust pipe on aDucati 695 motorcycle

A mu ler (or silencer in British English) is a device for reducing the amount of noise emitted by the exhaust of an internal combustion engine. The muffler was originally invented by Milton O. Reeves.[1

Description

Dual tailpipes attached to a the muffler on a passenger car

Mufflers are typically installed along the exhaust pipe as part of the exhaust system of an internal combustion engine. The muffler reduces exhaust noise by absorptionthe exhaust is routed through a series of passages and chambers lined with roving fiberglass wooland/or resonating chambers tuned to cause destructive interference wherein opposite sound waves cancel each other out, and Catalytic converters also have a muffling effect. Changing the muffler / mini-muffler / catalytic converter combination can change the sound of a car's

the original can cause the vehicle to violate noise regulations. Nevertheless some vehicle owners remove their car muffler in the belief it will improve performance, or just to make them louder.

exhaust system considerably.

emoving a vehicle's muffler or installing a less effective muffler than