Introduction to Turbines & Steam Turbines

Written by Norrie Wednesday, 13 January 2010 10:06 - Last Updated Wednesday, 24 February 2010 20:09

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES AND OPERATION

A. THE WINDMILL

Turbines have been in use for many years. Early turbines consisted of 'Sails' or blades mounted at an angle on a central hub (as in the child's pin-wheel in Figure: 1). {artsexylightbox path="images/stories/norrie/5" autoGenerateThumbs="true" previewWidth="150" singleImage="images/stories/norrie/5/nw_img_05_f01_p26.jpg"} {/artsexylightbox} The hub was then connected to a shaft and, as the wind blew, due to the angle of the sails, the sails rotated causing the hub to rotate and so turned the shaft. The shaft was then coupled to a ' Mill-Wheel ' used for grinding corn to make flour and other uses.

(Picture 1). {artsexylightbox path="images/stories/norrie/5" autoGenerateThumbs="true" previewWidth="150" singleImage="images/stories/norrie/5/nw_img_05_p01_p27.jpg"} {/artsexylightbox} Windmills were also used to drive water pumps which drew water from wells for farming irrigation and domestic use. In order to keep the sails facing into the wind, the windmill was fitted with a 'Rudder' which swung the sails around as the wind direction changed. (Picture 2). {artsexylightbox path="images/stories/norrie/5" autoGenerateThumbs="true" previewWidth="150" singleImage="images/stories/norrie/5/nw_img_05_p02_p27.jpg"} {/artsexylightbox} When the generation of electricity was introduced, windmills were adapted to drive generators. One problem with a windmill is that it depends on there being sufficient wind to drive it. Today, modern 'Wind-farms' have been developed with highly technical machines for producing large quantities of electricity, even when the wind velocity is low. (PICTURE: 3) {artsexylightbox path="images/stories/norrie/5" autoGenerateThumbs="true" previewWidth="150" singleImage="images/stories/norrie/5/nw_img_05_p03_p28.jpg"} {/artsexylightbox} Picture: 3 - Modern Wind-farm

B. THE WATERWHEEL ( Figure. 2 )

The waterwheel has also been in use for many years. In this type of turbine, a wheel fitted with ' Paddles ' is placed in a stream of flowing water. As the water pushed against the paddles, the wheel rotated which, in turn, through a shaft, rotated another machine - grinding mill, pump or generator. Again, the efficiency of the waterwheel depended on the velocity and volume of water striking the paddles. [ (* POTENTIAL ENERGY * - Stored Energy) - Energy waiting to be used.

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Introduction to Turbines & Steam Turbines

Written by Norrie Wednesday, 13 January 2010 10:06 - Last Updated Wednesday, 24 February 2010 20:09

{artsexylightbox path="images/stories/norrie/5" autoGenerateThumbs="true" previewWidth="150" singleImage="images/stories/norrie/5/nw_img_05_f02_p29.jpg"} {/artsexylightbox} (* KINETIC ENERGY * - Energy due to motion). This high energy water is piped to large ' Water Turbines ' which drive the power generating plants. (See Figure. 3). {artsexylightbox path="images/stories/norrie/5" autoGenerateThumbs="true" previewWidth="150" singleImage="images/stories/norrie/5/nw_img_05_f03_p30.jpg"} {/artsexylightbox} It can be seen that a 'TURBINE' is a machine which is used as a driver for other machines Generators, pumps, compressors...Etc. A turbine operation depends on the Kinetic energy contained in flowing fluids which is then converted into Mechanical energy. This Mechanical energy is then converted into Electrical, Heat (Thermal) or Pressure energy as required. A turbine therefore, is used in the same way as a Diesel engine, Petrol engine or Electric motor, to drive other machines. Modern turbines can produce thousands of Horse-power of energy.

STEAM TURBINES
INTRODUCTION

As already stated, a turbine is driven by the flow of a high energy fluid - liquid, gas (or air). The kinetic energy of the fluid is converted into mechanical energy. In steam turbines, the thermal and pressure energy contained in superheated, high pressure steam is used to drive the shaft of the turbine. Steam turbines are generally used where there is a plentiful supply of water. The water must first be treated to remove impurities which will cause problems in the turbine. Chlorides, other salts, Oxygen and solid particles. This is done to prevent corrosion, erosion and scale deposits in the system. When the water has been purified, it is then passed into a Steam Generation Plant where it is heated to produce steam. Steam at normal atmospheric conditions is Saturated (Wet) steam - i.e. 212 F (100 C) and is of no use for driving turbines. In the type of boiler used for steam generation, the system is maintained under high pressure - In this discussion we will use a steam system operated at 600 Psi. At this pressure, the water boils at 486 F. However, at this pressure and temperature the steam is still saturated (wet steam). The use of this steam in a turbine will cause erosion of the turbine internals due to droplets of water contained in the steam. The boilers are therefore constructed with a 'Super-heater' section which takes the 600 Psi wet steam and adds more heat energy to it, to a temperature of 775 F or higher depending on requirements. At this temperature, the steam cannot contain any water. When steam is super-heated, it contains much more heat energy than wet steam and can be piped long distances with little loss of energy or condensation taking place. To re-cap, the steam used for driving steam turbines is produced from purified water to prevent corrosion and is produced at high pressure and super-heated to high temperature in order to

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Introduction to Turbines & Steam Turbines

Written by Norrie Wednesday, 13 January 2010 10:06 - Last Updated Wednesday, 24 February 2010 20:09

prevent water erosion of the turbine parts. There are many types of steam turbine in use today which can produce many thousands of horse-power of energy for industrial uses.

PRINCIPLES & OPERATION

In the pin-wheel, the windmill and the water wheel, the action of the flowing fluid causes the wheel to rotate. This part of the machine is called the 'ROTOR'. In any turbine, the rotor is mounted on a shaft and consists of the 'Sails' or 'Paddles' which we will now refer to as 'Blades'. The blades are fitted into a wheel at an angle and are called 'Rotor Blades'. The wheel is then mounted on to the shaft. This arrangement of a single wheel is called 'one stage' or a 'Single Stage Rotor' and does not produce high power. (See Figure. 4) {artsexylightbox path="images/stories/norrie/5" autoGenerateThumbs="true" previewWidth="150" singleImage="images/stories/norrie/5/nw_img_05_f04_p32.jpg"} {/artsexylightbox} Figure. 4 - Single Stage Turbine For large processing and generation plants, very powerful turbines are needed for driving machines like compressors, large pumps or generators. In this case, 'Multi-Stage Turbines' are used. As stated earlier, the energy needed to drive these turbines, comes from high pressure, superheated steam. In order to get the steam to pass to the rotor blades, we need a means of directing the steam on to the blades. The piece of equipment used for this is called a NOZZLE. As the steam leaves a nozzle, its pressure decreases and its 'VELOCITY' increases. This high velocity steam jet is directed at the rotor blades and, as in the pin-wheel, the rotor and shaft begins to rotate. As more and more steam is released on to the blades, the speed of rotation increases. (As with a windmill, stronger wind, faster rotation). MULTI-STAGE STEAM TURBINES A Multi-stage turbine is one which has two or more wheels. The steam is directed on to the blades of the first stage wheel and, as it strikes the angled blades, they move away in an opposite direction to the flow of steam, causing rotation of the wheel and shaft. As the steam gives up energy to move the rotor blades, its pressure is decreased, its volume increases and it leaves the blades in an opposite direction to that taken by the wheel. (See Figure. 5) Some method of re-directing the steam on to a second wheel is now needed. To achieve this, a row of fixed, unmoving, angled blades is fitted into a DIAPHRAGM which is mounted in the 'CASING' of the turbine. These stationary blades are called ' STATOR BLADES '. {artsexylightbox path="images/stories/norrie/5" autoGenerateThumbs="true" previewWidth="150" singleImage="images/stories/norrie/5/nw_img_05_f05_p34.jpg"} {/artsexylightbox} Figure: 5 - Steam Flow Through the Rotor & Stator The stator blades act like further nozzles and re-direct the steam on to the rotor blades of the second stage wheel. Because the steam pressure has dropped and its volume is greater, to get the same amount of energy out of it, the blades of the second stage are larger (greater area) than those of the first stage. This arrangement of alternating rotor and stator blades and increasing blade size, is continued through the turbine in order to obtain the required amount of

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Introduction to Turbines & Steam Turbines

Written by Norrie Wednesday, 13 January 2010 10:06 - Last Updated Wednesday, 24 February 2010 20:09

power from the steam for operational needs. When the steam leaves a turbine, it may still contain a lot of energy - pressure and heat. This steam may be directed for use in another process system. (See Figure. 6) {artsexylightbox path="images/stories/norrie/5" autoGenerateThumbs="true" previewWidth="150" singleImage="images/stories/norrie/5/nw_img_05_f06_p35.jpg"} {/artsexylightbox} {artsexylightbox path="images/stories/norrie/5" autoGenerateThumbs="true" previewWidth="150" singleImage="images/stories/norrie/5/nw_img_05_f07_p37.jpg"} {/artsexylightbox} (Figure. 7) - Shows a typical lube oil system for a steam turbine. The lube oil system comprises a reservoir or oil tank in which three pumps are immersed. The main oil pump is driven by a shaft from the Steam Turbine accessory gear. The Auxiliary pump is driven by an A/C motor and is used for start-up, shut-down and other operating conditions necessitating its use. The 3rd pump is operated by a D/C motor (battery supplied) for use on main power failure - shut down of the complete system which will require lube oil while the units shut down. From the pumps the oil at the required pressure (controlled by PCV 1 that spills excess back to the reservoir), passes through 1 of 2 water cooled exchangers (1 operating & 1 standby) and temperature controlled by a TCV. After cooling the main oil flow passes through 1 of 2 filters (1 operating & 1 standby). The filters are fitted with a Differential Pressure (DP) gauge and alarm which, should the filter begin to get too dirty, at a pre-set DP will warn that the filters need changing over and the dirty elements changed out. From the filters the oil passes via a control valve (PCV 2) which maintains the desired lube oil pressure to the bearings of the turbine and possibly also to its driven machine - Compressor, Generator, pump .. etc. After lubricating and cooling the bearings, the oil returns to the reservoir. Any oil losses are made up via the oil make up line to the reservoir. In the oil systems, a number of alarms and shut-down devices are installed to ensure the safe operating conditions for the machine. Hydraulic Oil is provided from the lube oil system from between the coolers and the filters. This oil may be boosted in pressure, filtered and pressure controlled by PCV/A and is used for the control and shut-down systems of high power steam turbines.

STEAM CONTROL TO A TURBINE

In order to control a turbine speed, a method of controlling the steam supply is needed. To do this, the turbine steam inlet first enters a 'STEAM CHEST'. (Figure. 8) The steam chest contains a series of steam valves which can be opened gradually as required. As each valve opens the flow of steam to the nozzle(s) is increased thus increasing the turbine speed. {artsexylightbox path="images/stories/norrie/5" autoGenerateThumbs="true" previewWidth="150" singleImage="images/stories/norrie/5/nw_img_05_f08_p38.jpg"}

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Introduction to Turbines & Steam Turbines

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{/artsexylightbox} Figure 8

CONTROL SYSTEM DESCRIPTION

(See Figure 9). The hydraulic/control oil enters the unit and is piped to the following parts of the system. (The oil pressure depends upon the maker's specifications). 1. 2. 3. 4. Power Piston Trip and Throttle Valve Overspeed Trip Mechanisms & Slide Valves 'A' and 'B' Trip Solenoid Valve

1. The Power Piston - The oil passes to the power piston via Port 'Y' of Slide Valve 'A'. The Governor, on the signals from the control system will, through a Servo-Mechanism', adjust the hydraulic oil to the power piston. This in turn, controls the steam flow via the steam chest valves to the nozzles, thus controlling the turbine speed. 2. The Trip and Throttle Valve - This valve passes the H.P. steam to the steam chest. On startup of the turbine, the steam chest valves are fully open. The T/T valve is opened slowly by a hand-wheel until the machine comes to Minimum Governor Control setting - - the power piston falls and the steam supply to the nozzles comes under Governor control. When the turbine is under the control of the governor, the T/T valve hand-wheel is swung to the fully open position. (This will not increase steam flow to the turbine due to the governor control of the steam chest valves). The high pressure hydraulic oil passes to the T/T valve cylinder via a restriction orifice and the ' Y ' Port of Slide Valve ' B '. This oil pressure acting on the piston keeps the main steam valve fully open during normal operation. In order to periodically check the operation of the T/T valve, a 25% stroke solenoid operated valve is fitted. On operation of the stroke check button, the valve is energised and bleeds off an amount of oil from the T/T valve cylinder. The T/T valve closes down by 25% without affecting the steam flow to the turbine. When the check button is released, the T/T valve goes to the fully open position again. 3. The Overspeed Trip Mechanism & Slide Valves ' A ' and ' B ' The O/S trip, as its name implies, is a Mechanical shutdown device in the event of turbine excessive speed. (Overspeed trips are discussed later). The slide valves are kept in the ' RUN ' position by applying oil pressure to the valve piston against a return spring. The oil feed to these mechanisms also passes through a restriction orifice. From this feed line, oil is also piped to the 'Trip Solenoid valve. 4. The Trip Solenoid Valve - This is an Electrical shut-down device which receives a signal from

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Introduction to Turbines & Steam Turbines

Written by Norrie Wednesday, 13 January 2010 10:06 - Last Updated Wednesday, 24 February 2010 20:09

the electrical trip circuit which includes - High vibration, Low lube oil pressure, High bearing temperature, Low hydraulic oil pressure ... etc. The electrical signal energises the solenoid which opens the valve and dumps the hydraulic oil back to the reservoir. The oil pressure is dumped to zero Psi due to the oil flow rate through the restriction orifices being LESS than the flow of oil returning to the reservoir. When the oil dumps, Slide valves ' A ' & ' B ' are pushed across by their springs. This CLOSES the oil supply to the T/T valve and to the Power piston via the ' Y ' Ports and OPENS the ' X ' Ports to dump the oil. The T/T valve closes and the steam flow is stopped. At the same time the Power piston rises to fully open the steam chest valves. (No steam can flow as the T/T valve has closed). Before resetting the trip condition - electrical or mechanical, the T/T valve hand-wheel must be spun to the closed position and made ready for start-up and the governor control system set to minimum governor. When the trip system is re-set, the hydraulic oil pressure is restored and the two slide valves move across to the ' GO ' position again. The machine can now be re-started. TURBINE CONTROL SYSTEM {artsexylightbox path="images/stories/norrie/5" autoGenerateThumbs="true" previewWidth="150" singleImage="images/stories/norrie/5/nw_img_05_f09_p41.jpg"} {/artsexylightbox} Figure. 9

TYPES OF STEAM TURBINE

(Figure. 10) For any steam turbine to operate, a pressure difference must exist between the steam supply and the exhaust. Where the exhaust steam is above atmospheric pressure, the turbine is classed as a Back Pressure Turbine' or 'Non-Condensing Turbine'. I. BACK-PRESSURE STEAM TURBINES As an example, taking a 600 Psi steam supply to a turbine, the turbine speed is controlled by the steam input. If we have an exhaust pressure of say 125 Psi (a D.P. of 475 Psi), this exhaust steam will still contain a lot of heat and pressure energy and may be used to drive other smaller turbines and for heating purposes in re-boilers, heaters, vaporisers...etc. In this type of turbine, the exhaust must be maintained at a constant pressure by a PCV control system downstream of the turbine exhaust to prevent changes in the exhaust pressure that would affect the turbine speed by changing the pressure drop across it. The governor would be fighting against these pressure fluctuations and speed control would be erratic. II. CONDENSING STEAM TURBINES In a condensing steam turbine, the maximum amount of energy is extracted from the steam. This is achieved by passing the exhaust steam into a condenser (called a Surface Condenser). The steam is condensed by surface contact with bundles of tubes through which cooling water is passing. As the steam condenses, its volume, on changing to water, decreases by about

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Introduction to Turbines & Steam Turbines

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1800 times. This great decrease in volume causes a vacuum to form in the condenser. Due to this, the pressure drop across the turbine and therefore the turbine power is maximised. The steam condensate (water) is level controlled in the condenser and pumped back to the steam generation plant. However, although the water for the steam generation is purified and treated, the steam will still contain some Non-condensibles. These will build up in the surface condenser and gradually destroy the vacuum, thereby decreasing the P.D. across the turbine and thus decreasing its efficiency and power. In order to maintain the vacuum, the non-condensibles must be removed from the surface condenser. This is carried out by a system of STEAM EJECTORS' and Ejector Condensers' which pull the gases from the surface condenser and eject them to the atmosphere. TYPES OF STEAM TURBINES {artsexylightbox path="images/stories/norrie/5" autoGenerateThumbs="true" previewWidth="150" singleImage="images/stories/norrie/5/nw_img_05_f10_p43.jpg"} {/artsexylightbox} Figure. 10

REMOVAL OF NON-CONDENSIBLES
As stated, the gases are removed from the surface condenser by a system of 1st and 2nd stage ejectors and condensers. An ejector consists of a 'Venturi Tube' through which a jet of high velocity steam is passed. This high velocity steam creates suction (vacuum) in the Venturi tube. Vacuum is increased by condensing the steam as it leaves the ejector. The non-condensibles are piped into the low pressure area of the 1st stage ejector and are carried with the steam into the 1st stage ejector condenser. The water produced from the steam is piped back to the surface condenser. Again, these gases, as they build up in the 1st stage ejector condenser, will tend to destroy the vacuum. To prevent this, the gases are pulled from the 1st stage system into the 2nd stage by another ejector. Again the steam is condensed and piped back to the surface condenser. In the 2nd stage condenser, the gases are allowed to build up pressure until, at just above atmospheric pressure, a check (non-return) valve will open and pass them to atmosphere. As they escape, the pressure drop causes the check valve to close again. - This is a continuous process. A water level is maintained in the ejector condensers by a ' Loop ' seal tube to prevent the gases also returning to the surface condenser. (Figure. 11) SURFACE CONDENSER {artsexylightbox path="images/stories/norrie/5" autoGenerateThumbs="true" previewWidth="150" singleImage="images/stories/norrie/5/nw_img_05_f11_p45.jpg"} {/artsexylightbox} Figure. 11

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Introduction to Turbines & Steam Turbines

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TURBINE SEAL-STEAM SYSTEM (Figure. 12)

When a condensing steam turbine is first started up and in a low-load condition, steam from the inlet (H.P.) end will leak from the outboard gland - even though carbon-ring seals and labyrinth seals are installed to minimise the leakage. Superheated steam is invisible and, due to its high temperature, is very dangerous. Leakage of steam is also a waste and is not desirable. Conversely, under the same low-load conditions, the L.P end of the turbine will be under the vacuum of the surface condenser. The vacuum will tend to pull in cold atmospheric air through the seals along the shaft. Cold air will have a detrimental effect on the hot metal of the shaft which can lead to damage. In order to minimise these problems, a manually controlled supply of low pressure SEAL steam (about 2 Psi), is piped to a common line feeding the glands of the machine. This pressure will prevent the ingress of air at the L.P. end and ensure a positive pressure at the H.P. end during start-up. (The ejector units are started and vacuum pulled before starting the turbine). When the turbine load is increased, the leakage of steam into the Seal-steam header will cause greater pressure than the Seal steam supply and will begin to flow to the L.P. end seal. At this point, the Seal steam supply can be shut down and the Seal-steam taken from the H.P. end and manually maintained at 2 Psi by venting excess into the surface condenser. Even when the seal pressures are maintained at 2 Psi, some leakage occurs from both seals. This is taken care of by the LEAK steam recovery system. TURBINE LEAK-STEAM SYSTEM (Figure. 13) Leakage of steam from turbine glands to atmosphere (in both types of turbine), as already mentioned, is dangerous and a waste of steam. The turbine inboard and outboard glands are fitted with carbon ring seals and labyrinth seals to help prevent leakage. These seals do not completely stop the escape of steam. In order to completely prevent it, a turbine will also be fitted with a LEAK-steam system which pipes the leakage into a water cooled condenser. The condensate from the condenser is drained away to a 'Hot-well' from where it is returned to the steam generation plant. The leak steam condenser is fitted with an ejector system to remove non-condensibles from the steam and discharge them to atmosphere with the ejector exhaust steam. This, in the case of the condensing turbine, is to prevent non-condensibles from re-entering the surface condenser. SEAL STEAM SYSTEM {artsexylightbox path="images/stories/norrie/5" autoGenerateThumbs="true" previewWidth="150" singleImage="images/stories/norrie/5/nw_img_05_f12_p47.jpg"} {/artsexylightbox} Figure. 12 TURBINE LEAK STEAM SYSTEM

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Introduction to Turbines & Steam Turbines

Written by Norrie Wednesday, 13 January 2010 10:06 - Last Updated Wednesday, 24 February 2010 20:09

{artsexylightbox path="images/stories/norrie/5" autoGenerateThumbs="true" previewWidth="150" singleImage="images/stories/norrie/5/nw_img_05_f13_p48.jpg"} {/artsexylightbox} Figure. 13

About the Author

Norrie is a retired professional who has been working in Oil and Gas and LNG production in Marsa-el-Brega, Libya for 30 years.

Norrie used to be in the Training Dept. and prepared Programmes for Libyan Trainees.

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